Planetary Sciences:

Earth and Beyond

Lecture 11
Radiative Transfer
Energy budget of Earth

GNR 649
Volcano Eruption from Space
• The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano erupted for the second time
in 2 days, triggering a tsunami that hit the South Pacific Kingdom of
Tonga. NOAA's GOES-West satellite captured imagery of the eruption.
• https://www.space.com/tonga-volcano-eruption-satellite-photos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v2TlhBT9fuQ
Radiative Transfer
• Radiative transfer is the theory describing how electromagnetic
radiation is transmitted through a medium such as a planetary
atmosphere or a stellar photosphere
• The medium can emit, absorb, and scatter radiation
― A behavior that may vary strongly with wavelength according to the different
species composing the medium and their physical state
• An important tool to simulate changes in the solar radiation due to
atmospheric scattering and absorption processes are radiative
transfer models (Forward models)
• Satellites/probes can only sense radiation, which needs to be
converted to meaningful data (Inverse or retrieval models)
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Conduction
• It is the movement of kinetic energy in materials from higher temperature areas to
lower temperature areas through a substance
• The molecular vibrations of one material directly shaking the molecules of the other
• The molecules will simply give their energy to adjacent molecules until an
equilibrium is reached
• Convection
• The heat within a material moves when the material moves
• Convection is heat transfer through fluid (like air or water) motion
• Usually this motion occurs as a result of differences in density
• Radiation
• Vaporization/Evapotranspiration
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Molecules are made of charged particles. When charges move, they emit photons,
and slow down.
• Transfer of electromagnetic radiation which describes the heat exchange of energy
by photons
• Does not require a medium in which it propagates
• Vaporization/Evapotranspiration
• Evapotranspiration is the energy carried by phase changes, like evaporation or
sublimation
• It takes a fair amount of heat to evaporate water
• Water that condenses releases that heat
Electromagnetic Radiation

• We all are “remote sensors”: Ear, Eyes

• All satellite remote sensing systems involve the measurement of
electromagnetic radiation
• Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) refers to the waves
(or their quanta, photons) of the electromagnetic field, propagating
through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy
• Electromagnetic radiation has the properties of both waves and
discrete particles, although the two are never manifest
simultaneously
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfXzwh3KadE&t

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Remote sensing uses radiant energy that is reflected and emitted

from Earth at various “wavelengths” of the electromagnetic spectrum
• Our eyes are sensitive to the visible portion of the EM spectrum
 Planck’s Energy Equation
• Fundamental equation in quantum mechanics which states that the energy
of a photon, E, known as photon energy, is proportional to its frequency
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 =
𝜆
where, h is Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js), c is speed of light (3 x 108 m/s),
ν is frequency (Hz), and λ is wavelength (m)

• Wavenumber: Number of wavelengths per unit distance, (typically, cm−1)

1
𝜈෤ =
𝜆
Common Radiometric Quantities
Quantity Formulation Units

Radiant Flux (or Flux) dQ/dt Js-1 or W

Irradiance dQ/dt/dA Wm-2

Radiance dQ/dt/dA/dΩ Wm-2str-1

Spectral Radiant Flux (or dQ/dt/dλ Js-1μm-1 or Wμm-1

Spectral Flux)
Spectral Irradiance dQ/dt/dA/dλ Wm-2μm-1

Spectral Radiance dQ/dt/dA/dΩ/dλ Wm-2str-1μm-1

Blackbody
• A blackbody is an object that absorbs all EM radiation that hits it
• It does not reflect, thus, it is “black”
• Emits all EM radiation frequencies
• The way a blackbody emits radiation is dependent only on the
blackbody’s temperature
• Stefan Boltzmann Law:
𝐼 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝜎 = 5.673 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4
• Perfect blackbody does not exist in reality (hypothetical)
• For Gray body: 𝐼 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 , ε is the emissivity
 Radiation Laws
Planck’s Law (describes spectral radiance from a black body at temperature T)
2hc 2 2hf 3
B = 5 hc / kT B f = 2 hf / kT
 (e − 1) c (e − 1)
W m-2 sr-1Hz-1
2hc 2  c1 
−5 −5

B = hc / kT = c 2 / T
e ( −1 e ) ( −1 ) h= Planck constant = 6.626 x 10-34 m2 kg/s

Stefan-Boltzmann Law 2 5 k 4

 = T 4
Radiant M =
 M ( )d =  T W m-2
4

exitance 0 15c 2 h 3 -23

 = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10 J k-1

Wien’s Radiation Law

2h 3 −hf / kT
Bf = 2 f e
For short wavelength (high freq._ hf/kT >>1 c
Rayleigh-Jeans Law
For longer wavelength (i.e low frequency), hf/kT << 1
 x 2
x 3

e = 1 + x + + + ..... − 1 = x for x  1
x

 3 2 6
2
 x= hf/kT
2hf 2 f kT 2kT
Bf = = = Wm −2 sr −1Hz −1
c 2 hf c2 2
Wein’s Displacement Law
• Relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the
wavelength at which the radiation will peak
• Wavelength is inversely proportional to the temperature
2898
𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝜇𝑚
𝑇
𝜈𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 5.879 × 1010 ∙ 𝑇
• Planck’s law:
2ℎ𝑐 2
𝐵𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝜆 𝑒 −1
2ℎ𝜈 3
𝐵𝜈 = 2 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇
𝑐 𝑒 −1
Blackbody Radiation
 Atmospheric Windows
• Only a fraction of longwave
radiation escapes
• Some key greenhouse
gases:
―N2O: Nitrous oxide
―CH4: Methane
―O3: Ozone
―H2O: Water vapor
―CO2: Carbon dioxide

https://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/sage/meteorology/lesson1/
AtmAbsorbtion.htm
 Solar Spectrum
• Received Solar Irradiance
at the Earth’s Sea Level
– Most gets through
– Some UV and IR absorbed
– Some reflected by snow,
ice, clouds, sand
A large surface of absolute temperature T

Stefan-Boltzman Law
An arbitrary area A parallel to the large surface
a “blackbody”: all photons going into it are absorbed
A blackbody is an object that absorbs all EM radiation that hits it
The net power P flowing thru A
I = P / A= T 4

(Some individual  = 5.673 10 W / m K

−8 2 4
rays of radiation)
σ (sigma) is the Stefan-Boltzman constant
P/A is known as power density
(symbol I for “intensity” or “irradiance”)
The Power of the Sun
• The surface of the sun is about 6000K

• The power density flowing out of the surface of the sun is

I ss = P / A = T 4
= 5.673  10 −8  (6000 K )
W 4
m2K 4

= 5.673  10 −8 W
m2K 4
 6000 K  6000 K  6000 K  6000 K
= 5.673  10 −8 W
m2K 4
 1.296 1015 K 4
The power of a major power plant
= 7.352 10 7 W/m 2 Flowing thru the area of your seat!
Sun – Earth Connection
• The power from the sun hits the Earth!
• We are getting solar energy all the time.
• To keep from getting much too hot very quickly, the Earth re-radiates
energy back out into space.
• The Earth needs to be at some absolute temperature to do this.
Let’s explore…
Sunshine on the Earth
• ASS and ASCE are imaginary
spherical surfaces centered on
the sun.
• ASS is just above the surface of
Sun the sun
• ASCE is a surface that passes
ASS
through the Earth
Earth SCE: Solar Constant at Earth
ASCE
Conservation of Energy
• The total power flowing out
of the sun thru ASS is the
same as the power flowing
PSCE
PSS away from the sun thru ASCE
Sun • PSS = PSCE
ASS • The area of ASCE is much
larger than ASS
Earth
ASCE
Power Densities
PSS=PSCE • The power density at the Sun is
ISS = PSS/ASS
• we calculated this already
PSCE
PSS • At Earth it is ISCE=PSCE/ASCE
Sun
• Some algebra:
ASS

Earth
ASCE
PSCE PSS PSS  ASS   ASS 
I SCE = = =   = I SS  
ASCE ASCE ASS  ASCE   ASCE 
What are these areas?
• Surface area of a sphere A = 4 π R2
• RSS is radius of the Sun
• RSCE is the distance from the Earth
PSCE R
PSS SS to the Sun.
Sun We need
ASS R
SCE

Earth
ASCE ASS 4RSS
2 2
RSS
= = 2
ASCE 4RSCE RSCE
2
A trick (some trigonometry)
2 2
𝑃𝑆𝐶𝐸 𝑃𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑆𝑆
𝐼𝑆𝐶𝐸 = = = 𝐼𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼𝑆𝑆 2 = 𝐼𝑆𝑆
𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐸 𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐸 𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐸 𝑅𝑆𝐶𝐸 𝑅𝑆𝐶𝐸

RSS • Do you know the radius of the sun? The

¼º Earth-Sun distance? (If not, then)
Sun ½º • We can look at the sun, and see that it
RSCE occupies about ½° of the sky
• From trig: tan(¼°) = RSS/RSCE
Earth
The Solar Constant at Earth
• Putting it all together: the sun’s power density at Earth is
2
PSCE PSS  ASS   ASS   R2
  RSS 
I SCE = =   = I SS   = I SS 2
SS
 = I SS  
ASCE ASS  ASCE   ASCE  R
SCE   RSCE 
= I SS tan 2 ( 1 4 )
= 7.352 10 7 W/m 2  (0.00436 )
2

= 7.352 10 7 W/m 2 1.904 10 −5

= 1400 W/m 2
• This is known as the Solar Constant at Earth (S0)
• 1370 Wm-2 is more accurate
 Conservation of Energy on the whole Earth

Sunlight nasa.gov
• Only way for energy to leave is via radiation
• This radiation is known as Earthlight
• We can’t see it b/c it is in the infrared
• Let’s balance the energy of sunlight and
earthlight

Earthlight
Not all Sunlight stays
• Some sunlight is reflected, esp. from ice sheets
and clouds. This reflection is given by the albedo
of the Earth α=0.30
• 30% of all the energy from the Sun bounces right
back to space
The Power in Sunlight

• Radius of the Earth is Re=6366 km

• Total power of sunlight warming
• Keeping only that energy that doesn’t bounce off:

𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 1 − 𝛼 𝑆0 𝜋𝑅𝑒2
The Power in Earthlight
• Radius of the Earth is Re=6366 km
• Total power of earthlight cooling (Stefan - Boltzmann Law)

Pearthlight = T (4R
e
4 2
e )
Balancing Earthlight and Sunlight
• We can find the temperature of the Earth by balancing the sunlight
and earthlight

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝜎𝑇𝑒4 4𝜋𝑅𝑒2 = 1 − 𝛼 𝑆0 𝜋𝑅𝑒2

4
1−𝛼 4 1−𝛼
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑆0 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑆0
4𝜎 4𝜎
Let’s find the Earth’s Temperature
• We can find the temperature of the Earth by balancing the sunlight
and earthlight

4 1−𝛼
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑆0
4𝜎
4 (1−0.30)
= 1370
4 5.67 × 10−8
4
= 4.321 × 109 = 255K = (255−273)°C = −18°C
Avg. Earth temp = -18 °C??
• Brrr… that’s cold!
• But Earth’s mean temperature is 15 °C. How to account 33 °C
difference?
• What we missed? Any guesses?
 Energy Cycle
• A more detailed look at the whole energy
budget for Earth’s atmosphere
• Earth’s energy budget accounts for the
balance between energy Earth receives
from the Sun, and energy Earth radiates
back into outer space after having been
distributed throughout the five
components of Earth’s climate system
(atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, land
surface and biosphere)
• Earth is very close to be (but not perfectly) in
radiative equilibrium, the situation where the
incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal
flow of heat to space; under that condition,
global temperatures will be relatively stable
 Radiation Equilibrium
• Reflected=6+20+4 = 30% (yellow)
• Absorbed by land = 51% (orange)
• Absorbed by atmosphere = 19% (orange)
• Outgoing to space = 64+6 =70% (red)
• Total leaving to space = 30% + 70% = 100%
Incoming = outgoing
• Anything that increases or decreases the
amount of incoming or outgoing energy
will change global temperatures
 https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/how-climate-works/energy-budget

Global Energy Flows -2

(Wm )
• 1370/4=341 Wm-2
• Atmosphere absorbs a
significant amount of
longwave radiation
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
• S. Chandrasekhar, (born October 19, 1910, Lahore, India [now in
Pakistan]—died August 21, 1995, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.), Indian-born
American astrophysicist who, with William A. Fowler, won the 1983 Nobel
Prize for Physics for key discoveries that led to the currently accepted
theory on the later evolutionary stages of massive stars and black holes.
• He discovered that massive stars can collapse under their own gravity to
reach enormous or even infinite densities. Today we call these collapsed
stars neutron stars and black holes.
• Chandrasekhar’s most notable work is on the astrophysical Chandrasekhar
limit. The limit gives the maximum mass of a white dwarf star, or
equivalently, the minimum mass that must be exceeded for a star to
collapse into a neutron star or black hole (following a supernova).
• The currently30accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about 1.4 𝑀⨀
2.765 × 10 𝑘𝑔
“ Science is a perception of the world around
us. Science is a place where what you find in
nature pleases you.

– Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
”
Next time …
The Sun