Third Lecture-Theoretical Biochemistry – 13 / 10/ 2022

METABOLISM

Definitions of Metabolism
1. The chemical changes that take place in a cell that produce energy and basic materials needed for
important life processes.
2. The sum total of all the enzymatic reactions occurring in the cell is collectively called metabolism.
Metabolism is a central topic in biochemistry. (Just for your information)
3. Metabolism is the entire spectrum of chemical reactions occurring in the living system. (Just for
your information)
4. The study of synthesis (Anabolism) and degradation (Catabolism) of biomolecules is biochemically
termed as metabolism. Metabolism = Anabolism (Synthesis) + Catabolism (Degradation). (Just for
your information)

Importance or Function of Metabolism

Metabolism keeps cells and organisms alive, by giving them the energy to carry on and the building
blocks required for growth and propagation or reproduction. Metabolism is very essential for carrying
out all the life processes as a disturbed metabolic system can result in severe diseases and
retardation. Metabolic syndromes include insulin resistance (diabetes mellitus), obesity, peripheral
vascular diseases, high cholesterol, and blood pressure.

Types of Metabolic Pathways

There are three types of metabolic pathways which are 1)- Anabolic pathways e.g. Protein synthesis.
2)- Catabolic pathways e.g. Oxidative phosphorylation. and 3)- Amphibolic pathways e.g. Citric acid
cycle.

(Just for your information) Definition of pathway: Pathway is a series of reactions that results in one
substance being transferred into another.
(Just for your information) Definition of Amphibolic: It is a term to describe a biochemical pathway
that involves both Anabolism and Catabolism.

What Does Metabolism Include?

Metabolism includes 1)- Digestion, 2)- Absorption, 3)- Catabolism, 4)- Anabolism, and 5)- Excretion.

Catabolic Reaction
The term catabolic means the same as degradative. Key functions of catabolic reactions are
1. Accumulation of energy in the form of ATP.
2. Regeneration of reducing power (NADPH), and
3. Production of building blocks for anabolic metabolism.

(Just for your information) NADPH is the acronym of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
Hydrogen.

Anabolic Reactions
Anabolic reactions are the opposite of catabolic reactions, which they create new biomolecules.
Anabolic reactions require building blocks, ATP and a good amount of reducing power in the form of
NADPH.
 Cell macromolecules such as: Energy-containing
Proteins nutrients such as
Polysaccharides Carbohyrdrates
Lipids Fats
Nucleic acids (DNA & RNA) Proteins

ADP + HPO42-
NAD+
NADP+
FAD
Catabolism
Anabolism

ATP
NADH
NADPH
FADH2

Chemical energy

Precursor molecules such as: Energy-depleted end products

Amino acids such as
Sugars CO2
Fatty acids H2O
Nitrogenous bases NH3

Stages of Catabolism

The Three Stages of Catabolism

First Stage
Digestion: is the breakdown
of complex molecules to Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Alcohol
their component building
blocks.

Second Stage
Conversion of building
Fatty acids &
blocks to Acetyl-CoA Amino acids Monosaccharides
Glycerol
(or other simple
intermediates). ATP

CO2

H 2O
Third Stage
Metabolism of Acetyl-CoA to CO2
Acetyl-Co-A
and formation of ATP.

ATP

Citric acid cycle

CO2
(and electron
transport chain)
H2O
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Introduction about Digestion

Glucose is the major form of sugar moiety present in blood and other body fluids. The conversion of
food into a form that can be absorbed by the body is called digestion. Digestion starts in the mouth,
continues in the stomach and small intestine and is completed in the large intestine. The salivary
glands, stomach, liver, pancreas and intestine add enzymes and juices that aid in this process. The
digestion of food carbohydrates, such as starch, sucrose, and lactose produces the monosaccharides
of glucose, fructose and galactose, which pass into the bloodstream.

Dietary Carbohydrates
The major source of carbohydrate is found in plants. Dietary carbohydrate principally consists of
1. Polysaccharides: For example starch (in potatoes, rice, corn and wheat), glycogen (in liver and
muscle), and cellulose (in cell wall of plants and not digested by humans due to absence of
cellulase enzyme).
2. Disaccharides: For example maltose (obtained by hydrolysis of starch and glycogen), lactose (in
milk) and sucrose (obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets).
3. Monosaccharides: For example, glucose, fructose and galactose which exist in fruits and honey
and obtained by hydrolysis of oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides do not
need digestion and they are directly absorbed from small intestine into the bloodstream.

Digestion of Carbohydrates

1. Digestion in Mouth
Digestion of carbohydrates starts at the mouth. In mouth, food undergoes mastication. During
mastication, food comes in contact with saliva (secreted by salivary gland). Saliva contains salivary
amylase (ptylin).

Action of Salivary Amylase

It requires Cl- ion for activation and pH 6.7. The enzyme hydrolyzes α-(1→4) glycosidic bonds at
random deep inside polysaccharides (starch and glycogen) producing dextrins, maltose, isomaltose,
maltotriose and glucose.
2. Digestion of Carbohydrates in Stomach
Digestion of carbohydrates temporarily stops in stomach. The action of salivary amylase stops in
stomach because of high acidity of stomach. Additionally, no carbohydrate splitting enzymes are
available in gastric juice.

3. Digestion in Intestine
Further digestion of carbohydrates occurs in small intestine by pancreatic enzymes. Ingested food
reaches the small intestine from stomach where it meets the pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice
contains enzyme called pancreatic amylase (amylopsin) similar to salivary α-amylase. There are two
phase of intestinal digestion which are 1)- digestion due to pancreatic α-amylase, 2)- digestion due
to intestinal brush border cell enzymes.

Action of Pancreatic Amylase

Pancreatic amylase hydrolyzes the dextrins to mixture of limit dextrin, maltotriose, maltose and
isomaltose.

Action of Intestinal Brush Border Enzyme

These enzymes are responsible for final digestion of carbohydrate. The enzymes and their reactions
are as follows:
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Isomaltase
Isomaltose Glucose + Glucose

Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose

Dextrinase
Limit dextrin Glucose + Maltose + Maltotriose
Absorption of monosaccharides through small intestine lining into the bloodstream
Why Cellulose is Not Digested by Humans?
Cellulose is a homopolysaccharide found in plants. It contains - (1→4) glycosidic bonds in its
structure. Humans cannot synthesize the enzyme which can break - (1→4) glycosidic bonds. So,
cellulose is not digested by humans. But, although is not digested it is one of the important
component in the diet because undigested cellulose provides bulk as fibre in the diet. Dietary fibres
also help intestinal motility and works as a stool softener and prevent constipation.

Absorption of Carbohydrates
The end products of carbohydrate digestion are Glucose, Fructose and Galactose. These are rapidly
absorbed through the intestinal mucosal cells into the bloodstream. Two mechanisms are responsible
for the absorption of these monosaccharides which are 1)- Passive transport (Facilitated transport
and Simple diffusion), monosaccharides move with concentration gradient, and 2)- Active transport,
monosaccharides move against the concentration gradient.

Mechanisms of Absorption of Monosaccharides from Intestine

1. Passive transport
a. Facilitated Transport: This mechanism depends on the concentration of sugar across the
intestinal lumen and mucosal cells. All the monosaccharides are absorbed to some extent by
facilitated diffusion.
b. Simple Diffusion: Initially, when the concentration of monosaccharides in the intestinal
lumen is high, by simple diffusion it crosses the membrane (does not require energy from
ATP).
2. Active Transport: To speed up the absorption process, active transport mechanisms are involved.
Absorption of monosaccharides is a secondary active transport process, which involves ATP
hydrolysis indirectly.

Fate of Absorbed Glucose by Animals

Glucose molecules enter the liver and the brain by passive diffusion. Whereas, glucose molecules
enter other tissues such as skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, etc… by Active transport. When, active
transport is enhanced by insulin hormone.

Fate of Absorbed Glucose by Animal Cells and Vascular Plants

In animal cells and vascular plants, glucose has four major fates:
1. Glucose may be used in the synthesis of complex structural polysaccharides.
2. Glucose may be stored as a polysaccharide or as sucrose (in plant cells) and glycogen (in animal
cells).
3. Glucose may be oxidized to a three-carbon compound (pyruvate) via glycolysis to provide ATP and
metabolic intermediates.
4. Glucose may be oxidized via the pentose phosphate (phosphogluconate) pathway to yield ribose
5-phosphate for nucleic acid synthesis and NADPH for reductive biosynthetic processes.
Fate of Absorbed Glucose by Animal Cells and Vascular Plants