The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2021) 114:27–62

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-06885-y

CRITICAL REVIEW

Recent development of ultrasonic brazing

Yuxiang Li 1,2 & Chao Chen 1,2 & Ruixiang Yi 1

Received: 15 June 2020 / Accepted: 9 March 2021 / Published online: 19 March 2021
# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Ultrasonic brazing is an innovative application of power ultrasound in brazing. The conventional brazing processes are improved
or even changed by the physical and chemical effects of ultrasound. Thus, ultrasonic brazing is used as a new method to achieve
the bonding of dissimilar materials by using the mechanical vibration energy and static pressure of ultrasound frequency. The
characteristics of power ultrasound and ultrasonic brazing are reviewed in this article. The mechanism of ultrasound in the
brazing process is analyzed in detail. The latest ultrasonic brazing technologies are introduced. Applications of ultrasonic brazing
in the joining of dissimilar materials are summarized emphatically. Besides, several shortcomings of current research are listed in
this paper. Some recommendations for the future development of ultrasonic brazing are given.

Keywords Power ultrasound; . Ultrasonic brazing; . Dissimilar materials; . Mechanism

1 Introduction welding field. One of the applications is to turn ultrasonic

Ultrasound is a kind of sound wave with a frequency higher
than 20 kHz [1], which oversteps the upper limit of human
hearing. This kind of wave can propagate in a series of me-
diums according to the inherent elasticity and density of dif-
ferent mediums [2, 3].
The application of power ultrasound is to change the prop-
erties of objects. There are many applications for power ultra-
sound in the industry, such as ultrasonic processing, ultrasonic
crushing, ultrasonic extraction, ultrasonic cutting, ultrasonic
drilling, and other applications that need high mechanical dis-
placement [4].
The idea of using ultrasonic vibration to optimize the pro-
cess performance has been proposed for a long time [5]. In
recent years, with the development of industrial technology,
there had been renewed attention in power ultrasonic [4].
Ultrasonic welding is one of power ultrasound applications.
There are two ways for the applications of ultrasound in the
* Chao Chen
profchenchao@163.com
1
State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex Manufacturing,
Light Alloy Research Institute, Central South University,
Changsha 410083, China
2
School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Central South
University, Changsha 410083, China
energy into thermal energy to join material. The other appli-
cation is to combine ultrasonic energy with welding thermal
energy to change the characteristics of ordinary welding ener-
gy sources. The latter can get a better connection performance,
and ultrasonic brazing belongs to the latter.
The ultrasonic vibration that works in brazing is transmit-
ted to the joint by the ultrasonic mold with the help of ultra-
sonic transducer, ultrasonic horn, and ultrasonic generator.
The ultrasonic transducer is the most important part of these
components, which converts the desired electrical signals to
ultrasound [4]. The “acoustic cavitation” and “acoustic fluid-
ization” generated during the ultrasonic brazing process can
undermine the oxide film on the surface of the substrate,
assisting the filler metal wetting the surface of the substrate
and accelerating the diffusion rate of interface elements [6, 7].
The application of ultrasonic vibration in brazing can get reli-
able joints between the dissimilar materials, which are hard to
wet with no flux. After the brazing, there is no need to clean
the flux. Therefore, the time and cost are reduced, as well as
the harm of toxic gas influx is also avoided.
Ultrasonic brazing originated in Germany, and the first
patent for ultrasonic brazing was invented in 1939.
Because the brazing between aluminum and stainless steel
was hard to accomplish, the interest in ultrasonic brazing
was reawaken from 1950s to the 1960s. By the 1970s,
ultrasonic brazing had been used in joining various metals,
ceramics and composite materials [7].
28
Fig. 1 Schematic of the ultrasonic cavitation experiment [12]
Ultrasonic brazing technology has been widely used in
multiple industries, especially in the bonding of dissimilar
materials. However, no articles are available in the literature
that reviewing the application of the ultrasonic brazing pro-
cess. Therefore, it needs a paper to summarize and comment
on the features of ultrasonic brazing. In this paper, the mech-
anism of ultrasound in brazing process is analyzed. The latest
ultrasonic brazing methods are introduced. The application of
ultrasound in brazing joint is summarized emphatically. Some
recommendations for the future development of ultrasonic
brazing are given.
Fig. 2 Schematic of the cavitation erosion mechanism: (a) stage one, (b) stage two (20 s), (c) stage three (30 s) and (d) stage four (40 s), (e) the formation
of an erosion pit, (f) oxide fragment, and (g) erosion pit [13]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
2 The mechanism of ultrasound in the brazing
process
The biggest difference between ultrasonic brazing and con-
ventional brazing is that ultrasonic brazing does not use flux
and can join base material in the air [8–10]. The reason for this
phenomenon is that ultrasonic vibration can remove the oxide
layers at the surface of filler metal/substrate and help liquid
solder to wet the interface of the base material. Ultrasonic
vibration is employed in liquid solder during the process of
ultrasonic brazing. After the vibration intensity reaches a
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 3 A schematic diagram for the experimental setup [16]
certain level, the cavitation bubbles will repeatedly nucleate
and grow, and finally collapse violently. Acoustic flow and
microjet, which are formed due to the collapse of these cavi-
tation bubbles, can cause high transient pressure and temper-
ature changes in solder [11]. Then the oxide layers are
destroyed by acoustic flow and microjet.
In recent years, several scholars had researched cavitation
structures in liquid metal. Li et al. [12] concentrated on the
ultrasonic cavitation characteristics of liquid solder in narrow
passages. In his work, high-speed photography was firstly
used to observe the cavitation characteristics, and the ultrason-
ic vibration was transferred into the interface of glass/pure Sn/
pure Al from the vibration direction of sonotrode on the Al
surface, as shown in Fig. 1. The reduction of sound pressure
due to the increase of channel width brought about the de-
crease of the bubble density. With the increase of ultrasonic
power, the bubble density showed a significant increase. The
cavitation characteristics are discussed clearly by taking glass/
Fig. 4 Schematic of the ultrasonic-assisted soldering process [17]
29
Sn/Al as an example. However, the singleness of the experi-
mental material leads to the singularity of data, and the phe-
nomenon obtained in his work are not representative.
Therefore, the data and phenomenon obtained using different
experimental materials can make the study more convincing.
The cavitation corrosion in ultrasonic brazing process is
very complicated. Thus, the cavitation and corrosion is divid-
ed into different phenomenon and mechanisms [13]. Li et al.
[13] also analyzed the corrosion effect of molten metal in
narrow passages. The physical process and mechanism of ul-
trasonic cavitation were brought to light. The process of the
cavitation corrosion is shown in Fig. 2. In the first stage, lots of
cavitation bubbles formed and collapsed in the molten solder
(Fig. 2a). A few cracks took shape on the oxide film in the
second stage (Fig. 2b). In the third stage, the liquid solder
which flew below the oxide layer started to react with Al
substrate (Fig. 2c). In the last stage, the entire surface of base
Fig. 5 Profile of the sand particles on the aluminum plate after ultrasonic
vibration [18]
30
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of ultrasonic-assisted soldering system [20]
metal started to contact with the interface layer and cavitation
bubbles proceeded to generate and collapse (Fig. 2d).
Although the removal of the oxide film by cavitation erosion
is reported in detail, not all parameters are considered. The
amplitude and action position are also important variables in
ultrasonic vibration during ultrasonic brazing process.
The collapse of cavitation bubbles plays a key role in re-
moving the oxide film on the solid surface. Rod-shaped cav-
itation bubble structure in molten layers under the action of
ultrasonic vibration was studied by Bai et al. [14]. The erosion
influence of the cavitation bubble cloud is stronger than other
types of cavitation bubbles [14]. Therefore, the detailed re-
search on cavitation bubble cloud is also important. Bai
et al. [15] also investigated the quasi-emulsion appearance of
the cavitation bubble cloud in a narrow molten layer, and the
results showed that surface tension existed at the interface
between liquid phase and cloud region.
Chen et al. [16] reported the influence of ultrasonic cavita-
tion and streaming on the casting of SAC0307. A schematic
diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 3.
Aluminum foil was placed in a skillet with solder and could
be used to get the effects of ultrasonic flowing and cavitation.
Part of the ultrasonic mold was also submerged in the melt.
The evolution of cavitation bubbles simulated by Keller–
Miksis equation indicated that the high pressure and temper-
ature caused by the collapse of cavitation at 550 W could
Fig. 7 (a) Schematic of the experimental apparatus for ultrasonic hot dipping and (b) schematic of the ultrasonic-assisted soldering procedure [22]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
improve heterogeneous nucleation and refine the grain sizes.
Experiment and numerical simulation are both employed to
analyze the influence of ultrasonic vibration on the micro-
structures and physical behaviors of SAC0307. The applica-
tion of simulation confirms the condition of heterogeneous
nucleation and grains refinement, and the experimental
steps are also simplified.
Maassen et al. [17] mainly studied how the ultrasonic field
propagated through the solid and spread to the liquid solder.
The propagation of ultrasonic energy passed in molten solder
by soldering iron was modelled and optimized. As shown in
Fig. 4, solder was melted by soldering iron tip above the glass
substrate. The ultrasonic energy was propagated into liquid
solder by the tip vibration of soldering iron.
The vibration features of the aluminum surface under the
action of the ultrasonic waves were discussed by Ma et al.
[18]. The method of combining numerical simulation with
experimental tests was adopted. The vibration modes of alu-
minum surface were not uniform. As shown in Fig. 5, the
vibration mode of the aluminum surface was characterised
by the distribution of sand particles. The amplitude of the
aluminum surface was related to the removal effect of the
oxide film. The oxide film on the aluminum surface was not
removed quickly until the amplitude exceeded 5.4 μm. The
numerical simulation in this work is proved by experimental
testing. It can also make use of this way to obtain other char-
acteristics of ultrasound during the brazing process.
The acoustic cavitation and eddy current generated by ul-
trasonic propagation in liquid solder can produce local high
temperature, high pressure and shock waves. In the brazing
process, the application of ultrasonic vibration on the surface
of the substrate is very beneficial to removing the oxide film of
the substrate, promoting the diffusion of atoms at the interface
and the wettability of the solder on the surface of the base
material. The chemical reactions between the solder and the
base material are also improved by ultrasonic vibration. The
application of ultrasonic in brazing can join dissimilar mate-
rials and difficult wetting materials without flux in the atmo-
sphere. Ultrasonic vibration can also refine the grain size and
improve the mechanical properties of the joint.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 8 Schematics of the ultrasonic dipping and brazing [24]
3 The last technologies of ultrasonic brazing
Ultrasonic brazing is an advanced and efficient technology,
which can be divided into several types. According to the
direct object of ultrasonic vibration, it can be divided into
ultrasonic excited liquid solder brazing and ultrasonic excited
solid base metal brazing. Ultrasonic-excited liquid solder
brazing can be divided into ultrasonic soldering iron brazing,
Fig. 9 Interfacial microstructures
of (a) the Zn-Al/sapphire and (b)
of the cross-section of the sap-
phire joints brazed with Zn-4Al
alloy [25]
31
ultrasonic pre-coating brazing and ultrasonic modulated laser
brazing. Ultrasonic-excited solid base material brazing mainly
refers to ultrasonic-excited solid base material brazing in the
atmospheric environment.
Ultrasonic soldering iron brazing is a method to use the
ultrasonic horn to plug in the solder. The soldering iron can
be heated to melt the solid solder. The cavitation effect gen-
erated by ultrasound can remove the oxide film at the interface
32
Fig. 10 Experimental set-up of solder wetting by Nd: Y AG laser [26]
of liquid solder/substrate and promote the reaction to achieve
interface bonding. Although the mode of ultrasonic horn on
the molten solder and base material can enhance the ultrasonic
effect, the high temperature will cause ultrasonic components
too hot to damage the ultrasonic device and affect the brazing
process. Therefore, ultrasonic soldering iron brazing is not
suitable for the long-time brazing process.
The ultrasonic soldering iron device was invented by
Noltingk et al. in 1950 [19]. Yonekura et al. [20] brought
out the bonding of solder and glass without lead using ultra-
sonic soldering iron brazing. The brazing process is shown in
Fig. 6. However, the average joint shear strength is only 2.90
MPa, and the reason for the lower shear strength is not given.
Li et al. [21] used an ultrasonic probe heated to 200 °C to
dislodge the impurities of the solder. The microstructure of
the solder was optimized, and better mechanical properties
were obtained. However, the process of removing the impuri-
ties in solder may affect the ultrasonic converter, which will be
destroyed by long-term high temperature, and the ultrasonic
mold should be cleared after the experiment. Instead of
Fig. 11 The scheme of ultrasonic-
assisted laser welding [27]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
removing impurities during solder production, a method for
removing impurities during brazing should be developed.
When the ultrasonic horn is imposed on a solder pool, the
ultrasonic vibration energy can be propagated to the liquid
solder. The oxide film on the interface of the base material,
which has been put into the pool, can be removed by the
cavitation of ultrasound. The base material surface is coated
with a solder layer. This is called ultrasonic pre-coating braz-
ing. Since ceramic materials mainly contain ionic and covalent
bonds, they exhibit very stable electron coordination.
Although the ultrasonic brazing can improve the wettability
of the solder to base material, this improvement is still difficult
to achieve a high-strength bonding between ceramic and met-
al. The ultrasonic pre-coating brazing process is more com-
plex than other ultrasonic brazing processes, but this method
can achieve high mechanical performance between metal and
ceramic. Some scholars have obtained notable research results
in this area.
Xu et al. [22] adopted this brazing method to join sapphire.
The brazing efficiency and shear strength increased when the
brazing temperature decreased. The ultrasonic brazing process
is presented in Fig. 7. Ultrasonic energy can improve the wet-
ting effect of the solder to base material. Lots of mathematical
formulas are used to calculate the heat change caused by the
collapse of cavitation bubbles. The study of heat generated by
ultrasonic vibration in the joint can allow scholars to fully
explain the chemical reaction in the joint. The ultrasonic pre-
coating brazing was used to make Al solder wet TA15 alloy
by Xu et al. [23]. Experimental results showed that ultrasonic
vibration could accelerate the rate of wetting.
Cui et al. [24] covered Al–4.5Cu–1.5Mg alloy layer on
sapphire by utilizing this kind of ultrasonic brazing method.
The complete reaction of Al–4.5Cu–1.5Mg alloy and sapphire
could be realized by increasing the ultrasonic time. The joint
shear strength was up to 230 MPa. The specific brazing pro-
cess is shown in Fig. 8. Because the fracture occurs inside the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 12 A typical microstructure
of the standard laser welded joint
(a) and the ultrasonic-assisted la-
ser welded joint (b) [27]
sapphire, the sapphire/Al–4.5Cu–1.5Mg interface shear
strength is hard to test by using conventional shear testing.
The finite element simulation applied to this work provides
an idea to solve this problem. Cui et al. [25] used the same
method to lower the difference in thermal expansion between
sapphire and Zn-4Al solder. The sapphire surface was covered
with a Zn-Al layer, and the middle layer SiCp/A356 was also
covered with Zn-Al alloy. The interface microstructures of
Zn-Al/SiCp/Zn-Al composites/sapphire and Zn-Al/sapphire
are shown in Fig. 9. The cracks between Zn-Al/sapphire dis-
appeared in the joint made by this method. The coefficient of
thermal expansion (CTE) of the middle layer is estimated by
the formula of Turner during the brazing process. Because of
the particularity of ultrasonic pre-coating brazing, the formula
of Turner cannot estimate the CTE before brazing. The appli-
cation of Turner’s formula can calculate the CTE of the sol-
ders to determine whether the solder is suitable for joining the
base metal during other ultrasonic brazing processes.
The laser brazing is a brazing technique that uses a laser as
the heat source to heat and melt the solder. Ultrasonic laser
brazing is the technique that combines laser brazing and ultra-
sound. There is no pre-heating during the ultrasonic laser braz-
ing process, and ultrasonic laser brazing can be used to join
glass, ceramic and other non-metallic materials which are
widely used in aerospace. The metallographic change range
of the heat-affected zone is small and the deformation caused
by heat conduction is the lowest during the ultrasonic laser
brazing process, but the price of the device is much more
expensive than other ultrasonic brazing devices. The lower
Fig. 13 The fracture area of AZ31B alloy: (a) laser welding, (b) ultrasonic vibration-assisted laser welding [30]
33
energy conversion efficiency also limits the application of
ultrasonic laser brazing. Therefore, this technique is usually
applied to the precision brazing of the miniature parts.
American Hughes Aircraft Company used ultrasonic laser
brazing to realize high-speed soldering with satisfactory re-
sults. Li et al. [26] investigated the wetting behavior of solder
on the base material using ultrasonic modulated laser solder-
ing. As shown in Fig. 10, a pulsed laser with ultrasonic fre-
quency was employed to melt solder. The cavitation effect
would be triggered by ultrasound in liquid filler metal to pro-
mote wetting and bonding of solder and substrate.
Kalashnikov et al. [27] used the ultrasonic laser welding
method to join stainless steel 321. Ultrasonic laser welding
could expand the range of welding process parameters
without affecting the joint strength. As shown in Fig. 11,
the experimental steps and principles could be understood
clearly. A comparison result between the conventional la-
ser welded joint and ultrasonic laser welded joint is shown
in Fig. 12. The difference was obvious, which was why the
shear strength of the latter was higher. The investigation of
joining nickel alloy and austenitic stainless steel with ul-
trasonic laser welding was reported by Zhou et al. [28].
The research results showed that the assistance of ultrason-
ic vibration reduced the content of secondary phases in
conventional laser brazing between nickel alloy and aus-
tenitic stainless steel. In order to investigate the influence
of ultrasonic energy on the strength and microstructure of
the solder, Tarasov et al. [29] used this technique to weld
AISI 321 stainless steel.
34
Fig. 14 Schematic diagram of the
ultrasonic brazing process [32]
Lei et al. [30] discussed the changes of tensile behav-
iors, microstructural, porosity and phase distribution with
ultrasonic laser welding AZ31B Mg. It could be seen
from Fig. 13 that the fracture of the ultrasonic vibration-
assisted laser welding joint was more complicated. Lei
et al. [31] also studied the welding features and the influ-
ences of ultrasonic vibration on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of the weld joint. The copper is
used as the trace element to analyze the melt flow under
laser welding. This method can do a good job in observ-
ing the molten solder flow using the solder rod.
The most common brazing technique is ultrasonically ex-
cited solid base material brazing in the atmospheric environ-
ment. Ultrasonic vibration energy is propagated to the inter-
face of filler metal and solid substrate by the solid substrate.
The filler metal is melted by an external heating source. The
process of ultrasonic brazing is shown in Fig. 14. Compared
with ultrasonic soldering iron brazing, this method can make
ultrasonic components withstand high temperature longer.
The brazing process is simpler than ultrasonic pre-coating
brazing and the price is lower than the ultrasonic laser brazing
device, but this method is more suitable for brazing metals.
Fig. 15 Schematic diagram of the
ultrasonic brazing process [33]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
This ultrasonic brazing process is hard to realize the high-
strength bonding of dissimilar materials.
There are lots of scholars using this technique to realize the
connection between the same metal materials, the same non-
metallic materials and dissimilar materials. Xiao et al. [33]
introduced this ultrasonic brazing method to get the 7075Al/
Ni-Sn/7075Al joint. As shown in Fig. 15, the sonotrode,
which was in contact with the surface of the Al substrate,
could propagate ultrasonic vibration and pressure to the joint.
The results indicated that the constant increase of ultrasonic
brazing time did not necessarily work well. As the reinforcing
material of Sn base solder, Ni-foam plays an important role in
wetting the base metal. It can also be employed for other sol-
ders that can react with Ni.
Chen et al. [34] investigated the microstructure and me-
chanical properties of the Ti-6Al-4V/Al 1060 joint, which
was bonded by ultrasonic brazing in air. The effect of remov-
ing the oxide film was decided by the abnormal pit, which was
formed by the ultrasonic cavitation effect on the Ti-6Al-4V
surface. Chen et al. [35] also used ultrasonic brazing to join
SiC ceramics and Ti-6Al-4V. As shown in Fig. 16, the devel-
opment of residual thermal stress (RTS) in the joint was
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 16 The partial model and results of the finite element calculation [35]
analyzed by MSC.Marc program (Ver.2005). The calculation
of RTS can be used to analyze the joint shear strength.
Ji et al. [36] joined α-alumina ceramics by using ultra-
sonic brazing in air. The shear strength of the joint was up
to 101.5 ± 12 MPa. The ultrasonic brazing of composite
materials (55% (volume fraction) SiCp/A356) was report-
ed by Leng et al. [37]. The ultrasonic energy could increase
the content of SiC particles in the joint, as well as enhanced
the strength of the joint. The effect of solders with different
volume fractions of SiC particles on joint shear strength is
investigated, while only two kinds content of SiC particles
are listed in this work. The number of variables is too small
to reflect the overall influence of the SiC particles content
on joint shear strength.
Although the brazing methods are slightly different, the
principle of the main applications is similar. The ultrasonic
vibration is used to generate cavitation to remove oxide film,
refine grains, improve the microstructure of joints, and pro-
mote the interaction between the filler metal and the base
material.
Fig. 17 (a) Schematic diagram of
the ultrasonic-assisted TLP pro-
cess and (b) the typical morphol-
ogy of the Mg/Zn/Mg assembly
[44]
35
These several ultrasonic brazing techniques are not perfect.
The iron of ultrasonic soldering iron brazing is required for
heating and melting the solder. This means that the iron has a
higher temperature, leading to unstable ultrasonic transducer
operation when the brazing time is longer. For ultrasonically
excited solid base material brazing in air, ultrasonic pre-
coating brazing can improve the CTE mismatch between base
material and solder, but the base metal must be coated with
solder before welding. The joint binding radio is improved
while the brazing efficiency is reduced. The heating efficiency
and effect of ultrasonic laser brazing are better than other
ultrasonic brazing techniques. However, the higher price of
laser heating equipment limits its development. As the most
common ultrasonic brazing technique, ultrasonically excited
solid base material brazing in the air also has its pros and cons.
It has a wide range of applications, higher brazing efficiency,
lower cost, simple operation and shorter brazing time. The
heating method is simple, yet the heating efficiency is lower.
If the oxide film of the solid surface is hard to remove, the
brazing condition should be changed from air to vacuum.
36 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62

Fig. 18 Cross-sections of the joints bonded at: (a) 1 s, (b) 2 s, and (c) 3 s [46]

Controlling too many variables in the ultrasonic brazing pro-
cess can increase the complexity and diversity of research
directions.
4 Ultrasonic brazing between the same metals
The bonding between the same metals can be realized by
conventional brazing with flux, yet the lower strength and
poor heat resistance of joints, cleaning before and after
brazing, and the vacuum environment during brazing all limit
the development of conventional brazing technique. The same
metals joined by ultrasonic brazing technique can get better
mechanical behaviors.
Titanium alloys have high strength and low density, good
mechanical behavior, toughness and corrosion resistance, widely
used in the aerospace field. Titanium alloys can be classified into
α, α+β and β phase alloy. When the heating temperature ap-
proaches or exceeds the transition temperature of the β phase, the
size of grain will grow so sharply that the physical properties of

Fig. 19 Shear strength at room temperature and fracture morphology of joints [47]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 20 The effect of ultrasound on the molten pool flow of AZ31B: (a)
the schematic diagram of elemental tracer and (b) copper distribution
along the central line of weld [31]
joints get worse. Titanium can react with almost all filler metals
[38], but brittle metal compounds are also formed. Xu et al. [23]
used ultrasonic pre-coating brazing to join TA15 alloy. Pure Al
was used as filler metal in his study. Grain refinement formed by
ultrasound had great effects on enhancing the joint properties.
Chen et al. [39] used ultrasonic-assisted brazing to make an
effective bonding between Al-Si solder and Ti–6Al–4V substrate
in air. The phase transition from TiAl3 phases to Ti7Al5Si12 was
investigated in detail.
Austenitic stainless steel has excellent plastic toughness,
excellent hot and cold workability, widely used in building
decoration, food industry, medical equipment, textile printing
and dyeing equipment, petroleum, chemical industry, atomic
energy, aviation and aerospace, and other industrial fields.
The bonding of austenitic stainless steel is provided with im-
portant research significance. Kalashnikov et al. [27] used the
ultrasonic-assisted laser welding technique to join stainless
steel 321, forming a joint with tensile strength being 612
MPa. Ultrasonic laser welding on 321 stainless steel was
employed by Tarasov et al. [29]. The effect mechanisms of
ultrasonic energy input on the microstructure and strength of
the solder were obtained.
37
Nickel alloys are widely used in electronics. Ma et al. [40]
reported that ultrasonic soldering had good potentials for high-
temperature power electronic packaging. Ji et al. [41–43]
joined the Ni substrate using ultrasonic brazing with Sn-
based solders. The microstructure, shear strength, and fracture
of joints formed by the hybrid solders under ultrasonic and
non-ultrasonic action were systematically studied [41]. How
to shorten the soldering time of power electronics by improv-
ing the content of Ni in the Sn/Ni solder was also investigated
[42]. A high temperature full intermetallic compound (IMC)
joint in a short bonding time by optimizing the Ni percent in
the Sn/Ni composite solder was researched [43]. These studies
had shown that the reaction of solid Ni with molten Sn and the
diffusion of liquid solder could be speeded-up by ultrasonic
cavitation and streaming effect [42]. The ultrasonic vibration
used in this research is horizontal. However, the difference
between vertical ultrasonic vibration and horizontal ultrasonic
vibration is not given.
Magnesium alloy has many advantages, such as high spe-
cific strength, low density and high stiffness. Therefore, it is
widely used in automotive manufacturing. The connection
type among magnesium alloys plays an important role in the
performance of the car. Almost all magnesium alloys can be
joined by gas welding, argon arc welding (TIG), resistance
welding, electron beam welding, brazing and adhesive bond-
ing. The most common method for joining magnesium alloys
is TIG. TIG is applied to the joining of all magnesium alloys,
and a joint with good mechanical properties can be formed.
However, the disadvantages such as coarse grain, oxidation
and evaporation, burn-through and collapse of thin parts,
cracks and pores should also be noted.
In order to research a better way to join magnesium alloys,
several scholars contributed their strength. Xie et al. [44] re-
ported a two-step ultrasound-assisted transient liquid phase
(TLP) brazing technology for joining magnesium alloy, and
pure Zn was used as filler metal. The removal of surface ox-
ides and the improvement of eutectic reactions were achieved
by the first ultrasonic vibration. The interface IMC thickness
was reduced by the second ultrasonic vibration, which applied
at a higher bonding temperature [44]. The experiment proce-
dure is shown in Fig. 17. The joint shear strength was up to
109.3 MPa. IMC is harmful to shear strength, and the removal
of IMC is important for obtaining the joint with good mechan-
ical behaviors. The two-step ultrasonic brazing may be an
effective method to solve this trouble. Xu et al. [45] examined
how to reduce the time of the brazing process. Ultrasonic-
assisted TLP method and pure Zn interlayers were applied to
join AZ31B Mg alloys to cut down the bonding time in his
work. The joining time was reduced to 1s, but the highest
shear strength of the joints in his work is merely 42 MPa.
Xu et al. [46] also studied the influence of IMC on the micro-
structure and mechanical properties of AZ31Mg joints with
ultrasonic vibration TLP bonding and pure Zn foil. When the
38
Fig. 21 (a) Relationship between ultrasonic power and vibration
amplitude of faying surface of 1070-Al mounted on the horn. (b)
Relationship between applied pressure and tensile strength of joints ultra-
sonically soldered at 220 °C with Sn–23Zn solder. (c) Relationship
Zn foil was not exhausted, the joint consisted of one MgZn2
layer and two Mg/Zn eutectoid layers. The joint barely
consisted of eutectoid structure when the Zn foil was absent.
The joint without the MgZn2 layer had higher strength. The
specific microstructure characterization is shown in Fig. 18.
Wang et al. [47] joined MB8 magnesium alloys in the air
by using ultrasonic TLP bonding. The weld was closed by
degrees with the addition of ultrasonic action time, and the
phases in the joint were AgMg3, CuMg2 and α-Mg solid
Fig. 22 Dependence of bonding ratio and shear strength on brazing
temperature [49]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
between ultrasonic power and tensile strength of joints ultrasonically
soldered at 220 °C with Sn–23Zn solder. (d) Relationship between ultra-
sonic vibration time and tensile strength of joints ultrasonically soldered
at 220 °C with Sn–23Zn solder [48]
solution. As can be drawn from Fig. 19, the maximum shear
strength of the joint was up to 92 MPa.
In order to solve the insufficient high porosity and poor
weldability during the process of laser welding AZ31B mag-
nesium alloy. Lei et al. [31] adopted the ultrasonic laser
welding method to join AZ31B magnesium alloy to solve
the insufficiency of high porosity and poor weldability. As
shown in Fig. 20, Cu was used as a tracer atom to analyze
the influence of ultrasound on the circulation of weld in Mg
Fig. 23 Schematic of fabrication of an aluminum-solder-aluminum ten-
sile specimen (a) ultrasonic surface activation, (b) solder reflow [51]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 24 Variation of joint strength with ultrasonic vibration time [54]
alloy [30, 31]. It could be seen from the experimental results
that the tensile strength was up to 87% of AZ31B Mg base
material, and the porosity decreased from 4.3 to 0.9%. Lei
et al. [30] also investigated the effects of ultrasonic energy
on several aspects of laser brazing AZ31B magnesium alloy.
A flawless connection could be obtained by applying ultra-
sonic during the laser welding process. The flow intensity and
distribution were also improved.
Aluminum and aluminum alloys have characteristics of
low density, high strength, excellent electrical and thermal
conductivity, good erosion resistance and easy to process.
Because of these excellent properties, aluminum and alu-
minum alloys are widely used in automobile manufactur-
ing, shipbuilding, defense and aviation, container
manufacturing and other manufacturing fields. Aluminum
alloy brazing technology has also developed rapidly.
Conventional brazing technologies of bonding aluminum
alloys are TIG and melting extremely inert gas shielded arc
welding (MIG). Aluminum alloys are easily deformed and
softened when heated at a higher temperature. The conven-
tional welding methods are inefficient. Ultrasonic vibra-
tion, which is applied in brazing aluminum and aluminum
alloys, is a promising technology.
Nagaoka et al. [48] used ultrasonic soldering technology to
join 1070 aluminum below Sn–Zn hyper eutectic solder
liquidus temperature. The relationship between the tensile
strength of the joint and ultrasonic parameters is shown in
Fig. 25 The schematic
preparation process of Ni-foam/
Sn composite solder [55]
39
Fig. 26 Comparison of joint strength of 6061 aluminum alloys soldered
by ultrasonic semi-solid soldering [32]
Fig. 21. The maximum strength of the joint was 150 MPa at
220 °C with Sn-23Zn or Sn-40Zn solder. The use of a low
melting point in this work effectively avoids the softening of
aluminum alloy and reduces the impact of dissimilar CTE on
shear strength. Xiao et al. [49] joined 1060 Al using ultrasonic
brazing at different brazing temperatures with Zn-14Al hyper
eutectic filler metal. As shown in Fig. 22, bonding radio and
joint shear strength increased with the rise in brazing temper-
ature. The connectivity and joint shear strength reached the
maximum when the brazing temperature was about 440 °C. Ji
et al. [50] reported the effects of amplitude and the deforma-
tion reduction welding foil on microstructural evolution in the
ultrasonic brazing process of annealed 1100 aluminum foil.
The effect of the pressure applied by the ultrasonic mold to the
upper substrate on the microstructure indicates that the pres-
sure is also an important parameter affecting strength.
Pressure adjustment can be used to get uniform structure dur-
ing the ultrasonic brazing process.
Hashemabad et al. [51] made tin-based solder reacted with
fresh 1100 aluminum, and its surface oxide film was removed
by pre-reflow ultrasonic abrasion instead of flux. The two-step
40
Fig. 27 Comparison of the joint hardness of 6061 aluminum alloys by
ultrasonic semi-solid soldering with Sn-9Zn alloys, Sn-9Zn-1 nmAl2O3
alloys, and Sn-9Zn-1 nm1μmAl2O3 alloys [32]
ultrasonic soldering process is shown in Fig. 23. The surface
activation step meant the oxide film of 1100 aluminum surface
was removed by alumina particles under the action of ultra-
sonic vibration. Li et al. [52] investigated the grain refinement
mechanism of the Al/Sn/Al joint under ultrasonic vibration
within narrow channels. The main reason for grain refinement
of the Al/Sn/Al joint was proved to be the ultrasonic
cavitation-induced nucleation of Sn by theoretical calculations
and experimental results. The results show that the different
gap widths between the based materials also have an impor-
tant influence on the mechanical behaviors of the joint.
The 2024 aluminum alloys were brazed under the action of
ultrasound by Li et al. [53]. Zn-5Al was used as solder in his
work. The influences of ultrasonic brazing time on the joints
were studied. By comparing the joint under ultrasonic vibra-
tion time 3 to 30 s, it could be seen that the diffusion of Al
elements in the solder increased, the percentage of fine eutec-
tic phases reduced, and the joint shear strength enhanced as
ultrasonic vibration time prolonged. It could be drawn from
Fig. 28 Tensile strength of joints using (a) Zn-5Al and (b) Zn-5Al-3Cu solders, as a function of the ultrasonic treatment time and Al fraction in the bond
layer [59]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 29 Dependence of shearing strength on soldering time for Al/Ni-Sn/
Al joint [33]
the research of Xu et al. [54] that ultrasonic vibration had an
effect on the solderability of a 30 vol% Al2O3 strengthened
Al–Cu alloy matrix composite in the atmosphere. The
30 vol% Al2O3 enhanced Al–Cu matrix composite was joined
by using the Zn-Al middle layer under the action of ultrasonic
vibration. The relationship between the shear strength of joints
and ultrasonic vibration time is shown in Fig. 24. The open-
cell Ni-foam could be made into Sn-base composite solder
with pure Sn, and this kind of solders could optimize the joint
and the process of ultrasonic brazing [55]. The mechanical
behavior of aluminum alloy joint brazed by Tin-based solder
was commonly worse. In order to solve this problem, Niu
et al. [55] used Sn-base composite solder to join 2024 Al
under the action of ultrasound without an external heating
source. The production process of the Sn-base composite sol-
der is shown in Fig. 25. The tensile strength of Sn-base com-
posite solder was increased by 219.3 and 344.8% with 60%
and 80% porosity respectively. A good interface bonding
could be formed, and the cracks mainly appeared in the solder.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 30 Formation model of Zn-Al based composites filler alloys obtained with the application of ultrasonic vibration at 420 °C in the air [61]
The application of 6000 series aluminum alloys often re-
quires welding to obtain a more complicated structure.
However, the alumina layer hinders the contact between sol-
der and aluminum alloy. Therefore, several scholars use ultra-
sonic brazing technology to achieve the bonding of 6000 se-
ries aluminum alloy. For the characteristics that 6000 series
aluminum alloys are easy to be coated. Ding et al. [56] used
the ultrasonic pre-coating brazing method to join the 6061
aluminum alloy, which solved the problem of brazing temper-
ature was higher than the thermal annealing temperature. The
solder used in this work was Sn–Pb–Zn solder. Yu et al. [57]
also joined 6061 Al with Sn–Pb–Zn filler metal using ultra-
sonic pre-coating brazing. The shear strength of 6061 Al/Sn–
Pb–Zn/6061 Al was higher than 101 MPa. The form of solder
is the semi-solid state, which can lower the brazing tempera-
ture. Therefore, ultrasonic semi-solid brazing is a better choice
to complete the bonding at lower temperatures. Ding et al.
[32] also used Sn-9Zn, Sn-9Zn-1 nmAl2O3 and Sn-9Zn-1
nm1μmAl2O3 three kinds of solder to ultrasonically solder
6061 aluminum alloys. The strength and hardness of the joints
soldered by Sn-9Zn, Sn-9Zn-1 nmAl2O3 and Sn-9Zn-1
nm1μmAl2O3 are shown in Figs. 26 and 27. Nano-sized alu-
mina particles used in this work provided an innovative ma-
terial to improve the performance of the solder and joint.
Fig. 31 (a) Schematic illustration
of ultrasonic-assisted soldering,
(b) shape and size of the solder
joint for tensile test, and (c) shape
and size of 5056 aluminum base
metal for the tensile test [64]
41
Using nanomaterials to enhance the properties of the solder
is an alternative method and beneficial for the development of
ultrasonic brazing.
Compared with 6000 series aluminum alloy, 7000 series
aluminum alloy, which belongs to aviation series alloy, has a
better solderability. Guo et al. [58] made use of pure Zn inter-
layer to achieve the ultrasonic-promoted rapid TLP bonding
of 7034 Al at 400 °C. The solution and pervasion of Al and Zn
were promoted by the action of ultrasonic vibration could
shorten the bonding time and enhanced the shear strength to
223 MPa. The Zn-5Al (wt.%) eutectic alloy and Zn-5Al-3Cu
(wt.%) alloy were used as interlayers to ultrasonic-assisted
soldering 7034 aluminum alloys by Guo et al. [59]. The ef-
fects of the Cu percentage and the ultrasonic time on the mi-
crostructure and mechanical behaviors of the joints were ex-
amined at length. The influences of ultrasound time on the
inclusion of Al in filler metal and joint tensile strength are
shown in Fig. 28.
In order to guarantee the physical properties of 7034 alu-
minum alloy during the process of ultrasonic-assisted solder-
ing, Guo et al. [60] used low melting point solder Sn-4Zn, Sn-
9Zn, and Sn-20Zn alloys to braze 7034 Al alloy below 300
°C. The high interfacial bonding radio between Sn-Zn solder
and Al alloys was resulted from strong bonds formed from the
42
Fig. 32 Shear strength of Cu/Ni-Sn/Cu joints ultrasonically soldered for
different times [66]
segregation of Zn at the interface with both Al terminated
surface of Al2O3 and Sn-Zn-Al alloy. The highest tensile
strength of the joints was 201 MPa when the content of Zn
in filler metal was 4%. The highest strength of the joint is 249
±12 MPa when using the Zn-5Al-3Cu solder. Therefore, it can
be concluded that Cu is an important element in brazing 7034
Al. Ni-foam was employed as the strengthened phase of the
Sn base middle layer by Xiao et al. [33]. It can be seen from
Fig. 29 that the highest joint shear strength was 58 MPa with
the soldering time of 20 s.
Hypereutectic aluminum-silicon alloy is a very promising
particulate-rein-forced aluminum metal matrix composites
Fig. 33 Images of Cu/Ni-Sn/Cu
joint ultrasonically soldered at
250 °C for 30 s: (a) optical mi-
crograph of the cross-section and
EPMA images of (b) the cross-
section, (c) filler metal layer and
(d) soldering seam/Cu interface
[66]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
(Al-MMCs) and has the characteristics of good wear resis-
tance, heat resistance, corrosion resistance, small thermal ex-
pansion coefficient and good volume stability. However, the
poor solderability of Al-MMCs limits its development.
Scholars have found that ultrasonic soldering is an available
technology for soldering Al-MMCs. Wang et al. [61] used Si
particulate-reinforced Zn-5Al filler metal to ultrasonic-
assisted soldering Al-50Si alloys at the temperature of 420
°C. The change of phases in the joint during the formation
process is shown in Fig. 30. The highest joint shear strength
was up to 108.69 MPa. The cracks generate in the metal sub-
strate, and the strength of the solder and combined interface is
not obtained. Hence, the property of the solder and combined
interface cannot be understood. Wang et al. [62] also used Zn
foil as the filler metal to ultrasound-induced TLP bonding Al-
50Si alloys. The joint shear strength depended on the chemical
ingredient of the Zn-Al alloy formed by ultrasonic vibration
and the diffusion of Si particles. Ultrasound-induced TLP
bonding was also used by Zhu et al. [63] to manufacture Al-
50Si/Sn-51In/Al-50Si joint at 180 °C. The joint shear strength
could be enhanced by the addition of elemental Sn. The addi-
tion of an indium element has been demonstrated to effective-
ly reduce the melting point of the solder. Therefore, indium
can be employed to realize low-temperature ultrasonic brazing
to prevent the softening of the base material and RTS.
The brazing of other series aluminum alloy is also investi-
gated by some researchers. Nagaoka et al. [64] used Zn-Al
solder with ultrasonic-assisted soldering to receive good me-
chanical behavior on 5056 aluminum joints, and the base ma-
terial did not dissolve during the soldering process. The sol-
dering process is shown in Fig. 31. The advantages of low-
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62 43

Fig. 34 Schematic of the

formation mechanism of the sole
IMC of Cu3Sn joint: a) initial state
before heating, b) heated to 250
°C, c) conventional TLP process,
d) ultrasonic-assisted processing
[68]

temperature brazing are proved by comparing the joints com-
pleted by ultrasonic brazing below and over the solder
liquidus temperature.
Copper and copper alloys are nonferrous metals closely
related to humans and are applied to light industry, electrical,
construction industry, manufacturing, military industry and
other fields. The conventional welding methods of Cu are
brazing, resistance welding, and fusion welding. Because of
the physical and chemical properties of copper, the process of
conventional welding may produce welding cracks, thermal
cracks, and gas holes etc. In order to solve these problems and
get Cu/Cu joints with good mechanical properties, ultrasonic
44
Fig. 35 (a and b) Schematics of
the Cu/Sn foil/Cu interconnection
system and ultrasonic bonding
[70]
Fig. 36 Cross-sectional SEM images of the microstructures of joints
formed by the conventional TLP soldering at 250 °C at various bonding
times: (a) 40 min, (b) 60 min, (c) 80 min, (d) 120 min, and by the
vibration is applied during the brazing process. Various types
of solders are used in this kind of technology.
Wang et al. [65] used Ni-Sn composite solder to obtain Cu/
Cu joints during the ultrasound-assisted soldering process. As
Fig. 37 The shear strength of different Cu-Sn intermetallic joints [72]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
ultrasonic-assisted TLP soldering at 250 °C at various bonding times:
(e) 2 s, (f) 4 s, (g) 6 s, (h) 8 s [71]
shown in Fig. 32, joint shear strength enhanced as ultrasound
time prolonged. The joint with a strength of 64 MPa was
obtained. Xiao et al. [66] investigated the evolution of joint
microstructure, which was formed using the Ni-foam/Sn com-
posite middle layer under ultrasonic vibration. The micro-
structure of Cu/Ni-Sn/Cu joint, which was produced by ultra-
sonic soldering, is shown in Fig. 33. The ultrasonic cavitation
played an important part in the morphology progress of the
(Ni, Cu)3Sn4 phase, which was formed in the Ni-foam/Sn
composite middle layer.
Ji et al. [67] investigated a method of ultrasonic-assisted
soldering to reduce the IMC in the Cu/Sn-0.7wt.%Cu/Cu
joint. The highest shear strength was 81.5 MPa. The structure
of the ultrasonic mold used in this work is designed to avoid
damages for the chip dies. Compared to the ultrasonic vibra-
tion imposed on the side of the base material or the joint
directly, the effects of this way on the joint may be different.
Moreover, the vibration effects need scholars to confirm with
experiments.
Pan et al. [68] produced the Cu/Sn-Cu/Cu joints with the
sole Cu3Sn IMC by using ultrasonic-assisted TLP, the per-
centage of Cu particles in Sn-Cu filler metal was adjustable.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 38 Shear strength, IMC thickness, and Cu content as a function of
ultrasonic power for Cu/SAC305/Cu [74]
Ultrasonic vibration used in the process of TLP could improve
the wettability of Sn-Cu solders. Because the strength of
Cu3Sn phase is five times higher than that of the Cu6Sn5 phase
[69], and the content of Cu3Sn increased as the copper content
rose, the highest shear strength of the joints was 49.96 MPa
when the content of copper in Sn-Cu solder was 40%. The
process of the formation mechanism of the sole Cu3Sn IMC is
shown in Fig. 34. The joint shear strength in this work is
nearly twice as low as the strength in the previous study and
the application method of ultrasonic vibration may be harmful
to the chip dies.
Li et al. [70] used ultrasonic bonding to form Cu/Sn/Cu
joint, the IMCs in the joint were Cu6Sn5 phase and Cu3Sn
phase. As shown in Fig. 35, Sn foil was melted by the friction
effect caused by ultrasonic vibration. The Cu/Sn/Cu joint
formed by ultrasonic bonding was especially suitable for
Fig. 39 Detailed morphologies of
Ag3Sn and Cu6Sn5 phases in
deeply etched Cu/SAC305/Cu
joints treated by (a) 133 W, (b, c)
200 W, and (d) 267 W of USV
[74]
45
Fig. 40 Mechanical strength of the Cu/SAC305/Cu solder joints with
respect to USV time [76]
electronic systems operated at hyperthermia for the higher
melting point of Cu6Sn5 phase and Cu3Sn phase in the joint.
Zhao et al. [71] mainly investigated the non-interfacial ac-
cretion of Cu3Sn IMC in Cu/Sn/Cu joint during the ultrasonic
TLP brazing process. The study found that the reason for the
non-interfacial accretion of Cu3Sn was the effects of acoustic
cavitation on the nucleation and accretion mechanisms of
Cu3Sn. The evolution of joint microstructure formed by con-
ventional TLP brazing technology and ultrasonic TLP brazing
technology is shown in Fig. 36.
Zhao et al. [72] also compared the mechanical proper-
ties of Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn joints formed by conventional
TLP brazing technology and ultrasonic TLP brazing
46 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62

Fig. 41 Cross-sectional SEM

micrograph of Cu/SAC305/Cu
solder joint treated with USV time
of (a) 0 s, (b) 1 s, (c) 2 s, (d) 3 s, (e)
4 s, and (f) 6 s [76]

technology. As shown in Fig. 37, the shear strength of were both higher than the joints joined by conventional
Cu6Sn5 and Cu3Sn joints were up to 60 and 65 MPa, which TLP brazing technology.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 42 Shear test results of Cu/
SAC305/Cu joints with respect to
ultrasonic power. (a) Average
shear strength and (b) shear stress-
strain behavior [77]
Ji et al. [73] considered the influences of ultrasonic
vibration on Cu/SAC305/Cu joints. It could be indicated
that ultrasonic vibration applied to this work improved
the reliability of the joints and refinement of grain. The
physical behaviors of the joints were also optimized. Ji
et al. [74] also reported the effects of ultrasonic vibration
on the microstructures and grain orientations of Cu/
SAC305/Cu joint. As shown in Fig. 38, the content of
Cu and shear strength increased, and IMC thickness de-
creased as ultrasonic power enhanced when the ultra-
sound power was less than 267 W. The morphology of
Ag3Sn and Cu6Sn5 phases in Cu/SAC305/Cu joint proc-
essed by ultrasonic vibration with different power is
shown in Fig. 39 in detail.
To understand the joint strengthening mechanism, Ji et al.
[75] examined the microstructural evolution of Cu/SAC305/
Cu joints during the ultrasonic brazing process. The improve-
ment of joint shear strength and grain refinement was mainly
affected by ultrasonic cavitation and IMC fragments acting as
nuclei. Ultrasonic time is also an important parameter of ul-
trasonic brazing.
Fig. 43 SEM images of (a) the
cross-section, (b) the filler metal
layer, (c) the upper Cu substrate
interface, and (d) the lower Cu
substrate interface of Cu/Zn–3Al/
Cu joint ultrasonically brazed at
450 °C for 4 s [78]
47
Tan et al. [76] mainly studied the influences of ultrasonic
time on the microstructural and physical behaviors of Cu/
SAC305/Cu joint. As shown in Fig. 40, the Cu/SAC305/Cu
joint yield strength and shear strength had an obvious increase
after the ultrasonic treatment, but yield strength decreased, and
shear strength was almost unchanged when the ultrasonic vi-
bration time prolonged. The distribution of phases in the joint
treated with different ultrasound time is shown in Fig. 41.
Tan et al. [77] also investigated the influences of low ultra-
sound power on the microstructural and physical behaviors of
Cu/SAC305/Cu joint. The experimental results showed that
the ultrasonic power could improve the formation rate of in-
terlaminar eutectic phase and the coarsening of β-Sn phase.
As shown in Fig. 42, the shear strength of the joints, which
were formed under ultrasound time for 4.5 s, was higher and
increased with the increase of ultrasonic power. Thermal cy-
cling and electromigration test is proposed as a new method to
assess the reliability of the joint. With the development of
science and technology, brazing is needed in more fields and
more properties of the joint should be analyzed to evaluate the
comprehensive performance of joints.
48
Fig. 44 SEM images of (a) the
cross-section, (b) the filler metal
layer, (c) the upper Cu substrate
interface, and (d) the lower Cu
substrate interface of Cu/Zn–
14Al/Cu joint ultrasonically
brazed at 450 °C for 4 s [78]
Some other solders are also investigated to join Cu. Xiao
et al. [78] used ultrasonic brazing to join Cu with Zn-3Al, and
Zn-14Al filler metals. The influences of ultrasonic vibration
on the evolutions of the microstructural and physical behav-
iors of Cu/Cu joints were investigated. It can be seen from
Figs. 43 and 44 that the solder consisted of Zn–Al eutectic
phase and η-Zn phase and the layer on the Cu surface
consisted of a shell-like CuZn5 IMC layer and a flat Cu5Zn8
IMC layer in Cu/Zn-3Al/Cu joint and the solder was com-
prised of α-Al phase. CuZn5 phase and Al4.2Cu3.2Zn0.7 phase
and the coating on the surface of Cu was comprised of a
serrated CuZn5 IMC layer and a Cu based diffusion layer in
Cu/Zn-14Al/Cu joint. The shear strength of Cu/Zn-3Al/Cu
and Cu/Zn-14Al/Cu joints was 37.7 MPa and 92.1 MPa,
respectovely. The article shows that microjets and
shockwaves generated by the collapse of cavitation bubbles
can boost the wettability on the substrate surface. The effect of
microjets and shockwaves on the wetting angle is not
researched. Sn-0.5 (1.0, 4.0) Zn and Sn-9Zn were used to
ultrasonically braze Cu by Luan et al. [79]. The effects of Zn
content on Cu/Sn-Zn/Cu joint were investigated. The IMC
was Cu6Sn5 at the Cu/Sn-Zn interface when the content of
Zn was below 0.5 wt.% and replaced by Cu5Zn8 when the
content of Zn was above 1.0 wt.%. The tensile strength of
Sn-0.5Zn and Sn-1(4.0, 9.0) Zn solder joints was 53–57
MPa and 69–81 MPa, respectively.
Yang et al. [80] reported the wettability of Sn-37Pb alloy
solder on Cu substrate under the action of different ultrasonic
parameters. As shown in Fig. 45, the wetting angle of the
solder treated by ultrasonic vibration was smaller than the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
wetting angle of the solder without ultrasonic treatment. The
wetting process is simulated to observe the time-variation of
the wetting angle. This method expresses the effect of ultra-
sonic vibration on wettability clearly.
5 Ultrasonic brazing between the same kind
of non-metal
Ultrasonic brazing technology is used to join the same kind of
metals but also the same kind of nonmetallic materials. Many
scholars try their best to study the ultrasonic brazing of non-
metal materials, and they have made remarkable achievements
in some fields.
Zirconia is widely used in thermal obstruction coatings,
solid oxide fuel battery, biomedical and optoelectronic equip-
ment due to its structural and functional characteristics.
Conventional joining methods cannot solve the residual stress
of the joints. Thus, ultrasonic brazing is used to join zirconia
ceramics. Dong et al. [81] used Sn–4Al–0.7Cu interlayer to
realize the docking of ZrO2 below 350 °C, ultrasonic vibration
was applied to the bonding process. Experimental results
showed that ultrasonic cavitation and streaming could pro-
mote the oxidation reaction in the interface of base material
and solder. A good joint with the shear strength of about
47.3 MPa was gained.
As a kind of non-metal material with a series of good
mechanical properties, silicon carbide ceramics (SiC) are
widely used in petroleum, chemical industry, microelec-
tronics, automobile, aerospace, aviation, papermaking,
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 45 Cross-section micrographs and thermodynamic models of three-phase intersection (a), (b): no-ultrasonic 2 s, (c), (d): 1000 W ultrasonic-assisted
2 s [80]
laser, mining, atomic energy and other industrial fields.
Therefore, SiC ceramics are often joined to meet the re-
quirements of various fields. However, the filler metals
are difficult to wet the surface of SiC so that the reliability
of SiC/filler metal/SiC joints are lower. The application of
ultrasonic vibration in the brazing process just solves this
problem. Chen et al. [82] studied the interfacial character-
istics and formation mechanism of SiC/Al-12Si/SiC
joined by ultrasonic-assisted brazing. The SiO2 layer on
the surface of SiC was eroded by Al–12Si liquid solder,
and the formation of Al2SiO5 phases was accompanied by
the chemical reaction of the local erosion sites. The mi-
crostructure and fracture behavior of the joint are shown
in Fig. 46. It can be seen from Fig. 47 that the joint shear
strength increased with the increase of ultrasound time
and was up to the maximum when the ultrasonic time
was 16 s.
Wu et al. [83] used Sn-9Zn-2Al solder to ultrasonically
braze SiC and investigated the influences of ultrasound time
on SiC/SiC joints. The main chemical reaction that happened
49
in the joint was the reaction between the Al element in filler
metal and SiO2 on the SiC surface, and the reaction product
was alumina phase. As shown in Fig. 48, the highest joint
shear strength was 44 MPa as the ultrasound time was 4s.
Wu et al. [84] also used non-eutectic Zn–5Al–3Cu and
eutectic Zn–5Al solders to ultrasonically braze SiC. As shown
in Fig. 49. The shear strengths of SiC/Zn-5Al/SiC and SiC/
Zn-5Al-3Cu/SiC joints were equal when the ultrasonic time
was 20 s. This phenomenon leads to the removal of frangibil-
ity layered eutectic phases and the refined grain in the joint.
Alumina (Al2O3) is a kind of high hardness compound
widely applied to aerospace, automotive, articles of consump-
tion processing, casting/die casting, semiconductor field, etc.
Because the hardness of alumina is too high to process easily,
it often needs to join alumina to form a larger structure.
However, the temperature of conventional sintering and acti-
vation was too high, and solder could hardly wet the alumina
surface during the process of low-temperature brazing [85].
Xiao et al. [85] used ultrasonic pre-coating brazing of
Al2O3 with an Sn-based composite middle layer reinforced
50 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62

Fig. 46 Microstructure and

fracture behavior of the joint for
an ultrasonic time of 4 s: (a)
whole joint; (b) interface; (c)
fracture path in the joint; (d) frac-
ture surface and the local magni-
fication [82]

by Ni-foam. As shown in Fig. 50, Alumina ceramics were
firstly dipped in molten Sn and then the ultrasonic brazing
process was started. As shown in Fig. 51, the shear strength
of the Al2O3/Ni-foam-Sn/Al2O3 joint decreased with the in-
crease of ultrasonic time and the Al2O3/Ni-foam-Sn-9Zn/
Al2O3 joint shear strength increased when the ultrasound time
prolonged.
Fig. 47 Change of the joint shear strength with a varying ultrasonic time
[82]
The pure Al solder was used by Ji et al. [36] to ultrasoni-
cally braze α-alumina ceramics. It can be seen from Fig. 52
that the γ-alumina particles stimulated by ultrasonic vibration
enhanced the joints strength. The highest shear strength and
tensile strength were 121.5 MPa and 56.5 MPa, respectively.
Cui et al. [24] used Al–4.5Cu–1.5Mg solder with high
strength to ultrasonically braze sapphire and solve the problem
of low weld strength. The joints shear strength reached 125
MPa, and the highest shear strength of Al–4.5Cu–1.5Mg/sap-
phire was 230 MPa. Cui et al. [25] found a way to reduce CTE
of the filler in sapphire joints. As shown in Fig. 53, SiCp/A356
composite material and sapphire were both dipped in molten
Zn-Al and then started the brazing process. The CTE of the
SiCp/Zn-Al-Si composite joint was lower than Zn-Al solders,
and the cracks of the sapphire joint disappeared.
Xu et al. [22] used Sn-3.5Ag-4Ti alloy to ultrasonically
braze sapphire, the efficiency and the bonding strength was
enhanced. It can be seen from Fig. 54 that ultrasound promot-
ed the solution of Ti in Ti-Sn chemical compounds. The joints
shear strength was affected by the ultrasonic dipping time and
enhanced from 15 to 33 MPa as the ultrasonic dipping time
extended from 5 to 100 s.
Aluminum metal matrix composites are extensively ap-
plied to automotive, aerospace, electronics and optical instru-
ments thanks to their better performance than aluminum ma-
trix alloys. However, the oxide film on the aluminum metal
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62 51

Fig. 48 Shear strength and

fracture paths of the joints: (a)
shear strength; and (b,c) fracture
paths [83]

Xu et al. [86] made use of Zn–Al eutectic alloy to ultrason-

Fig. 49 Shear strength of SiC joints as a function of ultrasonic action time
[84]
matrix composites surface is difficult to remove. To solve this
problem, several scholars have used ultrasonic brazing to join
aluminum metal matrix composites, and the oxide film is re-
moved by ultrasonic vibration.
ically braze SiCp/A356 composites in the air environment. As
shown in Fig. 55, the tensile strength of the joints increased as
vibration time increased, and the maximum tensile strength
was about 175 MPa.
The microstructure and mechanical behavior of the
SiCp/A356/Zn-Al/ SiCp/A356 joint were reported by Yan
et al. [87]. There were some porosities in the joints when the
condition of ultrasonic brazing was 30 kHz and 30 s, and the
joints shear strength was lower. Porosities were gone while
temperature and vibration time were 520 °C and 6 s, which
was the reason for the growth of shear strength.
Zhang et al. [88] discussed the influence of brazing tem-
perature on the percentage of silicon carbide grains in the bond
metal and the shear strength of the SiCp/A356/ Zn-Al/ SiCp/
A356 joints. As shown in Figs. 56 and 57, the shear strength
of joints and SiC volume fraction increased with the increase
of brazing temperatures. The joint strength in this work is
optimized to 244 MPa by using a special ultrasonic brazing
process. This means that the physical behaviors of the joint
can be improved by controlling the action time and

Fig. 50 Schematic diagram of the ultrasonic soldering process [85]

52
Fig. 51 Shear strength of Al2O3 joints ultrasonically soldered with Ni-
foam/Sn and Ni-foam/Sn-9Zn composite solders for 4 s and 12 [85]
temperature of ultrasonic vibration instead of changing sol-
ders. Leng et al. [53] considered strengthening mechanism
of Al-based solid solution and silicon carbide grains on the
SiCp/A356/Zn-Al/SiCp/A356 joints strength. Experimental
results indicated that the joints with a higher content of Al-
based solid solution and silicon carbide grains had a higher
strength because Al-based solid solution and silicon carbide
grains in the joints could restrain the propagation of cracks.
Xu et al. [89] used zinc-aluminum alloys to ultrasonically
braze Al2O3p/6061 Al to understand the ultrasonic vibration
TLP bonding of Al-MMCs. Oxide film could be completely
removed when the ultrasonic amplitude enhanced to a certain
Fig. 52 Cross-sectional images of
the Al2O3/Al/Al2O3 joints at 973
K. (a) Optical image of the joint
interfaces. (b) SEM image of the
joint interface. (c) and (d) SEM
images of the lower and upper
joint interfaces after slightly etch-
ing, respectively [36]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
degree, and the degree depended on the material. The increase
of joint strength was related to the number of reinforcement
particles in the solder. Xu et al. [90] analyzed the interaction
interface structure between Zn–Al filler metals and Al2O3p/
6061 Al composite ultrasonic brazing in the atmosphere to
investigate the possibility of outputting reinforcement parti-
cles during the ultrasonic brazing process. The study found
that Al2O3 particles in the base material entered in Zn-Al alloy
under the vibration of ultrasound, and the reinforcement par-
ticles were formed.
6 Ultrasonic brazing between the different
materials
There are great differences in the physical, chemical and me-
chanical properties of different materials. When dissimilar
materials are joined by conventional brazing, the following
problems are easy to appear:
(1) The brittle compound phase can be formed at the inter-
face due to the metallurgical incompatibility.
(2) A huge difference of mechanical properties leads to a
mechanical mismatch of the joint interface, resulting in
serious stress singularity behavior.
The existence of the above problems not only makes it
difficult to connect dissimilar materials but also affects the
microstructure, properties and mechanical behavior of the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 53 Schematics of the fabrication of the sapphire joints: (a) ultrasonic
coating procedure; (b) coating of sapphire blocks and precursor compos-
ites with Zn-Al alloy; (c) sandwiching of one composite slice by two
sapphire blocks; (d) application of ultrasonic vibration to the sapphire
joint and has adverse effects on the fracture properties and
reliability of the joint. Brazing is a kind of joining method that
the surface of the base material is wetted by the molten solder
and reacts to each other to form a bonding interface. Ceramic
materials mainly contain ionic or covalent bonds, showing
very stable electronic coordination. Therefore, the surface of
ceramic materials is hard to be wetted by metal solder with
metal bond. The brazing between different materials means
materials with different chemical compositions, and different
mechanical behaviors were brazed together under certain pro-
cess conditions. Oxidation and dissimilar CTE leads to non-
fusion, porosity, cracks, and low mechanical properties of
joints during the conventional welding process between het-
erogeneous non-ferrous metals. While the use of ultrasound
during the process of brazing provides a viable solution meth-
od to get a better brazing joint.
Xiao et al. [91] investigated the influences of brazing tem-
perature on the microstructural and physical behaviors of Cu/
Zn-3Al/Al joint, which was joined by ultrasonic brazing. As
shown in Fig. 58, the highest joint tensile strength was
78.93 MPa when the brazing temperature was 440 °C. Xiao
53
block for 10 s, with a pressure force of 20 N; and (e) application of a
200-N force to the upper sapphire block and squeezing out of redundant
Zn-Al alloy and SiC particles [25]
et al. [92] also found the evenly distributed α-Al phase and
Zn–Al eutectic substantially decreased the CTE of the Zn-3Al
solder. Zhang et al. [93] found that a lot of Al elemnets dis-
solved in Sn-9Zn during the ultrasonic brazing process of Cu/
Sn-9Zn/Al joint. Research results indicated that the addition
of ultrasound improved the solubility of Al in Sn-9Zn.
The formation of Al3Mg2, Al12Mg17 and Mg2Sn in Mg/Al
joints is the main reason for poor mechanical properties. Sn-
3Cu and Sn-9Zn solders were applied to the process of ultra-
sonic brazing between AZ31B Mg alloy and pure Al by Xu
et al. [94]. The application of ultrasonic vibration and tin-
based solders in the process of brazing AZ31B Mg alloy and
pure Al could avoid Al3Mg2, Al12Mg17 and Mg2Sn IMCs,
which would result in the cracks. Xu et al. [95, 96] ultrason-
ically brazed AZ31B Mg alloy and pure Al using Zn-20.95Al
filler metal. As shown in Fig. 59, the lower brazing tempera-
ture could clear up the IMC and un-melted solid filler metal.
Zinc element had been found to increase the shear strength of
Mg/Sn-Zn/Al joints by preventing the spread of cracks [97].
Li et al. [98] controlled the thickness of the Mg2Sn layer by
using different ultrasonic brazing parameters. The joint with
54 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62

Fig. 54 Sketch of the interface evolution model for the interfacial reaction [22]

the highest shear strength of 60 MPa was gained when the

thickness of Mg2Sn less than 15% of the weld. These studies
all control the formation of IMC in the joint to enhance the
joint shear strength. While the other influence factors of im-
proving the mechanical behaviors of the joint are not studied,
this phenomenon also indicates that the study of IMC in the
Mg/Al joint has been complete. The other solders which do

Fig. 56 Variation of shear strength of SiCp/A356 composite bonds with

Fig. 55 Schematic of vibration liquid phase bonding [86] different SiC volume fractions: (a) 7%; (b) 23%; (c) 35% [88]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
Fig. 57 Variation of SiC volume fraction in bonds with brazing
temperature [88]
not produce IMC should be used to ultrasonic brazing Mg and
Al.
Ma et al. [99] converted the TiAl3 phase to the Ti7Al5Si12
phase by dipping aluminized Ti-6Al-4V alloy into molten Zn-
Al-Si during the ultrasonic brazing process of Al-4Cu-1Mg/
Ti-6Al-4V joint. The conversion from the TiAl3 phase to the
Ti7Al5Si12 phase increased the shear strength to 138 MPa. As
shown in Fig. 60, the destruction of the oxide film was defined
by pits formed by ultrasonic vibration on the Ti–6Al–4V sur-
face [34]. The RTS caused by dissimilar CTE for the Ti/Al
joints is a serious problem of the mechanical properties of the
joint. Chen et al. [100] reported that a wide range of semi-solid
temperature and the pliability of the without broken Sn phases
could reduce the RTS of Ti/Al joints. Ma et al. [101] reported
Fig. 58 Dependence of tensile strength on brazing temperature [91]
55
that ultrasound promoted the formation of nano-thick amor-
phous layers in the Ti-6.21Al-3.60V-0.30Fe/Zn-9.91Al/Al-
MMC joint.
Because of the shielding against space radiation and the
high density of Ta alloy, the bonding between Ta alloy and
light alloy can be well used in enhancing the reliability of
electronic products in the aerospace field. Yang et al. [102,
103] successfully joined Ta with Al alloy and Mg alloy by
using ultrasonic brazing technology, and the highest shear
strength of the Ta/Sn/Mg joint and Ta/Sn/Al joint were
27 MPa and 16 MPa, respectively. The Mg2Sn phase can
enhance the strength of the Ta/Sn interface; the effect of
Mg2Sn on the Mg/Sn interface is not researched. The applica-
tion of ultrasonic vibration does not affect the mechanical
behaviors of the Ta/Sn/Al joint, and this result indicates that
the acoustic cavitation of ultrasound may not work well in
some materials.
Fe-based amorphous foil is widely used in amorphous mo-
tors and electrical transformers because of its superior soft
magnetic properties. However, the oxide film on the Fe-
based amorphous foil surface causes difficulty in wetting
[104]. Ji et al. [104] found that ultrasonic action could improve
the interfacial wetting and microstructural refinement during
the process of ultrasonic brazing of Fe-based amorphous/Sn-
9wt.%Zn/1060 Al joint. To improve the joint performance,
0.5wt.% Ni was added into Sn-9wt.%Zn solder by Ji et al.
[105]. The hardness of the joint was improved by NiAl3 gen-
erated at high brazing temperature. It can be drawn from the
study that the Ni element used in Sn-based solders does a good
job in strengthening the joint mechanical characters no matter
what the base materials are.
Ultrasonic brazing is also used in joining other dissim-
ilar metals. Xu et al. [106] used Zn-5 wt.%Al to ultra-
sonically braze hyper eutectic Al-27 wt.%Si alloy and
hyper eutectic Al-50 wt.%Si alloy. The process of ultra-
sonic removal of the oxide film is clearly shown in Fig.
61. Lang et al. [107] used Zn as the filler metal to ultra-
sonically braze Mg/Cu. As shown in Fig. 62, the width
of the weld reduced as the brazing temperature
prolonged. When the weld width was 30 μm, the joint
shear strength was the highest, which was 80.75 MPa.
The bonding between SiC ceramics and non-ferrous
metals can better play the role of SiC ceramics. Chen
et al. [35] successfully used AlSnSiZnMg solder to join
silicon carbide ceramics and Ti–6Al–4V alloy under the
influence of ultrasound. The ultrasound improved the wet-
tability of the silicon carbide ceramics and removed the
oxide film on Ti–6Al–4V surface. The SiC/Sn-0.7Cu/Cu
joint formed by ultrasonic brazing had a better mechanical
strength than formed by conventional soldering and could
be applied to the condition above 280 °C [106]. Ultrasonic
cavitation could improve the reaction between Ti and SiO2
during the process of bonding between silicon carbide and
56
Fig. 59 Joint morphologies at (a) 450 °C, (b) 440 °C, (c) 430 °C, (d) 420 °C, (e) EDS analysis of IMC layer at 430 °C and (f) microstructure near Al side
at 420 °C [96]
SnAgTi, and the joint shear strength would be enhanced by
the full reaction []. It can be drawn from this article that
ultrasonic vibration can not only remove the oxide film but
also make the element in the solders reacts with the oxide
film to improve the joint strength.
Ultrasonic vibration is often used to reduce the RTS of
the alumina/metals joints by lowering the brazing temper-
ature. NAKA et al. [108] ultrasonically brazed the alumina
and Cu by using Zn-Al solders. The wettability and
strength of the solder could be optimized by the increase
of Al content in Zn-Al solders and ultrasonic vibration time
below the specified value. Zn-14Al was applied to ultra-
sonically braze alumina and Cu by Ji et al. [109–111]. The
joint with 80 MPa shear strength was obtained, and the
increase of ultrasonic power promoted the amount of
IMCs in the joint [109]. Lots of crystallized Al2O3 were
produced at the interface of the alumina and the solder
[110]. The action of ultrasonic power could bring about a
better thermal dissipation of Cu/alumina joints [111]. The
lap sequence of substrate materials also affects the joint
property and microstructure. Therefore, the impact of ul-
trasonic energy propagation in different media on the joint
can be used as a new research direction.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
7 Future research directions of ultrasonic
brazing
The application of ultrasound in the brazing process signifi-
cantly affects the development of material connection.
Ultrasound not only generates heat through friction but also
plays an important part in improving the wettability, micro-
structure and enhancing the mechanical behavior of the joints
without using flux during the brazing process, which is widely
used in joining plastics, metals, ceramics, composite materials
and dissimilar materials. At present, the research of ultrasonic
brazing mainly concentrates on the examination of the me-
chanical behaviors and microstructure of the welded joints
and the broken mechanism of the oxide film of various mate-
rials. The focus of future researchs on ultrasonic brazing are:
(1) Ultrasonic vibration is commonly used for the bonding
between metal. The brazing between dissimilar materials
is studied by few scholars. On the one hand, the unequal
CTE among different materials can cause lager thermal
residual stress, which is harmful to the mechanical be-
haviors of the joint during the ultrasonic brazing process.
On the other hand, the ingredient of the solders is
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62 57

Fig. 60 Microstructure (SEM)

and composition analysis (EDS)
of the Al–12Si/Ti–6Al–4V inter-
faces: (a) 4 s; (b) 4 s+5 min; (c) 4
s+15 min; (d) 4 s+15 min+4 s [34]

difficult to determine. However, the connection of dis-
similar materials, such as the connection between metal
and glass, plays an important part in the aerospace field.
The conventional connection method between glass and
metal is the glue joint. However, the strength of the bond
will decrease as the temperature increases, the glued sur-
face must be carefully cleaned, and the bonding time is
generally longer and cannot be used immediately after
bonding. These characteristics limit the application of the
glue joint in some fields with a harsh environment and

Fig. 61 Model of formation of Si

particle/Zn-Al-based composite
filler alloy: (a) original stage, (b)
oxide film breaking stage, (c) Si
particle migration and elemental
diffusion stage, (d) microstructure
homogenization stage [106]
58
Fig. 62 Microstructure of AZ31B/Zn/Cu joints obtained by ultrasonic-induced TLP bonding under different welding temperatures at 0.2 MPa and
ultrasonic vibration for 15 s: (a) 350 °C, (b) 370 °C, (c) 390 °C, (d) 410 °C, (e) 430 °C, (f) 470 °C [107]
higher requirements. The studies of the application of
ultrasound in brazing new materials and dissimilar ma-
terials still need a lot of experiments and data to verify
the truth.
(2) The wetting of the base metal by the solders is an impor-
tant process for the brazing of the material [112]. Most
scholars try their best to observe the microstructure and
test the mechanical behaviors of the joint, but ignore the
importance of the interface wetting mechanism. This
leads to the obscurity of the wetting mechanism of the
base material surface by ultrasound during the brazing
process. One of the difficulties between dissimilar mate-
rials is that the CTE is different, and the other one is that
it is difficult to choose a suitable solder, which has good
wettability for both base materials. The composition of
the joint phase after ultrasonic brazing can be obtained
by observing the SEM, XRD and TEM graphics.
However, few scholars have studied the effect of ultra-
sound on the specific reaction mechanism of the interfa-
cial compounds. In other words, we only observe the
result and ignore the process of getting the result.
Therefore, the research on the mechanism of ultrasonic
brazing has great significance for the connection of dis-
similar materials.
(3) There are many alloys with good behavior used in the
aerospace field, such as aluminum-lithium alloys, high-
temperature alloys, memory alloys, niobium alloys, tita-
nium aluminum alloys, etc. Joint softening, cracks and
some other defects will be caused in the conventional
brazing process. The employment of ultrasonic vibration
in the brazing process can solve these problems, and
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
there are few reports about the ultrasonic brazing of these
materials. The ultrasonic brazing process is rarely used in
the aerospace field owing to a lack of experiments and
data. Therefore, research on ultrasonic brazing of these
aerospace alloys should be strengthened, and it might
reduce cost and improve the performance of the
spacecraft.
(4) Although the application of ultrasonic vibration in the
brazing process can improve brazing quality and effi-
ciency, there are always some shortcomings in the com-
bination of ultrasound and brazing. For example, the
contact time of the horn and solder pool is too long dur-
ing the process of ultrasonic pre-coating brazing. This
time parameter will affect the stability of the device or
even damage the ultrasonic transducer. When the thick-
ness and hardness of the welding workpiece increase, the
power required for welding increases exponentially.
Thus, the manufacturing cost of ultrasonic brazing ma-
chine is increased. Because of the limitations of the tool
head, the workpiece can only be extended within the size
range allowed by the brazing system, and the brazed joint
form and size range is limited. Therefore, it is necessary
to carry out in-depth research in practicality, efficiency,
and economy of ultrasonic brazing.
8 Summary
Ultrasonic brazing, an emerging connection technology, has
developed drastically in recent years. In this article, the mech-
anisms of ultrasonic action and the latest ultrasonic brazing
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:27–62
methods are introduced. The ultrasonic brazing between the
same metals, same kind of non-metals, dissimilar metals and
metals with non-metals is reviewed in detail. The research
results of these kinds of literatures indicate that the application
of ultrasonic brazing technology can improve the brazing con-
ditions and form joints with better mechanical properties. The
limitations of current research and future research trends of
ultrasonic brazing are also proposed.
Author contribution Chao Chen conceived and designed the experi-
ments; Hao Peng performed the experiments; XiaoQiang Ren and
Denglin Qin analyzed the data; Chao Chen and XiangKun Ran contrib-
uted reagents/materials/analysis tools; Chao Chen and Hao Peng wrote
the paper.
Funding This research work is supported by the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51805416), Young Elite
Scientists Sponsorship Program by CAST, Natural Science Foundation
of Hunan Province (Grant No. 2020JJ5716), Natural Science Basic
Research Plan in Shanxi Province of China (Grant No. 2019JQ-372),
the Project of State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex
Manufacturing, Central South University (Grant No. ZZYJKT2019-01),
and Huxiang High-Level Talent Gathering Project of HUNAN Province
(Grant No. 2019RS1002).
Data availability The raw/processed data required to reproduce these
findings cannot be shared at this time due to technical or time limitations
Declarations
Consent to participate All authors agreed with the consent to participate.
Consent for publication All authors have read and agreed to the pub-
lished version of the manuscript.
Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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