PEC 301 Lesson 6 Learners-with-Additional-Needs

CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND
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CSTC College Bldg. Gen. Luna St. Maharlika Hi-way, Pob. 3, Arellano Sub. Sariaya Province of
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SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Instructional Module in
PEC 301: Foundations of Special and Inclusive Education
Preliminaries
I. Lesson Number 6
II. Lesson Title Learners with Additional Needs
III. Brief Introduction of Children learn every day. This happens in various settings and
the Lesson different ways. Learning at times happens intentionally and with
great effort while there are situations where it happens intentionally
and with great effort while there are situations where it happens
almost effortlessly. This chapter focuses on learners with additional
needs, highlighting the definition, identification, learning
characteristics and general education adaptations.
IV. Lesson Objectives At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a. Identify the various additional needs learners might have
b. Differentiate the additional needs from one another
c. Recognize the characteristics of learners with additional
needs
d. Discuss what marginalization means
e. Identify different marginalized groups
Lesson Proper
I. Getting Started
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What did you notice about the picture?
II. Discussion
I. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED
A. Definition
Learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities than
average and are often referred to as gifted students. This group refers to students whose
talents, abilities, and potentials are developmentally advanced. They require special
provisions to meet their educational needs, thus presenting a unique challenge to
teachers. They often finish tasks ahead and might ask for more creative tasks or
exercises. Exciting and energizing activities should be provided to continuously keep them
motivated. This group includes students with exceptional abilities from all socio-economic,
ethnic, and cultural populations. What is the difference then between gifted and talented?
The term giftedness refers to students with extraordinary abilities in various academic
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areas. However, talent focuses on students with extraordinary abilities in a specific area.
There is also another way to look into giftedness which is conceptualized by

Gardner in 1993. According to him, intelligence is multifaceted. The following intelligences
are seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence

Source: https://www.institute4learning.com/resources/articles/multiple-intelligences/
B. Identification
To identify gifted and talented students, one must do the following:
 Locate the student’s domain of giftedness

 Describe the students level of giftedness
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 Describe the student’s fields of talent
C. Learning Characteristics
Not all learners will exhibit the learning characteristics listed below. However, these are the
common manifestations of gifted and talented learners. One might possess a combination
of characteristics in varying degrees and amounts.
 High level of intellectual curiosity

 Reads actively
 High degree of task commitment
 Keen power of observation
 Highly verbal
 Gets bored easily
 Can retain and recall information
 Excited about learning new concepts
 Independence in learning
 Good comprehension of complex contexts
 Strong, well-developed imagination
 Looks for new ways to do things
 Often gives uncommon responses to common questions
D.
General Educational Adaptations
Learners who are gifted and talented usually get bored since they have mastered the
concepts taught in classes. One thing that is common among gifted students is that they
are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their instructional needs may be a challenging task. There are
some suggested strategies for teaching gifted students:
 Teachers may give enrichment excises that will allow learners to study the same
topic at a more advanced level.
 Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at their own
pace thus resulting at times to in completing two grade levels in one school year.
 Open-ended activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided,
emphasizing on divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities than pre-
determined answers.
 Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have shown that
gifted students are often socially immature.
 Extensive reading on subjects of their own interest may be coordinated with the
school librarian to further broaden their knowledge.
 Long-term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students an
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opportunity to be engaged for an extended period of time.
II. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING
A. Definition
Students in the classroom will exhibit different levels of clarity of eyesight or visual
acuity. There may be some students with hampered or restricted vision. Learners with
difficulty seeing are those with issues regarding sight that interfere with academics. The
definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) states that “an impairment
in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child educational performance,
which includes both partial sight and blindness.” These students may need to have their
eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or other optical devices.
B. Identification
Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs, such as crossed eyes,
squinting, and eyes that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy, usually bumping into
objects which causes them to fall down. They like to sit near the instructional materials or
at times would stand up and go near the visual aids.
Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hand coordination. This can
be seen in their handwriting or poor performance as these students might have difficulty
reading as well as writing.
C. Learning Characteristic
Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most school lessons are done through
blackboard writing, presentations, or handouts, in most major subjects. Visual
impairments, whether mild, moderate, or severe, affect the student’s ability to participate in
normal classroom activities. In the past, students who are visually impaired are placed in
special institutions. Nowadays, most are enrolled with other children who are not visually
impaired.
Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted ways to learn incidentally from their
surroundings since most of them learn through visual clues. Because of this, the other
senses are used to acquire knowledge. Due to the limited ability to explore the
environment, low motivation to discover is present.
D. General Educational Adaptations

Modification in teaching is needed to accommodate students with different seeing.
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The following strategies may be considered:

If the use of books is part of your lesson, students with difficulty seeing
should be informed ahead of time so that they can be ordered in braille or in
an audio recorded format.
III.  Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded so that
visually-impaired students can listen instead of focusing on the visual
presentation.
 All words written on the board should be read clearly.
 Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board so that they
can easily move close to the instructional materials used during the lesson.
 A buddy can be assigned to a student with difficulty seeing ass needed.
This can be crucial to assist in the mobility of the student such as going to
the other places in school during the day.
 Students with difficulty seeing might need more time to complete a task or
homework. This might be on a case to case basis.
 Teachers should be aware of terminology that would require visual acuity
(such as over there like this one) which the impaired student may not
possess.
 Teachers should monitor the students closely to know who needs extra time
in completing tasks.
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY HEARING
A. Definition
This refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes with academics.
The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines it as “an
impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance but is not included under the definitions of “deafness.” Deafness
is considered when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A hearing loss below 90 decibels is
called hearing impairment.
The main challenge of hearing-impaired students is communication, since most of

them have varying ways of communicating. The factors affecting the development of
communication skills include intelligence personality, the degree and nature of deafness
and residual hearing, family environment, and the age of onset. The latter plays the most
crucial role in the development of language and speech development.
B. Identification
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To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a student and see if he/she does the
following items below.
 Speaking loudly
 Positioning ear toward the direction of the one speaking.
 Asking for information to be repeated again and again
 Delayed development of speech
 Watching the face of the speaker intently
 Favoring one ear
 Not responding when called
 Has difficulty following directions
 Does not mind loud noises
 Learning close to the source of sounds
C. Learning Characteristics
Since much of learning is acquired through hearing, students with hearing problems
have deficiencies in language and in their experiences. Since they may miss out on daily
conversations, they may miss crucial information that non-hearing-impaired students learn
incidentally. Students may overcome these problems by investing time, energy, and
combined effort by both parents and educators.
Most learners with difficulty hearing use various methods of communication. The most
common is the use of hearing aids, combined with lip-reading. These students are referred
to as “oral” since they can communicate thru speech as opposed to sign language. They
might have delayed communication skills since the development of vocabulary is slower.
They understand concepts when the sentence structure is simpler. Interacting with
students can be challenge so they prefer to work on their own. Some hearing-impaired
students use note-takers in class since it is difficult to lip-read and take notes
simultaneously.
D. General Educational Adaptations
There is an assumption that the only adjustment for hearing impaired students is to
make all instructional materials and techniques in written format. These are other ways to
adapt to hearing impaired students:
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 Teachers should help students with difficulty hearing to use the residual hearing
they may have.
IV.  Teachers should help students develop the ability for speech reading or
watching others’ lips, mouth, and expressions.
 Teachers should be mindful to face the class at all times when presenting
information while ensuring that the students with difficulty hearing sit near them.
 Exaggerating the pronunciation of words should not be done for it just makes it
difficult for the student with difficulty hearing.
 Directions, as well as important parts of the lesson, should always be written on
the board.
 Written or pictorial directions instead of verbal directions may be given.
 Steps to an activity may be physically acted out instead of verbally given.
 A variety of multi-sensory activities should be given to allow the students to
focus on their strengths.
 Teachers should be more patient when waiting to hear a response from a
hearing- impaired student which may take longer than usual.
LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

Some learners are observed to have difficulty communicating, either verbally expressing their
ideas and/or in understanding what others are saying. Some may have had a clinical diagnosis of
a disability while others display developmental delays and difficulty in the speech and language
domain. To have a clearer understanding of students who have difficulty communicating, we will
begin with a definition of communication and its accompanying concepts; how learners with
communications difficulties are identified, their learning characteristics, and way how to help them
manage and become successful in an inclusive setting.
A. Definition: Types of Communication Impairments and Disorders
Communication is the interactive exchange of information. Ideas, feeling, needs, and

desires between and among people. (Heward, 2013). Communication is used to serve
several functions, particularly to narrate, explain, inform, requires (mind), and express feeling
and opinions.
How is speech different from language?
Speech is the expression of language with sounds or oral production. Speech is produced
through precise physiological and neuromuscular coordination:
1. Respiration fact of breathings
2. Phonation (production of sound by the larynx and vocal folds), and
3. Articulation (use of lips, tongue, teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak)
Language is used for communication, formalized code used by a group of people to

communicate with one another, that is primarily arbitrary (Heward, 2013). People decide on
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symbols, their corresponding meaning, and rules that make up a language. There are five
dimensions of language that describe it’s from – phonology, morphology, syntax, content,
and use (pragmatics).
Table 6.1 provides a description for each dimension.
Components Description
Phonology Phonology refers to the sound system of a language. A
phoneme is the smallest unit of sound within a language.
For instance, the word dog is made up of three
phonemes, namely /d/-/o/-/g/ while beans has four
phonemes. /b/-/ea/-/n/-/s/
Morphology Morphology of a language refers to the smallest unit of
language that has meaning and which are used to
combine words. Sounds, syllables, or whole words are
examples of morphemes.
Syntax Syntax is the system of rules governing the meaningful
arrangement of words, which also include grammar rules.
For instance, the sentence, Ready get for the exam does
not make sense until arranged in the right sequence as
Get ready for exam.
Semantics Semantics refers to the meanings associated with words
and combination of words in a language This also
includes vocabulary, concept development, connotative
meanings of words, and categories
Pragmatics Pragmatics revolves around the social use of language,
knowing what, when, and how to communicate and use
language in specific context. There are three kinds of
pragmatics skills.
(1) using language for different purposes (e.g. narrating,
explaining, requesting, etc.),
(2) changing language according to the context (e. g.
talking to a peer as compared to speaking to a well-
respected professor), and
(3) following rules for conversations and story-telling
(e.g., taking turns, rephrasing when unclear, how to use
facial expressions and eye contact, etc.) (American
Speech-Language Hearing Association, 2011 cited in
Heward, 2013)
Knowing these terms is necessary to understand the different disabilities that are associated
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with communication disorders, namely Speech Impairments and Language Disorders.
Speech Impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired articulation,

and language or voice impairment. Such disorders are significant enough that they can adversely
affect a student's academic performance. There are four basic types of speech impairments:
articulation, phonological, fluency, and voice disorder (see Table 6.2)
Table 6.2. Types of speech Impairments
Speech Impairment Description Examples

A child is unable to produce a “I want a blue lollipop”
given sound physical. Severe
articulation disorder may “I want a boo wowipop”
Articulation disorder render a child’s speech
unintelligible. Examples are “Can I get three bananas?”
substitutions, omissions,
distortions, and addition of “An I et tee nanas?”
speech sounds.
Phonological disorder A child produces multiple “That pie is good.”
patterns of sound errors with
obvious impairment of “Cat bye is tood.”
intelligibility. There is also
noted inconsistent
misarticulation of sounds. (i.e.,
sometimes a child is able to
articulate it but not in other
words).
Fluency disorder Difficulties with the rhythm and Blocks:
timing of speech. Stuttering is
an example marked by rapid- “I want a…. banana,”
fire repetitions of consonant or (blocks)
vowel sounds especially at the
beginning of words, Prolongations
prolongations, hesitations,
interjections, and complete “I waaaant a bbbanana”
verbal blocks (Ramig &
Shames, 2006 cited in Repetitions
Gargiulo, 2012).
“I want a ba-ba-ba-banana.”
Voice disorder Problem with the equality or Phonation disorder
use of one’s voice resulting
from disorders of the larynx. (breathiness, hoarseness)
Voice may be excessively
hoarse, breathy, or too high- Hypernasality
pitched.
Hyponasality
Language Disorders involve problems in one or more of the five components of language
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and are often classified as expressive or receptive. Language disorders are characterized by
persistent difficulties in acquiring use of language that result from deficits in comprehension that
include reduced vocabulary, limited sentence structure, and impairments in discourse, that limit a
child's functioning (American Psychiatric Association 2013). To receive a diagnosis of language
disorder, the difficulties must not be due to an accompanying medical or neurological condition
and other developmental disability (i.e., intellectual disability or global developmental delay).
There are different types of language disorder-expressive, receptive, and a combination of

the two. An expressive language disorder interferes with the production of language. A child may
have very limited vocabulary that impacts communications skills or misuses words and phrases in
sentences. On the other hand, a receptive language disorder interferes with the understanding of
language. A child may have difficulty understanding spoken sentences or following the directions
a teacher gives. Some children may be found to have a combination of receptive and expressive
language disorder.
At this point, it is also essential to mention that students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
(ASD) also display speech and language difficulties. ASD is an umbrella term for related disorders
that affect social development and communication (Kirk et al, 2015). Students with ASD display a
triad of impairments in social relationships, social communication, and social understanding. Other
disorders that are subsumed under ASD are Rett Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder,
and Asperger’s Syndrome. Oftentimes, students with ASD display deficits in the pragmatic use
language that impact their social relationships.
A. Identification
\
1
Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of the most common red flags observed by family
members, daycare workers, and early childhood teachers. Noted absence, delays, and difficulties
in speech and or language often prompt family members to consult their general pediatrician who
then makes referrals to developmental pediatricians and other specialists.
To screen children with communication difficulties, early childhood professionals use
questionnaires and developmental checklists to determine the severity of the delay as compared
with typical language development. Upon screening, a child may receive educational supports and
accommodations to help address the delay. If the difficulty is pronounced, referrals can already
be made to developmental pediatrician and a speech and language pathologist. At times,
referrals are also made to an occupational therapist if speech difficulty is resulting from motor
problems.
How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem? A comprehensive

speech and language evaluation to determine the presence of a communication disorder involves
several components (Heward 2013).
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 Case history and physical examination. Assessment always begins with the case
history that provides the specialist the necessary background about the child's birth and
developmental history, health record, achievement test scores, and adjustment in school.
The specialist examines the child's Oral-Peripheral Mechanism which includes the mouth,
noting irregularities in the tongue, lips, teeth, palate, or other structures that may affect
speech production.
 Hearing. Hearing is tested to determine whether an organic hearing problem is the cause
of the suspected communication disorder, as discussed in the previous section. Thus,
hearing impairment needs to be treated to develop speech and language skills.
 Articulation. A child’s articulation skills are assessed, which include identifying speech
errors (see Table 6.2)
 Phonological awareness and processing. Phonological awareness and processing

skills provide the foundation for beginning to read in young children (Adams 2013) Children
with difficulties in processing sounds in language as well as in hearing, segmenting, and
identifying phonemes in words may experience problems with expressive and receptive
spoken language as well as in learning how to read.
 Overall language development and vocabulary. Formal tests may be used to measure
a child's overall language development and vocabulary as these affect how well a child is
able to understand and use language in spontaneous speech and in academic settings.
 Assessment of language function. Language is used to serve several functions such as

to request, name, imitate, ask, and converse among others. B. F. Skinner (Sundberg 2007
cited in Heward 2013), emphasized how language is used rather than the structure and
form of language.
 Language samples and observation in natural settings. Language difficulties may also
be identified through play-based, authentic assessment where a specialist plays with a
child during which spontaneous speech and verbalizations can be elicited. Observations in
natural settings, such as a child's home or school, allows the specialist to sample the
child's language in daily activities and observe parent and child interaction and
communication as part of holistic assessment. These are used to supplement assessment
information gathered in clinical settings.
Assessments in speech, language, and communication must take into consideration the
student's cultural and language context, particularly for children growing up in bilingual
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environments. At this point, it is essential to differentiate English Language Learners (ELL)

from children with diagnosed communication disorder. ELLs are proficient in their mother
tongue or first language in both expressive and receptive language tasks; on the other
hand. they display difficulties in understanding and speaking the second language, such as
English. In a multi-cultural setting, knowing the child's first and second language aids
teachers and language specialists to determine the possible sources of communication
difficulties and plan for needed supports and interventions. An English language learner is
put as a disadvantage when his/her first language (i.e., mother tongue) is not identified and
assessed solely in the second language.
B. Learning Characteristics
Children with communication disorder frequently struggle across social settings, whether at
home, school, or in other places in the community. Some of the difficulties that characterize
communication disorders are presented in Table 6 3
Table 6 3. Language difficulties
Expressive Language Difficulties Receptive Language Difficulties

Limited vocabulary Following oral directions
Incorrect grammar or syntax Understanding humor or figurative
Expressive repetition of information Language
Difficulty in formulating questions Comprehending compound and complex
Difficulty constructing sentences sentences
Responding to questions appropriately
Children with communication disorders may also experience behavioral difficulties. Because
they struggle in expressing their needs, and ideas, some children resort to inappropriate behaviors
out of frustration or to get the attention of significant others. For instance, a five-year old child with
expressive language disorder may resort to grabbing toys and hitting his peers who try to take the
toy he was playing with the day before. While typically developing children will be able to say.
"May I please borrow?" or "It’s my turn now," a child with communication difficulties may not be
able to utter these accurately and instead resort to using actions resulting to physical aggression.
Thus, it is essential that teachers and professionals take this into consideration when working with
children with communication disorders and difficulties. Such feelings of frustration may even
become worse when peers or adults are unable to understand them (Gregg 2016).
Despite these language difficulties, children with communication disorders are known to
have their own strengths and abilities. This can be best understood using the theory of multiple
intelligences (Gardner 1983 cited in Armstrong 2012), as explained in Chapter 5, that shows the
different strengths and abilities children have. In Gardner's theory, children may have abilities in
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different areas or domains, which makes it necessary for parents and teachers to provide
opportunities for such strengths and abilities to be displayed. Children with communication
disorders may have limitations in the linguistic and interpersonal areas but may possess good
spatial, musical, and bodily-kinesthetic abilities. In other words, a child may struggle with
communication but can be very good in playing musical instruments, be very creative and artistic,
and/or excel in sports. As parents, teachers, and practitioners, knowing a student’s strength and
highlighting such abilities in an inclusive classroom is as important as knowing and understanding
his/her communication disorder.
C. General Educational Adaptations
Different strategies and accommodations may be used to provide a level playing field for
children with communication difficulties or disorders. This section discusses the use of Universal
Design for Learning (UDL) and practical tips to be used in the classroom.
1. Universal Design for Learning

Use of UDL In the classroom allows children to learn information, demonstrate understanding,
and stay engaged in multiple ways (i,e.., multiple means of presentation, expression, and
engagement). Because of weaknesses resulting from communication difficulties or disorders,
teaching and learning practices as well as assessment should he presented in different modalities,
such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic motor or tactile. This means that lessons are presented
through various means, such as using pictures and/or videos and hands on experiential learning,
and
not
solely
by
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passive approaches such as reading from textbooks, lectures, and teacher-directed discussions.
Presenting learning activities in this manner gives children with communication difficulties or
disorders the opportunity to use their strengths and stronger modalities to compensate for their
weaknesses and a chance to be successful in an inclusive classroom.
2. Practical Tips for the Classroom

In addition to using UDL., there are practical tips and techniques that teachers can use to
provide students with communication difficulties the support they need in order to be successful.
The 1. Allow the child to sit near the teacher and the blackboard, away from auditory
and visual distractions such as the window and the door.
2. Get the child's attention before giving directions. Call the child's name or use a
pre-arranged signal (e.g.., tap on the table or hand on the shoulder) to help the
child focus and listen to the directions.
3. Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids when explaining content to
supplement auditory information.
4. Speak slowly and clearly without exaggerating speech.
5. Simplify directions into short steps. Break down multi-step directions and give
each one at a time instead of just repeating each one.
6. Provide a written copy of direction for a task so the child can refer back to it at
his/her own pace.
7. Use gestures to clarify information.
8. Use peer-mediated instruction so that peers without difficulties can serve as
language models and learning buddies.
9. Provide extra time to prepare for oral language activities. Do not call children
with communication difficulties/disorders to recite first in class. Call other typically
developing children first to serve as language model.
10. Model correct language forms and use appropriate wait times (3-5 seconds or
more) to give the child time to think and respond.
11. Explicitly teach vocabulary that is needed in the learning context to promote
better comprehension.
following list provides practical suggestions that teachers can use in the classroom. These
suggestions are best implemented in a classroom that promotes a supportive and respectful
culture, one that acknowledges and accepts diversity, and allows accommodations for learners
with difficulties.
Universal Design for Learning, alongside different accommodations (i.e., presentation,

response, setting, ang timing. That are appropriate to the child, and collaboration between
the general education teacher and the special education professional, will all help ensure
that children with communication difficulties/disorders have a chance to be successful in an
inclusive classroom.
III. Application (Performance Task - 40%)

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Direction: Let’s make a graphic organizer and provide the possible factors that affect the learning
characteristics of the students.
Criteria (Individual Output):

Content Organization: 15 points Creativity: 5 points Grammar and Spelling: 5 points
IV. Assessment (Written Works - 30%)
Direction: Answer the following comprehensively.
1. As a future educator, what preparation you must consider in teaching learners with
additional needs?
2. What are the different ways gifted students are served in the classroom?
3. Among all the learners with additional needs, which of them do you think teachers
should more focus on?
Criteria (for each question):

Content Organization: 10 points Grammar and Spelling: 5 points Timeliness: 5 points
V. Reflection (Performance Task - 40%)
Direction: Answer the following comprehensively.

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1. Have you experienced such difficulties? Share your experiences.
2. As a future teacher, how could you address a student who's suffering from difficulty
in communicating? Explain.
Criteria:
Content Organization: 10 points Grammar and Spelling: 5 points Timeliness: 5 points
VI. References
 Halal, C.N.A., Yuzon, M.R., Padilla, C.R. & Ligon, C.C.M. (2020). Foundations of Special
and Inclusive Education. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2EdujrM0vA&t=78s
 https://www.institute4learning.com/resources/articles/multiple-intelligences/
 https://youtu.be/bDvKnY0g6e4
Prepared by:
MICHELLE D. CUETO, PhD

Professor
Reviewed by: Approved by:
JOHN MARC R. MENDOZA, MAEd, MLIS JESS JAY M. SAJISE, DBA

Program Head, School of Teacher Education Vice President of Academic Affairs
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CSTC COLLEGE OF SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND

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SCHOOL OF TEACHER EDUCATION

II. Lesson Title Learners with Additional Needs

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What did you notice about the picture?

I. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED

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There is also another way to look into giftedness which is conceptualized by

Figure 1. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence

 Locate the student’s domain of giftedness

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 Describe the student’s fields of talent

 High level of intellectual curiosity

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opportunity to be engaged for an extended period of time.

II. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING

D. General Educational Adaptations

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The following strategies may be considered:

The main challenge of hearing-impaired students is communication, since most of

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CSTC IT Center: 042 7192805

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D. General Educational Adaptations

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LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

A. Definition: Types of Communication Impairments and Disorders

Communication is the interactive exchange of information. Ideas, feeling, needs, and

How is speech different from language?

Language is used for communication, formalized code used by a group of people to

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Table 6.1 provides a description for each dimension.

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with communication disorders, namely Speech Impairments and Language Disorders.

Speech Impairments are communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired articulation,

Table 6.2. Types of speech Impairments

Speech Impairment Description Examples

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There are different types of language disorder-expressive, receptive, and a combination of

How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem? A comprehensive

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