Environ Geochem Health

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00388-2 (0123456789().,-volV)
( 01234567
89().,-volV)

ORIGINAL PAPER

Heavy metals contamination in soil, surface water, crops,

and resident blood in Uthai District, Phra Nakhon Si
Ayutthaya, Thailand
Sumana Kladsomboon . Chakkaphop Jaiyen . Chalisa Choprathumma .
Thitaporn Tusai . Amara Apilux

Received: 2 April 2019 / Accepted: 8 August 2019

Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2019

Abstract This study evaluates the heavy metal (As,
Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) contamination in soil, surface
water, and crops in Uthai District, Ayutthaya Pro-
vince, Thailand, an agricultural area located near an
industrial park. Further, the blood levels of these
metals in residents living in the study area are
investigated. The concentrations of the six metals in
soil were below the values permitted under the Soil
Quality Standard, Thailand. In contrast, the concen-
trations of As and Hg in surface water exceeded the
permissible limits. For the crops, all heavy metal
values in eggplant, kale, and rice were at safe levels.
However, in basil, both Hg and Cu levels exceeded the
permissible limits, and in coriander, Hg content
exceeded the permissible limit. Additionally, the
potential health risks of heavy metal exposure through
consumption of local crops were assessed using target
hazard quotients (THQs) and hazard indices (HIs).
The former values of the crops varied. 100.0% for As,
40% for Cd, 60% for Cu, 20% for Pb, and 30% for Zn
of the analyzed samples had THQs above 1. This
indicated that consumers were probably exposed to
some non-carcinogenic health risk (except for Hg
which was 0%). Of greater concern, the HI values of
each consumed crop were [ 1, indicating obvious risk
of adverse health effect. Finally, the heavy metal
levels in blood from a sample of local residents
(n = 16) were assessed along with blood chemistry
tests. The levels of all heavy metals were within the
normal ranges. Nevertheless, heavy metal contamina-
tion in both the environment and food crops raise
concerns of health risks to the residents of this area.

Keywords Heavy metal  Phra Nakhon Si

S. Kladsomboon Ayutthaya  Food crops  Environment  Human
Department of Radiological Technology, Faculty of health  Risk assessment
Medical Technology, Mahidol University, 999
Phutthamonthon 4 Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170,
Thailand

C. Jaiyen  C. Choprathumma  T. Tusai Introduction

Community Health Care Service, Faculty of Medical
Technology, Mahidol University, 2 Wang Lang Road
Siriraj, Bangkok-Noi, Bangkok 10700, Thailand
A. Apilux (&)
Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Medical
Technology, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon 4
Road, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
e-mail: amara.apl@mahidol.edu
Rapid population growth is linked to the expansion of
industrial and agricultural development. Recently,
heavy metals have been widely used in industrial and
agricultural activities. Arsenic (As), copper (Cu),
cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and zinc
(Zn) are frequently used in various industrial

123

activities, including electronics, automotive machin-
ery, and paints (Kumar Sharma et al. 2007). The heavy
metals-related industrial facilities can lead to contam-
ination of surrounding environments. Importantly,
because these elements are not biodegradable, they
can accumulate in soil and surface water and enter
food chains. The yearly usage of fertilizers and
pesticides in Thailand is about 3,920,000 (Economics
2011) and 198,000 (Economics 2017) tonnes, respec-
tively. The use of these chemicals in agricultural
production increases the supply of nutrients within
soils, protects crops, and controls disease. However,
unpurified fertilizers and pesticides usually contain
several impurities, especially heavy metals. As, Cu,
Cd, Pb, and Zn are reported to be major impurities in
fertilizers. Cd, Pb, and Zn are found in high levels in
pesticides and herbicides (Gimeno-Garcı́a et al. 1996;
Kuziemska et al. 2016). Hg is a major component of
organomercuric fungicides (Turull et al. 2018). In
some developing countries, phosphate fertilizers are
found to be major sources of As (Jayasumana et al.
2015). Thus, accumulation of heavy metals in the
environment may occur when chemicals are repeat-
edly applied during agricultural activities (Ning et al.
2017).
Human exposure of heavy metals via occupation,
environment or diet can cause both acute and chronic
adverse health effects as summarized in Table 1. Cu
and Zn are essential trace elements for the human
body, however too much exposure to them can cause
adverse health effects (Tchounwou et al. 2012). As,
Cd, Hg, and Pb are classified as toxic heavy metals and
considered among the top ten most hazardous chem-
icals of public health concern by the World Health
Organization (WHO 2010a). They can cause serious
illness or death to humans even with small exposures.
Despite this, heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Pb, Hg, and Zn)
are widely used in industry. Also, As, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg,
and Pb are normally contained in chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, and fungicides. Use of these products
allows entry of these toxic substances into the
environment, and contamination of soil, surface water,
and vegetables.
Although, Thailand is an agricultural country, the
presence of heavy metals over permissible limits have
been found in soil (Netpae and Phalaraksh 2009;
Kayee et al. 2018), water (Wongsasuluk et al. 2013;
Choo-In et al. 2013), rivers (Veschasit et al. 2012) and
agricultural products. Moreover, Choprathumma et al.
123
Environ Geochem Health
(2019) reported that the levels of Hg and As in crop
samples exceed the permissible limits set by the
Ministry of Public Health, Thailand (Notification of
Ministry of Public Health 1986) and Codex; (FAO/
WHO 2015), respectively. Contamination by these
metals may cause health problems for entire local
population.
The Uthai District in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
(Ayutthaya) Province is an important agricultural area
which also includes two industrial estates. Because
this area may be exposed to heavy metals from
multiple sources, it is important to evaluate for
contamination. Mingkhwan and Worakhunpiset
(2018) investigated the levels of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn,
Pb, and Zn in river and stream water, sediment, and
fish collected from the area around the industrial
estates in the Uthai and Bangpa-in Districts of Phra
Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province. Their results revealed
that Mn levels in water exceeded Thailand’s surface
water quality standards. However, more data are
needed in this on contamination by heavy metals in the
environment, crops, and humans in this area. There-
fore, the levels of heavy metals in agricultural soil,
surface water, and crops grown in the district [basil
(Ocimum basilicum Linn.), coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.), eggplant (Solanum melongena L.), kale
(Brassica alboglabra) and rice (Oryza sativa L.)], and
blood of residents were investigated. The health risks
from heavy metals in consumed crops were evaluated.
The concentrations of five elements (As, Cd, Cu, Pb,
and Zn) were determined using inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for environmen-
tal and crop samples, and atomic absorption spec-
troscopy (AAS) for blood specimens. Hg was
quantitated using cold-vapor atomic absorption spec-
troscopy (CV-AAS) for both types of specimens. The
findings provided useful information on the levels of
heavy metal contamination of the environment and
food crops, and potentially on the health of workers
and local residents.
Materials and methods
Chemicals and reagents
Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and hydrogen peroxide
were purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany).
Mercury standard was purchased from SCP (Science
Environ Geochem Health

Table 1 Potential sources and toxicities of As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn
Metal Sources Chronic exposure Acute exposure

As (Vlotman et al. 2018; Jayasumana
et al. 2015; Smith et al. 2012;
WHO 2010b)
Cd (Chunhabundit 2016)
Cu (Netpae and Phalaraksh 2009;
Copper: Health Information
Summary)
(DES Environmental Health Program
2013)
Pb (Assi et al. 2016)
Hg (Fernandes Azevedo et al. 2012;
Webb et al. 2016)
Zn (Plum et al. 2010; Wuana and
Okieimen 2011)
Processing of glass,
pigments, paper, textiles,
and smelters
Use of pesticides,
fungicides and phosphate
fertilizers
Processing of batteries,
pigments, metal coatings,
and plastics
Use of fertilizers
Electrical wiring, alloys
and piping
Use of fertilizers and
fungicides
Mining, smelting, and fossil
fuels
Processing of batteries,
paints, and soldering
materials
Use of herbicides
Processing of batteries,
lamps, and dental fillings
Use of pesticides and
fungicides
Biosolids such as sewage
and sludge
Use of fertilizers
Abdominal pain, and skin
lesions
Cancers of lung, bladder,
prostate, and kidney
Cancers in skeletal and
respiration systems
Renal damage
Diabetic nephropathy
Decrease in bone density
Toxicity and damage to liver
and kidneys
Wilson’s disease
Effects on bodies enzyme
systems, vascular and cardiac
damage
Damage to the central nervous
system
Suppression of immune
function
Effects on the gastrointestinal,
hematological, and
respiratory systems
Vomiting, abdominal pain,
and diarrhea
Neurological problems, and
cardiovascular disease
Cancers of bladder, lung,
prostate, and skin
Kidney damage, especially
renal tubular damage
Gastrointestinal tract
distress
Liver toxicity
Destruction of red blood
cells, possibly resulting in
anemia
Storage in bone
Muscular weakness and
weight loss
Brain damage, kidney
damage, and may even
cause death
Toxicity to gastrointestinal
tract, lungs, kidneys, skin,
and eyes
Abnormalities of growth
and development

Quebec, Canada). For ICP-MS, a multi-element Study area

calibration standard (containing 10 mg mL-1 of Ag,
Al, As, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Fe, Ga, In,
K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Rb, Se, Sr, Ti, U, V, and
Zn) and internal calibration standard solutions (con-
taining 10 mg mL-1 of Bi, Ge, In, Li, Sc, Tb, and Y)
were purchased from PerkinElmer Pure Plus (Mas-
sachusetts, USA). All standards, internal standards,
control solutions, and digested sample solutions were
prepared by diluting in 0.1% (v/v) of HNO3 before
analysis using ICP-MS. A standard solution for AAS
analysis was purchased from PerkinElmer Pure Plus.
Analytical-grade reagents and 18 MX-cm water were
used throughout these experiments.
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya is one of the central
provinces of Thailand. Uthai District is located in
south Ayutthaya with a total area of 187 km2 (Fig. 1).
Its population in 2011 was 50,658. Most people are
farmers whose homes are located on their farms. 76%
of the land is agricultural though two industrial estates
are located in the district. The selected study area was
located about 15 km from one of the industrial estates
(Rojana) and was a productive area for crops as well as
vegetables for residents.

123

Fig. 1 Map of Thailand showing the study area, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Province
Sample collection and preparation
Surface water, soil, and food crop samples were
collected on February 23, 2017, at the house of the
Village Headman, Ampor Uthai (14°230 46.400 N
100°420 54.900 E). Blood and urine samples from sub-
jects were collected on May 22, 2018, at 14°230 46.400 N
100°420 54.900 E.
Surface water
Water sampling was performed at * 1 m water
depth, at ten points along the pond (Fig. 2) using
glass water samplers. The collected samples were
stored in polyethylene bottles. All water samples were
filtrated using Whatman filter paper No. 42 before
digestion. One milliliter of water was mixed with
10 mL of 65% HNO3 and then digested in microwave
digestion (MLS-1200 MEGA of MILESTONE) for
21 min. After that, the sample volume was adjusted to
123
Environ Geochem Health
50 mL with Milli-Q water and stored in a refrigerator
until use.
Soil
Ten topsoil samples were collected using a shovel,
after the removal of the vegetation cover, from sites in
a triangular line around a total area of 90 9 40 m2 as
shown in Fig. 2. Each sample was 1 kg, collected from
a soil area of 10 cm diameter and depth less than
15 cm. The samples were kept in sealed polyethylene
bags. They were dried in an oven (CRYSTE
PURIVEN, Novapro, Korea) at 60 °C for 24 h to
reach a constant weight, then ground, and passed
through a 2-mm mesh sieve. From each sample, 0.1 g
(using a precision balance with a readability of
0.001 g) of soil was added to a mixture of 6 mL
65% HNO3, 3 mL 37% HCl, and 0.25 mL 30% H2O2.
The mixed solution was digested in microwave
digestion for 10 min and was kept in a refrigerator
before measurement.
Environ Geochem Health
Fig. 2 Sampling points of
surface water and soil in the
study area
Crops
Crop samples of basil (O. basilicum Linn.), kale (B.
alboglabra.), coriander (C. sativum L.), eggplant (S.
melongena L.), and rice (O. sativa L.) were randomly
collected from the same fields where soil and surface
water was sampled. These samples were chopped or
ground, and oven-dried at 80 °C for 24 h to reach a
constant weight, and then sieved through a 2-mm
nylon mesh to make powder (Islam and Hoque 2014).
0.5 g of each powdered sample underwent microwave
digestion using 6 mL of 65% HNO3 and 2 mL of 30%
H2O2. The digested solutions were then cooled to
room temperature and diluted with Milli-Q water to
50 mL.
Blood and urine
The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of
Mahidol University (Ethic: MU-CIRB
2018/046.1602). Potential subjects were informed
about the research objectives, and the requirement to
complete and sign the consent form. For eligibility,
subjects had a minimum of 10 years of residence in the
study area. For health information, study question-
naires collected data regarding gender, age, address,
occupation, health status, daily food consumption, and
agricultural activities.
Venous blood samples from each subject were
collected (fasting) in five tubes (two plain tubes, two
EDTA tubes, and one NaF tube). Plain tubes were used for
serum biochemistry tests (liver function, lipid profile, renal
function) and As, Cu, and Zn analysis. EDTA tubes were
used for complete blood count tests (CBC, hemoglobin
and hematocrit), and Cd, Hg, and Pb analysis. NaF tubes
were used to determine fasting blood sugar (FBS).
All heavy metal testing was done at the Toxicology
Laboratory, Community Health Care Service, Mahi-
dol University, and all biochemistry testing was done
at the Center of Medical Laboratory Service, Faculty
of Medical Technology, Mahidol University. In
preparation for heavy metal analysis, serum samples
for Cu and Zn were diluted to the ratio of 1:10 with
0.2% HNO3, while samples for As were diluted to the
ratio of 1:4 with 2% Triton X100. Whole-blood
samples were diluted to the ratio of 1:10 with 0.2%
(NH4)2 HPO4 in 0.1% Triton X100. Then the samples
were analyzed for Pb and Cd using graphite furnace
AAS. For Hg analysis, whole-blood samples were
mixed with 65% HNO3 and 30% H2O2 followed by
microwave digestion. Finally, the prepared samples
were measured using CV-AAS.
123
 Environ Geochem Health

Analytic methods
where EF is the exposure frequency from consumption
of heavy metals-contaminated vegetables (365 days/
As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn measurements.
year); ED is the exposure duration or the average
lifetime of Thai people (71.8 years for males and
Soil, surface water, and crops
78.6 years for females; Institute for Population and
Social Research 2016); FIR is the food ingestion rate
Concentrations of As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn in soil,
(kg/person/day) of Thai people (268 g/person/day for
surface water, and crops were determined using an
males and 283 g/person/day for females; The Health
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (Perk-
Systems Research Institute 2006); C is metal concen-
inElmer NexIONÒ 300). The optimized conditions
tration (mg/kg); RFD is the oral reference dose (As,
were 1.1 L min-1 of nebulizer gas flow, 1.35 L min-1
3 9 10-4 mg/kg/day; Cd, 1 9 10-3 mg/kg/day; Cu,
of auxiliary gas flow, 18 L min-1 of plasma gas flow,
4 9 10-2 mg/kg/day; Hg, 5 9 10-4 mg/kg/day; Pb,
and 1600 W of radio frequency (RF) in an ICP system.
4 9 10-3 mg/kg/day; Zn, 0.3 mg/kg/day respectively;
Internal quality control for accuracy and precision at
USEPA IRIS 2007); and TA is the average exposure
20 ppb was performed every 10 samples.
time for non-carcinogens (ED 9 365 days/year).
A THQ value of less than 1 means that the exposure
Blood samples
is unlikely to cause any deleterious effects to the
exposure population. A THQ value [ 1 means non-
Cu and Zn in blood samples were identified using
carcinogenic effects may occur. Additionally, chronic
Flame-AAS (Varian spectrAA flame 640, Varian,
hazard index (HI) was used to evaluate the potential
Mulgrave, Australia). As, Cd, and Pb were measured
risk to human health from multiple heavy metals found
using Graphite Furnace AAS (PerkinElmer PinAAcle
in samples. HI was obtained as the sum of all THQs
900z, PerkinElmer, Massachusetts, USA) for Cd and
calculated for individual heavy metals according to the
Pb, and Varian SpectrAA 220 (Varian, Mulgrave,
following equation.
Australia) for As.
HI ¼ THQAs þ THQCd þ THQCu þ THQHg
Hg measurement þ THQPb þ THQzn

Hg was analyzed using a cold-vapor atomic absorption

spectrometer (PerkinElmer Flow Injection Mercury
Results and Discussion
Systems 400, PerkinElmer; Wellesley, MA, USA).
Five hundred microliters of the sample solution was
Quantitative analysis of heavy metals.
prepared in a mixture of 1.1% (v/v) SnCl2 in 3% (v/v)
HCl. Standard reference materials were included in
ICP-MS
each batch run to ensure analytical quality.
In the present work, As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn
Health risk assessment
concentrations in soil, surface water, and crops were
determined using ICP-MS. A three-point calibration
The potential health risks based on the non-carcino-
curve for each element was constructed for quantifi-
genic effects of heavy metal consumption through
cation of each element (at concentrations of 25, 50,
vegetables were expressed by a target hazard quotient
and 75 ppb). The correlation coefficients of standard
(THQ) and hazard index (HI) as proposed by the
curves for all heavy metals were greater than 0.9995
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(AOAC 2015), As 0.9998, Cd 0.9990, Pb 0.9995, Cu
(USEPA 2007; Zhou et al. 2016; Liang et al. 2019;
0.9999, and Zn 0.9996. Accuracy of tests were
Thummajitsakul et al. 2018). THQ was calculated
determined by using internal quality control solutions
using the following equation.
of 3 and 15 ppb in 0.1% HNO3, run after every 10
ðEF  ED FIR  CÞ samples. The results ranged from 2.72 to 5.13 ppb for
THQ ¼  103
ðRFD  WAB  TA Þ the 3 ppb solution, and 13.65 to 19.50 ppb for the

123
Environ Geochem Health
15 ppb solution. The % RSDs ranged from 1.2 to 10.9,
showing the high precision of the tests at these ppb
levels; all were in accord with the Guidelines for
Standard Method Performance Requirements of
AOAC International (AOAC 2015).
AAS
For human samples, heavy metals were measured by
AAS. As, Cu, and Zn were determined in serum with
GF-AAS and Flame-AAS, respectively. Cd and Pb
were determined in whole blood with GF-AAS.
Zinc and Copper
A standard curve was constructed using working
standards at 50, 150, and 300 lg/dL, prepared from
1000 mg/L in 2% HNO3 PerkinElmer Pure Plus
(Massachusetts, USA). The measured concentrations
of control solutions were in the range of values
recommended by Seronorm Trace Elements in Serum,
Level 1 (Bilingstad, Norway) and used to evaluate the
accuracy of analytical data. Internal quality control
was done for every 10 samples to monitory test
accuracy. The % RSDs were \ 10.
Arsenic
A calibration curve was constructed using working
standards at 25 and 50 ppb, each prepared from
1000 mg/L of standard solution, Merck (Darmstadt,
Germany). In-house controls were run every 10
samples to monitor test accuracy; controls were at
two levels: level 1 = 5.1–10.7 ppb and level
2 = 6.7–15.9 ppb. The % RSDs were all \ 0.
Cadmium and Lead
A standard curve of Pb was prepared using in-house
standards (at 5.1, 21, and 54 lg/dL) from 1000 mg/L
of standard solution (PerkinElmer Pure Plus, Mas-
sachusetts, USA) in 2% HNO3. For Cd, the standard
curve of was prepared at concentration of 1.0, 7.0, and
24 lg/dL, from 1000 mg/L of standard solution
(PerkinElmer Pure Plus) in 2% HNO3. In order to
evaluate accuracy, the control solutions were tested,
and the results found to be in the range of values
recommended by Seronorm Trace Elements in whole
blood, level 1, and level 2 (Bilingstad, Norway). The
performance of the test was confirmed by the External
Quality Assurer (EQA): Lead and Multielement
Proficiency Program of the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, USA.
Cold-vapor AAS
Hg determination was carried out using a calibration
curve obtained from standard Hg solutions with
concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 ppb in 7% HCl for
soil, surface water, and crop samples. Internal quality
control was done for every 10 samples using standards
to insure that the CV-AAS system was working
accurately. The measured concentrations of control
solutions were 5.13 ppb and 19.5 ppb, for 3 and
15 ppb, respectively. The % RSDs were in the range of
0.34 to 0.69. The calibration curve for blood analyses
was constructed using 10, 20, and 40 ppb Hg standards
(1000 lg/mL in 10% HNO3 PerkinElmer). Correla-
tion coefficients were greater than 0.995 for all tests.
The accuracy of tests was assessed using in-house
controls at three levels (level 1 = 0.6–3.0 ppb, level
2 = 3.2–6.8 ppb, and level 3 = 11.6–17.6 ppb) which
confirmed to the External Quality Assurer: Lead and
Multielement Proficiency Program of the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, USA.
Heavy metals in soil, surface water, and crops
This study aimed to assess the extent of heavy metal
contamination in an agricultural village located in
Uthai District near Rojana Industrial Park, and to
provide baseline information for monitoring heavy
metal levels in soil, surface water, crops, and local
residents.
Heavy metal content in surface water
The use of fertilizers and pesticides in the study area
can cause heavy metal contamination of surface water.
Moreover, the pond studied was connected to a canal
which was commonly used for agricultural activities.
Therefore, heavy metal monitoring is very important.
Firstly, the pH of water samples was investigated. The
average pH value of 10 samples was 8.14 ± 0.07
(mean ± SD). All values met the surface quality
standard (class III, pH 5–9) of the Pollution Control
Department of Thailand (PCD 1992). For heavy
metals analysis, results are shown in Fig. 3a. Six
123
 Environ Geochem Health

Fig. 3 Average
concentrations of heavy
metals found in a surface
water and b soil compared
with the permissible values
(solid bars). The error bar
represents the standard
deviation (SD), n = 3. c The
pH of soil at ten sampling
points. The standards for
surface water are those of
the National Thailand
Surface Water Standard:
Class 3 (WEPA 1994). The
standards for soil are those
of the Act to Promote and
Preserve the National
Environmental Quality, BE
2547 (2004), for Cu, As, Cd,
Pb, and Hg, and of the Soil
Quality Standards for
Habital and Agricultural
Purposes in Thailand (PCD
2004) for Zn

heavy metals were detected with the following order
of concentration: As (75.93 ± 11.52 ppb) [ Cu
(2.69 ± 1.17 ppb) [ Hg (2.49 ± 0.90 ppb) [ Zn
(0.87 ± 0.50 ppb) [ Pb (0.59 ± 0.15 ppb) and Cd
(0.02 ± 0.01 ppb). The trace elements Cu and Zn
were found to be at safe levels. For non-essential toxic
elements, the results showed that Cd and Pb concen-
trations were at safe levels with respect to the National
Thailand Surface Water Standard: Class III (WEPA
1994). However, As and Hg levels in water samples
exceeded maximum allowable levels. The As and Hg
contamination of surface water may be due to
chemical pesticide and fertilizer applications to the
fields and/or agricultural use of contaminated irriga-
tion water (Chaoua et al. 2018; Malan et al. 2014).
Heavy metals content in soil samples
Soil is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic
matter, minerals, water and air (Nortcliff et al. 2011).
It is an essential factor for agriculture. Recently, Thai
farmers commonly apply fertilizers and pesticides

123
Environ Geochem Health
containing heavy metals to their fields to increase
agricultural production. Such methods can cause
accumulation of these metals in soil and is affected
by factors such as moisture, pH, site hydrology, and
the behavioral characteristics of the soil (Islam et al.
2000). In this study, contamination levels of As, Cu,
Cd, Pb, Hg, and Zn in soil were investigated (Fig. 3b).
The soil samples had acidic pHs of about 5.9 ± 0.7
(Fig. 3c) and clay texture.
Heavy metals were detected in soil with the
following order of concentration: Cu [ Pb [ Zn [
As [ Hg [ Cd. Heavy metal concentrations, as
measured in soil samples, were 1.40 ± 0.26,
0.05 ± 0.01, 18.37 ± 0.64, 0.06 ± 0.05, 8.19 ±
0.46, and 3.94 ± 0.64 mg/kg for As, Cd, Cu, Hg,
Pb, and Zn, respectively (Fig. 3b). The heavy metal
concentrations measured in these soils were lower
than the levels defined as critical according to the Act
to Promote and Preserve the National Environmental
Quality, 2004, for Cu, As, Cd, Pb, and Hg, as well as
the Soil Quality Standards for Habital and Agricultural
Purposes in Thailand (PCD 2004) for Zn. Soil in this
area was contaminated with As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and
Zn. These results are in agreement with the previous
report by Zarcinas and colleagues (2004a, b), that soils
in southern Asian countries are often contaminated
with these metals.
Heavy metals content in food crop samples
Food crops are the source of many essential human
nutrients (Hirschi 2009). However, the use of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, and being located near
industrial estates, create risks of contamination with
heavy metals. Crops can absorb metals via soil, water,
and air from environments, and so metals can be
deposited in different parts of the plants (Srinivas et al.
2009). The concentrations of heavy metals were
investigated in basil, coriander, eggplant, kale, and
rice which were all planted in the sampling area of the
study site. The heavy metal values were compared with
the permissible limits of the Ministry of Public Health
in Thailand (Fig. 4). The heavy metal concentrations
found in crops were: As (0.08–0.24 mg kg-1), Cu
(2.26–27.96 mg kg-1), Cd (0.004–0.016 mg kg-1),
Hg (0.008–0.032 mg kg-1), Pb (0.29–1.00 mg kg-1),
and Zn (15.90–89.00 mg kg-1). These results indi-
cated that the food crop samples from this area were
safe in regard to As, Cd, Pb, and Zn. However, the Pb
levels in eggplant and kale were very close to the
maximum allowable values. Importantly, coriander
and basil contained Hg levels above the allowable
value. Basil contained Cu concentrations above the
standard limit. The levels of Cu and Hg in crops were
related to concentrations of these metals in the
associated water samples. This was likely due to the
plant absorption of both heavy metals from the water
into their tissues. In addition, the absorption of heavy
metals by each plant also depends on specific transfer
factors of the plant itself. According to previous
research, the accumulation of Cu can be higher than
that of Hg and Pb (Bi et al. 2018) concentrations of Cu
which we found in plants were probably related to high
concentrations in the soil. Hg was found to be over
permissible levels in water, basil, and coriander. This
result is similar to that of a previous study which found
Hg contamination in crops which were randomly
collected from the northeast region of Thailand. The
Hg content in rice and yard-long beans exceeded the
permissible limit, while the Hg content found in soil
from growing areas did not reach the limit for Hg in soil
(Zarcinas et al. 2004a, b). This suggests that food crops
may receive Hg from additional sources such as water
and air contaminated by factories (Joseph et al. 2016),
fertilizers, pesticides (Ferrante et al. 2013), and/or
fungicides (Turull et al. 2018).
Health risk assessment
The health risks of heavy metals through crop
consumption were evaluated using target hazard
quotient and hazard index based on methodology
described by the US EPA. A THQ lower than 1
indicates that consumers are not exposed to harmful
health effects, while values [ 1 indicate that there are
potential health risks via consumption of crops. The
results, grouped by gender, are shown in Table 2.
The THQ values of the crops varied and were
1.051–3.969 for As, 0.014–4.312 for Cd, 0.220–3.447
for Cu, 0.066–0.320 for Hg, 0.277–1.231 for Pb, and
0.206–1.463 for Zn. Moreover, 100.0% for As, 40%
for Cd, 60% for Cu, 0%, for Hg, 20% for Pb, and 30%
for Zn of the analyzed samples had target hazard
quotients above 1, which indicated potential health
risks due to crop consumption (Table 3).
In addition, the total THQ (TTHQ, sum of individ-
ual metals) values of As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn due to
consumption for each of the crops were greater than
123

Fig. 4 The mean concentrations of a As, b Cd, c Cu, d Hg, e Pb
and f Zn in 4 species of vegetable and rice (mg kg-1, fresh
weight). The error bars represent the standard deviations (SDs).
1.00, while only that of Hg only was lower than 1.
These results indicated that As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn
imposed health risks to the consumer. The sequence of
TTHQ for subjects was As (12.786) [ Cu (8.699) [
Cd (6.417) [ Pb (4.252) [ Zn (4.064 ) [ Hg (0.976).
Further, HI via all metal intake of crops were also
calculated. The sequence of the HI for subjects was
coriander [ basil [ kale [ eggplant [ rice. The val-
ues in each case were more than 1, and higher values
were observed for females than males. This meant that
the health risks associated with heavy metal exposure
were significant (Minolfi et al. 2018). However, it
should be noted that the present study estimated the
123
Environ Geochem Health
The horizontal lines show the limit of permissible values from
the Ministry of Public Health in Thailand for As, Cu, Hg, Pb, and
Zn and Codex Alimentarius Guidelines for Cd, respectively
health risk from heavy metals only due to consumption
of studied crops.
Contamination is possible from both excessive
amounts of fertilizers and pesticides, and irrigation
water polluted with industrial waste. Pesticides and
fertilizers were identified as the main sources of heavy
metal contamination of soil and water in our study
area. Since chemical fertilizers and various pesticides
are widely used in agricultural fields (Alam et al.
2003), we suggest that regular monitoring of heavy
metals in this area is essential to identify and prevent
excessive buildup of these metals in the human food
chain.
 Environ Geochem Health

Table 2 Target hazard quotient (THQ), total target hazard quotient (TTHQ) and hazard index (HI) values (mean ± standard deviation) of heavy metals via crop consumption
THQ (Mean ± SD) HI (mean ± SD)
Samples As Cd Cu Hg Pb Zn

Male
Basil 3.134 ± 0.009 0.093 ± 0.005 2.722 ± 0.001 0.199 ± 0.039 0.581 ± 0.112 1.155 ± 0.060 7.885 ± 0.225
Coriander 2.226 ± 0.212 3.405 ± 0.018 1.562 ± 0.016 0.253 ± 0.072 0.604 ± 0.171 0.914 ± 0.025 8.964 ± 0.514
Eggplant 1.051 ± 0.005 0.553 ± 0.005 1.651 ± 0.041 0.113 ± 0.017 0.924 ± 0.011 0.277 ± 0.007 4.569 ± 0.087
Kale 1.979 ± 0.174 1.003 ± 0.003 0.714 ± 0.061 0.140 ± 0.011 0.972 ± 0.030 0.658 ± 0.019 5.466 ± 0.298
Rice 1.707 ± 0.156 0.014 ± 0.003 0.220 ± 0.004 0.066 ± 0.017 0.277 ± 0.009 0.206 ± 0.057 2.490 ± 0.245
TTHQ 10.098 ± 0.555 5.068 ± 0.034 6.870 ± 0.123 0.771 ± 0.154 3.358 ± 0.333 3.210 ± 0.169
Female
Basil 3.969 ± 0.012 0.118 ± 0.007 3.447 ± 0.001 0.251 ± 0.049 0.736 ± 0.141 1.463 ± 0.076 9.984 ± 0.285
Coriander 2.818 ± 0.268 4.312 ± 0.023 1.978 ± 0.020 0.320 ± 0.091 0.765 ± 0217 1.157 ± 0.032 11.351 ± 0.651
Eggplant 1.331 ± 0.007 0.700 ± 0.007 2.091 ± 0.052 0.143 ± 0.021 1.170 ± 0.014 0.350 ± 0.009 5.786 ± 0.110
Kale 2.506 ± 0.220 1.270 ± 0.003 0.904 ± 0.078 0.177 ± 0.014 1.231 ± 0.037 0.833 ± 0.024 6.921 ± 0.377
Rice 2.161 ± 0.197 0.017 ± 0.003 0.279 ± 0.006 0.084 ± 0.021 0.351 ± 0.011 0.261 ± 0.072 3.153 ± 0.310
TTHQ 12.786 ± 0.703 6.417 ± 0.043 8.699 ± 0.156 0.976 ± 0.195 4.252 ± 0.421 4.064 ± 0.213

123
 Environ Geochem Health

Table 3 Percentages of crops that were found below and above the permissible limit of THQ (value = 1) for each heavy metal
As (%) Cd (%) Cu (%) Hg (%) Pb (%) Zn (%)

THQ \ 1 0 60 40 100 80 70
THQ [ 1 100 40 60 0 20 30

Residents’ health condition and heavy metal Table 4 Demographic characteristics and agricultural activi-
determinations in their blood ties of the participants
Parameter Value
Heavy metals can transfer from soil to vegetables, a
process which human activities may enhance. As a Demographic characteristics
result, the accumulation of several heavy metals in Gender (%)
rural and urban soils at excessive levels can cause Male 62.5%
serious health problems in humans (Huang et al. 2018; Female 37.5%
Nedelescu et al. 2017; Rai et al. 2019). The residents’ Age (average years) 55.3 ± 18.3
health condition and heavy metal values in blood were Male 57.4 ? 22.7
determined to evaluate individual exposure to heavy Female 52.0 ± 8.5
metals. Information about demographic characteris- BMI (average) 25.17 ± 3.40
tics, occupation, health status, smoking habits, alcohol Congenital disease (%)
consumption, dietary habits, and BMI are summarized Diabetes mellitus 43.75%
in Table 4. A total of 16 subjects (10 men and 6 Hypertension 6.25%
women) participated in the study. The mean age of the No 56.25%
participants was 55.3 ± 18.3 years (range 30–75). All Smoking (%)
participants were residents who had lived in the study Smoking 25.0%
district for more than 10 years. The main occupation Non-smoking 75.0%
of the participants was farming (81.25%). None of the Alcohol consumption (%)
participants worked in factories. The average BMI was Yes 31.25%
25.17 ± 3.40. As for their health conditions, non- No 68.75%
communicable diseases were present including 6.35% Farming (%)
with diabetes mellitus and 56.25% with hypertension. Farming 81.25%
Agricultural activity information showed that chem- Non-faming 18.75%
ical pesticides and fertilizers were used by 81.25% and Agricultural activity
75.00% of the subjects, respectively. Pesticides used ( [ 5 years) (%) 75.00%
The potential risk of heavy metal exposure from Organic pesticide 0.00%
consumption was investigated (Table 5). From con- Chemical pesticide 75.00%
sumption behavior data, the percentage of subjects Insecticide 66.67%
who ‘often’ consumed vegetables, fruit, meats, grains Herbicide 41.67%
and seafood were 87.50%, 31.25%, 75.00%, 31.25%,
Fertilizer used ( [ 5 years) 81.25%
and 0%, respectively. From the clinical testing
Organic fertilizer 12.50%
(Table 6), the average values of blood glucose,
Chemical fertilizer 56.25%
cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL-C, and HDL-C were
Both organic and chemical fertilizers 12.50%
105.50 mg/dL, 192.81 mg/dL, 166.94 mg/dL,
121.06 mg/dL, and 45.43 mg/dL, respectively. The Bold indicates the largest value of the obtained data
levels of blood glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and
LDL-C were found in the subjects to be higher than the subjects with results lower than the reference range
normal range for 12.50%, 43.75%, 43.75%, and were found in 37.5% of subjects. For the liver and
43.75% of them, respectively. For the HDL-C, renal function tests, AST, ALT, BUN, and creatinine

123
Environ Geochem Health

Table 5 Consumption behavior of the participants

Behavior Do often (%) Do moderate (%) Few (%) Don’t do (%)

Eat 3 meals a day 68.75 25.00 0.00 6.25

Consume vegetables 87.50 12.50 0.00 0.00
Consume fruits 31.25 62.50 6.25 0.00
Consume cooked meats 75.00 18.75 6.25 0.00
Consume offal, seaweed, herbal tea 0.00 18.75 50.00 31.25
Consume grains 31.25 43.75 18.75 6.25
Consume brown rice 18.75 6.25 6.25 68.75
Consume seafood 0.00 56.25 31.25 12.50
Consume canned food 0.00 25.00 50.00 25.00
Consume fried food 12.50 37.50 31.25 18.75
Consume colorful food 0.00 25.00 25.00 50.00
Consume snacks (potato chips, etc.) 6.25 31.25 12.50 50.00
Bold indicates the largest value of the obtained data

Table 6 Results of clinical Test Average Reference levels Normal (%) Abnormal (%)
laboratory tests and
urinalysis FBS (mg/dL) 105.50 70–100 87.5 12.50
Cholesterol (mg/dL) 192.81 \ 200 56.25 43.75
Triglyceride (mg/dL) 166.94 50–150 56.25 43.75
HDL-C (mg/dL) 45.43 M [ 40 62.5 37.50
F [ 50
LDL-C (mg/dL) 121.06 \ 130 56.25 43.75
AST (U/L) 21.06 M 8–46 100 0
F 7–34
ALT (U/L) 22.62 0–48 100 0
BUN (mg/dL) 13.19 10–20 100 0
Creatinine (mg/dL) 0.93 0.5–1.2 100
Urinalysis – – 100

were in the normal range with average values of
21.06 U/L, 22.62 U/L, 13.19 mg/dL, and 0.93 mg/dL,
respectively.
For the heavy metal analyses, the concentrations of
heavy metals in blood (Pb, Cd, and Hg) and serum (As,
Zn, and Cu) were measured. These metals were found
in the samples but the values were less than critical
values for all elements (Fig. 5). The values of As, Cd,
Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn were 1.1 ± 1.0 lg/L,
1.1 ± 0.5 lg/L, 991 ± 111 lg/L, 3.1 ± 1.8 lg/L,
31 ± 13 lg/L, and 608 ± 92 lg/L, respectively.
Regarding the health conditions of subjects, levels
of the trace elements, Cu and Zn, were in the normal
range. The toxic elements, As, Cd, Hg, and Pb, were
found in the samples from our subjects. Their
concentrations were below the critical levels set by
the WHO. Levels of trace metals in blood showed the
following descending order: Cu [ Zn; for the toxic
metals, the order of levels were Pb [ Hg [ Cd = As
(Fig. 5).
Although the levels of heavy metals in blood were
within normal ranges, there was contamination with
these metals in the local environment. As and Hg
concentrations in surface water, and Cu and Hg
concentrations in crops, each exceeded the permitted
values. Moreover, the HI values were above the
normal value. Regarding the questionnaire data, use of
chemical pesticides and fungicides, and consumption
of local eating crops, each suggested that human
health risks were posed by heavy metal exposure (Rai

123

Fig. 5 The mean
concentrations of As, Cd,
Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn in blood
samples of study subjects
et al. 2019; Singh et al. 2017). Therefore, a problem of
heavy metal contamination was shown to exist in the
studied area, and attention is needed to mitigate the
problem and protect human health in the long term.
Conclusions
The frequency and concentration of heavy metals (As,
Cd, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) in environmental samples and
biologic specimens from residents living in Uthai,
Ayuthaya Province, were investigated. The results of
this study showed that the samples from the study area
were contaminated with heavy metals. The concen-
trations of the metals in soil were below the accept-
able limits. However, As and Hg contamination of
surface water exceeded national threshold limits.
Moreover, the levels of Hg contamination exceeded
permissible levels in both coriander and basil, while
Cu concentrations were also excessive in coriander.
Total THQ provided information that the levels of Hg
consumed from investigated crops appeared safe, but
health risks remain due to unsafe crops because of
other heavy metals. Moreover, the HIs of all cases
were [ 1. This finding suggested that there is a need
for ongoing monitoring of environmental quality, as
well as of human health conditions in the study area
and nearby locations, to reduce long-term effects of
heavy metals on human health.
123
Environ Geochem Health
Acknowledgements This project was financially supported
by Mahidol University. The authors would like to acknowledge
Professor Dr. Virapong Prachayasittikul, Mr. Lerson
Suwannathon, and Miss Aumaporn Pinyosirikul for their
assistance and suggestions about clinical analysis and health
performance, and Miss Ubonwan Somsukpiroh, Miss Jantanee
Boonprakong, Mr. Nattawut Junpetch, and Miss Pornpawee
Kaewwandee for data collection and sample collection and
preparation.
References
Agricultural Economics (2011). Summary of using fertilizers.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. https://oldweb.
oae.go.th/ewt_news.php?nid=150&filename=index.
Accessed February 12, 2018.
Agricultural Economics (2017). Summary of imported pesti-
cides (2011–2016). Ministry of Agriculture and Coopera-
tives. https://oldweb.oae.go.th/economicdata/pesticides.
html. Accessed February 12, 2018.
Alam, M. G. M., Snow, E. T., & Tanaka, A. (2003). Arsenic and
heavy metal contamination of vegetables grown in Samta
village Bangladesh. Science of The Total Environ-
ment,308(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-
9697(02)00651-4.
AOAC Official Method 2015.01. (2015). Heavy Metals in Food.
Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry. https://
brooksapplied.com/wp-content/uploads/download/
AOAC-Method-2015.01.pdf. Accessed February 28, 2019.
Assi, M. A., Hezmee, M. N. M., Haron, A. W., Sabri, M. Y. M.,
& Rajion, M. A. (2016). The detrimental effects of lead on
human and animal health. Veterinary World,9(6), 660–671.
https://doi.org/10.14202/vetworld.2016.660-671.
Bi, C., Zhou, Y., Chen, Z., Jia, J., & Bao, X. (2018). Heavy
metals and lead isotopes in soils, road dust and leafy veg-
etables and health risks via vegetable consumption in the
Environ Geochem Health
industrial areas of Shanghai, China. Science of The Total
Environment,619–620, 1349–1357. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.177.
Chaoua, S., Boussaa, S., El Gharmali, A., & Boumezzough, A.
(2018). Impact of irrigation with wastewater on accumu-
lation of heavy metals in soil and crops in the region of
Marrakech in Morocco. Journal of the Saudi Society of
Agricultural Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssas.2018.
02.003.
Choo-In, S., Chantama, P., Tae-ouang, P., & Utarasakul, T.
(2013). Impact of floating market activities on water
quality in Amphawa floating market, Samut Songkram
Province Thailand. Internationals: WASET,73, 611–614.
Choprathumma, C., Jaiyen, C., Tusai, T., Apilux, A., & Klad-
somboon, S. (2019). Determination of toxic heavy metal
contaminated in food crops in Nakhon Pathom province
Thailand. Khon Kaen Agriculture Journal,47(1), 171–180.
https://doi.org/10.14456/kaj.2019.20.
Chunhabundit, R. (2016). Cadmium exposure and potential
health risk from foods in contaminated area Thailand.
Toxicological Research,32(1), 65–72. https://doi.org/10.
5487/TR.2016.32.1.065.
DES (2013): Copper: Health information summary New
hampshire (USA): Department of Environmental Services
(DES), Environmental Fact Sheet. https://www.des.nh.
gov/organization/commissioner/pip/factsheets/ard/
documents/ard-ehp-9.pdf. Accessed February 28, 2019.
FAO/WHO. (2015). General standard for contaminants and
toxins in food and feed (GSCTFF). Codex Alimentarius
Commission. https://bit.ly/2yp6Wi6. Accessed February
28, 2019.
Fernandes Azevedo, B., Barros Furieri, L., Peçanha, F. M.,
Wiggers, G. A., Frizera Vassallo, P., Ronacher Simões, M.,
et al. (2012). Toxic effects of mercury on the cardiovas-
cular and central nervous systems. Journal of Biomedicine
and Biotechnology,2012, 949048–949048. https://doi.org/
10.1155/2012/949048.
Ferrante, M., Fiore, M., Ledda, C., Cicciù, F., Alonzo, E., Fal-
lico, R., et al. (2013). Monitoring of heavy metals and trace
elements in the air, fruits and vegetables and soil in the
province of Catania (Italy). Igiene e Sanità Pubblica,69(1),
47–54.
Gimeno-Garcı́a, E., Andreu, V., & Boluda, R. (1996). Heavy
metals incidence in the application of inorganic fertilizers
and pesticides to rice farming soils. Environmental Pollu-
tion,92(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-
7491(95)00090-9.
Hirschi, K. D. (2009). Nutrient biofortification of food crops.
Annual Review of Nutrition,29, 401–421. https://doi.org/
10.1146/annurev-nutr-080508-141143.
Huang, Y., Chen, Q., Deng, M., Japenga, J., Li, T., Yang, X.,
et al. (2018). Heavy metal pollution and health risk
assessment of agricultural soils in a typical peri-urban area
in southeast China. Journal of Environmental Manage-
ment,207, 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.
2017.10.072.
Institute for Population and Social Research. (2016). Population
of Thailand, 2016. Thailand: Mahidol University. https://
www.ipsr.mahidol.ac.th/ipsr/Contents/Documents/
Gazette/PopulationGazette2016-TH. Accessed February
28, 2019.
Islam, M. R., Salminen, R., & Lahermo, P. W. (2000). Arsenic
and other toxic elemental contamination of groundwater,
surface water and soil in Bangladesh and its possible
effects on human health. Environmental Geochemistry and
Health,22(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:
1006787405626.
Islam, M. S., & Hoque, M. F. (2014). Concentrations of heavy
metals in vegetables around the industrial area of Dhaka
city, Bangladesh and health risk assessment. International
Food Research Journal,21(6), 2121–2126.
Jayasumana, C., Fonseka, S., Fernando, A., Jayalath, K.,
Amarasinghe, M., Siribaddana, S., et al. (2015). Phosphate
fertilizer is a main source of arsenic in areas affected with
chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology in Sri Lanka.
SpringerPlus,4(1), 90. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-
015-0868-z.
Joseph, D. O., Egila, J. N., & Salami, S. J. (2016). Determination
of the contamination levels of cadmium, lead, arsenic and
mercury in the vegetables from old mining site of Jos
Plateau, Nigeria. International Journal of Interdisciplinary
Research and Innovations,4(2), 40–44.
Kayee, P., Seksitkan, S., & Pattharadechapaibul, K. (2018).
Heavy metals residues in soil and vegetables from agri-
cultural area in Wangkanai District, Kanchanaburi Pro-
vince, Thailand. Journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences,13(1), 177–180. https://doi.org/10.3923/jeasci.
2018.177.180.
Kumar Sharma, R., Agrawal, M., & Marshall, F. (2007). Heavy
metal contamination of soil and vegetables in suburban
areas of Varanasi India. Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety,66(2), 258–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.
2005.11.007.
Kuziemska, B., Jaremko, D., & Wieremiej, W. (2016). Content
of magnesium and heavy metal fractions in selected natural
fertilisers. Journal of Elementology,21(1), 89–97. https://
doi.org/10.5601/jelem.2015.20.2.837.
Liang, G., Gong, W., Li, B., Zuo, J., Pan, L., & Liu, X. (2019).
Analysis of heavy metals in foodstuffs and an assessment
of the health risks to the general public via consumption in
Beijing, China. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health,16(6), 909. https://doi.org/10.
3390/ijerph16060909.
Malan, M., Müller, F., Cyster, L., Raitt, L., & Aalbers, J. (2014).
Heavy metals in the irrigation water, soils and vegetables in
the Philippi horticultural area in the Western Cape Pro-
vince of South Africa. Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment,187(1), 4085. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-
014-4085-y.
Mingkhwan, R., & Worakhunpiset, S. (2018). Heavy metal
contamination near industrial estate areas in Phra Nakhon
Si Ayutthaya province, Thailand and human health risk
assessment. International Journal of Environmental
Research and Public Health,15(9), 1890. https://doi.org/
10.3390/ijerph15091890.
Minolfi, G., Albanese, S., Lima, A., Tarvainen, T., Fortelli, A.,
& De Vivo, B. (2018). A regional approach to the envi-
ronmental risk assessment—Human health risk assessment
case study in the Campania region. Journal of Geochemical
Exploration,184, 400–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
gexplo.2016.12.010.
123

Nedelescu, M., Baconi, D., Neagoe, A., Iordache, V., Stan, M.,
Constantinescu, P., et al. (2017). Environmental metal
contamination and health impact assessment in two
industrial regions of Romania. Science of the Total Envi-
ronment,580, 984–995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.
2016.12.053.
Netpae, T., & Phalaraksh, C. (2009). Water quality and heavy
metal monitoring in water, sediments, and tissues of Cor-
bicula sp. from Bung Boraphet Reservoir, Thailand. Chi-
ang Mai Journal of Science, 36(3), 395–402.
Ning, C. C., Gao, P. D., Wang, B. Q., Lin, W. P., Jiang, N. H., &
Cai, K. Z. (2017). Impacts of chemical fertilizer reduction
and organic amendments supplementation on soil nutrient,
enzyme activity and heavy metal content. Journal of
Integrative Agriculture,16(8), 1819–1831. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S2095-3119(16)61476-4.
Nortcliff, S., Hulpke, H., Bannick, C. G., Terytze, K., Knoop,
G., Bredemeier, M., et al. (2011). Soil, 1. Definition,
function, and utilization of soil. Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry,1, 2. https://doi.org/10.1002/
14356007.b07_613.pub3.
Notification of Ministry of Public Health, No. 98 (February 16,
B.E. 2529): The Thai Royal Government Gazette B.E
2529;103(23):1986.
Plum, L. M., Rink, L., & Haase, H. (2010). The essential toxin:
Impact of zinc on human health. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health,7(4),
1342–1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7041342.
Pollution Control Department. (1992). Surface water quality.
https://www.pcd.go.th/info_serv/reg_std_water05.html.
Accessed February 12, 2019.
Pollution Control Department. (2004). The soil quality stan-
dards for habital and agricultural purposes in Thailand set
by the Pollution Control Department. https://www.pcd.go.
th/info_serv/reg_std_soil01.html#s1. Accessed February
21, 2019.
Rai, P. K., Lee, S. S., Zhang, M., Tsang, Y. F., & Kim, K.-H.
(2019). Heavy metals in food crops: Health risks, fate,
mechanisms, and management. Environment Interna-
tional,125, 365–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.
2019.01.067.
Singh, N., Gupta, V. K., Kumar, A., & Sharma, B. (2017).
Synergistic effects of heavy metals and pesticides in living
systems. Frontiers in Chemistry,5, 70–70. https://doi.org/
10.3389/fchem.2017.00070.
Smith, A. H., Marshall, G., Liaw, J., Yuan, Y., Ferreccio, C., &
Steinmaus, C. (2012). Mortality in young adults following
in utero and childhood exposure to arsenic in drinking
water. Environmental Health Perspectives,120(11),
1527–1531. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104867.
Srinivas, N., Rao, S. R., & Kumar, K. S. (2009). Trace metal
accumulation in vegetables grown in industrial and semi-
urban areas—A case study. Applied Ecology and Envi-
ronmental Research,7(2), 131–139.
Tchounwou, P. B., Yedjou, C. G., Patlolla, A. K., & Sutton, D. J.
(2012). Heavy metal toxicity and the environment. Expe-
rientia Supplementum,101, 133–164. https://doi.org/10.
1007/978-3-7643-8340-4_6.
The Health Systems Research Institute. (2006). The 3rd survey
of sanitary of Thai people through physical B.E.
2546–2547. Ministry of Public Health. https://www.
123
Environ Geochem Health
surveillance.cphs.chula.ac.th/attachments/article/122/
National%20Health%20Survey_46-47.pdf. Accessed
February 28, 2019.
Thummajitsakul, S., Subsinsungnern, R., Treerassapanich, N.,
Kunsanprasit, N., Puttirat, L., Kroeksakul, P., et al. (2018).
Pesticide and heavy metal contamination: Potential health
risks of some vegetables and fruits from a local market and
family farm in Ongkharak District of Nakhon Nayok Pro-
vince, Thailand. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricul-
tural Science,41, 987–1001.
Turull, M., Komarova, T., Noller, B., Fontàs, C., & Dı́ez, S.
(2018). Evaluation of mercury in a freshwater environment
impacted by an organomercury fungicide using diffusive
gradient in thin films. Science of the Total Environ-
ment,621, 1475–1484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.
2017.10.081.
USEPA. (2007). Integrated risk information system. United
States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.
gov/iris. Accessed February 24, 2019.
Veschasit, O., Meksumpun, S., & Meksumpun, C. (2012).
Heavy metals contamination in water and aquatic plants in
the Tha Chin River Thailand. Kasetsart Journal Natural
Sciences Thailand,46(6), 931–943.
Vlotman, D. E., Ngila, C. J., Ndlovu, T., & Malinga, S. P.
(2018). Hyperbranched Polymer Integrated Membrane for
the Removal of Arsenic(III) in Water. Journal of Mem-
brane Science and Research,4(2), 53–62. https://doi.org/
10.22079/jmsr.2017.67560.1148.
Webb, J., Coomes, O. T., Ross, N., & Mergler, D. (2016).
Mercury concentrations in urine of Amerindian popula-
tions near oil fields in the Peruvian and Ecuadorian Ama-
zon. Environmental Research,151, 344–350. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.040.
WEPA (1994). Surface water quality standard in Thailand.
https://www.wepa-db.net/policies/law/thailand/std_
surface_water.htm. Accessed March 4, 2019
WHO (2010a). Chemicals of major public health concern.
https://www.who.int/ipcs/features/chemicals_concern/en/.
Accessed May 4, 2019
WHO (2010b). Exposure to arsenic: a major public health
concern. Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organization,
Department of Public Health and Environment. https://
www.who.int/ipcs/features/arsenic.pdf. Accessed Febru-
ary 12, 2018.
Wongsasuluk, P., Chotpantarat, S., Siriwong, W., & Robson, M.
(2013). Heavy metal contamination and human health risk
assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater
wells in an agricultural area in Ubon Ratchathani province
Thailand. Environmental Geochemistry and Health,36(1),
169–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9537-8.
Wuana, R. A., & Okieimen, F. E. (2011). Heavy metals in
contaminated soils: A review of sources, chemistry, risks,
and best available strategies for remediation. ISRN Ecol-
ogy,2011, 20. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/402647.
Zarcinas, B. A., Ishak, C. F., McLaughlin, M. J., & Cozens, G.
(2004a). Heavy metals in soils and crops in Southeast Asia
1. Peninsular Malaysia. Environmental Geochemistry and
Health,26(3), 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-
005-4669-0.
Zarcinas, B. A., Pongsakul, P., McLaughlin, M. J., & Cozens, G.
(2004b). Heavy metals in soils and crops in Southeast Asia
Environ Geochem Health

2. Thailand. Environmental Geochemistry and Research and Public Health, 13(3), 289. https://doi.org/10.
Health,26(3), 359–371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653- 3390/ijerph13030289.
005-4670-7.
Zhou, H., Yang, W.-T., Zhou, X., Liu, L., Gu, J.-F., Wang, W.-
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with
L., et al. (2016). Accumulation of heavy metals in veg-
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
etable species planted in contaminated soils and the health
institutional affiliations.
risk assessment. International Journal of Environmental

123