Research Methodology

Unit 2

Research Problem and Hypothesis

The first and foremost step in the research process is the formulation of research problem. The choice of a
suitable problem is one of the most difficult phases of any research project. That is why it is said that the
identification of a good research problem is a discovery in itself.

What is a Research Problem?

A research problem refers to some situation or an obstacle, which requires a solution to deal with it. The
problem may be attributed to an individual, or a group or an organization. In other words, a research
problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of a theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

A research problem consists of the following components;

1. There must be an individual or group affected by the problem and needs a solution to solve it. This is
known as Research Consumer i.e., the beneficiary of research.

2. There must be some objectives to be attained at. By solving a particular problem the individual or
group wants to achieve or gain something. This is known as Research Consumer’s Objectives.

3. There must be an alternative means for achieving the objectives. It means if the researcher does not
have any choice then he cannot have a problem. This, in research is known as ‘Alternative means to meet
the objectives’.

4. There must be some doubt in the mind of the researcher as to which alternative to select. It means the
research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives. This is
known as doubt in regard to selection of alternatives.

5. There must be one or more environments to which the difficulty or problem pertains. A change in
environment may produce or remove a problem. Hence the researcher must find out which will be the
most suitable option in the changed environment.

Thus, from the above discussion, we can say that a research problem is one which requires a researcher to
find out the best solution for the given problem.

Sources of Research Problem

The research problem can be located from various sources. Some of the sources are;
1. Intuition. A person may get an idea of a research problem due to one’s own intuition. The idea of a
research problem may strike in the mind of a researcher like a flash. The best example is the theory of law
of gravitation by Newton at the sight of fall of the apple.

2. Theory of one’s own interest. A researcher may select a problem for investigation from a given theory
in which he has considerable interest and thorough knowledge.

3. Daily experiences. Daily experiences of an individual can be a source of research problem. The train
commuters in city like Mumbai may experience the problem of discomfort during the peak hours. So one
can undertake a research to find a solution to such a problem,

4. Research Studies. Research on one problem may bring light into several other problems. Similarly,
earlier research studies can provide scope for further research .

5. Field Surveys. Governments as well as organizations conduct field surveys in order to find out impact
of their programmes or activities or problems associated with their implementations. These surveys
provide scope for new areas of research.

6. Reading. Research ideas can be identified through review of literature or reading articles published in
news papers, research journals, etc.

7. Inviting suggestions or opinions. Inviting suggestions or experiences of customers, dealers, employees,

etc, may provide insight into many issues which need immediate attention, so that the product or service
can be improved.

8. Academic discussions. Ideas of research problems can be located through academic discussions in
class rooms and laboratories.

9. Unexplored areas. There are many area in which no research has been undertaken so far. Hence, the
researcher can identify an issue which has not taken up by anybody for study by considering the cost and
resources available at his disposal.

Criteria of a good research problem

The following factors are to be considered while selecting a research problem;

1. Researchers interest. The researcher should be deeply interested in the research problem. He should be
determined to find a solution to the problem.

2. Researchers competence. Mere interest in the research problem is not sufficient for a successful
research. But the researcher should have the ability and skill to conduct the research.

3. Availability of resources. While selecting a research problem, the availability of resources at the
disposal of the researcher is to be taken into account, such as funds, time, technical assistance, guidance,
etc.
4. Novelty of the problem. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. The problem selected for
the study must be a new one. However, it does not mean that the earlier study should not be studied
further.

5. Significance. The research problem should be significant enough so that it ay add to the existing
knowledge or improvement in the current practices.

6. Feasibility. The researcher should find well in advance whether or not he would be able to collect data
from the right source, get proper responses from the respondents, get necessary cooperation from the
authorities, complete the research within time, etc.

7. Social relevance. The outcome of the research should e socially relevant, especially of social research.
It should serve some purpose to the society or to the organization which conducts or sponsors the
research.

8. Availability of guidance. Academic and scientific research needs patronage of a guide and the approval
of competent authority for the research problem selected.

These are some of the factors which would be considered while selecting a research problem. The
selection of a research problem in haste would lead to practical as well as theoretical problems and may
hinder the successful completion of the research.

HYPOTHESIS

Formulation of hypothesis is an important step in the formulation of a research problem. Hypothesis is a

tentative proposition formulated to determine its validity. Hypothesis simply means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher, hypothesis is a formal question that he
wants to answer.

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory which is used as guide in the
investigation in order to determine its validity.

A hypothesis states what we are looking for. It is a proposition which can be put to test to determine its
validity. Hypothesis reflects the researchers guess as to the probable outcome of the research or
experiment. It is an example of organized skepticism of science, the refusal to accept any statement
without empirical evidence.

According to Webster’s Dictionary, “a hypothesis is an unproved theory, proposition, supposition, etc,

tentatively accepted to explain certain facts or to prove a basis for further investigation, argument, etc.”

G. A. Lundberg defines hypothesis as “a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be

tested.”

Consider the following hypotheses;

“Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving
counseling.”
“The automobile A is performing as well as the automobile B.”

These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a
hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its
validity.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD HYPOTHESIS

1. Clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot
be taken as reliable.

2. Empirically testable. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. It means it should be possible to
collect empirical evidences to test the hypothesis. Statements like, “Intelligent parents produce smart
children.” or “Intelligent students score high in exams.” are common generalizations and cannot be tested
as the concepts are vague.

3. Specific. The hypothesis should be specific and state the relationship between variables, for eg, the
concept of socio economic class must be specific in terms, such as income, occupation, education, etc.

4. Scope. The scope of the hypothesis should be limited so that it can be effectively put to test.

5. Simple. The hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in simple terms so that it should be easily
understood by all concerned.

6. Consistent with known facts. Hypothesis should not contradict with the known facts.

7. Theoretical relevance. The hypothesis should be related to a body of knowledge (theory). This will
help to correct, refute or validate the said theory.

8. Free from bias. The hypothesis should be free from bias of the researcher. The value judgment, feeling
and emotions of the researcher have no place in forming hypothesis.

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

Following are some of the significances of Hypothesis;

1. It provides direction to research. Hypothesis defines what is relevant and what is irrelevant. The
hypothesis enables the researcher to collect the relevant data in order to answer the question stated in the
statement of the research problem.

2. It prevents blind research. It prevents the researcher from collecting data which may later turn out to
be irrelevant.

3. It is a guide to the thinking process. Hypothesis acts as an eye of the investigator i.e, a sort of guiding
light in the world of darkness,

4. It focuses research. Without hypothesis, research would be like a random and aimless wandering.
5. It sensitizes the investigator. Hypothesis helps the researcher to identify where to concentrate while
collecting data and also sensitizes him in the process of research.

6. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions. Hypothesis makes possible the interpretation of
data in the light of tentative proposition.

7. It leads to development of theory. Hypothesis contributes to the development of theory. Hence,

hypothesis is tested and if found valid, forms a part of theory.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses are classified on several bases, which are as follows;

1. Null Hypothesis. A null hypothesis is that hypothesis which denies what is generally believed to be
true. For eg, even though there is a relationship between literacy and population growth, a null hypothesis
may state that, “there is no relationship between literacy and population growth”. Take another example,
if we compare ‘Method A’ with ‘Method B’ to determine its superiority over the other and believe that
‘Method A’ is superior to ‘Method B’. But we may state that “Method A and Method B are equally
good”. This type of assumption is known as null hypothesis or statistical hypothesis.

2. Alternative hypothesis. Opposite to null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis. It means when
we reject the null hypothesis, we have to conclude by accepting some other hypothesis. This is known as
alternative to the null hypothesis. Generally, a set of alternative hypotheses are framed in order to
conclude on the basis of the research data, in case the null hypothesis is rejected. In other words,
alternative hypothesis is that hypothesis which will be accepted while rejecting the null hypothesis. Take
the following examples;

Null hypothesis: “Method A and Method B are equally Good.”

Alternative hypothesis 1: “Method A is superior than Method B.”

Alternative hypothesis 2: “Method B is superior than Method A.”

3. Common Sense Hypothesis. This type of hypothesis represents, usually, the scientific examination of
common sense propositions. Hypothesis based on commonly held believes or perceptions are called
common sense hypothesis. The hypothesis of this type requires scientific verification to prove or disprove
the common believes. Examples of common sense hypotheses are;

“Well paid employees are more motivated than less paid employees.”

“Disciplined workers are more loyal to their organization.”

4. Simple hypothesis. It shows the relationship between two variables where one is called the
independent variable(Cause) and the other is called the dependent variable (effect). Example

“Global warming causes iceberg to melt.”

5. Complex Hypothesis. Complex hypothesis is that hypothesis in which there are multiple dependent as
well as independent variables. In other words, a complex hypothesis is a hypothesis that reflects
relationship among more than two variables. It shows the relationship between two or more dependent
variables and two or more independent variables. Take the following examples;

“Global warming cause’s iceberg to melt which in turn causes major changes in weather pattern.”

“Higher the poverty, higher the illiteracy in a society, higher will be the rate of crime.”

6. Relational hypothesis. This type of hypothesis tests the relationship between two variables. The
relationship may be positive or negative correlation or of casual relationship. Examples are;

“Educated people spend more on clothing as compared to uneducated people.”

“Literate couples hace fewer children as compared to illiterate couples.”

7. Descriptive Hypothesis. This type of hypothesis describes the characteristics of a variable such as rate,
size, form or distribution. The variable may be an individual, organization, institution, situation, event or
an object. Example;

“The rate of poverty is more in rural areas of India as compared to that of urban areas.”

8. Casual hypothesis. This type of hypothesis states the existence of or change in, one variable leads to
an effect on another variable. The first variable is called independent variable and the second is called
dependent variable. Example;

“Increase in female literacy results in lower birth rate.”

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Testing of hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data collected y the researcher) whether
or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. The proof of worth of a hypothesis lies in its ability to
meet the test of its validity. The confirmation of a hypothesis is always tentative and relative
subject to later revisin and rejection. When a hypothesis is sustained by logical and emphirical
tests, it provides the basis for generalizations or conclusions.

There are number of statical tools and techniques which are used for testing the validity of
hypothesis, such as t- test, f- test, z -test, chi-square test, etc.

Basic concepts in Testing of Hypotheses

1. Null hypothesis and alternative Hypothesis.

The null hypothesis is symbolized as Ho and the alternative hypothesis as Ha. If our study
(sample data) does not support the null hypothesis, we conclude that something else is true. What
we conclude by rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis. It means, if we
accept Ho, then we reject Ha, and if we reject Ho, then we accept Ha.

2. The level of significance.

The level of significance indicates the level of risk the researcher takes while testing the
hypothesis, ie., the possibility of rejecting the hypothesis when it is to be accepted and vice
versa. Generally, it is always indicated in some percentage. For example, 5% level of
significance means the researcher is willing to take as much as 5% risk of rejecting the null
hypothesis, when it is true. Thus, the significance level is the maximum value of probailty of
rejecting Ho when t is true. It is determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.

The commonly used level of significance are 5%(0.05) and 1%(0.01). In a 5% level of
significance, we are 95% sure that our decision to reject Ho is correct.

3. Type I and Type II errors.

There are basically two types of errors we may commit while testing of hypothesis. We may
reject Ho, when it is true (This is known as Type I error). Similarly, we may accept Ho, when in
fact it is not true (This is known as Type II error).

In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypothesis when it should have been accepted
and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis when it should have been rejected.

Type one error is denoted as ‘alpha error’ and the Type two error is denoted as ‘beta error’.

We can reduce the chances of committing the type one error by fixing the level of significance at
a lower level (for e. g, at 1% instead of 5%), but it may increase the chances of committing the
Type two error. It means both the type of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. There is a
trade-off between two types of errors. In other words, if we try to reduce the Type one error, we
are increasing the probability of making the Type two error. To deal with this, the researcher
(decision makers) decides in advance the appropriate level of significance by considering the
cost or penalty attached to both type of errors.