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USE OF RECYCLABLE MATERIALS IN PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY

Conference Paper · February 2019

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 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

USE OF RECYCLABLE MATERIALS IN PAVEMENT

CONSTRUCTION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
SUSTAINABILITY

Ali Jamshidi and Greg White

University of Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia, Email: gwhite2@usc.edu.au

ABSTRACT

Pavements must reliably carry heavy loads, often under challenging environmental and
geotechnical conditions. It follows that the pavements are routinely designed to contain
high quality, newly produced materials. However, in remote locations, newly produced
materials are often expensive or unavailable and marginal materials are attractive.
Marginal materials can be used in their natural condition but are more commonly
stabilised or otherwise improved to provide acceptable performance. However, they can
incorporate unwarranted risk into pavement design solutions. The decision to use
marginal materials in a pavement is a balance between technical risk, maintenance
liability, available materials, environmental emissions and capital cost. This study
reviews the use of marginal materials in pavement design and construction. Reclaimed
asphalt pavement (RAP) materials for pavement construction is considered. Also,
performance of blast furnace slag (BFS) and waste glass in pavement construction are
evaluated. The results indicate that RAP is acceptable as an alternative material, while
BFS and the waste glass can be used under specific conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Productivity and efficiency of transportation infrastructure assets significantly depends

on the structural and functional performance of pavement networks, including highways,
airports and ports. Therefore, high-quality materials and advanced technologies are
often used for new pavement construction. However, pavement construction has a
significant impact on non-renewable natural resources, including quarried aggregate
sources and carbon-based energy carriers such as industrial fuel and bituminous binder.
To reduce the environmental impact of pavement design and construction, sustainability
of paving materials and construction technologies is desired.

Environmentally sustainable opportunities in pavement construction are assessed via a

range of environmental rating tools, such as life cycle analysis (LCA) and leadership in
energy and environmental design, based on ISO 14044. One of most effective
approaches for construction of sustainable pavement is the use of marginal materials,
such as reclaimed, recycled, and waste products. It should be noted that there is a variety
of waste materials that can be used in various layers of pavement system. However,

1
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

there are many factors that must be considered when assessing the use of waste materials
in pavement construction.

MATERIAL TYPE AND CONTENT

The optimum content for each marginal material must be determined based on
laboratory tests because each marginal material has specific mechanisms to contribute
to the structural performance of the paving system. The optimum type and content of
the marginal material should also be verified via field investigation and or full-scale tests
where possible.

Pavement type
There are three primary groups of pavements; rigid (concrete), flexible (asphalt) and
hybrid (cement stabilised and asphalt surfaced). Although flexible pavements usually
have asphalt surfaces, sprayed seals and interlocking concrete block pavers are also
viable surface solutions. It should be noted that the mechanism for the load-bearing
capacity of the concrete block paving system is based on horizontal, vertical, and
rotational interlocking, whereas in concrete pavements, it depends on the slab-action of
the concrete. Meanwhile, asphalt ageing and progressive interlocking due to compaction
and field densification are factors influencing the load-bearing capacity of asphalt
surfaces.

Pavement strength
Pavements containing marginal materials should have structural strength equivalent to
otherwise similar traditional materials. That is, the marginal materials should meet the
structural strength requirements prescribed by current pavement construction standards.

Initial cost
The costs incurred due to material supply and processing must be considered. For
example, a lack of infrastructure for recovering and processing the materials may
increase the initial costs.

Life cycle cost

The pavement life cycle consists of four main phases including, raw materials,
construction, utility, and recycling. Since the pavement life should be considered a
closed-loop system for increasing sustainability, the effects of the marginal materials on
each phase is analysed. Moreover, environmental impacts and socio-economic costs of
pavement alternatives should be assessed. Importantly, two different types of costs are
incurred by the pavement systems; agency and pavement user costs. The agency costs
include raw material processing, construction maintenance/rehabilitation (utility phase)
and recycling (Huang 2004), while the pavement user costs usually consist of vehicle
operation, delay and accident costs (Daniel and Rietveld 1999).

2
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

Durability
Marginal materials should have adequate durability against environmental conditions
and chemical attack, similar to new materials. For example, pavements constructed
using marginal materials at airports should be durable against jet aircraft exhaust.

Practicability
The practical tolerances typically prescribed by construction standards should be met by
pavements containing marginal materials.

Constructability
It is necessary to evaluate whether the construction and paving crews require any
particular skills or equipment to meet the construction, maintenance and rehabilitation
tolerances associated with marginal materials.

Safety
Safety must be addressed in all phases of the pavement life. For example, marginal
materials must be assessed for any hazardous effects on paving crew health. Moreover,
the pavement constructed using the marginal materials must allow safe transportation of
passengers and commodities. For example, pavement surfaces containing marginal
materials must provide adequate skid resistance.

Climate change effect

Climate change effects can be divided into two primary parts; direct and indirect effects
(Austroad 2004). Direct effects are due to environmental impacts such as temperature,
precipitation, wind speed and aquifer level, while the indirect effects cover changes in
traffic loading caused by demographic changes resulting from climate change (Koetse
and Rietveld, 2009).

MARGINAL MATERIAL OPTIONS

Design and construction of pavements incorporating marginal materials require a

balance between all the above factors. Moreover, it is necessary to understand the
various types of marginal materials and their structural responses in various pavement
types, such as those summarised in Table 1. In this study, the performance of three
different marginal materials, including reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), blast furnace
slag (BFS) and recycled (cullet) glass are considered in terms of suitability for use as
marginal materials in pavement construction. Moreover, the load bearing capability and
mechanisms of the materials were investigated. The discussion provides a basis for
pavement engineers and researchers considering alternative marginal materials in
different paving applications.

Table 1: Satisfactory of alternative materials used in highway construction

(Ahmad 1990)

Material Type Pavement type/ pavement layer

3
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

Asphalt Concrete Cement Lean Cement Asphalt Untreated Aggreg Aggrega

Pavement pavement treated concrete treated treated permeable ate base te
permeable
base base permeable materials subbase
base
base
RAP S C S S S S S S S
Crushed concrete C C S S S S S S S
Foundry slag C C S S S S S S S
Crumb rubber C N N N N S S N N
Ash S S C C N N N N N
Glass C N N N N S S S S
Plastic S S C S C C N N N
S: satisfactory; C: conditionally satisfactory; N: not satisfactory.

Incorporation of RAP and the recycled concrete as alternative materials is satisfactory

in many different pavement systems and application. Moreover, asphalt and concrete
are the most recycled materials on earth, far more so than aluminium cans, paper, glass
or plastic. For example, in Japan 96% of demolished concrete is used as a recycled
material in the construction of new infrastructure (Henry and Kotabo, 2014). This
provides significant environmental benefit by reducing waste volumes and new quarried
product demand.

RECYCLED ASPHALT PAVEMENT

The first experience of asphalt pavement recycling dates back to 1915 by Warren
Brothers portable asphalt plant (Gannon et al. 1980). However, it was the oil crisis in
the early 1970s that increased asphalt price and energy costs, providing a great incentive
for increased RAP use (Imtiaz & Lowel 1992). Currently, RAP is ranked as a highly
desirable material for use as an economic, technical and environmentally advantageous
marginal material in pavement construction. It is preferred over other waste materials,
including fly ash, rubber tires, various form of steel slag, bottom ash, waste glass,
building rubble, and incinerator residue (Ahmad, 1993). For example, 99% of generated
RAP is reused in the USA, where 460 million tons of crushed aggregate is used for
paving works each year (Santero et al. 2013; Carpenter & Gardner 2009). Also, 99% of
all RAP is reused in new pavement construction in Japan (West & Coupland 2015). It
is interesting to note that the rate of reusing RAP is 100% in Denmark and Sweden
(Carpenter and Gardner, 2009). However, the current version of Flemish road standard
SB250 in Belgium does not permit the use of RAP in the surface course of road
pavement because of environmental impact of leachates (Anthonissen et al. 2016). It
should be noted that incorporation of RAP as an alternative material in asphalt base and
sub-base layer construction offers the potential for reduced global warming (20%),
energy consumption (16%), water consumption (11%), life cycle costs (21%) and
hazardous waste generation (11%) (Lee et al. 2010).

The primary technical advantage of the asphalt mixes containing RAP is higher stiffness
because virgin asphalt binder in combined with the aged (hardened) asphalt binder in
the RAP. The resulting blended binder has higher stiffness in comparison with the virgin
binder because of higher activation energy (Jamshidi et al. 2014). In other words, the
aged asphalt binder increases the stiffness of the blended asphalt binder (Jamshidi et al.,
2016a), which results in an increase in dynamic modulus and indirect tensile strength of

4
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

the asphalt mixture (Shahadan et al. 2013; Goh & You 2008) (Figure 1). For example,
the slope of indirect tensile strength (ITS) indicates that each additional percent of RAP
increases the ITS of mixture by 13 kPa. Moreover, the binder content in the RAP
reduces the optimum new binder content (OBC). Figure 1 shows the OBC reduces as
the RAP content increases. Therefore, incorporation of RAP not only increases the
structural capacity of the asphalt mixture in terms of dynamic modulus and ITS, it also
reduces the volume of new binder required, generating a further sustainability benefit.

1200 5.9
ITS
1100 OBC 5.8
1000 5.7
ITS (KPa)

OBC (%)
900 5.6
13
800 5.5
1
700 5.4
600 5.3
500 5.2
0 10 20 30 40
RAP content (%)

Figure 1: Correlation between ITS and OBC and RAP content based on
data reported by Hajj et al. 2008

Although the higher mix stiffness is an advantage for mix performance at higher
temperatures, it is a disadvantage at lower temperature because of potential for low
temperature cracking and intermediate temperature fatigue (Figure 2). Meanwhile, the
construction temperature of mixes incorporating RAP is typically higher than the
traditional hot asphalt without RAP, which results in more aging, fatigue and low
temperature cracking. To avoid the high stiffness, use of lower RAP content is
recommended. Furthermore, some asphalt production plants now incorporate the RAP
after the new aggregates are heated, thereby reducing the additional ageing of the RAP
binder. Therefore, it is recommended that the optimum RAP content is determined
based on rheological properties of recovered asphalt binder and engineering properties
of the mixture, and various additives such as antistripping agents or asphalt modifiers.
For example, Figure 2 indicates that approximately 10% RAP is optimum in terms of
fatigue of both binder types. Also, use softer binder to compensate for the increased
mixtures stiffness due to the inclusion of the RAP materials and to improve the fatigue
and low temperature cracking. Figure 2 shows the fatigue life of mixtures produced
using PG 52-34 and 10% RAP is approximately eleven times higher than the same mix
produced using the harder PG 64-22 binder.

5
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

160500 20500
PG 52-34 (Connectcut) PG 64-22 (Connecticut)
140500 PG 52-34 (Arizona) 18500 PG 64-22 (Arizona)
16500
120500
Fatigue life (cycles)

Fatigue life (cycles)

14500
100500
12500
80500 10500
60500 8500
6500
40500
4500
20500 2500
500 500
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
RAP content (%) RAP content (%)

Figure 2: Correlation of fatigue life and RAP content which is based on flexural
fatigue tests based on data reported by Hajj et al., (2008)

To address environmental issues due to high construction temperatures with RAP, warm
mix asphalt (WMA) technology can be applied. Different WMA technologies use
additives or foamed bitumen to decrease mixing and compaction temperatures of the
asphalt. Results of an experimental study showed Evotherm® WMA incorporating 50%
and 75% RAP shows better performance in terms of ITS, dynamic modulus and rutting,
as compared to a control mix and WMA samples incorporating 25% RAP (Lu and Saleh,
2016). Also, Martinho et al. (2017) found that WMA samples produced with different
WMA additives, including Sasobit®, Rediset® and Viatop®, each with 35% RAP,
showed comparable fatigue performance to traditional hot mixed asphalt without RAP.
Therefore, the reduced construction temperature due to use of WMA technology reduces
binder oxidation during production, hence decreasing mixture stiffness that may
otherwise result in cracking. Higher RAP content can be used to offset the reduced new
binder hardening during asphalt production. As a result, WMA is a mechanism for
incorporating greater use of marginal materials in asphalt production, which is in
harmony with goals of sustainable pavement construction.

Traditionally, airports have generally resisted using RAP in their runway surfaces due
to concerns regarding performance and durability in a low-risk environment under
severe loads. However, in 2018, two Australian airports incorporated RAP from
temporary construction ramps built from the same asphalt mixture design, referred to as
low-risk RAP, at 5-10% RAP content (White 2019). No adverse effects were observed
except that the wet fiction was less for sections containing even this modest portion of
RAP (Figure 3).

6
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

Figure 3: Effect of RAP on wet runway friction (White 2019)

BLAST FURNACE SLAG

Based on technical performance, BFS is ranked as the second most desirable reusable
material for highway pavement construction, while it is ranked fifth and sixth in
economic and environmental perspectives, respectively (Ahmad 1993). There are three
main types of slag, including iron blast furnace slag, oxygen furnace steel slag, and
electric arc furnace slag. Moreover, BFS is available in four main forms; air-cooled,
pelletised, granulated, and ground. BFS is primarily comprised of SiO2 and CaO, as
shown by the typical chemical composition in Table 2.

Table 2: Chemical elements and compounds of BFS

Chemical component Weight (%) Chemical component Weight (%)
SiO2 21% TiO2 0.2%
Al2O3 5.7% Na2O 0.3%
Fe2O3 2.7% K2O 0.5%
CaO 65% SO3 2%
MgO 2% P2O5 0.2%
MnO 0.1% Cl 0.02%

This paper only covers the ground and granulated BFS (GGBFS). GGBFS can be used
as a filler in asphalt and as a supplementary cementitious material concrete pavements.
Although, BFS as an industrial by-product is a free-environmental material, the energy
required for crushing and grinding of BFS should be included in raw materials phase of

7
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

input energy calculations. For example, Lippiatt (2007) estimated that the input energy
for the processing of slag is 722 kJ/kg. It should be noted that BFS, as a hydrophobic
material, has high absorption. Therefore, the OBC of asphalt mixtures containing BFS
is higher than that of control asphalt mixtures, which reduces the environmental benefit.
Because of the higher OBC, mixtures containing BFS are prone to asphalt bleeding at
higher temperatures. Moreover, asphalt bleeding is a functional failure that decreases
the skid resistance of the pavement surface, which negatively impacts safety. As a result,
optimum BFS content for the asphalt mixtures should be determined for various asphalt
types and service conditions. As an example, Asi (2007) recommended the maximum
skid resistances is associated with mixtures containing 30% BFS. However, the
optimum BFS content is likely to be mixture specific.

Analysis of structural consistency of asphalt mixtures containing BFS indicates a

decrease in rutting potential (Ellis et al. 2004; Airy & Collop 2004). Moreover, analysis
of long-term performance ageing indicated BFS mixtures had higher stiffness, reflecting
the higher absorption of binder by the BFS granules, resulting in a reduced ‘effective’
binder content. It follows that mixtures containing BFS can be more prone to aging,
which may reduce the typical service life of asphalt overlays. However, aging as a
physico-chemical phenomenon depends on many factors, such as construction
temperature, aggregate type and gradation, binder type, ambient temperature, service
condition, field compaction and densification due to traffic loading. Therefore, more
investigation on the short and long-term aging of BFS mixtures is required. Further,
there is gap of knowledge on the synergistic performance of BFS and WMA because the
higher stiffness of the BFS mixture may be offset by the reduced binder ageing
associated with WMA production temperatures.

Use of BFS as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete also increases

sustainability of concrete pavements. However, the main disadvantage of using BFS in
concrete pavements is slower early-life strength gain of the concrete, which may result
in longer curing periods and delays in opening pavements to traffic. Chemical additives
can be used to accelerate hydration of the cement paste and reduce curing time.
However, incorporation of extra chemical materials reduces the sustainability benefits
associated with incorporation of the BFS. The negative and positive effects of such
additives should be considered in LCA analysis.

It is also important to understand that the environmental footprint associated with

different BFS sources can be significantly different. For example, Crossin (2015) and
Palankar er al. (2016) reported that the use of BFS can decrease greenhouse gas emission
by around 50%, while a LCA case study conducted by Li et al. (2016) showed that the
total environmental emissions decrease by only 7%, which is consistent with the results
reported by Boesch & Hellweg (2010). The reason behind the difference can be assessed
by various analytical methods in LCA analysis and include different properties of unit
function, construction technology, service condition, raw material type, mode of
transportation, energy cost and productivity, technical skills and site conditions.

RECYCLED GLASS

8
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

Glass production technology is resource and energy-intensive. Therefore, use of glass

as an alternative construction material significantly reduces the energy-units associated
with landfill. The main types of recycled glass primarily comprise SiO2, as detailed in
Table 3.

Table 3: Chemical elements of three main types of glass (Ahmad 1993)

Chemical Components Borosilicate Soda-lime Lead
SiO2 81 73 63
R2O3 2 1 1
Na2O 4 17 7
K2O - - 7
CaO - 5 -
MgO - 3 -
PbO - - 22

The waste glass or recycled glass can be used as course or fine aggregate in asphalt
mixtures. Moreover, the glass particles are hydrophobic materials, with low (0.3% to
0.4%) water absorption (Jamshidi et al. 2016b). Therefore asphalt binder is not absorbed
by the glass particles. It follows that the OBC of asphalt mixtures containing glass is
less than for comparable traditional asphalt mixtures. Consequently, the binder content
must be reduced the air void volume may be inadvertently impacted. Furthermore, We
et al. (2004) and Moreneo et al. (2015) reported that stability decreases and air voids
increase as the recycled glass content increases. This also reflects the low capacity of
recycled glass particles to absorb the bituminous binder, reducing the aggregate-binder
adhesion. This unabsorbed binder also attracts compaction energy, meaning less energy
is absorbed by the aggregate materials. As a result, less interlock is achieved between
the aggregate particles, thereby reducing the load-bearing capacity of the mixture, which
becomes more dependant on the stiffness of the binder, rather than on the friction
between the aggregate particles. It should be noted that asphalt surface interface strength
is also a function of adhesion, friction and aggregate embedment or interlock (White
2016) and may be adversely affected by high recycled glass contents.

It was found that OBC decreases as the glass content increases. However, a laboratory
study conductd by Hughes (1990) showed that glass contents up to 15% had no adverse
effect on the ITS and resilient modulus, which are factors influencing the load-bearing
capacity of the mixture. Also, incorporation of 15% waste glass actually improved the
fatigue life of the asphalt mixture. Therefore for 15% can be considered the optimum
content of recycled glass in asphalt mixtures.

Recycled glass was also used as a coarse and fine aggregate in concrete pavements.
Experimental results indicated that the use of waste glass as course aggregate reduced
the concrete’s compressive strength (Topcu and Canbaz, 2004; Park et al. 2004, de
Castro & de Brito 2013). In contrast, fine-graded glass for sand replacement increased
the comressive strength (Batayneh et al. 2007; Malik et al. 2013; Shao et al. 2000). This
reflects the strength gain of concrete as a hydration reaction. Since the surface area of
fine-graded glass particles is higher than that of course glass particles, the reaction

9
 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

potential of the glass particles increases during hydration. Consequently, hydration

products increase and the strength of the concrete increases.

Safety must also be considered when recycled glass asphalt pavement utility is assessed.
Vehicles can dislodge glass particles from segregated pavement surfaces which can
damage vehicles and injure pedestrians (Jamshidi et al. 2016b). Therefore, recycled
glass is only recommended for asphalt surfaces for low volume and low speed roads, for
road base, and recreational pavements such as footpaths. Recycled glass is not
recommended for the surface layer of highways or for airport pavements because the
high shear stresses may dislodge glass particles and cause damage to vehicles and
aircraft. Also, shear-related distress may result in delamination at the surface layer, or
excessive shear creep within the asphalt surface layer as a result of the reduced asphalt
internal friction and adhesion (White et al. 2016).

In addition, safety is an importanrt consideration during the construction phase because

sharp glass particles may injure paving crew members. Moreover, members of the
paving crew might inhale glass dust. However, Disfani et al. (2012) reported that larger
(9.5-mm diameter) glass particles do not present a safety concern, based on experimental
studies and field investigations, which agreed with previous research by Larsen (1989).
Furthermore, Landris (2007) reported that even particles smaller than 9.5 mm did not
present a safety risk to asphalt paving crews as long as goggles and gloves are worn.

CONCLUSION

Three different marginal materials used in the pavement construction were reviewed.
Such materials are available and provide benefits it terms of structural and functional
performances, cost, and most importantly to environment sustainability. RAP is used in
asphalt mixtures, while BFS and glass can be used for both asphalt and concrete
pavements. These materials have different effects on the various engineering properties
of the pavement, impacting the structural, functional and environmental performance.
Therefore, mixture specific structural and functional assessment is required. Moreover,
a detailed assessment of the environmental benefits and impacts of such materials is
necessary. Although the results of laboratory studies demonstrate the benefits of these
marginal materials, only limited use of recycled glass and BFS has been reported. In
contrast, RAP is well established as a reusable material in asphalt mixtures. Increase
use of recycled materials is expected in the future as confidence in pavement
performance increases and pavement owners become more focussed on environmental
sustainability.

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Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

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 Unformatted version of the paper cited as
Jamshidi, A & White, G 2019, ‘Use of recycled materials in pavement construction for
environmental sustainability’, Eighteenth Annual International Conference on Pavement
Engineering, Asphalt Technology and Infrastructure, Liverpool, England, United Kingdom, 27-
28 February.

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