Known forces in nature: 

gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear. 

So far, about 85% of universe matter is named ‘dark’ because we don’t have a clue how to detect it:
It’s supposed to be there by the way distant objects apparently move but cannot detect it.

Niels Bohr’s atom model has evolved onto the Standard Model with 61 particles, the electron bravely
survived, this model now can explain EH strong and weak nuclear forces, but yet, we cannot explain
the one force that bounds us to our planet Earth. We see a lot, but still don’t know how the heck we
got stuck on this rock, that luckily has plenty of water. At the end of XXth century, after the longest
undisrupted (by major conflict(s)) peace period in human history, we just realised we’d better start
recycling, revert to clean energy sources, and keep oceans clean, at least until we figure out how on
heaven gravity works.

Before time line answering exercise 1.1, with emphasis on quantum physics for optical
communications, I have a list of principles that cannot harm getting acquainted with.

%%%% PRINCIPLES

Radiometry units

Planck postulate : E=h*f %∆ f[Hz]

Plank constant:
h = 6.62607015×10−34 [J⋅s]
4.135667696×10−15 [sV⋅s]
Reduced or h bar Plank constant
ħ = 1.054571817×10−34 [J⋅s]
6.582119569×10−16 [eV⋅s]
hc = 1.98644586×10−25 [J⋅m]
1.23984193 [eV⋅μm]
w of ħc = 3.16152649×10−26 [J⋅m]
0.1973269804 [eV⋅μm]

Kirchhoff spectroscopy laws:

1. A solid, liquid, or dense gas excited to emit light will radiate at all wavelengths and
thus produce a continuous spectrum.
2. A low-density gas excited to emit light will do so at specific wavelengths and this
produces an emission spectrum.
3. If light composing a continuous spectrum passes through a cool, low-density gas, the
result will be an absorption spectrum.

Types of Spectroscopy Polarization Spectroscopy

OTE : Non-reflective = Opaque = black body, and in Thermal Equilibrium with environment.

Thermal equilibrium

Thermodynamics Laws

Plank’s law = Spectral density of OTE

 B=2*h*f^3/c * 1/(exp(h*f/(k_b*T))-1)
B : irradiance [W/(m^2*strad*Hz)]
Approximating for low frequencies h*f << k_b*T then
Plank’s -> Rayleigh-Jeans : B ~ 2*f^2*k_b*T/c^2
Approximating for high frequencies, Wien approximation :

Thermal equilibrium energy distributions:

1. Bose-Einstein
Quantum effects appear when N/V>nq
% nq: quantum concentration=inter-particle distance=DeBroglie wavelength
N: amount particles V: volume
<ni>=gi/(exp((eps_i-mu)/(kb*T))-1)
ni=expected amount of particles in energy state i.
gi=energy level i degeneracy level.
Bose-Einstein reduces to Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution for limit high T.
Bose-Einstein reduces to Rayleigh-Jeans law for low energy states.
2. Fermi-Dirac
Special case of integral with same name.
Distribution of identical electrons (fermions) in same energy state.
<ni>=1/(exp((eps_i-mu)/(kb*T))-1)
3. Maxwell-Boltzmann
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution
2D example, velocities of particles in pool is only an analogy,
it’s the energy of the particles, not their mechanical movement only, in solids atoms are steady,
all identical hard balls.

Electron magnetic moment

Spin = tiny (quantum) magnetic dipole vector. If integer, only short range interaction.

DeBroglie relation: p=ħ*k % k: wave number, p: magnetic moment.

Heisenberg simplifies DE by replacing lattice Hamiltonian classic scalar boundary conditions

sigmas spins [1/2 -1/2] with Pauli matrices.
Pauli matrices:
sigma_x=[0 1;1 0]
sigma_y=[0 -j;j 0]
sigma_z=[1 0;0 -1]
1D periodic lattice Hamiltonian:
H=J*sum(sigma_i*sigma_i+1,1,N)+h*sum(sigma_i,1,N)
For 3D periodic lattices, XYZ model if J=Jx~=Jy~=Jz. XXZ model if J=Jx=Jy~=Jz
If J>0 ground state always ferromagnetic.
If J<0 YZ always antiferromagnetic.
Ising model: Simplified version of 1D Heisenberg model: transverse magnetic field X only,
and interaction Z only.
g<<1 or g>>1 ground state degeneracy differs, Pauli introduced duality transition matrices:
splits sigma into product series of S (scattering) matrices.
sigmaz_i=PI(sigmax_j,sigmax_j+1,1,j==i)
sigmax_i= sigmaz_i*sigmaz_i+1
DMRG: density matrix renormalisation group
Bethe ansatz: method to obtain wave functions of certain many-body models.
ALKT model: Afflek Lieb Kennedy Tasaki. Extension of quantum Heisenberg 1D model.
Previous extension attempt Majumdar-Ghosh chain (model).
Stark effect : E presence causes atom spectral lines linear or quadratic shifting and splitting.
Principle for voltage-sensitive dyes.

Zeeman effect : atom spectral lines splitting caused by H presence. Laser cooling application

Zeeman energy

Schrot effect aka small shot effect: spontaneous current variations in high-vacuum discharge tubes.

Magneto-optic Kerr effect

Voigt effect

Faraday effect

Cotton effect

Cotton–Mouton effect

Lambda shift

Stefan-Boltzmann law: average compression pressure on OTE submerged in uniform

radiation pool Pc=4*sigma/(3*c)*T^4. Sigma = stef-boltz k
σ = 5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4.[5]

 cgs units : σ ≈ 5.67037441918442945397×10−5 erg⋅cm−2⋅s−1⋅K−4.

 thermochemistry : σ ≈ 11.7×10−8 cal cm−2⋅day−1⋅K−4.
US customary units : σ ≈ 1.714×10−9 BTU⋅hr−1⋅ft−2⋅°R−4.

Gauss’ theorem = Divergence theorem = Ostrograsky’s theorem

Photoelectric effect : the surface of materials may emit electrons when photons shone on.
When measuring the energy of electrons emitted out of light (photons) hitting a surface is
independent of light intensity hitting surface, but is linear dependent with photons
frequency.
A rise on light intensity generates more (photo)electrons with same energy, not same
amount of electrons with more energy.

Quantum Optics

Signal processing time–frequency analysis

Gabor limit or Heisenberg–Gabor limit. It is possible to achieve higher resolution in both t

and f domains but at the cost of interference.

Benedicks's theorem: a function cannot be both time limited and band limited.

Rewording; a function and its Fourier transform cannot both have bounded
domain. bandlimited versus time limited
sigma_s*sigma_t>=1/(4*pi) time cycles.

sigma_s and sigma_t are standard deviations of the time and frequency estimates.

Shannon (signal) entropy: Ht over time, Hf over frequency.
s(t) then S(f)=TF(s(t))
if discrete s(n): Ht(s)=sum(s(i)*log10(s(i))
if continuous s(t): Ht(s)=int(s*log10(s*∆)) % ∆ : bin size

Entropic uncertainty = Hirschmann uncertainty

Ht(s) + Hf(S) >= log10(e/2)

Relative entropy = Kullback-Leibler divergence

Div_KL=int(log10(s(t))*p(dt))=int(s(t)*log10(s(t))*m(dt))

Recommended:
https://uk.mathworks.com/videos/extreme-quantum-mechanics-in-matlab-
1573238892064.html?s_tid=srchtitle

%%%% TIME LINE

T Young, 1801: double-slit experiment showing light wave interference.

F Arago, 1812: 1st light polarisation filter. Arago spot.

H C Ørsted, 1821: publishes experiment discovering EH force deflecting compass needle

away from North by nearby electric current.

M Faraday, 1821: builds single pole (homo-polar) electric motor.

M Faraday, 1831: discovers mutual induction, principle for transformers, displacement

current in Maxwell 4th equation, or Maxwell-Faraday equation, that includes rot(E)=-dB/dt

C F Gauss W E Weber, 1833: build 1st (there were previous mirror/LT signalling/acoustic
telegraphs) EH telegraph (private) line between Göttingen observatory and physics institute.

C Wheatstone, 1834: with 3 spark gaps, a lot of wiring, and a high revolution mirror,
Wheatstone approximates 2 wire electricity propagation velocity with a not bad at all for
those times of 288,000mps (exact 299792458m/s=186,000mi/s).
In 1855 Faraday observed a more accurate and slower than air-between-conductors
submarine pairs transmission line propagation velocity of 144,000mi/s.

W Cooke C Wheatstone, 1837: 1st electric (wired, private) current pulsed 5 needle telegraph
opens business. Needles (bits) combinations pointed at alphabet. 5 wire lines required.
Wiring costs brought amount (wires/line) needles down to 1, operators encoding/decoding
was cheaper than laying down lines with multiple wires.

Experimental (rail company, private) telegraph line along Euston – Camden Town, 1837.

S Morse, 1838, 1st public demo 1844: develops sounder telegraph, initially intended to print
on paper, but operators soon learnt how to skip strip printing by listening Morse code
directly and write received characters.
E Becquerel, 1839: spots the photoelectric effect.

Telegraph line along rail owned line Paddington – West Drayton 1839.

A Bain, 1840: files patent for chronoscope. Wheatstone tries to appropriate idea but case
settled in Parliament for Bain, £10k and manager job of accurate time broadcasting e that
Wheatstone attempted launch., distribute time over wire with 1/7300 second accuracy is
established.

Submarine (private) telegraph line Dover – Calais 1845.

G Kirchhoff, 1845: formulates electric circuit laws.

Also later on, solves wave equation with Green’s identities for apertures in opaque screens
obtaining Kirchhoff integral theorem, that approximated is Kirchhoff diffraction formula, in
turn correcting Huygens diffraction solution.

A Bain, 1846: files patent of telegraph coding/printing automation, actuated by (tx) and
printed on (rx) paper strip (no holes).

C Wheatstone A Stroh, 1846: perfect Bain adding perforations, no ink needed, precursor of
stock market Ticker Tape used until 1970.

Electric Telegraph company founded 1846: 1st public telegraph company developing a nation
wide network, precursor to British Telecom.

1846 – 1855: France replaces Napoleonic optical (semaphore) telegraph tower system with
2 needle telegraph encoding in same way as optical towers telegraph. In 1855 optical
towers coding replaced with Morse coding.

G Kirchhoff R Bunsen, 1859: develop the spectroscope.

1861: US East and West coasts connected by telegraph, bringing Pony Express mailing
service to end.

J Plüker J W Hittorf, 1869: plug electric currents through vacuum/gas filled tubes.

J C Maxwell, 1873: Publishes EH equations.

W Crookes, 1873: Solar radiation sail gadget. Wind mill inside vacuum sealed bell spins
proportional to incident light intensity. It was a by-product of a chemical experiment.
Solar wind proportional to temperature, overcoming gas pressure at high enough T[C]
Si=E x H % Si incident Poynting vector [W/m^2]
P=Pi+Pr=2*If/c
P[Pa] total mech pressure exerted on sail
Pr, mech pressure by bouncing back wave. If perfect black body then Pr would be null.
If[] spectral irradiance.

W Crookes, 1875: develops Crookes tubes.

E Goldstein, 1876: discovers Cathode rays across vacuum tubes with electric current.

A G Bell, 1876: telephone patent granted.

Bell Telephone Company, 1877: 1st phone company, founded.

National Telephone (Bell Patents) Company, 1881: founded in UK, 1 st in Europe, to cover
Notts, Yorks, Ulst and parts of Scotland. NTC would become part of United Telephone
Company that would supply telephony UK wide.

UK Postmaster General, 1882: starts issuing telephone licences to, some public, some
private, businesses as network operators.

J Poynting, 1884: derives S=ExH [W/m^2] power flux .

Em Hm phasors, then cycle averaged Sm=.5*(EmxHm)

AT&T, 1885: initially part of Bell’s as South Western Bell Company, founded.

1886 general regrouping of all UK telegraph companies under General Post Office’s Postal
Telegraphs department.

O Heavyside, 1885 – 89: Applies modern vector notation to Maxwell equations.

L Eötvös, 1885-1909: experiments to conclude inertial and gravitational mass are the same.

T C Onesti, 1886: tube filled with metal filings detects EH. Onesti never left Italy, becoming
a mere foot note. Marconi scooped as early as he could and became a patent owner and
millionaire. When Marconi decided to go back to Italy the fascist sank him back in misery
and oblivion.

H Hertz, 1886: Rundfunk experiments prove EH waves.

Herr Hertz meticulously compiled short range findings, what later on turned out to be the
start point for great wireless developments of others.
Hertz could not account for waves bouncing back on walls within his laboratory.
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/photoelectric_effect.html

H Hertz, 1887: spots and documents the photoelectric effect.

A Strowger, 1888: develops SXS, patent achieved in 1891 to replace cheating phone
exchange employee diverting incoming customer phone calls to her husband running local
business against Strowger’s.
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=qmSAfe6U_iU

P Lenard, 1888: Puts window on Crookes tubes. Lenard tubes.

N Tesla, 1888: alternating current, induction motor and related polyphase AC patents.

1st exhibited remotely controlled boat.

E Brandy, 1890: demonstration of coherer detector.

A Schuster, 1890: spectroscopy, electrochemistry, optics, X-radiography developments.

E Mach L Zendher, 1890: Light interferometer.

A Lodge, 1894: coherer detector. 1898 syntonic tuning.

H Lorenz, 1895: derives (correcting J Thompson) F=q(E+v x B)

W Röntgen, 1895: referred to Crookes and Lenard tubes outgoing rays as new ‘X’ radiation,
and despite Röntgen didn’t want such name, it stuck.

G Marconi, 1896: 1st demo to UK gov of patent 12039 on wireless communications with
enhanced range. Basically sparks attached to a wire antenna, coils, grounded tx and rx.
In 1901, while attempting contact between Cornwall and Clifden stations, signal was picked
up at Signal Hill, st John’s, Newfoundland Canada, with kite aerial, f~850kHz
(lamda~350m).
UK judge closing Titanic sinking (1912) investigation included quote that all survivors owed
their lives to Marconi’s invention, who had been offered free ride on Titanic, but decided to
travel on Lusitania a few days earlier.

1896 UK unifies all trunk network under GPO control.

J J Thompson, 1897: measured charge/mass of cathode rays, 1800 lighter than Hydrogen atom mass:
electron mass.

M Planck, 1900: EH energy is emitted in quantized amounts.

By Plank’s law: B= 2*h*f^3/c^2*1/(exp(h*f/(kb*T))-1
B spectral irradiance, [W/(m^2*strad*Hz)]
where kB is the Boltzmann constant, h is the Planck constant, and c is the speed of light

A Einstein :
 General relativity
 Special relativity
 Photoelectric effect
 E=mc2 (Mass–energy equivalence)
 E=hf (Planck–Einstein relation)
 Theory of Brownian motion
 Einstein field equations
 Bose–Einstein statistics
 Bose–Einstein condensate
 Gravitational wave
 Cosmological constant
 Unified field theory
 EPR paradox
 Ensemble interpretation
  List of other concepts

A Sommerfeld :
Sommerfeld expansion
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld scalar diffraction theory
Drude–Sommerfeld model
Fine-structure constant
Orr–Sommerfeld equation
Sommerfeld identity
Sommerfeld–Kossel displacement
Sommerfeld–Runge method
Sommerfeld–Wilson quantization
Sommerfeld–Bohr theory
Sommerfeld's approximation
Sommerfeld number
Sommerfeld–Watson representation

W Pauli : Quantum physics must be limited to observables.

 Pauli exclusion principle

 Pauli–Villars regularization
 Pauli matrices
 Pauli effect
 Pauli equation
 Pauli group
 Pauli repulsion
 Pauli paramagnetism
 Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector
 Neutrino
 Massive gravity
 CPT symmetry
 Aufbau principle
 Coining 'not even wrong'

R A Fessenden, 1900: 1st wireless transmission of speech, with AM.

invented the word "heterodyne" WH Schottky and E Armstrong (later on FM inventor) also
filed for AM patents but Fessenden got there 1st.
J S Stone, 1901/2: wireless telegraphy systems patents applied, dispute with Marconi 7777
patent.

J A Fleming, 1904: develops 1st thermo-ionic diode, vacuum valve, heated cathode tube.

C Barkla, 1906: correlates different gases to characteristic X-ray scattering spectra.

R A Fessenden,1906: 1st trans-Atlantic full-duplex wireless telegraph communication.

R Millikan, 1909: oil-drop experiment to measure electron charge.

J S Stone 1912: develops audion, a valve triode based device, that same year re-engineered
by AT&T becomes 1st working amplifier for trans-Atlantic wired telephony.

1912 UK local networks unified, absorbed by GPO.

H Moseley, 1913: develops X-ray crystallography on metals and relates frequencies to

atomic numbers.

Coolidge, 1913: improves JAFleming 1904 tube allowing continuous X-ray emission.

N Bohr, 1913: introduces 1st model of quantised atom ∆E=h*f

W H Schottky, 1914: point charge potential of point charge in front of metal

V(x)=-q^2/(16*pi*eps*x) % Schottky used E(x) instead.
Schottky-Norheim barrier
Schottky effect: applying field lowers potential barrier enhancing (thermionic dependent)
charge emission.

L Lévy, 1917: filed patent for AM super-heterodyne. French and German IPOs gave patent
to Lévy but in 1920 US IPO gave AM super-het patent to E Armstrong despite Armstrong
having filed 7 months later than Lévy. After court US IPO returned 7/9 AM super-het claims
to Lévy, the 2 claims left went to Alexanderson of GE and Kendall of AT&T.

~1920: Kleinschmidt telegraph tx model includes QWERTY keyboard

A Michelson, 1920: Measurement of light velocity.

(OCRömer 1676 JBradley XVIIIth observations, Fizeau-Foucault 1983)

A H Compton, 1923: X-ray deflected on graphite, through slit, and captured in chamber measuring E.
lambda2-lambda1=h/(me*c)*(1-cos(theta))
phi: scattering angle of deflected incident X-ray photon
cot(phi)=(1+h*f/(me*c^2))*tan(theta/2)
phi: diffracted angle of pushed-out electron
E_photon=h*f % f[Hz]=phau[Hz]
E_electron=me*c^2
m_photon=h*f/c^2
p_photon=h*f/c % photon angular momentum

variant: hit magnetised crystal with X-ray and then reverse M

(sample magnetisation), subtract measurements ~ Magnetic C Profile of Material
Bose-Einstein distribution, 1924:

Lévy, 1924: 1st horizontal dipole antenna.

1925: 1st V antenna, 1st poly-phase antenna, 1st folded dipole antenna.

W Pauli, 1925: introduces exclusion principle. Fermions obey this principle.

E Fermi, 1925: applies Fermi-Dirac statistics to ideal gas, introduces neutrinos and discovers
weak interaction. Bombards Th Ur with slow neutrons creating new elements.
Fermi age equation.

Born , 1926: assume every object in universe is a wave. Let be a particle represented by
single mode plane wave Psi(x) ≈ exp(j*k0*x) = exp(j*p0/ħ*x).
Born rule: probability density function of this particle is
P(a<x<b)=integral(|Psi|^2,a,b)

E Schrödinger, 1926: publishes his equation and solution for Hydrogen atom.
Solves quantum diatomic oscillator, rigid motor and diatomic molecule problems.
Stark effect analysis agrees with Heissenberg’s.
Switches on Complex treatment of his equation, reducing to 1 its order.

W Heisenberg, 1927, E Kennard H Weyl, 1928: uncertainty principle

sigmax*sigmap>= ħ /2= h/(4*pi)
sigmax = particle position
sigmap = particle magnetic moment
uncertainty principle ~= observer effect. Balakrishnan: the uncertainty principle actually states a
fundamental property of quantum systems and is not a statement about the observational success of
current technology
observer effect: that the faster a macro object moves (small observation dt) then dx is
large, and inversely small space variations allow longer observation time dt, and that
dx*dt>K, where K has to do with how heavy is the observed object, it’s an old timer macro
physics rule of thumb.

Related (read uncertainty principle):

Schrödinger uncertainty equation for single state.
Robertson-Schrödinger equation for multi-state.
Maccone-Pati uncertainty relation
Quantum harmonic oscillators with Gaussian initial condition (in magnetic well)
Coherent states
Particle in box
Heisenberg uncertainty recent top-up: Ozawa inequality

E Kennard, 1927: 1st to prove sigma_x*sigma_p>= ħ/(2*pi)

P Dirac, 1928: anti-matter exists.

Hans Bethe, 1931: uses Bethe ansatz to obtain exact wave (eigen) function solutions to 1D
antiferromagnetic Heisenberg model Hamiltonian.
Method extended to: Lieb-Liniger interacting Bose gas, Hubbard model, Kondo model,
Anderson impurity model.

J Chadwick, 1932: discovers the neutron.

W Heisenberg, 1932: Nobel for Quantum mechanics foundation that allows discovery
allotropic forms of Hydrogen.

1939 JPopitz, E Plank (son), HSchacht, GThomas write to WKeitel warning that the invasion of Poland would
trigger chain reaction and massive resources shortages and Germany would lose war.

O Hans F Strassman, 1939: detect Ba(52) after bombarding U(92) with neutrons.

E Fermi, 1942: Chicago Pile-1 operative.

Oak ridge TN W-10 graphite reactor operational, 1943.

operational aka critical; enough fuel to sustain chain reaction.

R Oppenheimer, 1943: pop-out to a nice view little ranch, next to his, called Los Alamos.
Had to do with an unstable thin man and it was the fat man that had to do all the, literally,
hard break-through work. Initial $100k budget turned out a joke when the military kicked in.
https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Hitler_s_Gift.html?
id=hwnnjdJhPIcC&printsec=frontcover&source=kp_read_button&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&redir_esc=y

Hanford site WA B reactor operational, 1944.

Edward Teller, 1945: uses Fermi method at Los Alamos F site carries out Trinity test to
estimate 1st thermo-nuclear bomb yield.

1949 Soviets detonate 1st fission bomb.

E Young, 1961: double-slit experiment applied to the interference of single electrons.

Claus Jönsson (Tübingen), 1961:

1969 GPO becomes The Post Office in charge of telephone network.

S Chu, 1986: cooling and trapping single neutral atoms[.1*nm] 1997 Nobel with Tannoudji
and Philips.

A Ashkin, 2018: Nobel for optical tweezers. At quantum scale a laser can be used as tweezer
tip, because of radiation pressure. Magnetic ‘bowl’ needed to clamp load.

grab single cells down to single atoms[.1*nm]