Chapter-02: CU Dwisiow (Growth and Reproduction of organisms)Md. Mezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology, EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | [27 ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division ‘Multiplication by division is a natural anda very important feature ofa cell. The unicellular organist I Bacteria, Yeast etc. multiply by cell division. The giant banyan tree is also originated from a single cell (qygote~fertilized ovum). A human body formed from a singe fertilized cel is composed of billions of cell by the process of cell division, Cell division is the basic and the most essential part by which the development of physical structures and reproduction takes place. The process by which two or more cells are formed by the division of one living cell is called eell division. The cell formed asa result of division i called daughter cell and dividing cells called mother eel. In 1882 Walter Flemming forthe first ime observed cell division inthe a ine Salamander (Triturus ‘maculosa) ‘A cell is produced only from a cell- of cell divi 3 types of cell division are seen in the living world, These are- 1. Amitoiss or direct cll division 2: Mitosis oF equational cell division 3. Meiosis or reductional cell division is said by scientist Rudolf Virchow (A). Definition: ‘The cell division process by which nyg daughter cells without any complex if (B). Process: ‘) By amitosis process mother cell is nucleus directly into 2 daughter cells. d then divided at the mi middle of the cell aig produced from a fi , Bacteria, fungi, Amoeba shoW@ hil type of cell division. Bacteria, fungi etc. are the decomposers of the ecosystem. Without aiifosis cell division, these decomposers would not grow. As a result an ecosystem would hampe#’due to the absence of bacteria and fungi. iv. When these decomposer act on dead body some nutrients are produced by them. The green plants again consume them. In this way, an ecosystem remains active by circular movement of energy. v. On the other hand, Yeast, Penicillum etc are used in different industrial purposes. Penicillum is used to produce antibiotic. To increase fertility of land, these organisms are used. T | Chapter-02: Call division "Bar © 208‘Chapter-02: Cell Division Mitosis is the cell division for forming body of eukaryotes. In mitosis cell division one chromatid of each chromosome of a eukaryotic cell moves to two directions towards two poles and forms 2 daughter nulei. Later 2 daughter nulei forms cell wall of plant cell in the middle portion of nucleus and in animal cell plasma membrane invaginates inward of cytoplasm and divided to two parts and forms two daughter cells. Division of nucleus is called karyokinesis and division of cytoplasm is called cytokinesis. There is no difference between the two new cells in their number of chromosomes, physical and structural features with that of the mother cell. In this process the nucleus and the chromosomes are divided only once. ‘of a eukaryotic cell divided only on in which nucleus of a Mad. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology, EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | }2/ ‘The process of cell division by which nucleus and chromosom. once is known as mitosis cell division. In other words, the cell di somatic cell divided to from two daughter nuclei of equal quali In 1879 Schleicher first observed this type of division of nucleus and on 1882 Walter Flemming named this type of complete division as mi part moves towards the nearest pole. As a re: remains same as the number of chromosom: : and animal cells like- branches p y = Growing apex of root, cambiumt ett. regions, , 4 + All parts of the body of an organism are the result of mitosis. This type of cell division oceurs all over the somatiecells including reproduétive organ cells (except the reproductive nyalso takes place mitosis. 3. The ‘cell, because the length ‘in which hereditary traits-the genes are (Gil cet Cyel j ‘The cycle by which 3 functions-formation of a cell, its growth and next division is performed is. called cell eyele. Howard and Pele suggested this cell eycle. This cycle keeps repeating. In an adult body 100 trillion (10") cells are present. To remain healthy, right cell has to be divided at right time. For this division internal and external signal is necessary. Some cells are specialized for fast di + Embryo cell, + Apical meristem of root and stem ‘Ghapter-02; Cell division ‘Rar © 20a1Md. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology. EM-DS, Rajak Uttara Model College. | [27 ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division ‘Some cell can divide only when they receive necessary stimuli. Again some cells never divide like- = Mature red blood cell = Muscle cell = Neurons and = Permanent cells of plants. Cell cycle is divided into 2 principle steps. Dividing phase of cel is called M-Phase (Mitotic phase) or Mitosis and Intermediate non-dividing stage in between two M-phase is ealled Interphase. ‘Mcphase and interphase cyclically comes to complete cell cycle. Only 5-10% of total cell eyel spent in M-phase and rest 90-95% is spent in interphase. Here, it’s noteworthy that, ata specific time only a few cells remain in mitosis phase and most cells remé phase Cell cycle is regulated by a Genetic program. Cyclin Cdk compo) internal stimuli. Different hormones and growth factor gives external stimuli. ample- = Ifany part of our body is cut then platelets produces tor due to whose stimuli surrounding cells divide and heals wound. White blood cell produces a growth factor for division of necessgfjicell for immune system. + Kidney produces erythropoietin for increasing the number of red blood cell in bone marrow. (BiLinterph: Interphase stage is very long. To properly com ant reactions occur in nucleus at interphase. So, the nucleus of ag polic nucleus. So it can be said that all the preparations necessé interphase. r Interphase can be divide a) Gi(Gap1) phase b) S (Synthesis) phase and ©) Gz Gap2) phase. Growth factor attaches fo At this stage DNA repli s completed before entering the next phase. ggpes mre, 30-50% of total time is spent here. Also called invisible stage. 5 2) G2 (Gapp) phase: : Tt is the preparation phase before entering M-phase. From one centrosome to two centrosomes are produced. Centrosome begins the synthesis of microtubule. E ATP is produced here which is essential for cell division. To enter mitosis from Gr a protein named Maturation Factor (MPF) is required. Some cells get is phase too and they never entre into the n phase. ‘Ghapter-02: Call division‘Md. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology. E! ajuk Uttara Model College. ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division RAI + 10-20% of total time is spent here. To enter S-phase from G1 phase and from S-phase to Gz phase activation of Cdk protein is wired. [BBiL Importance of interphase: Interphase is very important for the living beings. For example- ‘a) Whether cell will take part in next division is decided at the beginning of interphase. b) Protein, RNA and All components of DNA replication for the next division is synthesized here. ©) DNA replication occurs. 4) Microtubules are necessary for formation of spindle fiber. Spindle fiber is necessary for cell division. Microtubules are produced here. ©) Necessary energy (ATP) for cell division is produced here. 1) Without interphase cell division won't occur. Without divi and maturation of organism won’t occur i.e. new organigi (BV Significance of cel evele in living body: Interphase and mitosis cyclically completes the cell ¢ are- a) Without cell cycle neither unicellular nor m ) Mitosis happens due to preparation dur) ‘and maturation of multicellular o ©) Inevery living organism norma {d) Abnormal or uncontrolled cel even cause cancer. uultiplication of cell, growth bbe formed. hase (mit Cell cycle enters M-phase from Go pha: division of nucleus and reformation through some cycle is spent in Thus interphase Ibis the actual dividing stage of a cell. 72. 5-10% of the total time of cell eyele is spent in M. phase. ffid structural amount | 3. The division and distribution of 1. Stage Total time 3. Changes jponents of a cell is _| different components of a cell is increased ‘occurred in this stage. 4. Genetic 4. The genetic materials is present as | 4. The genetic materials is present as material chromatin fibre in this stage chromosomes in this stage ‘Chapter-02: Cell division. ‘Bare aoa)Definitio Generally, mitosis means karyokinesis. The long and complex phase of mitosis cell di nucleus ofa mother cell divides and produce two daughter nucleus, is called karyokinesis It is not right to divide cell division into phase because it’s a continuous and gradual process. But for the sake of description mitosis is divided into 5 phase. The phases of karyokinesis are- 1. Prophase 2. Prometaphase 3. Metaphase 4, Anaphase and 5. Telophase Description of different phases of karvokinesis: 1. Prophase: a) First phase of mitosis is called prophase. b) Prophase is the longest stage of mitosis cell i ‘c) The nucleus becomes bigger in size at this,Stie. 4) Innnucleus, especially in chromosomes, 5 ity Q absorption of dye increases and when stained they ar i ) By the continuous dehydration \ick and short, making them conspicuous. “ f) At the end of this stage, nue i phosphorilation of some prot i i starts to contract and due to phosphorilation 6f some protei éldpe diséppears. ‘At this stage except the centromere each chromosome divides longittidinally. Each thread of Jhromatid. Although thé ghromosomes are spiif into chromatid, yet they apparatus by combination of some disappeared due to traction of isapped two,poles of spindle apparatus is called equator. Fibers of from one pole to another pole. They are called spindle At pro-metaphase stage spindle apparatus. The fiber mere of chromosome remain attached with specific fiber of attaching the centromere of chromosome are called traction ime chromosome slightly moves which is called chromosomal dance. Actually the chromosomes travel towards the equator. i) Atthis time the chromosomes starts to arrange themselves in the equator. ) In animal cell previously divided centriole remains at two poles without forming spindle apparatus and radiate aster rays. k) Spindle fiber attaches with the motor protein of kinetochore of centromere. This protein can break ATP to form ADP and Pi and releases energy. By spending this energy chromosome moves along the microtubule ‘Chapter-02: Cell division "Rar © 2081Mad. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology, EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | [27,] ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division 3. Metaphase: }) At the beginning of this phase all the chromosome arranges at the equator of spindle apparatus. b) The Middle region between the two poles of spindle apparatus is called equator. ©) Arrangement of chromosomes at the equator of spindle apparatus is called metakinesis. 4) Atthis phase chromatids will be thickest, shortest and most clear. ©) Atthis phase number, size and shape of chromosome can be determined. At the end of metaphase each centromere is completely divided to from two daughter chromosomes. 4. Anaphase 1a) Anaphase stage starts right after the centromere is separated. ) Atthis stage daughter chromosome start moving from equator. ©) Due to complete division of centromere each chromatid bec each daughter chromosome moves towards their respect 4) Inthe movement of centromere towards the pole, cent according to the position of centromere chromosomes lok Ii (metacentric), L (sub-metacentric), J (acrocentric) and I (t e) When daughter chromosomes reach near file, anaphase en poles is called telophase. b) In this stage hydration takes pla thin and long and gradually be ©) At the end of this stage nucl nucleolus reoccurs at the seconé are formed at two poles. . 4) Spindle fibers gradually disappears. Cytokinesis: 0 poles and . So two daughter nucleus fy and small vesicles together form cell jor and after they combine to form fcell plate. paratus, the cell membrane invaginates ide and meets at the middle, as a result the cell is divided into 2 parts. ion of this furrow of cell membrane of animal cell. Ifcytokinesis doesn’t occur and firyokinesis continues then many nuclei are formed in a single cell. This is called Free nuclear division, Water of green coconut is a result of free nuclear division. In some algae, fungi and animal cell karyokinesis occurs but cytokinesis doesn’t occur. As a result, many nuclei are formed in a single cell. This type of plant eells is called coenocytic and animal cells are called plasmodium.‘Md. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology. EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | 27, ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division | _“’ Difference between. pkine Tain ¢ division of nucleus during cell | 1. The division of cytoplasm during - Definition | division is known as caryokinesis. _| cell division is known as cytokinesis. 2. ti naaic + ate Occurrence | 2. Caryonkiesis occurs first. pon cryokinesis, cytokinesis time “ 3. It is a complex process and “3. Comparatively simple process and 3. Duration | comparatively longest. shortest, 4. Caryokinesis divided into five stages, These are- a) Prophase, ded te 4. Stages. b) Prometaphase, AO ot divided into any ©) Metaphase, ve d) Anaphase and e) Telophase. 3. Duration | 5. Longest. esis 6. 6. After caryokinesis two d laughter cells Production _| nucleus are produced. L presented: 1. Physical structure and growth: in multicellular organism a single cell called 2 organs are developed as a result ig also required for increasing the cell re maintained. pe chemical compounds located in the cytoplasm, nucl Sof the cell. As a result of mitosis cell division the quantitative 6. Maintai romosome: Due to this type of cell division all the somatic cells bear the same number and same quality of chromosome. 7. Compensation: By mitosis cell division, any damaged part of multicellular organism is repaired quickly and the loss is compensated. 8. Continuous repairing: Lifespan of some cells among the living cells are specific. When these cells are destroyed they are repaired or compensated by mitosis. 7] Ghapter-02: Cell division "Rar © a081|. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology. EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | [27] Chapter-02: Cell Division 9, Regeneration: ‘The lifespan of some very essential cells are very short (like-RBC and outer corneal cell of ‘human). These cells are continuously degenerated and new cells are formed to replace them. 10. Maintaining qualitative stability: This process of cell division maintains qualitative stability in the living being. 11. Demerit of mitosis cell division: ‘Non regulated mitosis cell division is the cause of tumor and cancer. ‘Uncontrolled mitosis: Mitosis is regulated by some internal and external factors of a Cell. For ahy reason if this control is lost then uncontrolled mitosis occurs, as a result tumor and cancer is formed control is destroyed. A protein named P® generally gitevents cell divisi en it is defective (about half of the total human cells contain defective P®°),éefl cycle loses its confrpl. As a result cancer ‘occurs. It is probably one of the reasons for iner ‘cancer in human. Some growth factors work for cell division, Is produce their own factor or don’t require any growth for division. Two i C cell cycle. The process of formation is called jOncogenesis. The gene cell cycle is called Oncogene. The ctigmiical components which stimulate the form: called Mutagenes. All the mutagenic Gomponents aré Careinogenic. The process o ‘tumor in the different portion of the led Metastasis. jn multicellular organism; It is compensated by cell division. Daily iy. Cell death occurs by two process: se are- dé toxic substances. The mi and lining epithelium o = The cells of epithelial layer of the uterine wall of a mother. {WB} Mitotic Index (: The ratio of the total number of cell and the number of mitotic dividing cell of a particular tissue is called mitotic index (MI). Number of mitotic dividing cell MI ‘Number of total cell of a tissue @ | Ghapter-02: Cell division ‘Rar © aoa)‘Md. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology, EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division MLis essential for doctor. From MI a doctor can conclude the rate of growth of tumor and type of treatment. High MI indicates the rapid growth of tumor. as the regular — | 1. Amilosis is direct method of cell process of cell division by which _| division, characterized by simple each of the two daughter cell receive | splitting of the nucleus without the ‘exactly the same number and same 9 kind of chromosome that parent cell contain. 2. The cell ereates an exact copy of itself. 3. There is formation of chromosome. 4, They contain equal number 4. They conta chromosome as that of the ‘chromosome. cell. 5. Its also known, S.Ttis also known a division. division. 1, Definition 2, Meaning 3. Chromosome 4. Number of chromosome 5. Known as 6 Organisms | rzanisms. 71 It takes place in pla animals. __| protozoa etc. | 7. Species josome is divided once to from 4 daughter cells is known as i 1 said that, the cell division in which number of chromosome of newly i II becomes half of that of mother cell is called meiosis. ‘The word ‘meiosis’ is developed fFomr the Greek word “meiosis”. It means to lessen. (G2 Discover and naming: In 1883 E.V. Beneden and Houser discovered haploid number of chromosomes in the gamete of Ascaris. In 1888 Strasburger, observed reduction division of chromosome in the reproductive mother cell of flowering plants. In 1905 J.B. Moore first named reductional division as Meiosis. Later according to the spelling of greek root word (meioum = to lessen) it was spelled Meiosi surrence: ‘© Meiosis always occurs in reproductive mother cell (Meiocyte). | Ghapter-02: Cell division ‘Rar © 0aislam, Lecturer in Zoology, EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | 127, ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division ‘« Itnever occurs in somatie cell and always oceurs in cell containing 2n number of chromosomes. «In lower organisms meiosis occurs in zygote after fertilization and in higher organisms (diploid) meiosis oceurs before fertilization during formation of gamete from reproductive mother cell. contribution of meiosis in continuity of Organism: ‘© In higher organisms four gamete cells are produced as a result of meiosis from reproductive mother cell and each cell contains half ofthe chromosomes of the mother cell. We know two ‘gametes (male gamete and female gamete) unite together to form a zygote. Later by Consecutive mitotic division the zygote develops into an embryg’and the cell of embryo by dividing again develops into a full grown organism. So if theshmber of chromosomes become double does not reduce to half of the mother cell, the numbér of chromosomes becomes double as a result of union of the two gametes. | + Inhaploid organism (¢.g.-Algae) the chromosomes of the zyg conjugation of two gametes. Since chromosome carries gene chromosome number is doubled then offsprifia won't be of same‘ result, living world will be destroyed. «Species survive generation after gen sause Meiosis oc mother cell of diploid organism d formation and in organism and continuity of o is preserved. (G5jl Features of Meiosis: ' 1. Generally meiosis takes placelin the gamete njgther cell of diploid organi 2. Nucleus is divided twice and im is divided once in this cell division$6 number of chromosome in newly formed cell becomes y 3. As Prophase-I is very long drawn process it i$ divided into 5 stage 44. Bivalent is formed.by.the pairing of homologous chromosomes. place between the hdrnologous chrompsifie through chiasma becomes double as a result of ting heredity of organism, if production of haploid formati rossing over. 6. Four hg produced from asingl 2 jhromosome takes place. {quality due to crossing over and of meiosis. It is very significant in is a mean of producing variety in Meiosis cell di 1. Mei 6 main stages. These are — sion): Known as Reductional division. jon) : Known as equational division meiosis, Before formation of gametes Few lower plants 9. Intermediary or sporie | Atsome intermediate time between 2 eee ny oF Spot fertilization and the formation of Flowering plants meiosis gametes. 5 z aoe ‘Algae, fungi, 3. |.3. Initial or 2ygotic melosis | Immediately after fertilization Maal axle ——TlaaertaGdlawson SSCSsis is a continuous gradual process. In meiosis a cell is divided twice. According to division of cell, nucleus and chromosome meiosis can be divided into 2 main phase- Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II. In Meiosis-I chromosome number becomes half, soit is called reductional division. In meiosis- TI chromosome number remains same. So itis also called equational division. Each phase can be divided into 4 stages- prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. In meiosis DNA duplication occurs before Prophase-I In polyploidy plant meiosis is very complicated, so here meiosis of diplgid (2n=2x) plant is described. A). Meiosis-1 or First Mei ision: f Meiosis-I is the most significant stage in meiosis cell division. In Schromosomes (crossing over) takes place. Meiosis-I is divided into = Prophase-1 = Metaphase-1 Anaphase-1 and Telophase-1 lengthy, so itis divided into 5 sub-s ‘These are~ . 1. Leptotene Zygotene Pachytene Diplotene 2. 3. 4. 5. Diakinesi Le Greek: Ley Leptotene starts with the dehydration in the nucleus. cal wall Continuous dehydration in the nucleus, the chromosomes start 4 shrinking and thickening, become able to absorb stain. This ‘enable the chromosomes to become visible under compound microscope. Many beads- like nucleosomes or chromosomeres are visible in the chromosome. These are arranged in a linear fashion along their lengths. ‘The chromosome remains long and undivided. Nucleotus Dehydration and shrinking of chromosome goes on, In animal cell, in this step generally the chromosomes look like ‘a bouquet of flower by gathering the centromere together near Leptotene the cell membrane. So sometimes they are called bouquet. Scientist Darlington named it as bouquet. In case of plant cell (Lilium) such type of arrangement is called Synezesis. This type of arrangement of chromosome is known as polarizedTH. Reval itn carr in Zot ENDS, Hao tara Med Cates] ‘Zvgotene: Greek: Zygos = Yoke, Pair and Tene = Thread, In this stage homologous chromosomes (one comes from mother, other comes from father) form pair. «The attraction between the homologous chromosomes is the cause of this pair formation. Plasmalema + The pairing process may start from at one end and finished at Nuclear the other end or from the centromere to the two sides or at the membran different places of chromosome. entromere # «Pair formation between the homologous chromosomes is Cmomomere known as Synapsis. Each pair is known as Bivalent or Diad. _Nacleolus ‘The number of bivalents is half of the chromosomes present wert in a cell. Synaptomial complex binds the bivalent. * Nucleolus and nuclear membrane are seen in this stage. + Incase of animal cell the division of centrioles initiate at this) a b 3 Pachyten¢ Greek: Pachys = Thick and Tene = Thread = Asa result of continuous contraction the chromosomes become thicker and shorter in this stage. = Here for the first time each chromosome of each bivalent is found divided lengthwise except the centromere into two chromatids. That is, there are 2 centromeres and 4 chromatids in each bivalent. This condition is called tetrad. = However, until pachytene stage, 2 chromatids of each chromosome are not visible. * The two chromatids of the same chromosome are known as ister-chromatid and the two chromatids of the two different os chromosomes are known as non-sister chromatid. = At the end of this stage the two new sister chromatids break at (Chromatid cone or two point and again join with the broken parts. As a Tend result, an *X’-shaped structure is formed at the broken point. TNevctear is “X’- shaped structure of the chromatids is known as /-=——==—\_ Membrane Chiasma or chi-structure. (Gk. Chiasma =cross) in singular and chaismata in plural. Fig: Pachytene The exchange of the segments of two non-sister chromatids is known as Crossing over. = In some bivalents (especially in shorter ones) crossing over does not take place. Again, in some bivalents (especially in the longer bivalents) there may be more than one crossover. Crossover may take place in more than one pairs of non-sister chromatids due to the formation of more than one chaismata. = Asa result of chiasma formation, crossing over process takes place in the chromosome which leads to the change in traits. * Nucleolus and nuclear membrane are found in this stage also. This sub-phase is longest. 12 | Ghapter-02: Cell division ‘Rar © 20214. Diplotene: Greek: Diplos = Double and Tene = Thread ‘Md. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology. EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. 13 | Ghapter-O2: Cell division ‘Rar © a0a1 ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division ‘As a result of continuous contraction in this stage, the chromosomes become more thick and short. Repulsion between the chromosomes of bivalent start. As a result, there is a tendency of the chromosomes to migrate to their opposite poles but the chromosomes are obstructed at the points of chaisma. This repulsion starts at different point at the same time. Generally, it starts first between the two centromeres vigorously. As a result of repulsion Loop is formed in between two chaisma. Generally, chaisma become clearer and starts to moves towards the poles. This movement of chaisma towards the pole is known as Terminalization. Due to rotatory movement of two or more arms of the chromosomes, the adjacent loops remain at 90° angles. If only ‘one chaisma present, then the angle may be 180°, CChiesma Repusion Greek: Dia = Across and Kinesis In this step the chromosomes become further thickened and pisinterated ntear membrane shortened. | Till then terminilization goes on. Matrix is deposited on each chromosome of bivalent, so the divided chromatids are not seen anymore. The bivalents move towards the periphery from the center of nucleus. At the end of this stage nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane disintegrates and in animal cell centrioles reached at the pole. Mobi tion, Motion in this stage homologoug;ehromosomes are separated and two chromosomes (not two chromatids) of bivalent move towards the opposite pole. Polar movement of chromosome occurs due to contraction of chromosome fibers, expansion of arm and other reasons. ‘As a result, the chromosomes look like the English letters V (metacentric), L (sub-metacentric), J (acrocentric) and I (telocentric). Length of traction fibers decreases. ‘The number of chromosomes of mother cell is reduced to half as each chromosome of the bivalent reach the pole begins undivided. So the number of chromosomes at the pole is reduced to ‘n’ from ‘2n’Rajuk Uttara Model College. Chapter-02: Cell Division Telophase-l is the last stage of Meiosis-I. ‘Nuclear membrane surrounding the ‘n” number of chromosomes and the nucleolus appear je at this stage. Hydration starts at the nucleus and slowly becomes invisible. ‘According to variation of species cytokinesis may occur at Telophase-I or cellular cytoplasm may be divided into equal two parts by formation of cell-plate to form two daughter cells. That is, prophase-II of meiosis-II can start without formation of cell- plate, Here it is to be noted that, at the end of Telophase-I of meiosis tyvo daughter cells are formed in each of which “n” number of chromosomes is present (insteag,Of ‘2n’ number of chromosome). In many species Telophase-I doesn’t occur. Interkinesis or Cytokinesis-1; The intermediate period between meiosis-1 and meiosis-II division i stage necessary RNA, protein etc. are synthesized. DNA replication doesn’t take place. B), Meiosis-2 or Second Meiotic division: The main objective of meiosis-2 is to form four om two cells. It is mitosis division. ‘The DNA replicated during meiosis-II is not.né here, because this progess.is completed before Prophase-1. josis-2 is divided into 4 centromeres i of traction fiber and expansion of arm and the chromatids centromere. ) Telophase-2: “Telophase-2 is the last phase of meiosis-2. Chromatid i.e Chromosomes are stable in the pole and nuclear envelope appears around them and nucleolus is formed at the SAT chromosome. ‘Asa result two separate nucleolus are formed. Hydration occurs at nucleus, chromosomes are ‘thin and long and staining ability disappears, so they are not visible anymore. 11] Ghapter-02: Cell division ‘Rar @ aoaRajuk Uttara Model College. Chapter-02: Cell Division Cell membrane in between two nucleus and in plant cells, cell wall apart from cell membrane is formed and cytoplasm is divided ice. each nucleus is converted into an independent cell by deposition of cytoplasm, cell membrane and cell wall. By meiosis one mother cell produces 4 daughter cells after division and number of chromosome is half of that of mother cell. Newly formed 4 cells are not of equal quality. {GBH Importance of meiosis cell division: Importance of meiosis cell division is immense in living kingdom. Because most organisms are undertake sexual method for reproduction. As a result new organism isfBom by formation of embryo. But in lower plants new plants is formed by producing spores. Impogfatice of meiosis is mentioned below: 1, Gamete cell formation: Due to meiosis reproductive cell (gamete) is formed, s0'in seXually reproductive organisms reproduction is impossible without meiosi 2 respective species, the in maintained in their success ' Py . Variation: Z, ‘Two sexually reproductive organisms are not ; 90 ofbre humans are tere, they real different from each other. fendel’s law without meiosis. ‘The intermediary stage in between the meiosis-1 and meiosis-2 is known as interkinesis, Interkinesis is also known as interphase-2. However, the necessary RNA and protein synthesis occurs in this time but DNA replication does not occurs at this time. Chromat Definition: Either of two parallel, spiral filaments joined at the centromere which make up a chromosome. 15 | Chapter-O2: Cell division "Bar © 2081In the plants and animals it takes place for the formation of male and female gametes. By this di DS, Rajuk Ut Meiosis cell division occurs because- Model College. | 27,1 ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division ion the chromosome becomes half of the mother cell. If the number of chromosomes does not reduce, the number becomes double after union of two gametes. So to maintain constant chromosome number in species to species or generation to generation, this type of di Difference between mitosis and meiosis is writ 1.Generally occurs in somatic or L.Oceurrence | 54 cell ion takes place. 1. Generally occurs in reproductive n 2. Nucleus 2, Nucleus divides ones ivide twice '3. The number of chromosomes of the daughter cell is same as mother cell. 3. Chromosome number ig fiumber of chromosomes of the 4-Daughter cell the end of this cell divs 4. Two daughter cells are produced at 5. Daughter cells are similar, 5, Similarity eailh 6. Homologous chr 6. Synapsis ‘6. Homologous synapsis to form prophase 7. Chaismata 7. Chaismata are fo 8. Crossing over 8. Crossing over takeg place between the chi 9. This process occurs both in 9. Type of cell vet 9 It occurs insanly diploid cell. 10. Nature wn as equational cel as reduetional cell 11. Homi ot arran; ite. jus chromosomes. 11. Arrangeftient in pairs in the equat 12. Genet variation jenetie variation does not o cells, 12, Genetic variation occurs between sghter cells. 1 et are and cytopl ‘centromeres 13. Metapl jal plate stage ip on \s exten Jn metaphase I, The centromeres of homologous chromosomes lie wards the two opposite poles and their arms extend towards the equator. ter R very longe: 14, Interphase ‘the mitosis is 14. Interphase before the meiosis is very shortest. 15. DNA synthesis 15. DNA, interphast sis ocours during 15. DNA synthesis occurs during Prophase. ference between Chromatin and Chromosome: ‘Chrom: ‘Chromosome T. It is uncondensed part of nucleoprotein complex. T. Chromosomes are condensed parts of ‘nucleoprotein complex. 2. Chromatin in observable in the interphase nucleus. 2. Chromosomes are observable during Metaphase or nucleus division. 3. It is active in controlling metabolism and other activities of the cell. 3. Chromosomes are mainly meant for distribution of hter cell. 16 | Chapter-02: Cell divisionMad. Rezaul Islam, Lecturer in Zoology. EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. | |2/,] ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division jfference between Prophase of Mitosis and Prophase-1 of Meiosis-1: 1, Comparatively duration of this cell division is long. 1. Dur short. 1, Duration 2. It is complicated and subdivided into leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene and diakenesis. 2.Sub- stage. | 2. Comparatively it is simple and there is no sub-stage. 3. Bivalent 3. There is no pair formation 3. Homologous chromosomes from between homologus chromosomes. | pai air formation is known as No synapsis and no bivalent ‘Asa result there bivalent formation in this stage. fe of chromosomes are seen. erierally chaisma formation and 4. Chiasma 4. Generally there is no chiasma | rossi takes place, so formation and crossing over. interchange Beyween the chromatids interchange of chromatids betvéen | of homol yromosomes are chromosomes does not occ ‘occurred. ference between Metaphase of Mi taphase of 1. At this stage ct mes a L Position of | U4 to arrange equatorial reglpn. | 1. In this stage centortenecates at the Siratition of, | The centomere i equatoridftine | pole and the arm at th equatorial line. and the arm of the ¢hgtosomes’ é remains towards poles. ares are divided as a result chromat we a iveseh other 's remain attached by the Centromere Ai this stage due to crossing over ae he naturesof chromosomes erHiing/| during pachytene substage, thre nature ‘ of chromosomes are changed. Difference betw Mitosis and Anapha josis-1: 1. Only daubliter chrom ie ch fomosomes (not- chromatid) move move towards Bole. pole. 2. Equal num iter Chromosomes | 2. Half number of the chromosomes that of (chromaqtids) that of mother fowards | mother cell move towards pole. pole. 3. The divided centomere remaifvwith the 3. Undivided centomere remain with the ‘daughter chromosomes. chromosomes. 4, Nature of chromosomes remains unchanged. | 4. Nature of chromosomes aliered due to crossing over during pachytene sub-stage. (GH kinetochore: Defini At the prophase stage of cell division, each chromosome is shorter, thicker and consists of two identical sister chromatids joined together by a spherical body called centromere or kinetochore. 17 | Ghapter-O2: Cell division ‘Rar © a0I Islam, Leeturer in Zoology, EM-DS, Rajuk Uttara Model College. ‘Chapter-02: Cell Division jefinition: ‘At the end of prophase spindle apparatus is formed due to accumulation of some protein fiber from the the pole of the cell. The moddle part of cell is known as equator. The fibres of the spindle are connected from one pole to other. They are called spindle fibre or continuous fibre. (BU Traction fibre: Definition: ‘At the end of prophase spindle apparatus is formed due to accumulation of some protein fiber from the the pole of the cell. The moddle part of cell is known as equator. ‘The fibre attach to the centromere of ‘each chromosome is called traction fibre or chromosomal fibre or kinetphore fibre. apo)phase: Definition: ‘An interphase cell in the Go phase is not preparing for divisio ingtead performing all of the other function appropriate for that particular cell type. Some mature ce} plants, skeletal muscle cells and most neurons remaigs in Go phase ind ‘contrast, stem cell or the meristematic cell, which divide repeatedly with and never, enters Go. The interchange between the segments of two non-sister chromatids of a paifjof homologous b-stage of prophase} of meiosis-1 is called crossing over. ¥s over. Due to crossing over, the, ent of genes of -ombination is fo ‘genes. In 1909 Thomas ‘crossing over in taize is is why in 1933 He won the chromosomes ‘Hunt Morgan’ hiasmata of the homolog 1osome, crossing over may be of three f the non-sister chromatids, as a result single crossing over ‘occurs. Resultant effect is, two patental type and two recombination types. This single crossing over is very commion occurrence. 2. Double Crossing over: Here two chiasmata are formed. Hence, two crossing over occur at two points in the same tetrad. This type of crossing over is less frequent. 3. Multiple crossing over: Here three or more chiasmata are formed in the tetrad. Corresponding to the number of chiasmata, crossing over occur. This type of crossing over does not occur frequently. Ghapter-O2: Cell division "RZI © 208%a) The two non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes come closer and attached in a place. b) Due to enzymetic action of Endonuclease, the two non-sister chromatids break at the same place. ©) Then the segments are rejoined with the other segment by the help of Ligase enzyme. As a result chiasma (X-shaped) is formed. 4) At the last stage interchange of chromatids part take place by terminalization. Interchange of segments of chromatids along the genes take place as genes are located on chromosome. The interchange of characteristics is due to the interchange of genes, as 2 a result change in organism is found. i D). Importance of et Crossing over is observed in all plants and ani spt some lower anim: over is given below: ig: Crossing over portance of crossing 1, Due to crossing over exchange two chromatids occur. It change in gene occurs. Due to genetic change, charadter change is se@f in living organisms. ue to change in characteristi6ggyariation occifs in living world, japtabilify in a new environment is created, and sor new species are created. By crossing over new species with required injBroved character c gradual devel 3f food crops are achie Change in ible by artificial crossing over. So cr reproductiggt science. Crossing 6ver is important for research. Because line ment. ct 9f crossing ver in chromosome fhaf sed. formed. Through this, ‘over has role in of gene in chromosome or Crossing, very esseptial in determin ‘of gene in a chromosome. Gengtic map by the help of eX