JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY, 1991, 13, 121-132

Personal and Situational Influences

on Adherence to Mental Skills Training

Stephen J. Bull
Brighton Polytechnic

Adherence to mental-skills training has received little empirical investiga-

tion despite the recent growth and development in applied sport psychology
services. The present study was designed to identify personal and situational
variables influencing adherence to a mental training program. Volunteer
athletes (N=34) were given a 4-week educational program before being left
to train on their own for an experimental period of 8 weeks. Subjects were
randomly assigned to one of three treatment intervention conditions (control,
written reminders, and group meetings) designed to influence adherence
behavior. Results demonstrated the influence of self-motivation in predict-
ing mental-training adherence, but the interventions had no significant effect.
Adherence levels were generally low but variable between athletes. Inter-
views with the athletes indicated the need for individualization of training
programs, and problems of time constraintswere identified as being influential
in the adherence process. Comparable athletes (N= 18) who chose not to volun-
teer for the mental training program were psychometrically tested and demon-
strated lower sport motivation than the volunteer athletes but greater skill
in concentration.

Recently, the application of mental-skills training to competitive athletics

has become widespread and consequently is now the focus of an increasing amount
of research literature. The efficacy of mental-skills training in sport has been
reported both anecdotally and experimentally. A content analysis by Vealey (1988)
of 27 books about mental-skills training indicated the surge in published material
relating to the area.On a practical level, an increasing number of teams and athletes
have requested the services of sport psychology consultants. This increase illus-
trates a growing demand for training in the application and implementation of
appropriate psychological skills.
Harris and Harris (1984) emphasized that psychological skills are not con-
comitant learnings that occur during competition but that they must be learned
and practiced. Williams (1986) likened this learning and practice to that associated
with the development of physical skills and strategies in that the positive effects

Stephen J. Bull is with the Chelsea School of Human Movement at Brighton Poly-
technic, Gaudick Road, Eastbourne, BN20 7SP, England.
 122 / Bull

occur after prolonged practice and application. The time needed to develop and
optimize an individualized mental-skills program is consequently extensive, and,
as Ravizza (1986) pointed out, although many coaches realize the importance
of mental-skills training, the challenge of finding time to do it is too much. The
development of mental-skills training on a regular, systematic basis is therefore
important so that the program becomes a natural part of the athlete's overall train-
ing regimen. This is particularly true in contemporary sport where athletes are
subjected to higher standards, tougher competition, and greater stakes. These
factors make the psychological components of performance more important than
they have been in the past (Orlick, 1986a, 1986b).
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Given the need for the implementation of mental-skills training programs

in sport, questions immediately arise concerning the specific components to be
incorporated and how these components should be sequenced and integrated.
Boutcher and Rotella (1987) suggested the key ingredient of their four-phase
psychological-skills educational program for closed-skillperformance enhancement
was to apply the lcnowledge systematically, assess and evaluate the program's
effectiveness, and constantly strive to foster compliance and adherence. This final
point was the focus of the present study, instigated on the premise that it is unwise
to assume adherence to mental-skills training is high. Albinson and Bull (1986)
reported poor rates of adherence to a relatively short mental-skills training program
and provided a start at investigating a very complex, but important, problem.
Crocker (1989) stated that program adherence is critical in evaluation of any psy-
chological interventions, and Bull (1989) called for a line of research that examined
the area in detail.
Because of the dearth of published material pertaining to the mental-skills
training adherence paradigm, it is useful to examine other adherence-related
literature. Adherence to exercise and health-care programs is typically poor, and
dropout rates of 50% are widely reported (Dishrnan, 1986). The exercise-
adherence literature, dealt with extensively by Dishman (1988), provides initial
insight into factors that may affect the adherence process in other contexts, such
as mental-skills training. According to Dishrnan and Ickes (1981), diagnosis of
dropout proneness represents the first step in the process of facilitating adherence.
To this end, they developed the Self-Motivation Inventory (SMI) and found it
useful in enhancing the prediction of adherence to therapeutic exercise. Self-
motivation correlated strongly with exercise adherence and was also a better pre-
dictor than any of the other psychometric variables tested. Dishrnan and Ickes sug-
gested that the self-motivationconstruct may well be applicable in other research
domains where commitment and perseverance are important considerations. In
particular, they mentioned stress management, and clearly the area of mental-skills
training would be an example of the type of domain to which they referred.
Although some research has not shown a link between self-motivation and
exercise adherence (Robinson & Cmon, 1982; Wankel, Yardley, & Graham,
1985; Ward & Morgan, 1984), a substantial amount has found a significant rela-
tionship between the two variables (Olson & Zanna, 1982; Snyder, Franklin, Foss,
& Rubenfire, 1982; Thompson, Wyatt, & Craighead, 1984). Of notable relevance
to mental-skills training is the work of Knapp, Gutmann, Foster, and Pollock
(1984), whose results showed that self-motivation scores predicted adherence to
training of Olympic speedskaters. In a later study, Knapp, Gutmann, Foster, and
Pollock (1985) showed that Olympic skaters low in self-motivation missed signifi-
cantly more training days due to injury than did skaters high in self-motivation.
 Adherence to Mental Skills Training / 123

Research findings concerning program variables and intervention strategies

have been equivocal due, in part, to many serious methodological problems.
Dishman (1986) suggested a fundamental lack of standardization in exercise-
adherence research. Studies have varied in definition, method, and measurement,
and consequently a dropout in one program may in fact be an adherer in another.
The potential loss of behavioral information when adherence is merely
dichotomized into either adherent or dropout groups was the reason that the present
study quantified adherence on a continuum and did not label subjects as adherers
or nonadherers.
The purpose of this study was to investigate athlete adherence to mental-
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skills training in sport. It was intended to identify personal and situational vari-
ables associated with adherence and employed a multirnethod experimental design
using psychometric data as well as interview data to gain information relating
to factors influencing adherence behavior. The study was designed to examine
three areas of interest: (a) the differences in psychological characteristics between
athletes who volunteered for a mental-training program and athletes who chose
not to volunteer, (b) the relationship between psychological characteristics and
adherence to mental training, and (c) the influence of experimental interventions
on mental-training adherence.

Method
Subjects
Sample 1 consisted of a group of 34 volunteer student athletes who responded
to an invitation to participate in a mental-skills training program. Each subject
was actively competing in an organized sport at the varsity level or above. The
sample was comprised of 18 males and 16 females with a diverse range of team-
and individual-sport specialisms. Sample 2 was randomly selected from the same
athletic population but consisted of 18 individuals who had not volunteered for
the mental-training program. This sample was comprised of 9 males and 9 females
who consented to being used for psychometric testing only.
Measures
Self-MotivationInventory. The SMI is a non-sport-related instrument that
measures the tendency to persevere (Dishman & Ickes, 1981). It consists of 40
statements relating to perseverance that are administered using a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from extremely uncharacteristic of me to extremely characteristic
of me. Dishman and Ickes demonstrated the instrument's high internal reliability
as well as evidence for construct and predictive validity.
Sport Competition Anxiety Test. The SCAT is a self-report measure of
competitive trait anxiety that has been widely used in sport psychology research.
Martens' (1977) work on demonstrating the instrument's psychometric integrity
was extensive.
Trait Sport Confidence Inventory. The TSCI was developed in conjunc-
tion with the State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI) by Vealey (1986) as a
measure of an individual's belief in his or her ability to be successful in sport.
The instrument consists of 13 items, and response is made on a 9-point Likert
scale ranging from low to high. Vealey demonstrated adequate item discrimination,
internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and content and concurrent validity.
 124 1 Bull

Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports. The PSIS was developed by Ma-
honey, Gabriel, and Perkins (1987) to assess six broad themes: anxiety manage-
ment, concentration, self-confidence, mental preparation, motivation, and team
emphasis. Mahoney (1987) did not, however: cl&m any psychometric integrity
or predictive validity for the instrument. Nevertheless, the appeal of the inventory
is its breadth of measurement and its straightforward structure (a 45-item ques-
tionnaire employing a 5-point Likert scale that ranges from strongly disagree to
strongly agree). Four of the dimensions were used in the present research: anxiety
management, concentration, self-confidence, and motivation. Team emphasis was
not considered relevant to the research problem in question, and mental preparation
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was not included due to some seriouiproblems of face validity as described by

Hardy and Nelson (1989).
Sport Goal Progress Check. The SGPC was developed by the author as
a means of quantifiably assessing an athlete's progress toward his or her ultimate
sport goal. It asks the athlete to consider where she or he feels she or he is at
the present time in terms of a realistic, ultimate sport goal according to a percentage
representation whereby 0%refers to when the sport was first taken up and 100%
to the achievement of the ultimate goal. Therefore, athletes who are well advanced
into their careers will tend to score a high percentage and athletes who still have
considerable progress to make and ambitions to fulfill will tend to score lower
percentages.
Procedure
Subjects in Sample 1 attended an introductory meeting in which the re-
searcher explained what the mental-training program would entail, how the mental
skills would be covered, and when group meetings would take place. Subjects
then completed each of the psychological measures described above.
The educational component of the program consisted of eight 1-hour sessions
that occurred twice a week for a 4-week period. Sessions 1 , 3 , 5 , and 7 involved
the entire group together; Sessions 2, 4, 6, and 8 were carried out in smaller
groups of 11 or 12 athletes allowing for questions and exchanges of ideas and
experiences. During these eight training sessions subjects were introduced to tech-
niques for improving relaxation skills, visualization, concentration, and positive
thinking. Each session involved a combination of appropriately presented back-
ground theory, practical experience of mental-training techniques, and discus-
sion about how to apply the techniques in different sport situations. Due to group
size, it was not possible to provide subjects with individual consultation and advice.
Therefore, it was each subject's responsibility and designated task to develop the
exercises learned into an appropriate training program suitable for his or her own
individual needs and sport-specific requirements. To assist in this process, each
session was supplemented by reading material relevant to the skills being developed
and taken from a mental-training workbook (Albinson & Bull, 1988).
Subjects attended a final meeting in which each was given a specially pre-
pared mental-training cassette tape and a mental-training diary. Subjects were
instructed to use the diaries after each mental-training session completed over
the forthcoming 8-week period. The importance of regular mental training (several
times per week) was emphasized although no specific requirements were given.
 Adherence to Mental Skills Training 1 125

Adherence Measure
The mental-training diary elicited a self-report measure of adherence. The
number of sessions engaged in yielded a frequency score; the total amount of
time spent training represented a duration score.
Intervention Groups
Before the 8-week measurement period began, subjects were randomly
assigned to one of three treatment groups. Group 1 (n = 12) received a reminder
memo at the end of Weeks 2,4,5, and 7. Group 2 (n=10) was invited, in advance,
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to attend four discussion meetings arranged to coincide with the distribution of

the reminder memos to Group 1. Group 3 (n = 12) acted as a control group and
received no intervention at all. To minimize contamination between the groups,
it was explained before the interventions began that individuals were to be treat-
ed differently on the basis of their psychometric test results, which illustrated
individual differences in learning strategy. Subjects were subsequently debriefed
about this manipulation at the conclusion of the study.
Debriejng Interviews
Each subject was interviewed at the end of the 8-week period. Interviews
were conducted using a focused technique with the main themes centering around
the subject's exhibited adherence level and factors perceived to be of influence
in the adherence process.
Nonparticipant Data
Subjects in Sample 2 were asked to complete each of the psychological mea-
sures in addition to an open-ended question inquiring why they chose not to volun-
teer for the mental-training program.

Results
Psychological Characteristics of Volunteers Versus Nonvolunteers
Results of one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that the
mental-training volunteers demonstrated less skill in concentration, F(1,50) =6.50,
6 . 0 2 5 , and higher sport motivation, F(1,50)=5.28,6.025, than the nonvolun-
teer subjects. These results are calculated on the basis of the relevant dimensions
of the PSIS, with p values reduced from .05 to -025 to account for experimental
error. Other differences did not emerge although the difference in anxiety-
management skill was approaching significance, with the volunteers scoring lower
than the nonvolunteers. The mean scores for all measures are shown in Table 1.
Psychological Characteristics and Adherence
The diary-recording process yielded a mean duation of 136 minutes, which
represents only 17 minutes per week. This indicates relatively poor adherence
for the group as a whole. Likewise, a frequency mean of 9.7 over an 8-week
period is very low. Standard deviations, however, were very high (91.9 for
 126 / Bull

Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations of Subjects' Psychological Measures

Sample 1 (volunteers) Sample 2 (nonvolunteers)

(N=34) (N=18)
Measure M SD M SD

SMI
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SCAT
TSCI
PSIS-AX
PSIS-CC
PSIS-CF
PSIS-MV
SGPC

Note. AX=anxiety management, CC=concentration, CF=self-confidence, and MV=motivation.

duration and 6.4 for firequency), indicating a high degree of variability in adherence
levels across the group.
Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated between subject
adherence and scores on each of the psychological measures. Results demonstrated
significant positive relationships between self-motivation and adherence duration
(r = .66;6.00001), self-motivation and adherence frequency (r = .63; 6.0001),
sport motivation and adherence duration (r= .43; 6 . 0 5 ) , and sport motivation
and adherence frequency (r = .37; 6 . 0 5 ) . A significant negative correlation was
found between sport goal progress and adherence frequency (r= - .42; p<.05),
indicating that subjects who were more advanced in their athletic careers tended
to exhibit lower levels of adherence than subjects who were at earlier stages in
their careers.
Stepwise multiple-regression analyses (as shown in Table 2) demonstrated
the overriding influence of self-motivation on both aspects of adherence. At the
.05 level of significance, no other measure contributed to a better prediction of
adherence except for progress toward sport goal, which only proved to be sig-
nificant in predicting frequency of adherence.
Stepwise multiple-regression analyses were also administered without in-
clusion of the SMI. The results are shown in Table 3 and demonstrate the impor-
tance of the motivation construct again. At the .05 level of significance, sport
motivation was the only measure predicting adherence duration. Adherence
frequency was shown to be predicted by sport goal progress initially and then
further by sport motivation.

Intervention Groups and Adherence

Results of one-way ANOVAs showed no significant difference between the
three treatment groups in either adherence duration, F(2,3 1)=2.09; p>.05, or
adherence frequency, F(2,3 1)=2.69; p>.05.
 Adherence to Mental Skills Training 1 127

Table 2
Stepwise Multiple-RegressionAnalyses Predicting Adherence
From Subjects' Psychological Measures ( k 3 4 )

Measure Multiple R R2 F P

Adherence duration
SMI .66 .43 24.05 .00001
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Adherence frequency
SMI .63 .40 21.22 .0001
SGPC .77 .59 22.48 .0001

Note. These were the only items generated when the analyses were carried out with a
significance level of p.05.

Table 3
Stepwise Multiple-Regression Analyses Predicting Adherence
From All Psychological Measures Except the SMI ( k 3 4 )

Measure Multiple R R2 F P

Adherence duration
PSIS-MV .43 .18 7.22 .05
Adherence frequency
SGPC -.42 .18 6.88 .05
PSIS-MV .59 .34 8.13 .01

Note. These were the only items generated when the analyses were carried out with a
significance level of p.05.
MV=rnotivation.

Given the strength of the SMI as an adherence predictor for the group as a
whole, a comparison of self-mob'.vationand adherence regression lines between the
three groups was calculated. No significant difference in slope gradient was present
for either the duration dimension, F(2,28) = 1.59,p>.05, or the frequency dimen-
sion, F(2,28)= 1.71; p>.05. Two ANCOVAs were administered with the SMI
as the covariate. Results again did not reach significance for either adherence
duration, F(2,30) = 1.96; p>.05, or adherence frequency, F(2,30) =2.18; p>.05.
These results add further strength to the conclusion that the intervention treat-
ments had no significant effect on subsequent mental-training adherence.
Interview Data
Three predominant factors emerged as having perceived influence on ad-
herence levels. Ten subjects (29.4%)claimed they would have done more mental
 128 1 Bull

training had the program provided a more individualized package. It was clear
from the interviews that subjects needed more guidance on how to apply the
methods learned in the mental-training program in order to help with their own
sporting requirements. Eight subjects (23.5 %) identified the problem of time being
an influence on mental-training adherence. They explained that they wanted to
do more mental training but were unable to fit it into their busy lives. Five subjects
(14.7%) identified a disruptive home environment as having a detrimental effect
on their mental-training adherence.
The nonvolunteers' responses to the question concerning why they chose
not to participate in the mental-training program reinforced the problem of lack
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of time. Of the 18 athletes questioned, 11 (61.1 %) identified the problem of time

constraints as being the most influential factor in their decision not to participate.
Of the remaining 7 athletes, 2 blamed personal laziness, 2 perceived mental training
as having no benefit, and 1 had "done mental training before."
The most popular psychological technique introduced in the mental-training
program was relaxation training, with 13 subjects (38.2%) identifying it as the
most valuable element. Visualization was identified by 10 subjects (29.4%), con-
centration by 4 (11.8 %), and positive thinking by 4 (11.8 %). Three subjects were
unable to specify one particular skill. All subjects expressed a positive response
to the usefulness of the program as a whole.

Discussion
The relatively low levels of adherence to the mental-training program in this
study lend support to the suggestion by Bull (1989) that dropout from mental training
may indeed be quite high. DiMatteo and DiNicola (1982) demonstrated that more
than 80% of physicians overestimate patients' medication consumption. Further
research into mental-training adherence is needed to determine if this error of
judgment is also applicable in applied sport psychology.
High standard deviations for adherence duration and frequency suggest
a large variance in mental-training habits between individual athletes. A contrast
of one athlete doing 15 minutes of mental training in 8 weeks as compared to
another doing 350 minutes highlights the need to examine the personal and situa-
tional factors that are influencing this wide range of adherence behavior. This
point is particularly relevant given that each athlete volunteered for, and was
subjected to, the same educational-based mental-training program.
Before discussing the results of this study in more detail, a limit on their
interpretation should be made clear. Due to the nature of the results, any emerging
differences between relative levels of high and low adherence must be viewed
in the context of low adherence overall. The results do not present evidence of
what correlates with truly high adherence. This must be examined in future study.
Nevertheless, some important interpretations can still be made.
The results demonstrated certain differences in psychological characteristics
between the volunteers and the nonvolunteers. The volunteers, as a group, dis-
played higher sport motivation than the nonvolunteer group but lower skills in
concentration. This result is intuitively appealing and suggests that athletes with
poor concentration skills but high levels of sport motivation are more likely to
seek the assistance of sport psychology consultants to help them develop their
mental-training skills. This point is also worth considering in the context of groups
 Adherence to Mental Skills Training / 129
I
of athletes subjected to psychological training without choice and could partially
explain the varying reactions (both positive and negative) of athletes in this situa-
tion. Meichenbaum and Turk (1987) suggested that entering into a treatment pro-
gram is part of the adherence process and that factors influencing this phase cannot
be ignored by either practitioners or researchers.
The overriding strength of the self-motivationconstruct in predicting mental-
training adherence concurs with studies in other contexts that have discriminated
between adherents and dropouts on the basis of self-motivation. Studies exhibiting
this result have included settings such as athletic conditioning (Dishman, Ickes,
& Morgan, 1980; Knapp et al., 1984), corporate fitness (Stone, 1983), athletic-
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injury rehabilitation (Duda, Smart, & Tappe, 1989; Fisher, Domrn, & Wuest,
1988), and preventive medicine (Dishman & Gettman, 1980). The practical value
of this result lies in the early identification of athletes who may be prone to drop-
out or who have problems with adherence. These athletes may benefit from specific
interventions aimed at enhancing adherence whereas athletes high in self-
motivation are perhaps more likely to adhere of their own accord. Further research
is necessary to investigate the efficacy of certain cognitive-behavioralinterventions
in overriding the predictive influence of the self-motivationconstruct. Additionally,
the development of a situation-specificself-motivation inventory relating to mental-
skills adherence would be a valuable asset. Dishman and Ickes' (1981) instrument
assesses a general personality disposition relating to perseverance and may demon-
strate even higher predictive validity if adapted for specific situations.
The emergence of progress toward a sport goal as an additional predictor
of adherence also has practical implications. Athletes who are nearing the end
of their careers or who have reached their perceived performance potentials will
perhaps be less inclined to see the benefits of mental training and may need addi-
tional assistance in incorporating psychological techniques into their overall train-
ing programs. A sport psychology consultant who is aware of an athlete's career
status will be more likely to prescribe an appropriate mental-training program
that will encourage adherence.
There were no adherence differences between the three treatment groups
although tendencies toward significance suggest the need for further research. The
athletes' varying responses in terms of whether the interventions influenced their
adherence behavior suggest that the interventions worked for some athletes but
not for others. Thus, there is a need to individualize treatment interventions, which
concurs with the athletes' own identification of the need for individualized pro-
grams. Such individualizations would idedy include time-management education
as both the volunteers and the nonvolunteers claimed that time constraints were
a barrier to adherence.
A disruptive home environment was identified as another barrier to adher-
ence by several volunteers. Again, part of the individualization process could
include advice from the sport psychology consultant concerning when and where
to do the mental-training exercises and how to best avoid the potential distrac-
tions of a disturbing home environment.
The fact that relaxation training was identified as the most popular psycho-
logical technique introduced in the mental-training program may be of importance
in the adherence process. Athletes are presumably more likely to adhere if they
enjoy what they are doing and feel that it is valuable. Therefore, the mental trainer
should determine which mental skills the athletes enjoy and find useful and then
 130 / Bull

construct appropriate, individualized training programs around these skills. In

fact, the key to this investigation is the need to individualize any intervention
program in mental-skills training. Some athletes will need to develop their psycho-
logical skills more than others. Certain athletes will require adherence-enhancing
interventions according to their personality characteristics, and all athletes wiU
vary in their preference relating to the specific skills included in an educational
mental-training program. The results of this study suggest some important
considerationsin the delivery of mental-skills training to groups of athletes, par-
ticularly when individual consultation is limited.
Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Research
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The results of this initial study identify certain personal and situational vari-
ables influencing adherence to mental-skills training. Most notably, the predictive
value of self-motivation appears strong as well as the need to individualize mental-
training programs and intervention strategies. Future research should further
examine the influence of certain personality characteristics on the adherence
process and investigate other situational factors that may act as barriers to adher-
ence. The manipulation of treatment interventions designed to enhance adher-
ence needs extensive, systematic research in order to identify practical ways in
which consultants can positively influence the adherence process. Finally, use
of the Consultant Evaluation Form (CEF), developed by Partington and Orlick
(1987), would assess the services being provided by sport psychology consul-
tants, the quality of which may have significant effects on athletes' mental-training
adherence.

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Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank two anonymous reviewers for their constructive com-
ments on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

Manuscript submined: January 30, 1990

Revision received: July 16, 1990

Second IOC World Congress on Sport Sciences

October 26-31, 1991, Barcelona, Spain

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