Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Sustainable use of waste in flexible pavement: A review

⇑
Pradeep Kumar Gautam , Pawan Kalla, Ajay Singh Jethoo, Rahul Agrawal,
Harshwardhan Singh
Department of Civil Engineering, Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur, India

highlights

● Review of various studies pertaining to use waste material in flexible pavement.

● Review of recommendation various state transportation departments concerning use of waste in flexible pavement.
● Challenges and possible solutions regarding use of recycled material in flexible pavement.

articleinfo
abstract
Article history:
Received 26 November 2017 Around the world flexible pavement is the most favored pavement structure to build road and
Received in revised form 6 April 2018 highways. A massive amount of non-renewable materials and industrial products like aggregates,
Accepted 9 April 2018 bitumen, cement, lime, and other additives are consumed during construction and maintenance of this
pavement system. Extraction and production of these virgin materials is an unsustainable practice.
Wastage of materials, environmental deterioration, depletion of resources, and the spike in material cost
Keywords: led researchers to search for alternative materials that can be used in flexible pavement. This paper
Sustainable development provides an overview of such recycled materials that have been successfully used in different layers of
Construction, and demolition flexible pavements. Studies have established that the use of secondary material not only provide an
Recycled asphalt concrete efficient waste disposal technique but also reduce demand for conventional material and reduce overall
Quarry waste construction cost. Through this paper, an attempt has also been made to identify the reason because of
Flexible pavement which, despite having essential studies, their field implementation has been limited and suggest
possible remedies by which use of recycled material in the flexible pavement can be promoted.
© 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Contents

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 240
2. Criteria required for waste to be used in flexible pavement....................................................................................................................................................240
3. Flexible pavement layer and possible use of waste....................................................................................................................................................................241
3.1. In Subgrade, Sub-base and base (non-bituminous) layer..............................................................................................................................................241
3.2. In base and surface course (Bituminous)..........................................................................................................................................................................247
3.3. Binder 250
4. Practical Challenges in implementing waste material...............................................................................................................................................................251
5. Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 251
Conflict of interest.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 252
References.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 252

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: 2015rce9037@mnit.ac.in (P.K. Gautam), pkalla.ce@mnit.ac.in (P. Kalla), 2015pct5148@mnit.ac.in (R. Agrawal), 2015rce9518@mnit.ac.in (H. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.067
0950-0618/© 2018 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
24 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

1. Introduction
2. Criteria required for waste to be used in flexible pavement
Sustainability is defined as meeting the needs of present age
Every country has standards and specifications for a material to
without compromising the well-being of future generation [1].
be used in pavement construction. Any recycled material to be
Sustainable development takes into consideration simultaneous
used for construction purpose should be subjected to property test
economic, environmental and social growth [2]. This practice
similar to that of conventional material. The product obtained
has become very important in today’s reference as rapid growth
using the waste material (used either as partial or full replacement
has sidelined conservation and protection of the natural
of virgin material) should also comply with the minimum strength,
resources. Road and Highways sector is a significant part of con-
stability, durability and other necessary specifications.
struction industry where the exhaustive use of the natural
The basic material requirement is that it must be free from any
resource has emerged as a severe threat to the environment [3].
contaminating element, organic impurities, and hazardous compo-
The reason for this is that the material procurement for construc-
nent. Tables 1–3 summarize the necessary parameters upon which
tion, their extraction, and laying, generates a lot of pollution and
materials to be used in the flexible pavement are evaluated for
waste.
their suitability.
About 95% of world’s roads are made of flexible pavements
Around the globe, recycling of waste as pavement material has
[4]. It is composed of four layers namely subgrade, subbase, base
been in practice with varying degree of success. Few countries have
and surface course [5] as shown in Fig. 1. Sub-grade is natural
formulated rules, regulation, suggestion, and restrictions which
soil over which other layers are laid. Many times it’s found that
permit the respective transportation departments to utilize the
existing subgrade is weak, or is of expansive nature, i.e., little
locally available waste, while many are still in drafting phase to
change in moisture condition leads to substantial volume change
allow recycling of waste material in pavement construction.
within a short period [6]. In such cases, subgrade is modified
In the USA, an average range of 15–20% of Recycled Asphalt
using certain additives. This modified sub-grade is called sub-
Pavement (RAP) is allowed in wearing course. The Virginia center
base. Above sub-base lies base course which is a load-bearing
for transportation allows 30% RAP in blend phase as road base
layer composed majorly of high-quality aggregates of different
and sub-base material. Use of blended material is permitted if it
sizes. Above it lies surface course, which is a mixture of aggre-
satisfies the grading and particle size distribution of the mix
gates, fines, filler, and binder. This layer is directly in contact
design. The blending can be from multiple sources but once the
with traffic load, hence using a superior quality material is an
batch is tested, verified and deemed suitable to use as pavement
absolute necessity.
material, the addition of material to the stockpile is restricted.
A significant part of flexible pavement is composed of aggre-
State of Nebraska permits using up to 50% RAP as pavement con-
gates which are procured from selected quarry sites. Their extrac-
struction material, which makes it one the highest RAP using coun-
tion process includes blasting, drilling, excavating and crushing.
try in the world. The reason for this permissible specification is the
These methods are highly unsustainable as a massive quantity of
provision that the contractor has to take the full ownership of the
waste produced during the process is either filled back at quarry
quality of material supplied. Florida Department of transportation
site or disposed of abruptly, affecting ecological cycle in many haz-
permit use of RAP, recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and
ardous ways [7]. Similarly, bitumen, which is used as binding agent
construc- tion and demolition waste (C&D) from existing concrete
in the surface course, also has an unfavorable impact on environ-
ment and health. It’s mixed with aggregates at a temperature of pavement to be used as subgrade and base material in highway
construction. States’s permissive specification allow the contractor
165–200 °C, releasing vapors and fumes into the atmosphere.
to use a pro- portion of recycled material based on his or her
These fumes contain greenhouse gas and aerosol components,
judgment [9]. Sim- ilarly, Texas Department of transportation
which during occupational exposure cause irritation and carcino-
permit 20% percentage use of RAP and RCA in subgrade and base
genicity of skin and respiratory tract [8].
construction. This state department recommends that for a project,
Despite all these impacts, construction of highways can’t be
the material must be from the same stockpile, and along with
restricted as they play a significant role in the development of a
gradation, the stock must not have maximum percentage loss from
nation. Therefore, it’s vital to search for resources which may pro-
decantation higher than 5% and should also comply with state’s
vide a sustainable aspect by reducing consumption of natural
non-hazardous recyclable material guidelines. The Department
resources, easing landfill pressure while maintaining structural
also permits the use of com- post produced via aerobic
integrity. Use of locally generated waste materials is a significant
decomposition as backfill ingredient. Only that compost is allowed
step forward in this direction. This review paper compiles the var-
for construction which is derived from agriculture residue, forest
ious wastes that are commonly produced around the world and
residue, bark, and paper. The waste must also satisfy particle size
their possible use in the flexible pavement.
distribution where 95% of content is passing through 16 mm (5/8
in.) sieve, and at least 70% material is

SURFACE COURSE
PAVEMENT (BOUND LAYER)
BASE COURSE PAVEMENT SYSTEM

SUB-BASE
UNBOUND LAYERS
SUBGRADE

EMBAKMENT or IN-SITU SOIL

Fig. 1. Pavement system.

Table 1
Property Analysis for soil subgrade. specification. Similar is the case with Japan transportation depart-
ment, where similar provision is available to use the variety of
Test Name Property Code
materials like wood, plastic and waste glass in the various layer
Liquid limit, Plastic limit and of the pavement system [12,13].
Atterberg limit ASTM D4138-
Plasticity Index of soil
17 India is also moving forward in recycling waste in the construc-
Gradation of soil using Sieve Particle size ASTM D6913/ tion of pavement. Ministry of Road Transportation and Highways
analysis distribution D6913M-17 (MoRT&H) permit the use of bricks metal, crushed concrete as
Specific Gravity of soil specimen Density of soil specimen ASTM D854-14
[using pycnometer] granular sub-base material. The recycled material must comply
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Mechanical property of with the recommended physical aggregate requirement and grada-
ASTM D1883-
soil
16 tion similar to virgin aggregates. The ministry also permits the use
Unconfined Compressive Durability and Strength ASTM D2166/ of crushed stone, crushed slag, overburnt bricks and RCA in sub-
Strength of Cohesive Soil property of soil D2166M-16
grade and the non-bituminous base layer of flexible pavement.
The recycled stones should be hard, durable and free from excess
flat, elongated, soft and fragmented particles. The crushed slag to
Table 2 be recycled for construction material shall be derived from the
Physical Properties test for aggregates. air-cooled blast furnace and should be angular in shape, maintain-
Test Name Property Code ing uniform quality and density. The weight of crushed slag shall
not be less than 11.2 KN/m 3, and percentage of glossy material
Los Angeles Abrasion loss Strength ASTM DC-131
Impact Test ASTM C131/C131M should be less than 20%. Department restricts that maximum sul-
Water Absorption Test Water Absorption ASTM D7172 phur content and water absorption 2% and 10% respectively. Use
Flakiness and Elongation Index Particle Shape ASTM D4791 of crushed cement concrete derived from broken cement concrete
Soundness Test Durability ASTM C-88 slab crushed to size should not exceed 75 mm and must conform to
Specific Gravity Density of aggregates ASTM C127
recommended gradation similar to virgin material. Despite these
recommendations, gaining proof of compliance and verification is
a problematic task for procurement officials and policies for effi-
Table 3 cient management and use are still reported to be in drafting phase
Binder property.
[14].
Test Property Code

Ductility (in cm at 25 °C) Adhesive and Ductility ASTM D113 3. Flexible pavement layer and possible use of waste
Penetration, (0.1 mm, 100 g, 5 s) Hardness and ASTM D5
Consistency 3.1. In Subgrade, Sub-base and base (non-bituminous) layer
Softening Point (°C) Elevated temperature ASTM D36
Flash Point (°C) Temperature study ASTM
D92 Viscosity (at 135 °C and/or 165 °C) Flow and performance ASTM Strength and performance of flexible pavement are dependent
D92 Specific Gravity (g/cm at 25 °C)
3
Density of bitumen ASTM D70 not only on good mix design but also on the load-bearing capacity
of the subgrade. A quality subgrade reduces pavement’s thickness
and contributes toward an economical construction. Convention-
ally, lime and cement are used as additives to improve soil proper-
passing 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve. Use of compost having the wood ties. Their addition leads to the formation of gelatinous and
chip containing visible refuse, material treated with chemical amorphous material which helps in interparticle bonding. The
preservatives or other harmful contaminating material is strictly reaction taking place by addition of these compounds are shown
prohibited [10]. below:
Similarly, The state transportation department of Korea restricts With lime:
the use of toxic elements present in recycled construction prod-
ucts. The regulations prohibit the use of materials containing lead CaO þ H2 O ! CaðOHÞ2
and cadmium compounds and have recommended the maximum
permissible limit of copper, arsenic, and mercury not to be higher CaðOHÞ2 ! CAþ2 þ 2½OH]
—

than 3 mg/l, 1.5 mg/l, and 0.005 mg/l respectively. The

department also directs that only those material shall be used in
water perme- able pavements that can withstand 100 freeze–thaw
cycles with- out crumbling. It also suggests that for recycling
material, where no standards have been laid down, the material
and the product shall be tested on parameters applicable for
conventional materials and products [11].
Recycling of waste material like blast furnace slag, power plant
residues, RAP, RCA in pavement construction is also practiced in
European countries. Management of waste here follows a strict
hierarchy under which, the amount and toxicity of waste are
reduced and then the recovered material is used as construction
material. Germany, for example, uses 100% of blast furnace slag
waste in road construction. Likewise, Swedish national road and
transportation research institute permit the use of ferrochrome
slag having particle size distribution between 0 and 100 mm as
pavement material. Same is the case with Denmark where waste
like steel slag, rolling mill, casting sand, blasting materials, roock-
wool slag, crushed asphalt, and bricks are allowed to be used in the
pavement layer if they comply state transportation department’s
—
Caþ2 þ 2½OH] þ SiO2 ! CSH gel
—
Caþ2 þ 2½OH] þ Al2 O3 ! CAH gel
Where hydrated lime is commonly used in the treatment of soil
which is rich in cohesive fine aggregates and clay particles; cement
is found to be more efficient with low cohesion soil particles. This
behavior is because, in cohesive soil, majority particles are finer
than anhydrous cement grain which makes coating and distribu-
tion of anhydrous stabilizer among cohesive soil difficult [15].
Studies are available where the use of locally generated waste
have been used to improve physical, mechanical and swelling
properties of soil subgrade and sub-base. Table 5 summarizes the
prominent work of using waste in soil stabilization. Attom et al.
[16] used burned olive waste as an additive to enhance subgrade
properties. This waste was added at replacement ratio of 2.5%
by weight in four variants of black cotton soil, and its effect was
eval- uated from the change in physical characteristics,
compaction energy, water content and mechanical property. The
result of this
Table 4
Mineral composition (in percentage) of the recycled waste material in comparison of lime and cement.

Calcium Silica (SiO2) Alumina Iron Oxide Magnesia Potash LOI Refs.
Oxide (Al2O3) (Fe2O3) (MgO) (K2O)
(CaO)
Cement 64.86 20.44 5.50 – – 1.59 1.52 [19]
Lime 53.4 8.56 4.4 1.12 – – – [23]
RHA .41–1.24 22.12– .21–1.23 .21–1.28 0.21–22.31 0–0.45 2.36 [19,42]
93.51
Pumice aggregate 1.75 65.5 17.5 4.5 2.25 4.25 [21]
Iron ore tilling .607 45.64 3.36 47.7 .393 .607 3 [23]
Fly ash 3.6–12.0 44.5–55 20.3–22.4 6.3–7.5 1.5–3.5 0–2.5 0.2–4.5 [27,30]
Ground Granulated blast furnace 41.5 34.8 11.3 0.6 7.2 0.3 – [27]
slag
Cement Kiln Dust 41–67.72 9.64–17.62 1.90–4.90 1.50–4.06 0.64–1.93 0–2.18 4.94– [38,39]
31.30
Marble waste 30.56–55.86 0.09–1.06 0.03–0.05 .01–0.24 0.18–21.21 0–0.01 16.44 [40,45,66]
Palm oil fuel Ash 8.4 43.6 11.4 4.7 4.8 4.5 18 [86]
Lime stone Waste 38–42 15–18 1.02–1.53 1.02–1.53 13.74–15.32 0.35–0.62 32–34 [98]
Granite Stone Waste 1–3.94 67.04–76 13.06–21.12 7.66–21.12 0.04–0.46 3.74–7.15 0.5 [40,98]

LOI: loss on ignition.

study showed that addition of waste decreased the plasticity index

cement required to achieve the same amount of strength. Another
(PI) of all soil samples indicating an improvement in workability.
study by Al-Rawas et al. [20], demonstrated the potential of waste
At 2.5% replacement ratio, the porous structure of black cotton soil
‘‘Sarooj,” a local name for an artificial pozzolan produced by burn-
was filled with fine burned olive waste particles, leading to an
ing of clay, in enhancing engineering properties and reducing
increased maximum dry density (MDD) and improved unconfined
expansive nature of the soil. Performance of Sarooj was compared
compressive strength (UCS). Further replacement reduced the den-
with that of conventionally used soil stabilizing material, i.e., lime
sity. This behavior was attributed to the low specific gravity of
and cement. Total five set of samples were prepared for this study,
waste. Similarly, Okagbue et al. [17] used limestone ash waste to
in which set one, two and three were made with the addition of
improve engineering properties of laterite soil. The replacement
lime, cement, and Sarooj, each at replacement ratio of 3%, 6%,
ratio of soil by limestone ash was kept 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% by weight.
and 9% by weight of soil sample respectively. Set four and five con-
British Standard and Modified British Standard procedure were
tained a fixed quantity of lime at 3% and 5%, and, cement was
used for finding optimum moisture content (OMC), and maximum
added to these sets in 3, 6, and 9% by weight of soil respectively.
dry density of all mixes, and, mechanical properties of soil were
Each mix was evaluated for atterberg’s limit, change in moisture
evaluated based on soaked, and unsoaked California bearing ratio
content, MDD and swelling potential. The study summarized that
(CBR) test values. Shear and durability behavior were assessed by
all replacement mixes were able to control the swelling potential
triaxial test and unconfined durability test. This laboratory investi-
of soil and satisfied standard code provisions. Use of pumice, a
gation suggested that addition of limestone dust up to 6% gave best
local waste, produced during the volcanic eruption in Turkey
compaction, workability and mechanical strength. The unconsoli-
region was evaluated by Mehmaet Saltan & Kahal [21] to stabilize
dated undrained triaxial test result showed that further increase
sub-base layer. Addition of pumice waste was done in 10%
of limestone ash waste proportion reduced the friction angle and
replacement interval till 35%. An increased CBR value was obtained
improved cohesion value.
till 30% replacement, suggesting its use as stabilizing material in
Many a time it has been observed that locally generated waste
sub- base layer of flexible pavement. This was further supported
has a mineral composition similar to lime and cement and can be
by cost analysis, where the inclusion of waste pumice as additive
used as an additive to improve engineering properties of sub-base
reduced construction cost to half.
and base course, however, their quality is not satisfactory enough
A recent study by Dang et al. [22] investigate the influence of
to be used as an independent additive. In such cases, these indus-
bagasse fiber; an industrial waste left after crushing of sugar cane
trial waste can be used along with conventional additives like
for juice extraction. Waste material was used along with hydrated
hydrated lime, cement or both. Table 4 shows the mineral compo-
lime to study changes in engineering properties and shrink-swell
sition of such recycled materials that have been used by research-
behavior of expansive soil. Bagasse fiber passing 2.36 mm sieve
ers to modify soil properties. This practice helps in reducing the
was used in this study in replacement ration of 0.5, 1 and 2%.
overall quantity of commercial additives, provides an efficient
Hydrated lime was added to soil samples at 2.5, 4.5, 6.5 and 9%
waste management method and also reduces total project cost
replacement along with 0.5% bagasse fiber. The test results showed
[18]. It was demonstrated by Basha et al. [19] where, use of rice
that Bagasse fiber blended entirely with hydrated lime, increased
husk ash (RHA), a useless byproduct obtained by burning rice
compressive strength and decrease shrinkage properties of soil.
husk, was used along with cement in various proportions to
Linear Shrinkage was also observed to be declining gradually with
improve residual soil properties. The quantity of cement
the inclusion of bagasse fiber. Similar observations were made in
replacement was fixed at 4% and 8% by weight of soil, and RHA
mixes containing hydrated lime and bagasse fiber. Stress-strain
was added ranging from 5% to 25%. With an increase in waste
behavior showed that combination of waste and hydrated lime
proportion, a decrease in plasticity index (PI), increase in OMC and
increased stiffness and brittleness compared to virgin soil sample.
a slight decline in MDD of soil was observed. Improved
The study concludes that use of this waste improved soil character-
mechanical and durability results were also obtained upon
istics remarkably, and its field application would reduce the con-
addition of RHA. Maximum CBR of 60% was seen with the
struction cost.
inclusion of 4% cement and 5% RHA. Based on the experimental
A study by Etim et al. [23], used lime and iron ore tilling (IOT)
investigation, the overall recommended dose was 15–20% RHA
waste generated during extraction of iron ores, for stabilization
along with 6–8% cement. Overall, It was observed that addition of
of black cotton soil. Addition of iron tilling was in 2, 4, 6, 8, 10%
RHA help in reducing the quantity of
Table 5
Summary of prominent reviewed research for use of locally generated waste in Subgrade, Sub-base and base (non-bituminous) layer.

Waste Secondary Used as Evaluated Parameters Optimum percentage/Conclusion Refs.

additive

Burned olive waste – Soil stabilization of Workability, Strength, 2.5% to improve strength, durability of soil. [16]
black cotton soil Durability, Swelling 7.5% reduced swelling properties
properties
Limestone ash waste – Stabilization of laterite Workability, Bearing 6% by weight replacement improved engineering [17]
soil capacity, Durability, properties of soil
Shear strength
Rice husk ash Cement Stabilization of Workability, Strength, 6–8% cement and 10–15% RHA give optimum result [19]
residual soil Durability, Swelling
Fly ash and stone dust – Stabilization of Workability, Strength, Blend of 25% fly ash with 30% stone dust gave [22]
expansive soil Durability, Swelling optimum result
Iron ore tilling Lime Soil stabilization of Workability, Strength, 8% iron ore tilling and 8% lime [23]
black cotton soil Durability, Swelling,
Leaching potential
Phosphate gypsum’s two variant: Lime and Stabilization of Physical properties, Use of hemi-hydrate with lime or cement gave [24]
dehydrate and hemi hydrate cement tropical soil Strength, Durability, better performance than dehydrate. However,
Swelling, Resilient result may vary depending upon soil type, its
modulus composition, type of photo gypsum used and
quality of secondary additive used (lime or
cement)
Fly ash – Stabilization of black Workability, 25% by weight of soil [26]
cotton soil mechanical property of
soil
Two variants of Low lime fly ash (fine Lime Enhancing properties Strength, Durability - Fine fly ash gave better results than coarse fly [27]
particles with low LOI and coarse of two type of natural and water ash
particles with high LOI) granulated (sulfate-bearing) clay permeability - Addition of GGBS further improved the engi-
blast furnace slag neering and durability properties of soil.
- Results are dependent on material
characteristics.
Limestone dust and coal fly ash – Lean clay soil Workability, Strength, 15% coal fly ash +3% limestone dust gave [28]
Durability, Swelling optimum engineering properties and durability
properties results
Fly ash, bottom ash and oil palm – Verities of local clayey Workability, Strength, Use of 8% fly ash and bottom ash gave optimum [31]
empty fruit branches ash soil. Durability, Swelling results.
properties
Cement kiln dust – Black cotton soil and Workability, Strength, 8% replacement ratio gave best result [37]
Cadmium Durability, Swelling
contaminated black properties
cotton soil.
Cement Kiln dust sandy sabkha, less 50% replacement in all soil sample was considered [38]
plastic white marl, as optimum dose
cohesionless marl and
plastic marl
Cement Kiln dust – Black cotton soil Workability, Strength, 8–16% CKD mix soil gave durable results [39]
modified with quarry Durability, Swelling
fines
Three varieties of Stone waste:Calcite – Three varieties of Workability, Strength, Improved engineering properties of each soil [40]
marble, Dolomite marble, and artificially made clay Durability, sample with each waste type.
Granite powder samples of different - best result obtained with dolomite waste,
plasticity. optimum replacement percentage 30%.
Marble dust – Clayey soil subgrade Workability, Strength, 10% by weight replacement gave optimum results. [44]
Durability
Marble dust sand Clayey soil Strength and Swelling 10% marble dust reduced swelling potential. [45]
properties

Crushed bricks and recycled concrete Aggregates in Engineering properties Satisfied code specification [52]
aggregates unbound layer and strength
C&D mixture Sub-base course Engineering properties, Use of C&D waste recommended in sub-base [53]
material Strength, and long layer.
term performance - Strict quality control is required.
Waste glass powder – Stabilization of Engineering properties, 12% by weight of soil sample [54]
Clayey soil strength, and
durability
Low density polyethylene – Subgrade and sub- Engineering properties, Test result compared with strength and stability of [55]
base layer strength and durability layers containing RAP and CB.
Use of polyethylene waste gave lower values than
control mix, however were within permissible
limits.
RCA – Unbound layer as Physical, Use of RCA is possible, mechanical properties are [58]
aggregates mechanical and influenced by number of variables.
durability and long-
term performance
properties.
RAP (with and without additive) cement Sub-base and Base Strength and Blend of 25% RAP, 75% stone with 6% cement gave [61]
course durability properties highest bearing ratio.
Other proportion performed satisfactorily
C&D Lime Sub-base and base Engineering properties, C&D waste as aggregate performed satisfactorily [62]
course Strength and stability with 3–5% lime as additive
proportion by weight. To each of this replacement proportion, lime
lime stabilized soil sample. The overall conclusion from this study
was added in 2, 4, 6 and 8% replacement by dry weight of soil.
was that addition of fly ash to lime stabilized sulphates bearing soil
Each mix was tested for change in index properties, compaction
improves the durability of soil, but the extent of this change is
charac- teristics strength and durability properties. Proctor test
dependent on waste material‘s property characteristics.
result showed an increase in MDD and decrease in OMC with the
Use of fly ash along with other locally generated waste can also
rise in replacement proportions, which was attributed to the
lead to improved subgrade, sub-base, and base course properties
formation of flocculated particles and increase in specific gravity
and result in better waste management practice. This behavior
obtained after addition of waste. A maximum CBR value of 50% in
was demonstrated by Ramdas et al. [28] in a laboratory investiga-
unsoaked and 40% in wet condition was obtained by addition of
tion, where fly ash and stone dust was added to expansive soil and
8% iron ore tilling waste and 8% lime. Similar behavior was
results were assessed from workability, MDD, CBR and UCS test
observed in dura- bility studies, where samples tested after 7, 14
values. Study result showed that 25% fly ash and 30% stone gave
and 28 days curing, gave better UCS results than control samples.
most optimum results. Study on the similar ground was conducted
Surface morphology study conducted using scanning electron
by Ali & Koranne [29] where, stone dust and fly ash, two of the
microscopy instrument and fiber matrices confirmed the formation
most commonly generated pollutant in the area were used for con-
of crystalline hydration product in the lime-IOT treated soil.
trolling swelling properties of soil subgrade. In this study, waste
Minimum leaching was observed with 8% addition of IOT in soil
was combined in equal proportion by weight, and the mixture
samples. Hence 8% iron ore tilling with 8% lime was suggested as
was used at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% replacement of
an optimum percentage, and its use in field study was suggested.
expansive soil. The study found that the addition of 20–30% of
Similar findings were by Rezende et al. [24] in which effect of
the mixture eliminated swelling properties of soil subgrade. Also,
phosphate gypsum (PG), a byproduct of phosphate fertilizer
improvement in maximum dry density, soil index properties, and
industry, on tropical soil was investigated. Results showed
CBR value were observed. The study also concluded that addition
improved physical and mechanical properties and reduction in
of stone dust improves the mechanical properties of soil and
swelling behavior was reported with the blend of 11% PG and 9%
when used with fly ash in equal proportion give better results.
lime.
Similar finding were reported by Brooks et al. [30] where limestone
Many studies are available where fly ash, a waste by-product
dust and coal fly ash was used to stabilize two varieties of locally
obtained during coal combustion process, has been used efficiently
available soil at south- eastern Pennsylvania. Samples were
to improve mechanical properties of soil, reduce shrinkage charac-
evaluated by change in atter- berg’s limit, CBR, UCS value and
teristics and form strong sub-base. This improvement is because
swelling potential. This laboratory investigation proceeded in
the addition of fly ash and lime leads to rapid hydration process
three sets in which set one used 15% and 25% by weight
which stimulates cation exchange that flocculates the soil into
replacement of fly ash, set two replaced soil with limestone dust
large lump causing improved mechanical property and decreasing
at 3, 6 and 9% by weight of soil sample and, set three assessed
its shrinkage characteristics [25]. Use of fly ash to improve sub-
change in properties when both fly ash and limestone dust is
grade property was evaluated by Bhuvaneshwari et al. [26] in
added at 15% and 3% by weight respectively. Study results
which fly ash waste, generated from the thermal power plant
showed improved mechanical, and durability charac- teristics and
was added to soil at 10% replacement interval up to 50%. Results
it was concluded that soil sub-base and base course subjected to
showed that adding fly ash gave an improved workable mixture.
light traffic loads could be stabilized with limestone dust and fly
Durability test result was best obtained by addition of 20% fly
ash. Similarly, Fauzi et al. [31] successfully improved subgrade
ash by weight of soil. Based on laboratory investigation it was
properties using the recycled waste materials. The waste material
advised that 25% fly ash in the soil helps to improve mechanical
used were fly ash, bottom ash, oil palm empty fruit bunches ash
property and workability of soil. This laboratory research was fol-
at 4, 8, 12% replacement of different clayey soils found in the area
lowed by a field study where an embankment of dimension 3 m
of Kuantan city. OMC, MDD and CBR values were eval- uated for
wide, 30 m long and 600 mm in height was constructed. Fly ash
all mixes. Fly ash and bottom ash gave encouraging results, and
was sandwiched between two layers of soil and then mixed via
use of these waste up to 8% in sub-base was suggested. Around the
disc harrow after which a required quantity of water was sprayed
world, variants of fly ash are available. Fuel oil fly ash (FFA) is
manually to attain optimum moisture content. Uniform mixing of
one such type, generated in bulk quantity, especially in the
fly ash and soil was able to achieve after eight passes. The layer
region of Saudi Arabia. Al-Malack [32] in his research work,
was compacted via sheep foot roller and cone penetration appara-
utilized this waste as partial replacement of cement for stabiliza-
tus was used for taking the samples. Field results were found to be
tion of sand and marl soil. The result of this study was compared
in correlation with laboratory investigation; however, difficulty in
with cement stabilized soil and the virgin soil sample. FFA was
mixing of fly ash with soil in the field was reported by the author,
added at the percentage of 5%, 10%, and 15%. The proportion of
this was attributed to lumps in natural soil, hindering uniform
cement in this study was kept fix at 5%. Each soil sample was eval-
blending process. Mccarthy et al. [27] used two variant of low lime-
uated by atterburg’s limit, CBR, and UCS. The study suggested that
fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) to
use of 5% FFA along with 5% Portland cement improves
improve soil properties of lime stabilized soil containing sulphates.
mechanical properties of marl soil while significant effect was not
Two varieties of soil samples, obtained from two different location
observed in sandy soil. Similarly, Lynn et al. [33] used municipal
was used in this study. Each soil sample had sulphates content
incinerated bottom fly ash in unbound pavement layer. Waste
higher than 10%. Bearing Index, UCS, Indirect tensile strength
was assessed on the basis of physical, chemical and engineering
(ITS), and water permeability were used as evaluating parameters
properties fol- lowed by mechanical and durability performance.
to study the effect of fly ash and GGBFS on test samples. The quan-
Laboratory investigation revealed improved compaction compared
tity of lime, in this study, was fixed to 3% and fly ash proportion
to sandy gravel soil sample; comparable results were obtained for
was increased from 0% to 24% at an interval of 6%, and the
permeability, elastic modulus, and shear strength test. Abrasion
addition of GGBFS to soil sample was kept at 3, 6 and 9%. Results
strength was similar to lightweight aggregates, and bearing
showed that addition of fly ash and GGBFS improved compaction
capacity was found sufficient enough to permit its use in lower
property, bearing index and UCS values of both soil variants. Water
strength structures like embankments and sub-base materials.
perme- ability was found to be increasing with the addition of lime,
The overall conclusion based on this study was that this waste
which further increased upon the addition of coarse fly ash. Sample
could be implemented in sub-base material with no significant
con- taining fine fly ash and GGBFS showed similar behavior to
drawbacks.
that of
 Role of coal waste in sub-base was studied by Modarres et al.
Laboratory investigation by Gandhi et al. [42] compared RHA
[34]. Here, coal waste powder, coal waste ash and their combina-
and marble dust (MD) for stabilizing black cotton soil of Gujarat
tion with hydraulic lime were used in different proportions for sta-
region. The research was carried out with two sets of samples,
bilization of medium plastic clay. Test results were compared with
one prepared using marble dust and other using rice husk ask,
that of neat soil sample and soil sample stabilized with hydraulic
where waste was added between 10% and 30%. The evaluation
lime. Effect of coal waste as an independent additive had a notice-
was done on the basis of atterberg’s limit, CBR, and swelling index.
able impact on soil properties with reduced swelling behavior and
Addition of 20% MD by dry weight of soil sample, decreased liquid
improved CBR. However, when used in combination with lime,
limit by 30%, whereas with RHA at similar replacement, liquid
bet- ter results were observed with decrease in the liquid limit,
limit reduced up to 26%. Similarly, swell index reduced to 80% and
plastic- ity index, swelling properties and enhanced soaked CBR
38% when MD and RHA were added up to 30%. Correlation and
value and compressive strength of soil samples. Another study by
regres- sion analysis also demonstrated that MD gave better results
Gullu et al.
com- pared to RHA. Though both materials were found to have a
[35] used waste sludge, having the mineral composition similar to
positive impact on soil properties, this comparative study
fly ash in mix proportion of 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80% by
established that the overall performance of MD is better than RHA
weight to improve properties of fine-grained soil. Each sample was
to stabilize black cotton soil. Gupta et al. [43] in their study
evaluated by results from direct shear, CBR value, and UCS test.
advocated the use of marble dust in a combination of fly ash and
OMC and MDD were found using standard Proctor test. The Study
sand to improve black cotton soil properties. Findings by Gurbuz
suggested dosage up to 40–50% can improve mechanical and dura-
[44] also recommended the use of MD. In this study, MD was used
bility properties of soil.
as an additive to modify an inferior quality clayey subgrade.
Cement kiln dust (CKD), a waste generated as a by-product of
Laboratory investigation was carried out, by first physical
cement manufacturing industry have the chemical composition
properties analysis of soil and addi- tives, then adding waste in
similar to Portland cement [36]. Research works are available
replacement ratio of 2.5%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and then
which shows that it is suitable for improving sub-base and base
subjecting to durability studies. Peak UCS value was obtained with
course of flexible pavement. Gupta et al. [37] used cement kiln dust
the addition of 10% MD in the soil; work- ability was also observed
at replacement ratio of 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10% in the black cotton soil sam-
to be improving at 10% MD replacement. Durability was also
ple and same soil sample contaminated with Cadmium. The study
evaluated by assessing the mass loss of sample after introduced to
reported at 8% replacement ratio minimum swelling behavior and
twelve freeze-thaw cycles. The test result showed a reduction in
maximum UCS value was obtained. Similar findings were reported
percentage mass loss from 6% of a neat soil sample to 4.25%
by Rahman et al. [38] on four soils namely sandy sabkha, less plas-
obtained from a sample containing 15% MD, indi- cating
tic white marl, cohesionless marl and plastic marl, aimed to inves-
improvement in durability conditions. Overall, the study
tigate the change in soil characteristic on the inclusion of CKD as
concluded that addition of 10% MD by weight of soil gave
an additive. All soils showed maximum UCS value at 50% addition
sufficient stiffness and modify soil properties, and hence can be
of CKD by dry weight of soil; same results were observed when
used to improve sub-base and base course properties containing
sam- ples were subjected 14 days of curing period. Combination of
clayey soil. Another study by Oncus & Bilsel [45] used sand as a
CKD with quarry waste was evaluated by Amadi et al. [39] to
primary additive and marble dust as a secondary additive to study
improve properties of black cotton soil. The quantity of quarry fine
the effect on swelling behavior of soil. Addition of marble waste
was fixed to 10% by weight, and CKD was varied from 0% to 16%
was done by partially replacing sand in samples. Five different
by weight at an interval of 4%. No improvement was found in
mixes were prepared, categorized into five groups. Samples of the
mechan- ical properties of soil until 8% inclusion of CKD, after
second group contained 50% black cotton soil and 50% silt; the
which an increase in CBR and UCS value was observed. Between 8
third group was made 47.5% silt and 5% MD. Group fourth and
and 16% CKD inclusion, moisture susceptibility was also found to
group fifth com- prised of 10% and 20% marble dust with an
reduce.
equally divided propor- tion of clay and silt. Results were analyzed
A comprehensive study on evaluating the role of stone waste in
from the one- dimensional swell test, volumetric shrinkage, and
subgrade was carried by Sivrikaya et al. [40] in which five variants
flexure strength. Finding suggests that 10% MD improved soil
of stone waste were selected, and their effect on black cotton soil
properties by reducing swelling percentage by 3%, enhanced
was examined. Bentonite, Kaolinite, Granite powder, Calcite mar-
flexure strength by 3N. Based on test result it was recommended
ble powder, Dolomitic marble powder were used in three variants
that marble dust should be used as an additive in low volume
of artificially prepared clayey soil from high plastic bentonite and
roads. Another study by Minhas & Devi [46] investigated the effect
low plastic kaolinite. Waste was added in a proportion of 5, 10,
of marble dust on alluvial soil. Here, replacement ratio was kept at
20, 30, and 50% by weight. All sample showed increased unit
5, 10 and 15% respectively. The result was in align with previous
weight, reduced liquid limit and improved plastic limit. Among
studies where improvement in mechanical properties was
used waste, dolomite gave the best performance up to 30% replace-
observed.
ment by weight. Marble slurry, another globally produced waste,
In recent times, rapid industrialization and competitive market
generated during cutting and polishing of marble stone can be uti-
have led to an exponential increase in Construction and Demolition
lized in improving mechanical property of sub-base and base
waste (C&D) [47]. These are the waste material derived from con-
course. Amit et al. [41] in a laboratory investigation established
struction, renovation, demolition of roads, houses and buildings.
that marble slurry has a positive impact on soil property. In this
Developing country like Vietnam produced 1 million tons of C&D
study, marble waste was added to soil at rate of 40%, 50%, 60%,
waste in 2001 which increased to 1.9 MT in 2011; recent estimate
and 70%. The virgin sample was used as a control sample, and
suggests that with current waste generation rate of 9.8kilotons/day
results were evaluated based on the change in mechanical proper-
it is expected to double by 2018 and might reach an alarming
ties. A consistent increase in MDD value, decrease in OMC and
quantity of 91MT by 2025 [48]. A similar situation is in India where
improved workability was observed with increase in marble waste
C&D waste generation increased from 10 to 15 MT in the year 2000
in soil, indicating improved compaction property. At 50% replace-
to about 23 MT in the year 2013 [43]. Similarly, about 1 billion tons
ment, maximum CBR of 5.16% was obtained, which was almost
of C&D waste was generated by China in 2013 [49]. Europe in 2006
four times the CBR value of neat soil sample, after which further
produced approximately 970 million tons C&D waste, and in Aus-
increase in proportion gave decrement results. Overall the study
tralia, it was 19 million tons in the year 2009. Many countries have
suggested that marble dust can be used up to 50% to improve
acknowledged the seriousness of the situation and implemented
mechanical properties of black cotton soil.
various restrictions and policies to control the situation. Ireland
has aimed to utilize at least 85% of C&D waste generated in any
result of both replacement mix was within code limitations,
new construction, England has introduced various site created
indi- cating their suitability as partial replacement of RCA. Leite
C&D waste management drives that include a mandatory waste
et al.
management plan for C&D wastes in projects greater than 30,000
[53] carried out laboratory investigation on the use of locally gen-
euros [50]. Similarly, restrictions on waste generation and provi-
erated C&D waste at Sao Paulo, Brazil as aggregate in sub-base
sions have been incorporated by other countries like USA, Ger-
course. The waste was a mixture of ceramic, concrete block, mor-
many, and Japan [51]. As road construction is one of the highest
tar, steel, plastic, asbestos, cement and wood. The materials were
material consuming industry, many researchers have attempted
first separated using visual inspection, sorting and magnetic sepa-
to analyze potential use of C&D waste in pavements. Waste like
ration technique, then sieved via 4.75 mm sieve size and retained
debris, bricks, blocks, ceramic derived from different stages of con-
material was used for the study. Aggregates were divided into four
struction activities are reformed and recycled into desired aggre-
groups, cementitious material, highly porous ceramic material
gate sizes and then used in flexible pavement. The flowchart in
(bricks and roof), less porous material (ceramic tile) and crushed
Fig. 2 summarizes a general methodology achieved by various
rocks. The mixes were evaluated on the basis of grain size, CBR
authors.
value, and resilient modulus. Physical property analysis revealed
Use of crushed clay bricks (CB) and Recycled Concrete
that reformed aggregates exhibit higher water absorption, lower
aggregate (RCA) in the unbound layer of flexible pavement was
specific gravity, and rough surface texture compared to virgin
evaluated by Poon & Chan [52]. Here, the study was carried out on
aggregates. Use of standard and modified compaction method
two mixes, one containing 75% RCA and 25% CB and other 50%
was adopted in this study and change in grain size was reported
RCA and 50% CB. Mix prepared from natural aggregates was taken
during compaction due to aggregate breakage. Modified Proctor
as control mix. The result of this study was evaluated by maximum
test result showed higher OMC, lower MDD for all mixes contain-
dry den- sity, physical properties of materials and CBR value. It
ing C&D waste. Results of CBR showed comparable results with
was found that crushed clay bricks caused an increase in water
the high quality well-graded crushed stone material. Not much dif-
absorption, leading to a higher OMC value and a decreased MDD.
ference was observed in resilient modulus test, though it was
CBR test
noted that use of higher compaction reduced the resilient displace-

Fig. 2. Schematic flowchart of disposal and usage of C&D waste.

ment of recycled C&D aggregate by 10–20%. Based on test results,
capacity and structural integrity of test section, evaluated using
use of C&D waste was recommended in an unbound layer of flex-
high-performance dynamic monitoring equipment and impact
ible pavement. However strict quality control was recommended.
deflectometer. The seven days compaction strength of road section
Glass, another significant municipal solid waste generated around
prepared with RCA was 10.15 MPa, which was almost same to that
the globe was utilized by Canakci et al. [54] to enhance
of conventional aggregates, whose obtained value was 10.95 MPa.
subgrade properties. In this study, soda lime glass powder, pro-
Similar performance was also observed in the load-bearing capac-
cured from a municipal waste collection site was subjected to pul-
ity test. Overall, the performance of RCA was found satisfactory.
verization, and then material passing 300-micron sieve was mixed
Field study and cost analysis showed that practical implementa-
in 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% replacement by dry weight of soil. The test
tion of RCA would be economical. Hence incorporation in the field
result showed an increased maximum dry density and improved
was suggested. A study by Zaumanis et al. [60] critically evaluated
workability. Improved CBR and UCS value were obtained at 12%
the possibility of using 100% RAP in the pavement. Referring to
replacement. Reduction in swelling properties from 5.5% to 1.65%
ear- lier work carried out by the same author followed by a
was observed with use of glass powder. In a recent study,
comprehen- sive literature review, this study enlisted that with
Arulrajah et al. [ 5 5 ] evaluated the performance of plastic waste
technology advancement, it has become possible that RAP can be
in RAP and CB. Three variant of plastic waste namely low-
used as a full replacement of conventional aggregates. In this study
density polyethy- lene filled with calcium carbonate, high-density
first most suitable rejuvenator was selected to enhance RAP
polyethylene and low-density polyethylene were replacement
properties, then these rejuvenators were added to 100% RAP mix in
ratio of 3% and 5% in control mix in subgrade and sub-base
a dose of 12% by weight. Results were compared with the virgin
layer of flexible pavement The study used modified proctor test to
mix and non- rejuvenated RAP mix. Tested samples were
find OMC and MDD which showed that inclusion of plastic waste
evaluated for rutting, fatigue, and resistance to moisture where it
reduced MDD and increased OMC. Comparison between control
was observed that there was a reduction in low-temperature
mixes showed that RAP exhibit lower OMC than CB in this study.
cracking, better resis- tance to moisture conditions in all specimen
Laboratory investigation summa- rized that inclusion of plastic
except in the samples added with oil plant rejuvenators. A field
waste reduce specific gravity, CBR, and UCS of all mixes as
study was also followed based on laboratory investigation where a
compare to control mix, however, each sat- isfied the minimum
section of road was laid. Sample cored out of road section after two
requirement as per standard codes. Reason for such behavior was
year trial period demon- strate good working conditions. Cost
attributed to low specific gravity and smooth texture of plastic
analysis and cradle to grave analysis also established that use of
waste, which was also visible in scanning micro- scopic analysis of
100% RAP are feasible, eco- nomical and environmentally friendly.
mixes. Based on results it was suggested that use of plastic waste
Performance of RAP as replacement of conventional aggregates in
with CB and RAP is possible and should be used in practical
base and subbase was also evaluated by Chandra et al. [61] where
works. Arulrajah et al. [56] studied the usability of basalt debris
the addition of RAP between 25% and 100% of conventional
left after quarrying, in sub-base layer of flexible pavement. Waste
aggregates was done. In each mix proportion, a variable quantity of
was first crushed into desired size aggregates and then sub- jected
cement was added as filler material starting from 1% cement to 6%
to physical property test after which mix were evaluated on the
at an interval of 1%. The evaluation was carried by studying the
basis of CBR, and repeated triaxial test values. Mix prepared
change in soaked and unsoaked CBR values. The test result showed
from the waste performed satisfactorily in physical parameters,
that inclusion of cement enhanced the soaked CBR value in each
CBR and repeated triaxial test; suggesting suitability as sub-base
replacement mix. Based on soaked CBR values it was ascertained
layer material. Another study by Arulrajah et al. [57] separated
that RAP could be used in sub-base with or without any additive,
C&D waste into a different waste namely recycled concrete aggre-
however, for base course, use of RAP as a partial replacement is
gate, crushed clay bricks, waste rocks, reclaimed asphalt pavement
suggested along with cement as filler. Mohammadinia et al. [62]
and fine recycle glass to study their usability in sub-base layer of
used lime stabilized C&D waste in crushed clay bricks, Recycled
pavement. The geotechnical assessment included particle size dis-
concrete aggregate, recycled aggregate in the unbounded layer. The
tribution, particle density, water absorption, compaction, Los
quantity of hydrated lime was set 1% and 5%. UCS test results
Angeles abrasion, post-compaction sieve analysis, flakiness index,
established that C&D material has required properties to be used as
hydraulic conductivity CBR and repeated triaxial load test. Results
unbound layer of flexible and its use for road construction will
indicated that RCA, WR, and CB performed well and satisfied
lower carbon footprint.
required parameters. In pavement sub-bases, RCA and WR were
found to have geotechnical engineering properties equivalent,
and in some cases, superior to that of conventional quarry granular
subbase materials. CB was also found to meet the requirements of 3.2. In base and surface course (Bituminous)
virgin granular sub-base materials.
The load distribution in flexible pavement is via grain to grain
The potential use of unbound layer derived from RCA was
transfer. The wheel load acting on pavement is distributed in wider
assessed by Ebrahim & Behiry et al. [58], here, conventionally used
area and stress is reduced with an increase in depth. Since base and
limestone aggregates were replaced by RCA at 25%, 50%, 75% and
surface course is the top layer of the flexible pavement, this layer
100% by weight of the mix. Each sample was subjected to CBR test,
encounters maximum stress [63]. Hence, use of a good quality
unconfined bearing capacity test, tensile strength test, plate load
material is an absolute necessity. About 95% of this layer is com-
test and resilient modulus test. The test result showed each
posed of aggregates, which are quarried from large rock formation
replacement mix gave higher UCS value than control mix. Also,
through an open excavation and then reduced to required aggre-
an increase in strength ratio up to 20% compared to control mix
gate sizes via mechanical crushing. About 20% to 30% of the exca-
was observed. The overall study found that use of recycled con-
vated material is unfit for commercial use and is disposed in
crete aggregates was feasible in sub-base course. A field study on
landfills or filled back in quarries [64]. Various studies are available
the use of RCA in the unbound material was carried by Perez
where these long-term accumulated waste has destroyed the
et al. [59]. In this case study, RCA treated with cement were used
nearby ecosystem. Disposal of stone waste result into deteriorated
as base and sub-base layers as a full replacement of natural coarse
health of resident in the area, fine slurry effect soil properties and
aggregates. Road section at Malaga, Spain was used for study pur-
big stones occupy precious land [65]. To provide a sustainable solu-
pose. One section of road was made with RCA and other with nat-
tion, researchers have studied the use of quarry waste as partial to
ural. Performance evaluation was done by strength, load-bearing
Table 6
Summary of prominent reviewed research for the use of locally generated waste in base course of flexible pavement.

Waste Used as Test Parameters Conclusion Refs.

Marble quarry waste Aggregate in base course Physical properties, Strength and Recycled marble aggregates had sufficient strength and [66]
stability stability
Marble waste Aggregate in base course Physical parameters, Strength, 60% RMA can be used efficiently as a partial replacement to [67]
Stability, long term performance virgin aggregates in low volume roads
Marble dust Filler Strength, stability and durability Marble dust performed similar to limestone dust and can be [68]
used as filler
Marble dust Fines Strength, durability and stability Improved stability value, can be used as 100% replacement of [69]
conventional fines
Ballast quarry waste Coarse and fine aggregates in Strength, Stability, Best performance was obtained from mix containing 100% [76]
HMA in individual and Durability, moisture basalt coarse aggregates and conventional fine aggregates
combined form susceptibility, long- term
Ballast quarry waste Aggregate in stone matrix performance Mix containing recycled waste gave better stability values [77]
Strength and Stability
asphalt
RCA Coarse aggregates Physical properties, Strength, RCA can be used as coarse aggregates [78]
stability, long-term study
RAP Surface course of airport Strength, stability and durability, 40% replacement of RAP deemed suitable for low volume [80]
pavement followed by field study roads and 40% replacement of RAP can be used as surface
course in airport pavement
RCA Coarse aggregate in base Strength, Stability, durability RCA can be used in low volume roads efficiently [81]
course
Verities of C&D mixture, Coarse aggregate Physical properties, Strength, Higher proportion of C&D waste as partial replacement can be [82]
using cement and stability, long term study used with cement as filler
lime as filler
Steel slag Coarse aggregate Physical properties, strength, Use of steel slag is feasible, Binder plays important role in [84]
stability and durability strength, stability and flow value
Clay bricks filler Physical properties, strength, Can be used as filler [85]
stability and durability
Palm oil fuel ash Filler in HMA Strength, stability, long term Use of palm oil fuel ash gave better results [86]
performance
Asphaltite Filler Strength, stability, long term Better durability results and improvement in resistance to [87]
performance fatigue
Rice husk ash Filler Strength and stability Replacement up to 50% is possible [88]
parameters.

full replacement of conventional aggregates and filler. Table 6

Studies related to the potential use of marble waste in the flex-
summarizes such prominent research works and their outcomes.
ible pavement was also done by Karasahin & Terzi [68], here, mar-
Akbulut & Gurer [66] used marble quarry waste as aggregates
ble dust was used as filler to study behavior in HMA, 75/100 grade
in HMA. In this study, marble quarry waste was reformed into
penetration binder was used as adhesive in this study. Marble dust
aggre- gates and was compared with two variants of
generated during cutting and shaping process of marble blocks was
conventionally used limestone aggregates and aggregates derived
collected, sieved and used as 100% replacement of conventional
from high-quality volcanic rock andesite. All aggregates were
limestone dust in the asphalt mixtures. The mix was tested for
evaluated on the basis of physical properties test and Marshall
Marshall Stability and dynamic plastic deformation. Stability value
parameters. The test result showed that of all variety of aggregate
of sample containing marble waste as filler was similar to that of
used, marble aggregates had maximum abrasion loss, highest
control sample containing conventional filler; however, higher
impact value, and highest flaki- ness index. Marshall test results
plastic deformation was observed in a mix containing marble dust
showed that binder content of recycled marble aggregate was
as filler. The overall performance was suitable enough for low vol-
within the prescribed limit; stabil- ity value was higher than
ume roads. Use of marble dust as filler was also analyzed by Abed
conventional limestone aggregates, but less then andesite
& Eyada [69]. Here, the mix was prepared using 100% marble dust
aggregates. The study suggested that use of mar- ble as aggregate is
and was tested for Marshall stability, ITS, tensile strength ratio
possible in medium to low traffic roads. Simi- larly, Nejad et al. [67]
(TSR) and dynamic creep. Findings of this study also recommended
also used recycled marble aggregates (RMA) as replacement of
the use of marble dust as filler. A laboratory investigation by
virgin aggregate in HMA. This study used 60/70 penetration grade
Sevilkofteci & Niyaziugurkockal [70] also explored use marble
bitumen as adhesive, and RMA was used as a weight replacement
waste as fines in HMA using 50/70 penetration grade bitumen as
of virgin aggregates at 15, 25, 40, and 60%. To evaluate the
a binder. Replacement ratio was kept 50%, 100% by weight of con-
suitability in HMA, each sample was tested for resilient modulus,
ventional fine aggregates. The test result showed that mix contain-
indirect tensile fatigue, dynamic creep, and ITS ratio. Resilient
ing RMA fines improved stability value, reduced binder content
modulus of samples was assessed at three dif-
and provided greater flexibility. Based on the experimental study,
ferent temperature of 5 °C, 25 °C and 45 °C for better understand-
authors suggested 100% replacement of conventional fines by
ing the behavior of each mix. An overall decrease in resilient
RMA in the binder layer.
modulus was observed with increase in temperature; this behavior
Granite is another type of dimensional stone that is used exten-
was attributed to the sensitivity of binder toward elevated temper-
sively in the construction industry for flooring and decorative pur-
ature conditions. The inclusion of RMA further reduced the resili-
poses. A Huge amount of granite waste is generated around the
ent modulus value; same was observed for fatigue failure, where,
globe every year [71,72]. Studies are available where researchers
increasing RMA proportion reduced cycle number. However it
have used it in concrete as fines, filler, etc.; however, its use in flex-
was observed that each RMA replacement sample satisfied proper-
ible pavement has been evaluated recently. Sernas et al. [73] used
ties requirement necessary for low volume roads, and the author
granite waste as 100% replacement of conventionally used fines in
suggested that up to 60% RMA can be used efficiently as a partial
HMA. Results were assessed by Marshall stability, ITS, and rut
replacement to virgin aggregates in low volume roads.
depth parameters. The performance of mix containing granite fines
& Mohajerani [78] used RCA derived from demolished concrete
was found inferior to control mix, and its use as a full replacement
elements as a 100% replacement of conventional coarse aggregates
of conventional fine aggregate was not recommended. However,
in asphaltic concrete. Derived RCA aggregates were found to be
no comment was made on partial replacement of the mix. Another
inferior in physical properties characteristics compared to virgin
preliminary laboratory investigation by Kumar et al. [74] used
aggregates, however, satisfied necessary specifications and thus,
granite waste as aggregate in open-graded friction course. Samples
deemed fit for further experimental investigation. Despite having
were prepared using recycled granite aggregates and tested for
lower density and higher water absorption values mix prepared
durability, permeability and drain down. The test result showed
with 100% coarse RCA and conventional fines exhibit improved
that mix satisfied required criteria set by respective code and can
density and decreased water absorption values. Volumetric test
be used as coarse aggregates in open graded friction courses; How-
and resilient modulus test results gave reduced observations com-
ever further performance based studies were advised before field
pared to control mix; however, behavior was found similar in creep
application.
testing. The overall study reported that RCA had required qualify-
Andesite, a variety of volcanic rock, rich in silica, is used as con-
ing characteristics to be used in the asphaltic concrete layer of
struction and decorative material in Turkey. Terzi [75] used ande-
pavement. However, further investigation was suggested before
site waste procured from cutting and polishing industry as mineral
field trials. Huang et al. [4] studied fatigue behavior of flexible
filler in HMA. 75–100 penetration asphalt was used in this study,
pavement made of the recycled asphalt mixture. RAP replaced con-
mixtures with limestone aggregate and limestone mineral filler
ventional limestone aggregates between 0% and 30%. Binder used
were prepared and used as control mix. The replacement ratio
in this study was penetration grade 64–22. Failure strain, ITS,
was kept as 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8% by weight. Stability value was
toughness index (TI), resilient modulus, energy ratio, plateau
observed to increase up to 6% replacement, which was found
value, and load cycles to failure were used for analysis purposes.
higher than that obtained in control mix. The Study suggested
The inclusions of RAP into HMA mixtures increased the tensile
using andesite waste instead of conventional limestone as filler
strength and reduced the post-failure tenacity. Dynamic creep
in the areas where the waste is readily available.
threshold and stiffness was found to be decreased incorporation of
Use of ballast, a dark, fine-grained volcanic rock was evaluated
RAP. Based on failure criteria of 50% reduction in stiffness,
by Ibrahim et al. [76] as replacement of conventionally used lime-
fatigue life was observed to increase with the inclusion of RAP. A
stone aggregates. For this study, first, quarry waste was reformed
study by Wong et al. [79] replaced conventional granite aggregate
into required aggregate sizes; then, were added as replacement
with recycled concrete aggregate. In this study, three hybrid mixes
of virgin aggregates. Three different mixes were made, one con-
were prepared, one containing 6% RCA as filler, and in two
taining 100% basalt coarse and fine aggregates, second, having
samples, con- ventional fines were replaced by RCA at 45% by
coarse limestone stone aggregate replaced by coarse basalt aggre-
weight, where one sample was untreated and other heat treated.
gates, and third replacing limestone fine with basalt fines. Results
The study found that performance of mix containing 6% fines as
were evaluated by Marshall stability, ITS, resilient modulus, rut-
replacement gave com- parable results to control mix and hence,
ting, fatigue, creep. The Study used 60/70 penetration grade bitu-
their use must be encour- aged. Similarly, Su et al. [80] studied the
men. Sample containing basalt as fine aggregates failed in water
possibility of using recycled asphalt concrete as partial replacement
sensitivity test and were deemed unfit for further testing. ITS value
of conventional aggregates in the surface course of airport
of other mixes containing basalt as replacement material
pavement. Laboratory investigations were carried out on mixes
increased, however, decreased tensile strength ratio was observed,
containing RAC used in replacement ratio of 40% and 70% by
this was attributed to low porosity of basalt which prevented
weight of conventional lime- stone aggregates. 60/80 penetration
absorption of asphalt and resulted in low bond strength. This prob-
grade asphalt was used for this study and results were evaluated
lem was addressed by replacing the mineral filler with hydrated
based on comparison between the test results of control mix
lime, after which value was found in compliance with the specifi-
containing conventional limestone aggregates. Mixes showed no
cations. Dynamic creep test results of the mix containing coarse
considerable difference in percentage air void, specific gravity,
basalt aggregates and fine limestone aggregates showed the lowest
and void filled with aggre- gates. Wheel tracking test, raveling test,
deformation. Similar behavior was observed for resilient modulus
moisture susceptibility test and three-point bending test
test where, at 25 °C, compared to control sample, the modulus established that performance of mix containing 40% RAP was
value of the samples containing coarse basalt aggregate showed similar to control sample, and on fur- ther replacement of 70%, mix
a 219% increase. At 40 °C, the resilient modulus value increased performed better than control, as minor raveling was observed.
from 430 MPa of the control sample to 896 MPa for the mix con- Both replacements were found to comply with code standard.
taining coarse basalt aggregates. Good Marshall strength also Hence a detailed field study was con- ducted by constructing a
established proper interlocking and hardness of basalt aggregates. part of the taxiway at airport containing RAP. A 30 m wide, 30 m
Overall best results were obtained for samples made with basalt long section was made with same param- eters as used in the
coarse aggregate and fine limestone aggregates, and their field laboratory. The surface condition, bearing capacity and
implementation was recommended. Study on the similar ground longitudinal profile were the attributes on which per- formance
was proceeded by Karakus [7 7] where basalt waste obtained was evaluated for three years. The Study showed that even after
from three years of laying, apart from slight unevenness on road
stone processing site was used in stone mastic asphalt (SMA). The surface, no visible deformity like cracking and raveling were
aggregate was tested for physical properties, chemical composi- observed. The study concluded that use of 40% RAP could be done
tions and then used in mix design as a full replacement of virgin in airport pavement, while 70% can be used for low volume roads.
aggregates, using 50/70 grade bitumen modified by adding 5% Use of RCA waste in low volume road was also suggested by
polymer and 4% fiber. Marshall test parameters were used to eval- Mills-Beale et al. [81]. In this study, replacement ratio was kept
uate mix properties. Samples prepared with basalt aggregates gave 25, 35, 50, and 75% of conventional aggregates. Volumetric proper-
higher stability values than control mixes; flow value, void filled ties were determined and compared as per Superpave specifica-
with bitumen and VMA were also within code standards. The tion. RCA surface was reported porous, which leads to a
study concluded that it’s feasible to use basalt aggregate in SMA. reduction of effective binder content. To assess mixes stiffness,
Research is available where aggregates derived from C&D resilient modulus test was performed under three temperature
waste like RCA, RAP, are found to comply with minimum code
conditions, i.e., 5 °C, 25 °C and 45 °C. The study reported that with
specifica- tions and gave satisfactory performance. A study by
an increase in RCA proportion resilient modulus decreased, how-
Paranavithana
250 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253

Table 7
Summary of prominent reviewed research for use of locally generated waste to modify binder properties.

Material Used in binder, Mix type Test Parameters Conclusions Refs.

Low density polyethylene
Waste plastic bottles
Polyethylene Terephthalate
(PET)
Waste plastic
Poly vinyl chloride pipe (PVC),
treated with chemical
modifier
Rubber tires
Used in 50/60 grade asphalt; in SMA
80/100 penetration grade bitumen;
in SMA
Coated plastic on aggregate and then
mixed with 80/100 grade binder
80/100 grade bitumen; in
Bituminous Mixes
PG 58–22 binder, in OGFC
Rheological test, performance parameters of Improvement in binder properties. [90]
mixes Up to 6% addition improved SMA
properties
Volumetric and mechanical properties of Up to 6% addition of PET gave [91]
SMA improved strength and stability
value
Physical properties of aggregates, Strength Optimum dose for best performance [92]
parameters, field study, cost analysis was 10% of bitumen used
Visco-elastic properties of PVC-bitumen - PVC pipe waste can be used as [93]
blend, performance characteristics of mixes modifying agent.
- Mix prepared showed increase
in strength and stability.
Performance and durability characteristics 10% rubber gave better [94]
of mixes. performance than SBS binder

ever, this change was more of temperature dependent rather than

A study by Chen et al. [85], used waste powder derived from
RCA in the mix. The increment of RCA proportion also reduced
clay bricks, obtained from a demolition site, as an alternative to
ten- sile strength ratio, with the sample containing 75% RCA failing
conventional limestone filler in HMA. Bitumen of grade PG 60/70
required criteria Based on performance evaluation, authors sug-
was used as a binder, and Marshall Method was used to find opti-
gested using RCA as partial replacement of virgin aggregates in
mum binder content. The quantity of filler used was 4% by total
HMA subjected to low traffic conditions.
weight of the mix. Results were evaluated by ITS, creep, water sen-
Perez et al. [82] in his study evaluate the influence of two vari-
sitivity and fatigue test. Test result indicates that mix prepared
ety of filler, i.e., cement and lime on the performance of HMA con-
from recycled brick gave better resistance to rutting, improved
taining C&D waste. The waste mixture consist of concrete (72.5%);
water sensitivity and fatigue life. Resistance to permanent defor-
stone (21.5%); miscellaneous bituminous (4%), ceramic materials
mation was also found to be improve in static and dynamic creep
(1%), and some impurities such as clay, metals, wood, plastics, rub-
test compared to control mix. Authors suggest use of brick powder
ber and gypsum plaster (1%). Physical property analysis showed
as mineral filler.
that material was not following Los Angeles coefficient PG3 speci-
Similarly, Borhan et al. [86] used palm oil fuel ash(POFA) as fil-
fications, reason of which was attributed to mortar attached to
ler at replacement percentage of 1, 3, 5, 7% in hot mix asphalt. The
recycled aggregates, responsible for high water absorption. Waste
mix was evaluated on the basis of Marshall Stability test, dynamic
was added in ratio of 20, 40 and 60% by weight and each replace-
creep, static creep, resilient modulus and fatigue test. Samples con-
ment mix was replicated with two sets. Set one was prepared with
taining POFA found to have better performance under resilient
4.75% cement as filler and other with a mixture of 3.57% natural
modulus test with 5% POFA as additive giving best results, same
aggregate and 1% lime as filler. 50/70 penetration grade bitumen
was observed in dynamic creep test, and fatigue test where rutting
was used as a binder. The mix containing lime and conventional fil-
depth was least and cementitious property of POFA improved the
ler showed decreased Marshall Quotient value with increase in
performance. Hence use of this waste as filler was suggested. Study
C&D proportion; while those having cement as filler was found
on the similar ground was conducted by Yilmaz et al. [87], where
to improve the Marshall quotient. Compressive strength and
asphaltite as filler in HMA was studied. Addition of mineral filler
retained strength ratio also showed that performance of recycled
was done at an interval of, 20, 75 and 100% by weight of conven-
aggregate improved using cement as filler. Except samples con-
tional filler. The test result showed increase in Marshall Stability,
taining 75% recycled aggregate, all achieved the required minimum
stiffness and resistance to fatigue in all replacement. It was con-
retained strength ratio while in case of the sample prepared with
cluded from the laboratory test results that using asphaltite as fil-
natural aggregates and lime as filler, only mix containing 20% recy-
ler in hot mix asphalt exhibited high performance by improving
cled aggregate was able to achieve the desired value. In case of per-
resistance to moisture damage and fatigue life. Similarly, Sargin
manent deformation, satisfactory performance was observed in all
et al. [88] investigated the use of RHA as filler in HMA. RHA was
mixes. Overall from the study, it was suggested that use of C&D
used as replacement of conventional limestone filler 25, 50, 75,
aggregates up to 60% replacement of conventional aggregate is
100%. Performance of mixes was evaluated from Marshall parame-
possible for low volume roads. Similar results were also reported
ters. Sample containing 50% RHA showed maximum stability
by Zulkati [83] for the use of RCA as replacement of conventional
value and was recommended to be used in areas generating RHA
aggregates. This study suggested that partial replacement of RCA
as bulk waste.
give a comparable result, and its field use must be encouraged.
Ahmedzade et al. [84] used steel slag as coarse aggregate in
3.3. Binder
HMA. In this study, conventional limestone was replaced by waste
in the ratio of 20%, 40%. Two type of binders, AC-5 and AC-10,
Bitumen is used as a binder to mix aggregate particles of a dif-
were used in this study. Samples were evaluated on the basis of
ferent size to form asphaltic concrete. It is a complex, viscoelastic,
Marshall Stability, MQ, ITS and creep stiffness. Increase in
rheological, non-crystalline material and used mostly in the flexi-
Marshall Stability and MQ were observed in a sample containing
ble pavement [89]. In recent past, use of polymer modified bitu-
steel slag; same was observed in ITS, indicating better cohesiveness
men in flexible pavement has become a common practice. Using
between slag aggre- gates and conventional limestone aggregates.
polymer modified bitumen improves durability characteristics
The sample was sub- jected to electrical conductivity test where it
and increase the life of pavement. However, using a polymer mod-
was found that sample containing slag had higher conductivity
ified bitumen increases overall construction cost. Hence, studies
than control sam- ples. The overall study suggested that the result
have been carried out to utilize waste to modify binder properties.
of AC-10 binder were much better than AC-5 binder.
Waste plastic and rubber has been found as an effective additive
which improves bitumen properties and increases the service life
of the flexible pavement. A summary of work carried out by the
researcher is shown in Table 7. Al-Hadidy [90] used low-density
polyethylene to study property change in binder properties of
50/60 grade asphalt. Waste was added in a proportion of 2, 4, 6,
8% by weight and tested for physical properties. Using plastic
waste found to increase softening point of binder and reduce over-
all percentage material loss. When used in SMA, with plastic con-
tent up to 6%, increased stability, and a decrease in flow value
was reported. The test result showed that addition of waste till
6% satisfied drain down characteristics and TSR values for all
mixes. Hence same was suggested to modify bitumen properties.
Ahmadinia et al. [91] also used waste plastic bottles Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET) to modify binder properties of 80/100 penetra-
tion grade bitumen and its effect on SMA properties. PET samples
used in this study were of 1.18 mm passing, and 425 mm retained
gradation; in a ratio of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10% by weight. Addition
of waste was done using dry process, in which additive was first
blended with aggregates before adding of bitumen to mix. Sample
prepared were analyzed by comparing specific gravity, stability
value, flow value, change in air void and void in mineral aggre-
gates. Increase in Marshall stability was observed till 6% addition
of plastic waste, and flow value was observed to be increasing till
4% addition after which decreasing trend was observed. Use of
chopped plastic waste resulted in the increased surface area which
resulted in an overall increase in percentage air void. Low specific
gravity and improved VMA was observed in all mixes with the
addition of plastic waste. Based on test results it was established
that use 6% by weight of bitumen improves adhesion properties
of the binder. Study on the similar ground was carried by Vasude-
van et al. [92] where waste plastics as a coating material was used
on stone aggregates and these modified aggregates were than used
in pavement construction. To coat the aggregates, plastic chips
were first shredded to a size ranging from 2.5 mm to 4.36 mm
and spread uniformly over preheated aggregates. Plastic coating
was varied by changing the quantity of plastic from 5% to 25% to
find optimum quantity. Aggregates were subjected to physical
parameters as per code and result showed improvement in physi-
cal attributes. Reduced percentage void was observed along with
increased hardness and toughness of stone. Mixes were prepared
using 80/100 grade bitumen. Results were evaluated by Marshall
parameters and code specifications, where the feasibility of binder
was established. Based on test results, a field study was conducted,
where evaluation of road condition was done by measuring deflec-
tion, unevenness, field density, skid resistance and texture depth.
A surface condition survey was also carried out to evaluate comfort
condition of the pavement. The study period for this field study
was kept one year, and the result showed that polymer coated
aggregates and bitumen mixture performed better than plain bitu-
men road section. Deflection measured by Benkelman beam
method showed value within the permissible range of 0.5 mm–1
mm, surface roughness index value was also observed to comply
with code specification. Field density result was also observed bet-
ter for road section paved using waste modified bitumen compare
to that paved using normal bitumen Skid resistance, texture depth,
and survey also suggested that road containing plastic waste per-
formance satisfactory. From this study, it was established that
use of plastic waste improved viscoelastic properties, Marshall
quotient, and binding, stripping properties. Cost analysis showed
that laying one km road section of width 3.75 m saved about Rs.
35,000, further supporting the use of PET waste. Behl et al. [93]
used PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe waste to improve binder prop-
erties. PVC was added in a ratio of 3% and 5% in bitumen grade
80/100. PVC was first treated with chemical modifiers for homoge-
neous dispersion of waste in bitumen. Results were in align with
previous studies where using PVC enhanced the binder properties
and samples prepared from it. Improved phase angle and better
resistance to permanent deformation were observed at both
replacements as compared to the unmodified binder. Better
resis- tance against cracking, rutting value was also observed. A
compar- ative study of rubberized asphalt made using waste
automobile tire with commercially used styrene–
butadienestyrene (SBS) bitu- men in open-graded friction course
was done by Shirini et al. [94]. In this study, waste automobile
rubber tires were shredded, and then added in virgin binder in
concentration of 10%, 15%, and
20% at mixing temperature of 180 °C and reaction speed of 3500
rmp for 30 min. Gradation size of rubber varied from 0.6 mm pass-
ing to 0.075 mm passing. Test result indicated increase in optimum
binder content of open-graded friction course. Using 10% crumb
rubber in asphalt increased the rutting resistance, reduced skid
resistance and improved resilient modulus, durability and rut
depth in OGFC mix. Similar result were summarized by Presti
et al. [95] where comprehensive review on use of tire rubber in
bitumen showed possibility of its use waste rubber to modify bitu-
men properties.
4. Practical Challenges in implementing waste material
Despite all these research and studies available, still,
implemen- tation of these have been limited. Reason for such
can be:
1. Quality control problem: Many times, the generated waste has
enormous potential to be used as a replacement of conventional
material in the flexible pavement. However, it may not be fea-
sible to use the same as it may contain a lot of undesired waste
product mixed in it. This scenario is valid, especially for con-
struction and demolition waste. In laboratory studies, quality
control is much convenient than that infield, where precise
quality control may lead to delay in the project and increase
project cost.
2. Establishment of fixed replacement ratio: As observed in RAP,
RAC and quarry wastes studies, every research suggest almost
different possible proportion from other. Reason being that
properties of waste depend on many factors like quality, the
source of extraction, handling, variation in mineralogical com-
position, etc. The absence of any form replacement ratio
restricts contractors and other execution bodies to use the
material in practical. A firm collaboration between research
and industry might act as a solution
3. Designer and Contractors are accustomed to using natural
materials. These are readily available, and authorities know
how to deal with physical variability. Since norms favor conser-
vative approach, the thinking pattern cannot be easily changed.
4. There is always a concern by technical authorities and stake-
holder over inferior road performance especially in long-term
and additional cost or any legal action that might they have
to bear in case poor performance of road network.
5. Conclusion
Researchers have conducted several studies on alternative
waste materials that can be used in flexible pavement. Their field
application will act as a breakthrough in significant waste disposal
problem faced in different parts of the globe. This practice provides
a viable solution for land requirement problem for waste disposal,
help in conserving energy by reducing overall hauling distance
[96], save virgin aggregates, thus decreasing overall construction
cost. However, care must be taken that secondary material is free
from hazardous component and does not have any adverse long-
term effect. Also, it must be ensured that waste to be used should
be available in bulk and have homogeneity in composition. This
252 P.K. Gautam et al. / Construction and Building Materials 180 (2018) 239–253
scenario is very rare especially in areas where large landfills are
created after decades of accumulation over the prolonged period.
In such conditions, the samples for quality check should be
increased and use of such materials in small projects like in low
traffic volume road, maintenance work should be incorporated.
Physical properties of recycled waste depend on both recycled
material and its manufacturing process. Research work shows that
many recycled materials especially like RAC, ceramic waste exhibit
change in shape, size and other physical properties during the test-
ing procedure, for example, change in gradation has been observed
when subjected to compaction effort. For such materials proper
mixing, suggesting any additional requirements like additives,
technical restriction and quality control can help to address such
situations. However, still, research is needed to address such mate-
rial behavior and any conflicting statement precisely. Above all, the
government must also make efforts to promote the use of sec-
ondary materials in the field via introducing incentives and legisla-
tion [97]. Establishing a National body responsible for organizing,
compiling, storing and promoting information, including National
Standards for the production and use of recycled products, would
help increase stakeholder confidence in the suitability of recycled
C&D materials.
Conflict of interest
We have no conflict of interest to declare.
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