Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

Sustainable use of waste in flexible pavement: A review

Pradeep Kumar Gautam ⇑, Pawan Kalla, Ajay Singh Jethoo, Rahul Agrawal,
Harshwardhan Singh
Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, India

h i g h l i g h t s

Review of various studies pertaining to use waste material in flexible pavement.

Review of recommendation various state transportation departments concerning use of waste in flexible pavement.

Challenges and possible solutions regarding use of recycled material in flexible pavement.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Around the world flexible pavement is the most favored pavement structure to build road and highways.
Received 26 November 2017 A massive amount of non-renewable materials and industrial products like aggregates, bitumen, cement,
Received in revised form 6 April 2018 lime, and other additives are consumed during construction and maintenance of this pavement system.
Accepted 9 April 2018
Extraction and production of these virgin materials is an unsustainable practice. Wastage of materials,
Available online 5 June 2018
environmental deterioration, depletion of resources, and the spike in material cost led researchers to
search for alternative materials that can be used in flexible pavement. This paper provides an overview
Keywords:
of such recycled materials that have been successfully used in different layers of flexible pavements.
Sustainable development
Construction, and demolition
Studies have established that the use of secondary material not only provide an efficient waste disposal
Recycled asphalt concrete technique but also reduce demand for conventional material and reduce overall construction cost.
Quarry waste Through this paper, an attempt has also been made to identify the reason because of which, despite
Flexible pavement having essential studies, their field implementation has been limited and suggest possible remedies by
which use of recycled material in the flexible pavement can be promoted.
Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
2. Criteria required for waste to be used in flexible pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
3. Flexible pavement layer and possible use of waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
3.1. In Subgrade, Sub-base and base (non-bituminous) layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
3.2. In base and surface course (Bituminous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
3.3. Binder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4. Practical Challenges in implementing waste material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Conflict of interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: 2015rce9037@mnit.ac.in (P.K. Gautam), pkalla.ce@mnit.ac.in (P. Kalla), 2015pct5148@mnit.ac.in (R. Agrawal), 2015rce9518@mnit.ac.in (H. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.067
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
240 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
1. Introduction
Sustainability is defined as meeting the needs of present age
without compromising the well-being of future generation [1].
Sustainable development takes into consideration simultaneous
economic, environmental and social growth [2]. This practice
has become very important in today’s reference as rapid growth
has sidelined conservation and protection of the natural
resources. Road and Highways sector is a significant part of con-
struction industry where the exhaustive use of the natural
resource has emerged as a severe threat to the environment [3].
The reason for this is that the material procurement for construc-
tion, their extraction, and laying, generates a lot of pollution and
waste.
About 95% of world’s roads are made of flexible pavements
[4]. It is composed of four layers namely subgrade, subbase, base
and surface course [5] as shown in Fig. 1. Sub-grade is natural
soil over which other layers are laid. Many times it’s found that
existing subgrade is weak, or is of expansive nature, i.e., little
change in moisture condition leads to substantial volume change
within a short period [6]. In such cases, subgrade is modified
using certain additives. This modified sub-grade is called sub-
base. Above sub-base lies base course which is a load-bearing
layer composed majorly of high-quality aggregates of different
sizes. Above it lies surface course, which is a mixture of aggre-
gates, fines, filler, and binder. This layer is directly in contact
with traffic load, hence using a superior quality material is an
absolute necessity.
A significant part of flexible pavement is composed of aggre-
gates which are procured from selected quarry sites. Their extrac-
tion process includes blasting, drilling, excavating and crushing.
These methods are highly unsustainable as a massive quantity of
waste produced during the process is either filled back at quarry
site or disposed of abruptly, affecting ecological cycle in many haz-
ardous ways [7]. Similarly, bitumen, which is used as binding agent
in the surface course, also has an unfavorable impact on environ-
ment and health. It’s mixed with aggregates at a temperature of
165–200 °C, releasing vapors and fumes into the atmosphere.
These fumes contain greenhouse gas and aerosol components,
which during occupational exposure cause irritation and carcino-
genicity of skin and respiratory tract [8].
Despite all these impacts, construction of highways can’t be
restricted as they play a significant role in the development of a
nation. Therefore, it’s vital to search for resources which may pro-
vide a sustainable aspect by reducing consumption of natural
resources, easing landfill pressure while maintaining structural
integrity. Use of locally generated waste materials is a significant
step forward in this direction. This review paper compiles the var-
ious wastes that are commonly produced around the world and
their possible use in the flexible pavement.
SURFACE COURSE
PAVEMENT (BOUND LAYER)
BASE COURSE
SUB-BASE
UNBOUND LAYERS
SUBGRADE
EMBAKMENT or IN-SITU SOIL
Fig. 1. Pavement system.
2. Criteria required for waste to be used in flexible pavement
Every country has standards and specifications for a material to
be used in pavement construction. Any recycled material to be
used for construction purpose should be subjected to property test
similar to that of conventional material. The product obtained
using the waste material (used either as partial or full replacement
of virgin material) should also comply with the minimum strength,
stability, durability and other necessary specifications.
The basic material requirement is that it must be free from any
contaminating element, organic impurities, and hazardous compo-
nent. Tables 1–3 summarize the necessary parameters upon which
materials to be used in the flexible pavement are evaluated for
their suitability.
Around the globe, recycling of waste as pavement material has
been in practice with varying degree of success. Few countries have
formulated rules, regulation, suggestion, and restrictions which
permit the respective transportation departments to utilize the
locally available waste, while many are still in drafting phase to
allow recycling of waste material in pavement construction.
In the USA, an average range of 15–20% of Recycled Asphalt
Pavement (RAP) is allowed in wearing course. The Virginia center
for transportation allows 30% RAP in blend phase as road base
and sub-base material. Use of blended material is permitted if it
satisfies the grading and particle size distribution of the mix
design. The blending can be from multiple sources but once the
batch is tested, verified and deemed suitable to use as pavement
material, the addition of material to the stockpile is restricted.
State of Nebraska permits using up to 50% RAP as pavement con-
struction material, which makes it one the highest RAP using coun-
try in the world. The reason for this permissible specification is the
provision that the contractor has to take the full ownership of the
quality of material supplied. Florida Department of transportation
permit use of RAP, recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and construc-
tion and demolition waste (C&D) from existing concrete pavement
to be used as subgrade and base material in highway construction.
States’s permissive specification allow the contractor to use a pro-
portion of recycled material based on his or her judgment [9]. Sim-
ilarly, Texas Department of transportation permit 20% percentage
use of RAP and RCA in subgrade and base construction. This state
department recommends that for a project, the material must be
from the same stockpile, and along with gradation, the stock must
not have maximum percentage loss from decantation higher than
5% and should also comply with state’s non-hazardous recyclable
material guidelines. The Department also permits the use of com-
post produced via aerobic decomposition as backfill ingredient.
Only that compost is allowed for construction which is derived
from agriculture residue, forest residue, bark, and paper. The waste
must also satisfy particle size distribution where 95% of content is
passing through 16 mm (5/8 in.) sieve, and at least 70% material is
PAVEMENT
SYSTEM
 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253 241

Table 1 specification. Similar is the case with Japan transportation depart-

Property Analysis for soil subgrade. ment, where similar provision is available to use the variety of
Test Name Property Code materials like wood, plastic and waste glass in the various layer
Liquid limit, Plastic limit and Atterberg limit ASTM D4138- of the pavement system [12,13].
Plasticity Index of soil 17 India is also moving forward in recycling waste in the construc-
Gradation of soil using Sieve Particle size ASTM D6913/ tion of pavement. Ministry of Road Transportation and Highways
analysis distribution D6913M-17 (MoRT&H) permit the use of bricks metal, crushed concrete as
Specific Gravity of soil specimen Density of soil specimen ASTM D854-14
[using pycnometer]
granular sub-base material. The recycled material must comply
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Mechanical property of ASTM D1883- with the recommended physical aggregate requirement and grada-
soil 16 tion similar to virgin aggregates. The ministry also permits the use
Unconfined Compressive Durability and Strength ASTM D2166/ of crushed stone, crushed slag, overburnt bricks and RCA in sub-
Strength of Cohesive Soil property of soil D2166M-16
grade and the non-bituminous base layer of flexible pavement.
The recycled stones should be hard, durable and free from excess
flat, elongated, soft and fragmented particles. The crushed slag to
Table 2 be recycled for construction material shall be derived from the
Physical Properties test for aggregates. air-cooled blast furnace and should be angular in shape, maintain-
Test Name Property Code ing uniform quality and density. The weight of crushed slag shall
not be less than 11.2 KN/m3, and percentage of glossy material
Los Angeles Abrasion loss Strength ASTM DC-131
Impact Test ASTM C131/C131M should be less than 20%. Department restricts that maximum sul-
Water Absorption Test Water Absorption ASTM D7172 phur content and water absorption 2% and 10% respectively. Use
Flakiness and Elongation Index Particle Shape ASTM D4791 of crushed cement concrete derived from broken cement concrete
Soundness Test Durability ASTM C-88 slab crushed to size should not exceed 75 mm and must conform to
Specific Gravity Density of aggregates ASTM C127
recommended gradation similar to virgin material. Despite these
recommendations, gaining proof of compliance and verification is
a problematic task for procurement officials and policies for effi-
Table 3 cient management and use are still reported to be in drafting phase
Binder property.
[14].
Test Property Code
Ductility (in cm at 25 °C) Adhesive and Ductility ASTM D113 3. Flexible pavement layer and possible use of waste
Penetration, (0.1 mm, 100 g, 5 s) Hardness and ASTM D5
Consistency
Softening Point (°C) Elevated temperature ASTM D36
3.1. In Subgrade, Sub-base and base (non-bituminous) layer
Flash Point (°C) Temperature study ASTM D92
Viscosity (at 135 °C and/or 165 °C) Flow and performance ASTM D92 Strength and performance of flexible pavement are dependent
Specific Gravity (g/cm3 at 25 °C) Density of bitumen ASTM D70 not only on good mix design but also on the load-bearing capacity
of the subgrade. A quality subgrade reduces pavement’s thickness
and contributes toward an economical construction. Convention-
ally, lime and cement are used as additives to improve soil proper-
passing 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve. Use of compost having the wood ties. Their addition leads to the formation of gelatinous and
chip containing visible refuse, material treated with chemical amorphous material which helps in interparticle bonding. The
preservatives or other harmful contaminating material is strictly reaction taking place by addition of these compounds are shown
prohibited [10]. below:
Similarly, The state transportation department of Korea restricts With lime:
the use of toxic elements present in recycled construction prod-
ucts. The regulations prohibit the use of materials containing lead CaO þ H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2
and cadmium compounds and have recommended the maximum
permissible limit of copper, arsenic, and mercury not to be higher CaðOHÞ2 ! CAþ2 þ 2½OH
than 3 mg/l, 1.5 mg/l, and 0.005 mg/l respectively. The department
also directs that only those material shall be used in water perme- Caþ2 þ 2½OH þ SiO2 ! CSH gel
able pavements that can withstand 100 freeze–thaw cycles with-
out crumbling. It also suggests that for recycling material, where
Caþ2 þ 2½OH þ Al2 O3 ! CAH gel
no standards have been laid down, the material and the product
shall be tested on parameters applicable for conventional materials Where hydrated lime is commonly used in the treatment of soil
and products [11]. which is rich in cohesive fine aggregates and clay particles; cement
Recycling of waste material like blast furnace slag, power plant is found to be more efficient with low cohesion soil particles. This
residues, RAP, RCA in pavement construction is also practiced in behavior is because, in cohesive soil, majority particles are finer
European countries. Management of waste here follows a strict than anhydrous cement grain which makes coating and distribu-
hierarchy under which, the amount and toxicity of waste are tion of anhydrous stabilizer among cohesive soil difficult [15].
reduced and then the recovered material is used as construction Studies are available where the use of locally generated waste
material. Germany, for example, uses 100% of blast furnace slag have been used to improve physical, mechanical and swelling
waste in road construction. Likewise, Swedish national road and properties of soil subgrade and sub-base. Table 5 summarizes the
transportation research institute permit the use of ferrochrome prominent work of using waste in soil stabilization. Attom et al.
slag having particle size distribution between 0 and 100 mm as [16] used burned olive waste as an additive to enhance subgrade
pavement material. Same is the case with Denmark where waste properties. This waste was added at replacement ratio of 2.5% by
like steel slag, rolling mill, casting sand, blasting materials, roock- weight in four variants of black cotton soil, and its effect was eval-
wool slag, crushed asphalt, and bricks are allowed to be used in the uated from the change in physical characteristics, compaction
pavement layer if they comply state transportation department’s energy, water content and mechanical property. The result of this
242 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

Table 4
Mineral composition (in percentage) of the recycled waste material in comparison of lime and cement.

Calcium Silica (SiO2) Alumina Iron Oxide Magnesia Potash LOI Refs.
Oxide (Al2O3) (Fe2O3) (MgO) (K2O)
(CaO)
Cement 64.86 20.44 5.50 – – 1.59 1.52 [19]
Lime 53.4 8.56 4.4 1.12 – – – [23]
RHA .41–1.24 22.12– .21–1.23 .21–1.28 0.21–22.31 0–0.45 2.36 [19,42]
93.51
Pumice aggregate 1.75 65.5 17.5 4.5 2.25 4.25 [21]
Iron ore tilling .607 45.64 3.36 47.7 .393 .607 3 [23]
Fly ash 3.6–12.0 44.5–55 20.3–22.4 6.3–7.5 1.5–3.5 0–2.5 0.2–4.5 [27,30]
Ground Granulated blast furnace 41.5 34.8 11.3 0.6 7.2 0.3 – [27]
slag
Cement Kiln Dust 41–67.72 9.64–17.62 1.90–4.90 1.50–4.06 0.64–1.93 0–2.18 4.94– [38,39]
31.30
Marble waste 30.56–55.86 0.09–1.06 0.03–0.05 .01–0.24 0.18–21.21 0–0.01 16.44 [40,45,66]
Palm oil fuel Ash 8.4 43.6 11.4 4.7 4.8 4.5 18 [86]
Lime stone Waste 38–42 15–18 1.02–1.53 1.02–1.53 13.74–15.32 0.35–0.62 32–34 [98]
Granite Stone Waste 1–3.94 67.04–76 13.06–21.12 7.66–21.12 0.04–0.46 3.74–7.15 0.5 [40,98]

LOI: loss on ignition.

study showed that addition of waste decreased the plasticity index
(PI) of all soil samples indicating an improvement in workability.
At 2.5% replacement ratio, the porous structure of black cotton soil
was filled with fine burned olive waste particles, leading to an
increased maximum dry density (MDD) and improved unconfined
compressive strength (UCS). Further replacement reduced the den-
sity. This behavior was attributed to the low specific gravity of
waste. Similarly, Okagbue et al. [17] used limestone ash waste to
improve engineering properties of laterite soil. The replacement
ratio of soil by limestone ash was kept 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% by weight.
British Standard and Modified British Standard procedure were
used for finding optimum moisture content (OMC), and maximum
dry density of all mixes, and, mechanical properties of soil were
evaluated based on soaked, and unsoaked California bearing ratio
(CBR) test values. Shear and durability behavior were assessed by
triaxial test and unconfined durability test. This laboratory investi-
gation suggested that addition of limestone dust up to 6% gave best
compaction, workability and mechanical strength. The unconsoli-
dated undrained triaxial test result showed that further increase
of limestone ash waste proportion reduced the friction angle and
improved cohesion value.
Many a time it has been observed that locally generated waste
has a mineral composition similar to lime and cement and can be
used as an additive to improve engineering properties of sub-base
and base course, however, their quality is not satisfactory enough
to be used as an independent additive. In such cases, these indus-
trial waste can be used along with conventional additives like
hydrated lime, cement or both. Table 4 shows the mineral compo-
sition of such recycled materials that have been used by research-
ers to modify soil properties. This practice helps in reducing the
overall quantity of commercial additives, provides an efficient
waste management method and also reduces total project cost
[18]. It was demonstrated by Basha et al. [19] where, use of rice
husk ash (RHA), a useless byproduct obtained by burning rice husk,
was used along with cement in various proportions to improve
residual soil properties. The quantity of cement replacement was
fixed at 4% and 8% by weight of soil, and RHA was added ranging
from 5% to 25%. With an increase in waste proportion, a decrease
in plasticity index (PI), increase in OMC and a slight decline in
MDD of soil was observed. Improved mechanical and durability
results were also obtained upon addition of RHA. Maximum CBR
of 60% was seen with the inclusion of 4% cement and 5% RHA.
Based on the experimental investigation, the overall recommended
dose was 15–20% RHA along with 6–8% cement. Overall, It was
observed that addition of RHA help in reducing the quantity of
cement required to achieve the same amount of strength. Another
study by Al-Rawas et al. [20], demonstrated the potential of waste
‘‘Sarooj,” a local name for an artificial pozzolan produced by burn-
ing of clay, in enhancing engineering properties and reducing
expansive nature of the soil. Performance of Sarooj was compared
with that of conventionally used soil stabilizing material, i.e., lime
and cement. Total five set of samples were prepared for this study,
in which set one, two and three were made with the addition of
lime, cement, and Sarooj, each at replacement ratio of 3%, 6%,
and 9% by weight of soil sample respectively. Set four and five con-
tained a fixed quantity of lime at 3% and 5%, and, cement was
added to these sets in 3, 6, and 9% by weight of soil respectively.
Each mix was evaluated for atterberg’s limit, change in moisture
content, MDD and swelling potential. The study summarized that
all replacement mixes were able to control the swelling potential
of soil and satisfied standard code provisions. Use of pumice, a local
waste, produced during the volcanic eruption in Turkey region was
evaluated by Mehmaet Saltan & Kahal [21] to stabilize sub-base
layer. Addition of pumice waste was done in 10% replacement
interval till 35%. An increased CBR value was obtained till 30%
replacement, suggesting its use as stabilizing material in sub-
base layer of flexible pavement. This was further supported by cost
analysis, where the inclusion of waste pumice as additive reduced
construction cost to half.
A recent study by Dang et al. [22] investigate the influence of
bagasse fiber; an industrial waste left after crushing of sugar cane
for juice extraction. Waste material was used along with hydrated
lime to study changes in engineering properties and shrink-swell
behavior of expansive soil. Bagasse fiber passing 2.36 mm sieve
was used in this study in replacement ration of 0.5, 1 and 2%.
Hydrated lime was added to soil samples at 2.5, 4.5, 6.5 and 9%
replacement along with 0.5% bagasse fiber. The test results showed
that Bagasse fiber blended entirely with hydrated lime, increased
compressive strength and decrease shrinkage properties of soil.
Linear Shrinkage was also observed to be declining gradually with
the inclusion of bagasse fiber. Similar observations were made in
mixes containing hydrated lime and bagasse fiber. Stress-strain
behavior showed that combination of waste and hydrated lime
increased stiffness and brittleness compared to virgin soil sample.
The study concludes that use of this waste improved soil character-
istics remarkably, and its field application would reduce the con-
struction cost.
A study by Etim et al. [23], used lime and iron ore tilling (IOT)
waste generated during extraction of iron ores, for stabilization
of black cotton soil. Addition of iron tilling was in 2, 4, 6, 8, 10%
 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253 243

Table 5
Summary of prominent reviewed research for use of locally generated waste in Subgrade, Sub-base and base (non-bituminous) layer.

Waste Secondary Used as Evaluated Parameters Optimum percentage/Conclusion Refs.

additive
Burned olive waste – Soil stabilization of Workability, Strength, 2.5% to improve strength, durability of soil. [16]
black cotton soil Durability, Swelling 7.5% reduced swelling properties
properties
Limestone ash waste – Stabilization of laterite Workability, Bearing 6% by weight replacement improved engineering [17]
soil capacity, Durability, properties of soil
Shear strength
Rice husk ash Cement Stabilization of Workability, Strength, 6–8% cement and 10–15% RHA give optimum result [19]
residual soil Durability, Swelling
Fly ash and stone dust – Stabilization of Workability, Strength, Blend of 25% fly ash with 30% stone dust gave [22]
expansive soil Durability, Swelling optimum result
Iron ore tilling Lime Soil stabilization of Workability, Strength, 8% iron ore tilling and 8% lime [23]
black cotton soil Durability, Swelling,
Leaching potential
Phosphate gypsum’s two variant: Lime and Stabilization of Physical properties, Use of hemi-hydrate with lime or cement gave [24]
dehydrate and hemi hydrate cement tropical soil Strength, Durability, better performance than dehydrate. However, result
Swelling, Resilient may vary depending upon soil type, its composition,
modulus type of photo gypsum used and quality of secondary
additive used (lime or cement)
Fly ash – Stabilization of black Workability, 25% by weight of soil [26]
cotton soil mechanical property of
soil
Two variants of Low lime fly ash (fine Lime Enhancing properties Strength, Durability - Fine fly ash gave better results than coarse fly [27]
particles with low LOI and coarse of two type of natural and water ash
particles with high LOI) granulated (sulfate-bearing) clay permeability - Addition of GGBS further improved the engi-
blast furnace slag neering and durability properties of soil.
- Results are dependent on material
characteristics.
Limestone dust and coal fly ash – Lean clay soil Workability, Strength, 15% coal fly ash +3% limestone dust gave optimum [28]
Durability, Swelling engineering properties and durability results
properties
Fly ash, bottom ash and oil palm empty – Verities of local clayey Workability, Strength, Use of 8% fly ash and bottom ash gave optimum [31]
fruit branches ash soil. Durability, Swelling results.
properties
Cement kiln dust – Black cotton soil and Workability, Strength, 8% replacement ratio gave best result [37]
Cadmium Durability, Swelling
contaminated black properties
cotton soil.
Cement Kiln dust sandy sabkha, less 50% replacement in all soil sample was considered [38]
plastic white marl, as optimum dose
cohesionless marl and
plastic marl
Cement Kiln dust – Black cotton soil Workability, Strength, 8–16% CKD mix soil gave durable results [39]
modified with quarry Durability, Swelling
fines
Three varieties of Stone waste:Calcite – Three varieties of Workability, Strength, Improved engineering properties of each soil [40]
marble, Dolomite marble, and artificially made clay Durability, sample with each waste type.
Granite powder samples of different - best result obtained with dolomite waste,
plasticity. optimum replacement percentage 30%.
Marble dust – Clayey soil subgrade Workability, Strength, 10% by weight replacement gave optimum results. [44]
Durability
Marble dust sand Clayey soil Strength and Swelling 10% marble dust reduced swelling potential. [45]
properties
Crushed bricks and recycled concrete Aggregates in Engineering properties Satisfied code specification [52]
aggregates unbound layer and strength
C&D mixture Sub-base course Engineering properties, Use of C&D waste recommended in sub-base layer. [53]
material Strength, and long - Strict quality control is required.
term performance
Waste glass powder – Stabilization of Clayey Engineering properties, 12% by weight of soil sample [54]
soil strength, and
durability
Low density polyethylene – Subgrade and sub- Engineering properties, Test result compared with strength and stability of [55]
base layer strength and durability layers containing RAP and CB.
Use of polyethylene waste gave lower values than
control mix, however were within permissible
limits.
RCA – Unbound layer as Physical, mechanical Use of RCA is possible, mechanical properties are [58]
aggregates and durability and influenced by number of variables.
long-term
performance
properties.
RAP (with and without additive) cement Sub-base and Base Strength and durability Blend of 25% RAP, 75% stone with 6% cement gave [61]
course properties highest bearing ratio.
Other proportion performed satisfactorily
C&D Lime Sub-base and base Engineering properties, C&D waste as aggregate performed satisfactorily [62]
course Strength and stability with 3–5% lime as additive
244 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
proportion by weight. To each of this replacement proportion, lime
was added in 2, 4, 6 and 8% replacement by dry weight of soil. Each
mix was tested for change in index properties, compaction charac-
teristics strength and durability properties. Proctor test result
showed an increase in MDD and decrease in OMC with the rise
in replacement proportions, which was attributed to the formation
of flocculated particles and increase in specific gravity obtained
after addition of waste. A maximum CBR value of 50% in unsoaked
and 40% in wet condition was obtained by addition of 8% iron ore
tilling waste and 8% lime. Similar behavior was observed in dura-
bility studies, where samples tested after 7, 14 and 28 days curing,
gave better UCS results than control samples. Surface morphology
study conducted using scanning electron microscopy instrument
and fiber matrices confirmed the formation of crystalline hydration
product in the lime-IOT treated soil. Minimum leaching was
observed with 8% addition of IOT in soil samples. Hence 8% iron
ore tilling with 8% lime was suggested as an optimum percentage,
and its use in field study was suggested. Similar findings were by
Rezende et al. [24] in which effect of phosphate gypsum (PG), a
byproduct of phosphate fertilizer industry, on tropical soil was
investigated. Results showed improved physical and mechanical
properties and reduction in swelling behavior was reported with
the blend of 11% PG and 9% lime.
Many studies are available where fly ash, a waste by-product
obtained during coal combustion process, has been used efficiently
to improve mechanical properties of soil, reduce shrinkage charac-
teristics and form strong sub-base. This improvement is because
the addition of fly ash and lime leads to rapid hydration process
which stimulates cation exchange that flocculates the soil into
large lump causing improved mechanical property and decreasing
its shrinkage characteristics [25]. Use of fly ash to improve sub-
grade property was evaluated by Bhuvaneshwari et al. [26] in
which fly ash waste, generated from the thermal power plant
was added to soil at 10% replacement interval up to 50%. Results
showed that adding fly ash gave an improved workable mixture.
Durability test result was best obtained by addition of 20% fly
ash by weight of soil. Based on laboratory investigation it was
advised that 25% fly ash in the soil helps to improve mechanical
property and workability of soil. This laboratory research was fol-
lowed by a field study where an embankment of dimension 3 m
wide, 30 m long and 600 mm in height was constructed. Fly ash
was sandwiched between two layers of soil and then mixed via
disc harrow after which a required quantity of water was sprayed
manually to attain optimum moisture content. Uniform mixing of
fly ash and soil was able to achieve after eight passes. The layer
was compacted via sheep foot roller and cone penetration appara-
tus was used for taking the samples. Field results were found to be
in correlation with laboratory investigation; however, difficulty in
mixing of fly ash with soil in the field was reported by the author,
this was attributed to lumps in natural soil, hindering uniform
blending process. Mccarthy et al. [27] used two variant of low
lime-fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) to
improve soil properties of lime stabilized soil containing sulphates.
Two varieties of soil samples, obtained from two different location
was used in this study. Each soil sample had sulphates content
higher than 10%. Bearing Index, UCS, Indirect tensile strength
(ITS), and water permeability were used as evaluating parameters
to study the effect of fly ash and GGBFS on test samples. The quan-
tity of lime, in this study, was fixed to 3% and fly ash proportion
was increased from 0% to 24% at an interval of 6%, and the addition
of GGBFS to soil sample was kept at 3, 6 and 9%. Results showed
that addition of fly ash and GGBFS improved compaction property,
bearing index and UCS values of both soil variants. Water perme-
ability was found to be increasing with the addition of lime, which
further increased upon the addition of coarse fly ash. Sample con-
taining fine fly ash and GGBFS showed similar behavior to that of
lime stabilized soil sample. The overall conclusion from this study
was that addition of fly ash to lime stabilized sulphates bearing soil
improves the durability of soil, but the extent of this change is
dependent on waste material‘s property characteristics.
Use of fly ash along with other locally generated waste can also
lead to improved subgrade, sub-base, and base course properties
and result in better waste management practice. This behavior
was demonstrated by Ramdas et al. [28] in a laboratory investiga-
tion, where fly ash and stone dust was added to expansive soil and
results were assessed from workability, MDD, CBR and UCS test
values. Study result showed that 25% fly ash and 30% stone gave
most optimum results. Study on the similar ground was conducted
by Ali & Koranne [29] where, stone dust and fly ash, two of the
most commonly generated pollutant in the area were used for con-
trolling swelling properties of soil subgrade. In this study, waste
was combined in equal proportion by weight, and the mixture
was used at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% replacement of expansive
soil. The study found that the addition of 20–30% of the mixture
eliminated swelling properties of soil subgrade. Also, improvement
in maximum dry density, soil index properties, and CBR value were
observed. The study also concluded that addition of stone dust
improves the mechanical properties of soil and when used with
fly ash in equal proportion give better results. Similar finding were
reported by Brooks et al. [30] where limestone dust and coal fly ash
was used to stabilize two varieties of locally available soil at south-
eastern Pennsylvania. Samples were evaluated by change in atter-
berg’s limit, CBR, UCS value and swelling potential. This laboratory
investigation proceeded in three sets in which set one used 15%
and 25% by weight replacement of fly ash, set two replaced soil
with limestone dust at 3, 6 and 9% by weight of soil sample and,
set three assessed change in properties when both fly ash and
limestone dust is added at 15% and 3% by weight respectively.
Study results showed improved mechanical, and durability charac-
teristics and it was concluded that soil sub-base and base course
subjected to light traffic loads could be stabilized with limestone
dust and fly ash. Similarly, Fauzi et al. [31] successfully improved
subgrade properties using the recycled waste materials. The waste
material used were fly ash, bottom ash, oil palm empty fruit
bunches ash at 4, 8, 12% replacement of different clayey soils found
in the area of Kuantan city. OMC, MDD and CBR values were eval-
uated for all mixes. Fly ash and bottom ash gave encouraging
results, and use of these waste up to 8% in sub-base was suggested.
Around the world, variants of fly ash are available. Fuel oil fly
ash (FFA) is one such type, generated in bulk quantity, especially
in the region of Saudi Arabia. Al-Malack [32] in his research work,
utilized this waste as partial replacement of cement for stabiliza-
tion of sand and marl soil. The result of this study was compared
with cement stabilized soil and the virgin soil sample. FFA was
added at the percentage of 5%, 10%, and 15%. The proportion of
cement in this study was kept fix at 5%. Each soil sample was eval-
uated by atterburg’s limit, CBR, and UCS. The study suggested that
use of 5% FFA along with 5% Portland cement improves mechanical
properties of marl soil while significant effect was not observed in
sandy soil. Similarly, Lynn et al. [33] used municipal incinerated
bottom fly ash in unbound pavement layer. Waste was assessed
on the basis of physical, chemical and engineering properties fol-
lowed by mechanical and durability performance. Laboratory
investigation revealed improved compaction compared to sandy
gravel soil sample; comparable results were obtained for
permeability, elastic modulus, and shear strength test. Abrasion
strength was similar to lightweight aggregates, and bearing
capacity was found sufficient enough to permit its use in lower
strength structures like embankments and sub-base materials.
The overall conclusion based on this study was that this waste
could be implemented in sub-base material with no significant
drawbacks.
 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
Role of coal waste in sub-base was studied by Modarres et al.
[34]. Here, coal waste powder, coal waste ash and their combina-
tion with hydraulic lime were used in different proportions for sta-
bilization of medium plastic clay. Test results were compared with
that of neat soil sample and soil sample stabilized with hydraulic
lime. Effect of coal waste as an independent additive had a notice-
able impact on soil properties with reduced swelling behavior and
improved CBR. However, when used in combination with lime, bet-
ter results were observed with decrease in the liquid limit, plastic-
ity index, swelling properties and enhanced soaked CBR value and
compressive strength of soil samples. Another study by Gullu et al.
[35] used waste sludge, having the mineral composition similar to
fly ash in mix proportion of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80% by
weight to improve properties of fine-grained soil. Each sample was
evaluated by results from direct shear, CBR value, and UCS test.
OMC and MDD were found using standard Proctor test. The Study
suggested dosage up to 40–50% can improve mechanical and dura-
bility properties of soil.
Cement kiln dust (CKD), a waste generated as a by-product of
cement manufacturing industry have the chemical composition
similar to Portland cement [36]. Research works are available
which shows that it is suitable for improving sub-base and base
course of flexible pavement. Gupta et al. [37] used cement kiln dust
at replacement ratio of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10% in the black cotton soil sam-
ple and same soil sample contaminated with Cadmium. The study
reported at 8% replacement ratio minimum swelling behavior and
maximum UCS value was obtained. Similar findings were reported
by Rahman et al. [38] on four soils namely sandy sabkha, less plas-
tic white marl, cohesionless marl and plastic marl, aimed to inves-
tigate the change in soil characteristic on the inclusion of CKD as an
additive. All soils showed maximum UCS value at 50% addition of
CKD by dry weight of soil; same results were observed when sam-
ples were subjected 14 days of curing period. Combination of CKD
with quarry waste was evaluated by Amadi et al. [39] to improve
properties of black cotton soil. The quantity of quarry fine was
fixed to 10% by weight, and CKD was varied from 0% to 16% by
weight at an interval of 4%. No improvement was found in mechan-
ical properties of soil until 8% inclusion of CKD, after which an
increase in CBR and UCS value was observed. Between 8 and 16%
CKD inclusion, moisture susceptibility was also found to reduce.
A comprehensive study on evaluating the role of stone waste in
subgrade was carried by Sivrikaya et al. [40] in which five variants
of stone waste were selected, and their effect on black cotton soil
was examined. Bentonite, Kaolinite, Granite powder, Calcite mar-
ble powder, Dolomitic marble powder were used in three variants
of artificially prepared clayey soil from high plastic bentonite and
low plastic kaolinite. Waste was added in a proportion of 5, 10,
20, 30, and 50% by weight. All sample showed increased unit
weight, reduced liquid limit and improved plastic limit. Among
used waste, dolomite gave the best performance up to 30% replace-
ment by weight. Marble slurry, another globally produced waste,
generated during cutting and polishing of marble stone can be uti-
lized in improving mechanical property of sub-base and base
course. Amit et al. [41] in a laboratory investigation established
that marble slurry has a positive impact on soil property. In this
study, marble waste was added to soil at rate of 40%, 50%, 60%,
and 70%. The virgin sample was used as a control sample, and
results were evaluated based on the change in mechanical proper-
ties. A consistent increase in MDD value, decrease in OMC and
improved workability was observed with increase in marble waste
in soil, indicating improved compaction property. At 50% replace-
ment, maximum CBR of 5.16% was obtained, which was almost
four times the CBR value of neat soil sample, after which further
increase in proportion gave decrement results. Overall the study
suggested that marble dust can be used up to 50% to improve
mechanical properties of black cotton soil.
245
Laboratory investigation by Gandhi et al. [42] compared RHA
and marble dust (MD) for stabilizing black cotton soil of Gujarat
region. The research was carried out with two sets of samples,
one prepared using marble dust and other using rice husk ask,
where waste was added between 10% and 30%. The evaluation
was done on the basis of atterberg’s limit, CBR, and swelling index.
Addition of 20% MD by dry weight of soil sample, decreased liquid
limit by 30%, whereas with RHA at similar replacement, liquid limit
reduced up to 26%. Similarly, swell index reduced to 80% and 38%
when MD and RHA were added up to 30%. Correlation and regres-
sion analysis also demonstrated that MD gave better results com-
pared to RHA. Though both materials were found to have a positive
impact on soil properties, this comparative study established that
the overall performance of MD is better than RHA to stabilize black
cotton soil. Gupta et al. [43] in their study advocated the use of
marble dust in a combination of fly ash and sand to improve black
cotton soil properties. Findings by Gurbuz [44] also recommended
the use of MD. In this study, MD was used as an additive to modify
an inferior quality clayey subgrade. Laboratory investigation was
carried out, by first physical properties analysis of soil and addi-
tives, then adding waste in replacement ratio of 2.5%, 5%, 10%,
15%, 20%, 25% and then subjecting to durability studies. Peak UCS
value was obtained with the addition of 10% MD in the soil; work-
ability was also observed to be improving at 10% MD replacement.
Durability was also evaluated by assessing the mass loss of sample
after introduced to twelve freeze-thaw cycles. The test result
showed a reduction in percentage mass loss from 6% of a neat soil
sample to 4.25% obtained from a sample containing 15% MD, indi-
cating improvement in durability conditions. Overall, the study
concluded that addition of 10% MD by weight of soil gave sufficient
stiffness and modify soil properties, and hence can be used to
improve sub-base and base course properties containing clayey
soil. Another study by Oncus & Bilsel [45] used sand as a primary
additive and marble dust as a secondary additive to study the
effect on swelling behavior of soil. Addition of marble waste was
done by partially replacing sand in samples. Five different mixes
were prepared, categorized into five groups. Samples of the second
group contained 50% black cotton soil and 50% silt; the third group
was made 47.5% silt and 5% MD. Group fourth and group fifth com-
prised of 10% and 20% marble dust with an equally divided propor-
tion of clay and silt. Results were analyzed from the one-
dimensional swell test, volumetric shrinkage, and flexure strength.
Finding suggests that 10% MD improved soil properties by reducing
swelling percentage by 3%, enhanced flexure strength by 3N. Based
on test result it was recommended that marble dust should be
used as an additive in low volume roads. Another study by Minhas
& Devi [46] investigated the effect of marble dust on alluvial soil.
Here, replacement ratio was kept at 5, 10 and 15% respectively.
The result was in align with previous studies where improvement
in mechanical properties was observed.
In recent times, rapid industrialization and competitive market
have led to an exponential increase in Construction and Demolition
waste (C&D) [47]. These are the waste material derived from con-
struction, renovation, demolition of roads, houses and buildings.
Developing country like Vietnam produced 1 million tons of C&D
waste in 2001 which increased to 1.9 MT in 2011; recent estimate
suggests that with current waste generation rate of 9.8kilotons/day
it is expected to double by 2018 and might reach an alarming
quantity of 91MT by 2025 [48]. A similar situation is in India where
C&D waste generation increased from 10 to 15 MT in the year 2000
to about 23 MT in the year 2013 [43]. Similarly, about 1 billion tons
of C&D waste was generated by China in 2013 [49]. Europe in 2006
produced approximately 970 million tons C&D waste, and in Aus-
tralia, it was 19 million tons in the year 2009. Many countries have
acknowledged the seriousness of the situation and implemented
various restrictions and policies to control the situation. Ireland
246 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
has aimed to utilize at least 85% of C&D waste generated in any
new construction, England has introduced various site created
C&D waste management drives that include a mandatory waste
management plan for C&D wastes in projects greater than 30,000
euros [50]. Similarly, restrictions on waste generation and provi-
sions have been incorporated by other countries like USA, Ger-
many, and Japan [51]. As road construction is one of the highest
material consuming industry, many researchers have attempted
to analyze potential use of C&D waste in pavements. Waste like
debris, bricks, blocks, ceramic derived from different stages of con-
struction activities are reformed and recycled into desired aggre-
gate sizes and then used in flexible pavement. The flowchart in
Fig. 2 summarizes a general methodology achieved by various
authors.
Use of crushed clay bricks (CB) and Recycled Concrete aggregate
(RCA) in the unbound layer of flexible pavement was evaluated by
Poon & Chan [52]. Here, the study was carried out on two mixes,
one containing 75% RCA and 25% CB and other 50% RCA and 50%
CB. Mix prepared from natural aggregates was taken as control
mix. The result of this study was evaluated by maximum dry den-
sity, physical properties of materials and CBR value. It was found
that crushed clay bricks caused an increase in water absorption,
leading to a higher OMC value and a decreased MDD. CBR test
Fig. 2. Schematic flowchart of disposal and usage of C&D waste.
result of both replacement mix was within code limitations, indi-
cating their suitability as partial replacement of RCA. Leite et al.
[53] carried out laboratory investigation on the use of locally gen-
erated C&D waste at Sao Paulo, Brazil as aggregate in sub-base
course. The waste was a mixture of ceramic, concrete block, mor-
tar, steel, plastic, asbestos, cement and wood. The materials were
first separated using visual inspection, sorting and magnetic sepa-
ration technique, then sieved via 4.75 mm sieve size and retained
material was used for the study. Aggregates were divided into four
groups, cementitious material, highly porous ceramic material
(bricks and roof), less porous material (ceramic tile) and crushed
rocks. The mixes were evaluated on the basis of grain size, CBR
value, and resilient modulus. Physical property analysis revealed
that reformed aggregates exhibit higher water absorption, lower
specific gravity, and rough surface texture compared to virgin
aggregates. Use of standard and modified compaction method
was adopted in this study and change in grain size was reported
during compaction due to aggregate breakage. Modified Proctor
test result showed higher OMC, lower MDD for all mixes contain-
ing C&D waste. Results of CBR showed comparable results with
the high quality well-graded crushed stone material. Not much dif-
ference was observed in resilient modulus test, though it was
noted that use of higher compaction reduced the resilient displace-
 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
ment of recycled C&D aggregate by 10–20%. Based on test results,
use of C&D waste was recommended in an unbound layer of flex-
ible pavement. However strict quality control was recommended.
Glass, another significant municipal solid waste generated
around the globe was utilized by Canakci et al. [54] to enhance
subgrade properties. In this study, soda lime glass powder, pro-
cured from a municipal waste collection site was subjected to pul-
verization, and then material passing 300-micron sieve was mixed
in 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% replacement by dry weight of soil. The test
result showed an increased maximum dry density and improved
workability. Improved CBR and UCS value were obtained at 12%
replacement. Reduction in swelling properties from 5.5% to 1.65%
was observed with use of glass powder. In a recent study, Arulrajah
et al. [55] evaluated the performance of plastic waste in RAP and
CB. Three variant of plastic waste namely low-density polyethy-
lene filled with calcium carbonate, high-density polyethylene and
low-density polyethylene were replacement ratio of 3% and 5% in
control mix in subgrade and sub-base layer of flexible pavement
The study used modified proctor test to find OMC and MDD which
showed that inclusion of plastic waste reduced MDD and increased
OMC. Comparison between control mixes showed that RAP exhibit
lower OMC than CB in this study. Laboratory investigation summa-
rized that inclusion of plastic waste reduce specific gravity, CBR,
and UCS of all mixes as compare to control mix, however, each sat-
isfied the minimum requirement as per standard codes. Reason for
such behavior was attributed to low specific gravity and smooth
texture of plastic waste, which was also visible in scanning micro-
scopic analysis of mixes. Based on results it was suggested that use
of plastic waste with CB and RAP is possible and should be used in
practical works. Arulrajah et al. [56] studied the usability of basalt
debris left after quarrying, in sub-base layer of flexible pavement.
Waste was first crushed into desired size aggregates and then sub-
jected to physical property test after which mix were evaluated on
the basis of CBR, and repeated triaxial test values. Mix prepared
from the waste performed satisfactorily in physical parameters,
CBR and repeated triaxial test; suggesting suitability as sub-base
layer material. Another study by Arulrajah et al. [57] separated
C&D waste into a different waste namely recycled concrete aggre-
gate, crushed clay bricks, waste rocks, reclaimed asphalt pavement
and fine recycle glass to study their usability in sub-base layer of
pavement. The geotechnical assessment included particle size dis-
tribution, particle density, water absorption, compaction, Los
Angeles abrasion, post-compaction sieve analysis, flakiness index,
hydraulic conductivity CBR and repeated triaxial load test. Results
indicated that RCA, WR, and CB performed well and satisfied
required parameters. In pavement sub-bases, RCA and WR were
found to have geotechnical engineering properties equivalent,
and in some cases, superior to that of conventional quarry granular
subbase materials. CB was also found to meet the requirements of
virgin granular sub-base materials.
The potential use of unbound layer derived from RCA was
assessed by Ebrahim & Behiry et al. [58], here, conventionally used
limestone aggregates were replaced by RCA at 25%, 50%, 75% and
100% by weight of the mix. Each sample was subjected to CBR test,
unconfined bearing capacity test, tensile strength test, plate load
test and resilient modulus test. The test result showed each
replacement mix gave higher UCS value than control mix. Also,
an increase in strength ratio up to 20% compared to control mix
was observed. The overall study found that use of recycled con-
crete aggregates was feasible in sub-base course. A field study on
the use of RCA in the unbound material was carried by Perez
et al. [59]. In this case study, RCA treated with cement were used
as base and sub-base layers as a full replacement of natural coarse
aggregates. Road section at Malaga, Spain was used for study pur-
pose. One section of road was made with RCA and other with nat-
ural. Performance evaluation was done by strength, load-bearing
247
capacity and structural integrity of test section, evaluated using
high-performance dynamic monitoring equipment and impact
deflectometer. The seven days compaction strength of road section
prepared with RCA was 10.15 MPa, which was almost same to that
of conventional aggregates, whose obtained value was 10.95 MPa.
Similar performance was also observed in the load-bearing capac-
ity test. Overall, the performance of RCA was found satisfactory.
Field study and cost analysis showed that practical implementa-
tion of RCA would be economical. Hence incorporation in the field
was suggested. A study by Zaumanis et al. [60] critically evaluated
the possibility of using 100% RAP in the pavement. Referring to ear-
lier work carried out by the same author followed by a comprehen-
sive literature review, this study enlisted that with technology
advancement, it has become possible that RAP can be used as a full
replacement of conventional aggregates. In this study first most
suitable rejuvenator was selected to enhance RAP properties, then
these rejuvenators were added to 100% RAP mix in a dose of 12% by
weight. Results were compared with the virgin mix and non-
rejuvenated RAP mix. Tested samples were evaluated for rutting,
fatigue, and resistance to moisture where it was observed that
there was a reduction in low-temperature cracking, better resis-
tance to moisture conditions in all specimen except in the samples
added with oil plant rejuvenators. A field study was also followed
based on laboratory investigation where a section of road was laid.
Sample cored out of road section after two year trial period demon-
strate good working conditions. Cost analysis and cradle to grave
analysis also established that use of 100% RAP are feasible, eco-
nomical and environmentally friendly. Performance of RAP as
replacement of conventional aggregates in base and subbase was
also evaluated by Chandra et al. [61] where the addition of RAP
between 25% and 100% of conventional aggregates was done. In
each mix proportion, a variable quantity of cement was added as
filler material starting from 1% cement to 6% at an interval of 1%.
The evaluation was carried by studying the change in soaked and
unsoaked CBR values. The test result showed that inclusion of
cement enhanced the soaked CBR value in each replacement mix.
Based on soaked CBR values it was ascertained that RAP could be
used in sub-base with or without any additive, however, for base
course, use of RAP as a partial replacement is suggested along with
cement as filler. Mohammadinia et al. [62] used lime stabilized
C&D waste in crushed clay bricks, Recycled concrete aggregate,
recycled aggregate in the unbounded layer. The quantity of
hydrated lime was set 1% and 5%. UCS test results established that
C&D material has required properties to be used as unbound layer
of flexible and its use for road construction will lower carbon
footprint.
3.2. In base and surface course (Bituminous)
The load distribution in flexible pavement is via grain to grain
transfer. The wheel load acting on pavement is distributed in wider
area and stress is reduced with an increase in depth. Since base and
surface course is the top layer of the flexible pavement, this layer
encounters maximum stress [63]. Hence, use of a good quality
material is an absolute necessity. About 95% of this layer is com-
posed of aggregates, which are quarried from large rock formation
through an open excavation and then reduced to required aggre-
gate sizes via mechanical crushing. About 20% to 30% of the exca-
vated material is unfit for commercial use and is disposed in
landfills or filled back in quarries [64]. Various studies are available
where these long-term accumulated waste has destroyed the
nearby ecosystem. Disposal of stone waste result into deteriorated
health of resident in the area, fine slurry effect soil properties and
big stones occupy precious land [65]. To provide a sustainable solu-
tion, researchers have studied the use of quarry waste as partial to
248 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

Table 6
Summary of prominent reviewed research for the use of locally generated waste in base course of flexible pavement.

Waste Used as Test Parameters Conclusion Refs.

Marble quarry waste Aggregate in base course Physical properties, Strength and Recycled marble aggregates had sufficient strength and [66]
stability stability
Marble waste Aggregate in base course Physical parameters, Strength, 60% RMA can be used efficiently as a partial replacement to [67]
Stability, long term performance virgin aggregates in low volume roads
Marble dust Filler Strength, stability and durability Marble dust performed similar to limestone dust and can be [68]
used as filler
Marble dust Fines Strength, durability and stability Improved stability value, can be used as 100% replacement of [69]
conventional fines
Ballast quarry waste Coarse and fine aggregates in Strength, Stability, Durability, Best performance was obtained from mix containing 100% [76]
HMA in individual and moisture susceptibility, long- basalt coarse aggregates and conventional fine aggregates
combined form term performance
Ballast quarry waste Aggregate in stone matrix Strength and Stability Mix containing recycled waste gave better stability values [77]
asphalt
RCA Coarse aggregates Physical properties, Strength, RCA can be used as coarse aggregates [78]
stability, long-term study
RAP Surface course of airport Strength, stability and durability, 40% replacement of RAP deemed suitable for low volume roads [80]
pavement followed by field study and 40% replacement of RAP can be used as surface course in
airport pavement
RCA Coarse aggregate in base Strength, Stability, durability RCA can be used in low volume roads efficiently [81]
course
Verities of C&D mixture, Coarse aggregate Physical properties, Strength, Higher proportion of C&D waste as partial replacement can be [82]
using cement and stability, long term study used with cement as filler
lime as filler
Steel slag Coarse aggregate Physical properties, strength, Use of steel slag is feasible, Binder plays important role in [84]
stability and durability strength, stability and flow value
Clay bricks filler Physical properties, strength, Can be used as filler [85]
stability and durability
Palm oil fuel ash Filler in HMA Strength, stability, long term Use of palm oil fuel ash gave better results [86]
performance
Asphaltite Filler Strength, stability, long term Better durability results and improvement in resistance to [87]
performance fatigue
Rice husk ash Filler Strength and stability Replacement up to 50% is possible [88]
parameters.

full replacement of conventional aggregates and filler. Table 6
summarizes such prominent research works and their outcomes.
Akbulut & Gurer [66] used marble quarry waste as aggregates in
HMA. In this study, marble quarry waste was reformed into aggre-
gates and was compared with two variants of conventionally used
limestone aggregates and aggregates derived from high-quality
volcanic rock andesite. All aggregates were evaluated on the basis
of physical properties test and Marshall parameters. The test result
showed that of all variety of aggregate used, marble aggregates had
maximum abrasion loss, highest impact value, and highest flaki-
ness index. Marshall test results showed that binder content of
recycled marble aggregate was within the prescribed limit; stabil-
ity value was higher than conventional limestone aggregates, but
less then andesite aggregates. The study suggested that use of mar-
ble as aggregate is possible in medium to low traffic roads. Simi-
larly, Nejad et al. [67] also used recycled marble aggregates
(RMA) as replacement of virgin aggregate in HMA. This study used
60/70 penetration grade bitumen as adhesive, and RMA was used
as a weight replacement of virgin aggregates at 15, 25, 40, and
60%. To evaluate the suitability in HMA, each sample was tested
for resilient modulus, indirect tensile fatigue, dynamic creep, and
ITS ratio. Resilient modulus of samples was assessed at three dif-
ferent temperature of 5 °C, 25 °C and 45 °C for better understand-
ing the behavior of each mix. An overall decrease in resilient
modulus was observed with increase in temperature; this behavior
was attributed to the sensitivity of binder toward elevated temper-
ature conditions. The inclusion of RMA further reduced the resili-
ent modulus value; same was observed for fatigue failure, where,
increasing RMA proportion reduced cycle number. However it
was observed that each RMA replacement sample satisfied proper-
ties requirement necessary for low volume roads, and the author
suggested that up to 60% RMA can be used efficiently as a partial
replacement to virgin aggregates in low volume roads.
Studies related to the potential use of marble waste in the flex-
ible pavement was also done by Karasahin & Terzi [68], here, mar-
ble dust was used as filler to study behavior in HMA, 75/100 grade
penetration binder was used as adhesive in this study. Marble dust
generated during cutting and shaping process of marble blocks was
collected, sieved and used as 100% replacement of conventional
limestone dust in the asphalt mixtures. The mix was tested for
Marshall Stability and dynamic plastic deformation. Stability value
of sample containing marble waste as filler was similar to that of
control sample containing conventional filler; however, higher
plastic deformation was observed in a mix containing marble dust
as filler. The overall performance was suitable enough for low vol-
ume roads. Use of marble dust as filler was also analyzed by Abed &
Eyada [69]. Here, the mix was prepared using 100% marble dust
and was tested for Marshall stability, ITS, tensile strength ratio
(TSR) and dynamic creep. Findings of this study also recommended
the use of marble dust as filler. A laboratory investigation by
Sevilkofteci & Niyaziugurkockal [70] also explored use marble
waste as fines in HMA using 50/70 penetration grade bitumen as
a binder. Replacement ratio was kept 50%, 100% by weight of con-
ventional fine aggregates. The test result showed that mix contain-
ing RMA fines improved stability value, reduced binder content
and provided greater flexibility. Based on the experimental study,
authors suggested 100% replacement of conventional fines by
RMA in the binder layer.
Granite is another type of dimensional stone that is used exten-
sively in the construction industry for flooring and decorative pur-
poses. A Huge amount of granite waste is generated around the
globe every year [71,72]. Studies are available where researchers
have used it in concrete as fines, filler, etc.; however, its use in flex-
ible pavement has been evaluated recently. Sernas et al. [73] used
granite waste as 100% replacement of conventionally used fines in
HMA. Results were assessed by Marshall stability, ITS, and rut
 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
depth parameters. The performance of mix containing granite fines
was found inferior to control mix, and its use as a full replacement
of conventional fine aggregate was not recommended. However,
no comment was made on partial replacement of the mix. Another
preliminary laboratory investigation by Kumar et al. [74] used
granite waste as aggregate in open-graded friction course. Samples
were prepared using recycled granite aggregates and tested for
durability, permeability and drain down. The test result showed
that mix satisfied required criteria set by respective code and can
be used as coarse aggregates in open graded friction courses; How-
ever further performance based studies were advised before field
application.
Andesite, a variety of volcanic rock, rich in silica, is used as con-
struction and decorative material in Turkey. Terzi [75] used ande-
site waste procured from cutting and polishing industry as mineral
filler in HMA. 75–100 penetration asphalt was used in this study,
mixtures with limestone aggregate and limestone mineral filler
were prepared and used as control mix. The replacement ratio
was kept as 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8% by weight. Stability value was
observed to increase up to 6% replacement, which was found
higher than that obtained in control mix. The Study suggested
using andesite waste instead of conventional limestone as filler
in the areas where the waste is readily available.
Use of ballast, a dark, fine-grained volcanic rock was evaluated
by Ibrahim et al. [76] as replacement of conventionally used lime-
stone aggregates. For this study, first, quarry waste was reformed
into required aggregate sizes; then, were added as replacement
of virgin aggregates. Three different mixes were made, one con-
taining 100% basalt coarse and fine aggregates, second, having
coarse limestone stone aggregate replaced by coarse basalt aggre-
gates, and third replacing limestone fine with basalt fines. Results
were evaluated by Marshall stability, ITS, resilient modulus, rut-
ting, fatigue, creep. The Study used 60/70 penetration grade bitu-
men. Sample containing basalt as fine aggregates failed in water
sensitivity test and were deemed unfit for further testing. ITS value
of other mixes containing basalt as replacement material
increased, however, decreased tensile strength ratio was observed,
this was attributed to low porosity of basalt which prevented
absorption of asphalt and resulted in low bond strength. This prob-
lem was addressed by replacing the mineral filler with hydrated
lime, after which value was found in compliance with the specifi-
cations. Dynamic creep test results of the mix containing coarse
basalt aggregates and fine limestone aggregates showed the lowest
deformation. Similar behavior was observed for resilient modulus
test where, at 25 °C, compared to control sample, the modulus
value of the samples containing coarse basalt aggregate showed
a 219% increase. At 40 °C, the resilient modulus value increased
from 430 MPa of the control sample to 896 MPa for the mix con-
taining coarse basalt aggregates. Good Marshall strength also
established proper interlocking and hardness of basalt aggregates.
Overall best results were obtained for samples made with basalt
coarse aggregate and fine limestone aggregates, and their field
implementation was recommended. Study on the similar ground
was proceeded by Karakus [77] where basalt waste obtained from
stone processing site was used in stone mastic asphalt (SMA). The
aggregate was tested for physical properties, chemical composi-
tions and then used in mix design as a full replacement of virgin
aggregates, using 50/70 grade bitumen modified by adding 5%
polymer and 4% fiber. Marshall test parameters were used to eval-
uate mix properties. Samples prepared with basalt aggregates gave
higher stability values than control mixes; flow value, void filled
with bitumen and VMA were also within code standards. The study
concluded that it’s feasible to use basalt aggregate in SMA.
Research is available where aggregates derived from C&D waste
like RCA, RAP, are found to comply with minimum code specifica-
tions and gave satisfactory performance. A study by Paranavithana
249
& Mohajerani [78] used RCA derived from demolished concrete
elements as a 100% replacement of conventional coarse aggregates
in asphaltic concrete. Derived RCA aggregates were found to be
inferior in physical properties characteristics compared to virgin
aggregates, however, satisfied necessary specifications and thus,
deemed fit for further experimental investigation. Despite having
lower density and higher water absorption values mix prepared
with 100% coarse RCA and conventional fines exhibit improved
density and decreased water absorption values. Volumetric test
and resilient modulus test results gave reduced observations com-
pared to control mix; however, behavior was found similar in creep
testing. The overall study reported that RCA had required qualify-
ing characteristics to be used in the asphaltic concrete layer of
pavement. However, further investigation was suggested before
field trials. Huang et al. [4] studied fatigue behavior of flexible
pavement made of the recycled asphalt mixture. RAP replaced con-
ventional limestone aggregates between 0% and 30%. Binder used
in this study was penetration grade 64–22. Failure strain, ITS,
toughness index (TI), resilient modulus, energy ratio, plateau value,
and load cycles to failure were used for analysis purposes. The
inclusions of RAP into HMA mixtures increased the tensile strength
and reduced the post-failure tenacity. Dynamic creep threshold
and stiffness was found to be decreased incorporation of RAP.
Based on failure criteria of 50% reduction in stiffness, fatigue life
was observed to increase with the inclusion of RAP. A study by
Wong et al. [79] replaced conventional granite aggregate with
recycled concrete aggregate. In this study, three hybrid mixes were
prepared, one containing 6% RCA as filler, and in two samples, con-
ventional fines were replaced by RCA at 45% by weight, where one
sample was untreated and other heat treated. The study found that
performance of mix containing 6% fines as replacement gave com-
parable results to control mix and hence, their use must be encour-
aged. Similarly, Su et al. [80] studied the possibility of using
recycled asphalt concrete as partial replacement of conventional
aggregates in the surface course of airport pavement. Laboratory
investigations were carried out on mixes containing RAC used in
replacement ratio of 40% and 70% by weight of conventional lime-
stone aggregates. 60/80 penetration grade asphalt was used for
this study and results were evaluated based on comparison
between the test results of control mix containing conventional
limestone aggregates. Mixes showed no considerable difference
in percentage air void, specific gravity, and void filled with aggre-
gates. Wheel tracking test, raveling test, moisture susceptibility
test and three-point bending test established that performance of
mix containing 40% RAP was similar to control sample, and on fur-
ther replacement of 70%, mix performed better than control, as
minor raveling was observed. Both replacements were found to
comply with code standard. Hence a detailed field study was con-
ducted by constructing a part of the taxiway at airport containing
RAP. A 30 m wide, 30 m long section was made with same param-
eters as used in the laboratory. The surface condition, bearing
capacity and longitudinal profile were the attributes on which per-
formance was evaluated for three years. The Study showed that
even after three years of laying, apart from slight unevenness on
road surface, no visible deformity like cracking and raveling were
observed. The study concluded that use of 40% RAP could be done
in airport pavement, while 70% can be used for low volume roads.
Use of RCA waste in low volume road was also suggested by
Mills-Beale et al. [81]. In this study, replacement ratio was kept
25, 35, 50, and 75% of conventional aggregates. Volumetric proper-
ties were determined and compared as per Superpave specifica-
tion. RCA surface was reported porous, which leads to a
reduction of effective binder content. To assess mixes stiffness,
resilient modulus test was performed under three temperature
conditions, i.e., 5 °C, 25 °C and 45 °C. The study reported that with
an increase in RCA proportion resilient modulus decreased, how-
250 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

Table 7
Summary of prominent reviewed research for use of locally generated waste to modify binder properties.

Material Used in binder, Mix type Test Parameters Conclusions Refs.

Low density polyethylene
Waste plastic bottles
Polyethylene Terephthalate
(PET)
Waste plastic
Poly vinyl chloride pipe (PVC),
treated with chemical
modifier
Rubber tires
Used in 50/60 grade asphalt; in SMA
80/100 penetration grade bitumen;
in SMA
Coated plastic on aggregate and then
mixed with 80/100 grade binder
80/100 grade bitumen; in
Bituminous Mixes
PG 58–22 binder, in OGFC
Rheological test, performance parameters of Improvement in binder properties. [90]
mixes Up to 6% addition improved SMA
properties
Volumetric and mechanical properties of Up to 6% addition of PET gave [91]
SMA improved strength and stability
value
Physical properties of aggregates, Strength Optimum dose for best performance [92]
parameters, field study, cost analysis was 10% of bitumen used
Visco-elastic properties of PVC-bitumen - PVC pipe waste can be used as [93]
blend, performance characteristics of mixes modifying agent.
- Mix prepared showed increase
in strength and stability.
Performance and durability characteristics 10% rubber gave better performance [94]
of mixes. than SBS binder

ever, this change was more of temperature dependent rather than
RCA in the mix. The increment of RCA proportion also reduced ten-
sile strength ratio, with the sample containing 75% RCA failing
required criteria Based on performance evaluation, authors sug-
gested using RCA as partial replacement of virgin aggregates in
HMA subjected to low traffic conditions.
Perez et al. [82] in his study evaluate the influence of two vari-
ety of filler, i.e., cement and lime on the performance of HMA con-
taining C&D waste. The waste mixture consist of concrete (72.5%);
stone (21.5%); miscellaneous bituminous (4%), ceramic materials
(1%), and some impurities such as clay, metals, wood, plastics, rub-
ber and gypsum plaster (1%). Physical property analysis showed
that material was not following Los Angeles coefficient PG3 speci-
fications, reason of which was attributed to mortar attached to
recycled aggregates, responsible for high water absorption. Waste
was added in ratio of 20, 40 and 60% by weight and each replace-
ment mix was replicated with two sets. Set one was prepared with
4.75% cement as filler and other with a mixture of 3.57% natural
aggregate and 1% lime as filler. 50/70 penetration grade bitumen
was used as a binder. The mix containing lime and conventional fil-
ler showed decreased Marshall Quotient value with increase in
C&D proportion; while those having cement as filler was found
to improve the Marshall quotient. Compressive strength and
retained strength ratio also showed that performance of recycled
aggregate improved using cement as filler. Except samples con-
taining 75% recycled aggregate, all achieved the required minimum
retained strength ratio while in case of the sample prepared with
natural aggregates and lime as filler, only mix containing 20% recy-
cled aggregate was able to achieve the desired value. In case of per-
manent deformation, satisfactory performance was observed in all
mixes. Overall from the study, it was suggested that use of C&D
aggregates up to 60% replacement of conventional aggregate is
possible for low volume roads. Similar results were also reported
by Zulkati [83] for the use of RCA as replacement of conventional
aggregates. This study suggested that partial replacement of RCA
give a comparable result, and its field use must be encouraged.
Ahmedzade et al. [84] used steel slag as coarse aggregate in
HMA. In this study, conventional limestone was replaced by waste
in the ratio of 20%, 40%. Two type of binders, AC-5 and AC-10, were
used in this study. Samples were evaluated on the basis of Marshall
Stability, MQ, ITS and creep stiffness. Increase in Marshall Stability
and MQ were observed in a sample containing steel slag; same was
observed in ITS, indicating better cohesiveness between slag aggre-
gates and conventional limestone aggregates. The sample was sub-
jected to electrical conductivity test where it was found that
sample containing slag had higher conductivity than control sam-
ples. The overall study suggested that the result of AC-10 binder
were much better than AC-5 binder.
A study by Chen et al. [85], used waste powder derived from
clay bricks, obtained from a demolition site, as an alternative to
conventional limestone filler in HMA. Bitumen of grade PG 60/70
was used as a binder, and Marshall Method was used to find opti-
mum binder content. The quantity of filler used was 4% by total
weight of the mix. Results were evaluated by ITS, creep, water sen-
sitivity and fatigue test. Test result indicates that mix prepared
from recycled brick gave better resistance to rutting, improved
water sensitivity and fatigue life. Resistance to permanent defor-
mation was also found to be improve in static and dynamic creep
test compared to control mix. Authors suggest use of brick powder
as mineral filler.
Similarly, Borhan et al. [86] used palm oil fuel ash(POFA) as fil-
ler at replacement percentage of 1, 3, 5, 7% in hot mix asphalt. The
mix was evaluated on the basis of Marshall Stability test, dynamic
creep, static creep, resilient modulus and fatigue test. Samples con-
taining POFA found to have better performance under resilient
modulus test with 5% POFA as additive giving best results, same
was observed in dynamic creep test, and fatigue test where rutting
depth was least and cementitious property of POFA improved the
performance. Hence use of this waste as filler was suggested. Study
on the similar ground was conducted by Yilmaz et al. [87], where
asphaltite as filler in HMA was studied. Addition of mineral filler
was done at an interval of, 20, 75 and 100% by weight of conven-
tional filler. The test result showed increase in Marshall Stability,
stiffness and resistance to fatigue in all replacement. It was con-
cluded from the laboratory test results that using asphaltite as fil-
ler in hot mix asphalt exhibited high performance by improving
resistance to moisture damage and fatigue life. Similarly, Sargin
et al. [88] investigated the use of RHA as filler in HMA. RHA was
used as replacement of conventional limestone filler 25, 50, 75,
100%. Performance of mixes was evaluated from Marshall parame-
ters. Sample containing 50% RHA showed maximum stability value
and was recommended to be used in areas generating RHA as bulk
waste.
3.3. Binder
Bitumen is used as a binder to mix aggregate particles of a dif-
ferent size to form asphaltic concrete. It is a complex, viscoelastic,
rheological, non-crystalline material and used mostly in the flexi-
ble pavement [89]. In recent past, use of polymer modified bitu-
men in flexible pavement has become a common practice. Using
polymer modified bitumen improves durability characteristics
and increase the life of pavement. However, using a polymer mod-
ified bitumen increases overall construction cost. Hence, studies
have been carried out to utilize waste to modify binder properties.
Waste plastic and rubber has been found as an effective additive
 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
which improves bitumen properties and increases the service life
of the flexible pavement. A summary of work carried out by the
researcher is shown in Table 7. Al-Hadidy [90] used low-density
polyethylene to study property change in binder properties of
50/60 grade asphalt. Waste was added in a proportion of 2, 4, 6,
8% by weight and tested for physical properties. Using plastic
waste found to increase softening point of binder and reduce over-
all percentage material loss. When used in SMA, with plastic con-
tent up to 6%, increased stability, and a decrease in flow value
was reported. The test result showed that addition of waste till
6% satisfied drain down characteristics and TSR values for all
mixes. Hence same was suggested to modify bitumen properties.
Ahmadinia et al. [91] also used waste plastic bottles Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) to modify binder properties of 80/100 penetra-
tion grade bitumen and its effect on SMA properties. PET samples
used in this study were of 1.18 mm passing, and 425 mm retained
gradation; in a ratio of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% by weight. Addition
of waste was done using dry process, in which additive was first
blended with aggregates before adding of bitumen to mix. Sample
prepared were analyzed by comparing specific gravity, stability
value, flow value, change in air void and void in mineral aggre-
gates. Increase in Marshall stability was observed till 6% addition
of plastic waste, and flow value was observed to be increasing till
4% addition after which decreasing trend was observed. Use of
chopped plastic waste resulted in the increased surface area which
resulted in an overall increase in percentage air void. Low specific
gravity and improved VMA was observed in all mixes with the
addition of plastic waste. Based on test results it was established
that use 6% by weight of bitumen improves adhesion properties
of the binder. Study on the similar ground was carried by Vasude-
van et al. [92] where waste plastics as a coating material was used
on stone aggregates and these modified aggregates were than used
in pavement construction. To coat the aggregates, plastic chips
were first shredded to a size ranging from 2.5 mm to 4.36 mm
and spread uniformly over preheated aggregates. Plastic coating
was varied by changing the quantity of plastic from 5% to 25% to
find optimum quantity. Aggregates were subjected to physical
parameters as per code and result showed improvement in physi-
cal attributes. Reduced percentage void was observed along with
increased hardness and toughness of stone. Mixes were prepared
using 80/100 grade bitumen. Results were evaluated by Marshall
parameters and code specifications, where the feasibility of binder
was established. Based on test results, a field study was conducted,
where evaluation of road condition was done by measuring deflec-
tion, unevenness, field density, skid resistance and texture depth. A
surface condition survey was also carried out to evaluate comfort
condition of the pavement. The study period for this field study
was kept one year, and the result showed that polymer coated
aggregates and bitumen mixture performed better than plain bitu-
men road section. Deflection measured by Benkelman beam
method showed value within the permissible range of 0.5 mm–1
mm, surface roughness index value was also observed to comply
with code specification. Field density result was also observed bet-
ter for road section paved using waste modified bitumen compare
to that paved using normal bitumen Skid resistance, texture depth,
and survey also suggested that road containing plastic waste per-
formance satisfactory. From this study, it was established that
use of plastic waste improved viscoelastic properties, Marshall
quotient, and binding, stripping properties. Cost analysis showed
that laying one km road section of width 3.75 m saved about Rs.
35,000, further supporting the use of PET waste. Behl et al. [93]
used PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe waste to improve binder prop-
erties. PVC was added in a ratio of 3% and 5% in bitumen grade
80/100. PVC was first treated with chemical modifiers for homoge-
neous dispersion of waste in bitumen. Results were in align with
previous studies where using PVC enhanced the binder properties
251
and samples prepared from it. Improved phase angle and better
resistance to permanent deformation were observed at both
replacements as compared to the unmodified binder. Better resis-
tance against cracking, rutting value was also observed. A compar-
ative study of rubberized asphalt made using waste automobile
tire with commercially used styrene–butadienestyrene (SBS) bitu-
men in open-graded friction course was done by Shirini et al. [94].
In this study, waste automobile rubber tires were shredded, and
then added in virgin binder in concentration of 10%, 15%, and
20% at mixing temperature of 180 °C and reaction speed of 3500
rmp for 30 min. Gradation size of rubber varied from 0.6 mm pass-
ing to 0.075 mm passing. Test result indicated increase in optimum
binder content of open-graded friction course. Using 10% crumb
rubber in asphalt increased the rutting resistance, reduced skid
resistance and improved resilient modulus, durability and rut
depth in OGFC mix. Similar result were summarized by Presti
et al. [95] where comprehensive review on use of tire rubber in
bitumen showed possibility of its use waste rubber to modify bitu-
men properties.
4. Practical Challenges in implementing waste material
Despite all these research and studies available, still, implemen-
tation of these have been limited. Reason for such can be:
1. Quality control problem: Many times, the generated waste has
enormous potential to be used as a replacement of conventional
material in the flexible pavement. However, it may not be fea-
sible to use the same as it may contain a lot of undesired waste
product mixed in it. This scenario is valid, especially for con-
struction and demolition waste. In laboratory studies, quality
control is much convenient than that infield, where precise
quality control may lead to delay in the project and increase
project cost.
2. Establishment of fixed replacement ratio: As observed in RAP,
RAC and quarry wastes studies, every research suggest almost
different possible proportion from other. Reason being that
properties of waste depend on many factors like quality, the
source of extraction, handling, variation in mineralogical com-
position, etc. The absence of any form replacement ratio
restricts contractors and other execution bodies to use the
material in practical. A firm collaboration between research
and industry might act as a solution
3. Designer and Contractors are accustomed to using natural
materials. These are readily available, and authorities know
how to deal with physical variability. Since norms favor conser-
vative approach, the thinking pattern cannot be easily changed.
4. There is always a concern by technical authorities and stake-
holder over inferior road performance especially in long-term
and additional cost or any legal action that might they have
to bear in case poor performance of road network.
5. Conclusion
Researchers have conducted several studies on alternative
waste materials that can be used in flexible pavement. Their field
application will act as a breakthrough in significant waste disposal
problem faced in different parts of the globe. This practice provides
a viable solution for land requirement problem for waste disposal,
help in conserving energy by reducing overall hauling distance
[96], save virgin aggregates, thus decreasing overall construction
cost. However, care must be taken that secondary material is free
from hazardous component and does not have any adverse long-
term effect. Also, it must be ensured that waste to be used should
be available in bulk and have homogeneity in composition. This
252 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
scenario is very rare especially in areas where large landfills are
created after decades of accumulation over the prolonged period.
In such conditions, the samples for quality check should be
increased and use of such materials in small projects like in low
traffic volume road, maintenance work should be incorporated.
Physical properties of recycled waste depend on both recycled
material and its manufacturing process. Research work shows that
many recycled materials especially like RAC, ceramic waste exhibit
change in shape, size and other physical properties during the test-
ing procedure, for example, change in gradation has been observed
when subjected to compaction effort. For such materials proper
mixing, suggesting any additional requirements like additives,
technical restriction and quality control can help to address such
situations. However, still, research is needed to address such mate-
rial behavior and any conflicting statement precisely. Above all, the
government must also make efforts to promote the use of sec-
ondary materials in the field via introducing incentives and legisla-
tion [97]. Establishing a National body responsible for organizing,
compiling, storing and promoting information, including National
Standards for the production and use of recycled products, would
help increase stakeholder confidence in the suitability of recycled
C&D materials.
Conflict of interest
We have no conflict of interest to declare.
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