Navigational Aids Theory

NAV-AIDS INDEX
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS INCLUDING COMPASS
(Prepared by Rohan D’souza)
Sr. No CONTENTS Page Nos.

1. Voyage Data Recorder (VDR) 02-14
2. Automatic Identification System (AIS) 15-26
3. Long Range Identification & Tracking (LRIT) 27-39
4. Autopilot 40-55
5. Echo Sounder 56-68
6. Speed Log 69-80
7. Global Positioning System (GPS) 81-95
8. Bridge Navigational Watch Alarm System (BNWAS) 96-100
9. Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI) 101-108
10. Gyro Compass 109-152
11. Misc. Questions 153-172
COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA (i)
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NAV-AIDS VDR
VOYAGE DATA RECORDER (VDR)
What is VDR & S-VDR?

 Voyage data recorder, or VDR, is a data recording system designed to collect
data from various sensors on board a vessel so as to enable accident
investigators to review procedures and instructions in the moments before
an incident and help to identify the cause of any accident. It is similar to
‘Black Box’ carried on aircrafts.
 A simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR), which is a lower cost simplified
version of VDR and requires only basic ship's data to be recorded.
Purpose & Function Of VDR:

 The main purpose of the VDR is to facilitate reconstruction of an incident for
the purpose of analysis. For this, the VDR digitizes, compresses and stores
the collected information in a secure and retrievable form, in an externally
mounted retrievable protective storage unit.
 The VDR will continuously maintain sequential records of pre-selected data,
related to status and output of various ship’s equipments, command and
control of the ship.
 Other valuable use of recorded data provides for preventive maintenance,
performance efficiency monitoring, heavy weather damage analysis, near
miss analysis and training purposes to improve safety and reduce running
costs.
VDR Modules:
1. Data Acquisition Module – The job of this unit is to acquire and process all
the data, so that it can be stored in the specific format. The data is fed to
this unit through various interfaces. It has an additional hard drive that can
be used for retrieval of data.
2. Audio Module – This module consists of an audio mixer for recording

various signals / voices from the microphones placed in the wheelhouse,
bridge wings, etc. Apart from Bridge audio, it also processes VHF audio and
sends output to the Data Acquisition Module.
COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 1
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NAV-AIDS VDR
Block Diagram – Voyage Data Recorder
3. Bridge Remote Alarm Module – This consists of a small panel connected to

the Data Acquisition Module that generates an audible and visual alarm to
indicate any error status of any equipment. It also allows for saving of
recorded data.
4. Sensor Interface Unit – This is provided in VDR only where external sensors
are interfaced to VDR via this unit.
5. Final Recording Module (Protected storage unit)– This is a crash-proof,

tamper-proof, pressure-tight, fir resistant storage medium used to store the
VDR Data. It is in the form of a capsule resistant to shock, fire, immersion
and deep sea pressure. It is mounted as a fixed retrievable and/or float-free
unit in an open location on the Compass Deck or Bridge Wing. It is also fitted
with a device to aid the location for retrieval purpose. This unit is recovered
following an incident and the recorded data is used for investigation.
6. Replay Module – It is an optional module and used to download and replay

the saved information in audio visual form.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
VDR / S-VDR – Data to be Recorded
VDR S-VDR
Date, Time and Position (GPS) Date, Time and Position (GPS)
Speed (Log) Speed (Log or GPS)
Heading (Gyro) Heading (Gyro)
Bridge and VHF Audio Bridge and VHF Audio
Radar Display Image Radar Display Image or only AIS Data
ECDIS Any other NMEA format data
AIS Data
Depth (Echo-Sounder)
Bridge Mandatory Alarms
Rudder Order & Response
Engine & Thruster Order & Response
Hull Opening Status, W/T & Fire Doors
status
Acceleration and Hull Stresses, Rolling
Motion
Wind Direction and Speed
Configuration Data
Electronic Log Book (if used)
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NAV-AIDS VDR
VDR Working:
 The VDR is fully automatic and works even when the vessel is alongside.
 It works for almost 2 hours following a power failure and is alarm protected
in the event of malfunction of any of its elements.
 If there is no manual intervention, the recorder data gets overwritten within
12 hours (or 48 hours) and thus will not be available to investigators. Hence,
after an incident, the SAVE button must be pressed in order to save the
useful information that can be used to build up an accurate picture of the
events preceding an incident.
VDR Benefits:
 Accident investigation
 Performance monitoring & Promotion of safe practices
 Response assessment and study
 Training aid and support
 Reduction in insurance cost
 Heavy weather damage analysis
 Statistics generation
VDR / S-VDR – Ownership & Recovery
 The shipowner owns the VDR and its data. However, in case of an incident,
the shipowner shall make arrangements for the recovery of the recorded
information.
 The shipowner is responsible for ensuring preservation of this evidence.
 In case of abandonment, Master’s should, where possible, take steps to
preserve the VDR information until it can be passed to an investigator.
 During the course of an investigation, the investigator will have custody of
the original VDR information. The investigator is responsible for arranging
for the downloading and read out of information and must keep the
shipowner fully informed at the earliest.
 A copy of the VDR information must be provided to the shipowner at an
early stage in all circumstances.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
SOLAS REQUIREMENTS:
 As per SOLAS Chapter V/20, it is mandatory to have VDR fitted on the

following ships when engaged on International voyages:
1. All passenger ships and Ro-Ro Passenger ships, irrespective of date of
construction
2. Ships other than passenger ships of 3000 GT and upwards, constructed
on or after 1st July 2002.
 As per SOLAS Chapter V/20, it is mandatory to have S-VDR fitted on cargo
ships of 3000 GT and upwards, constructed before 1st July 2002, when
engaged on International voyages.
 As per SOLAS Chapter V/18, the VDR, including all sensors, shall be subjected
to an annual performance test. The test shall be conducted by an approved
testing or servicing facility to verify the accuracy, duration and recoverability
of the recorded data. In addition, it should test the devices fitted to aid
location. A copy of a the certificate of compliance issued by the testing
facility, stating the date of compliance and the applicable performance
standards, shall be retained on board the ship.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR VDR:
RESOLUTION A.861(20) adopted on 27 November 1997

Amended by RESOLUTION MSC.214(81) (adopted on 12 May 2006)
General:
 Information contained in a VDR should be made available to both
Administration & shipowner.
 The VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of preselected
data items relating to the status and output of the ship's equipment, and
command and control of the ship.
 For ease of investigation, various data items shall be capable of being co-
related in date and time during playback on suitable equipment.
 The final recording medium should be installed in a protective capsule which
should:
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NAV-AIDS VDR
1. Be capable of being accessed following an incident but secure against

tampering;
2. Maximize the probability of survival and recovery of the final recorded
data after any incident;
3. Be of a highly visible colour and marked with retro-reflective materials;
4. Be fitted with an appropriate device to aid location.
 The design and construction should be in accordance with the requirements

of the Organization and should take special account of the requirements for
data security and continuity of operation.
Data Selection And Security

 The VDR must record the data items as required. Optionally, additional
items may be recorded provided that the requirements for the recording
and storage of the required information are not compromised.
 The equipment should be so designed that, as far as is practical, it is not
possible to tamper with the selection of data being input to the equipment,
the data itself nor the data which has already been recorded. Any attempt
to interfere with the integrity of the data should be recorded.
 While being recorded, each item of the recorded data must be checked for
integrity and an alarm given if a non-correctable error is detected.
Continuity of operation
 To ensure that the VDR continues to record events during an incident, it
should be capable of operating from the ship's emergency source of
electrical power.
 If the ship's emergency source of electrical power supply fails, the VDR
should continue to record Bridge Audio from a dedicated reserve source of
power for a period of 2 h. At the end of this 2 h period all recording should
cease automatically.
 Recording should be continuous unless interrupted briefly while saving data
or terminated at the end of the 2 h period as described above.
 The time for which all stored data items are retained should be at least 12 h.
Data items which are older than this may be overwritten with new data.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
Data items to be recorded

 Date and time - referenced to UTC.
 Ship's position (Lat-Long), & datum used, derived from an electronic
position-fixing system (EPFS).
 Speed through the water or speed over the ground, indicating which one it
is, derived from the ship's speed and distance measuring equipment.
 Heading - As indicated by the ship's compass.
 Bridge Audio - One or more microphones positioned on the bridge should
be placed so that conversation at or near the conning stations, radar
displays, chart tables, etc., are adequately recorded. As far as practicable, it
should also capture PA systems and audible alarms on the bridge.
 VHF Communications - audio VHF communications relating to ship
operations should be recorded.
 Radar data – display of one of the ship's radar with all the information on
that radar, so as to present a faithful replica of the entire radar display that
was on view at the time of recording,
 Echo sounder - This should include depth under keel, including the depth
scale in use.
 Main alarms - This should include the status of all mandatory alarms on the
bridge.
 Rudder order and response - This should include status and settings of auto-
pilot if fitted.
 Engine order and response - This should include the positions of any engine
telegraphs or propeller controls. This should also include status of bow
thrusters if fitted.
 Hull openings status - This should include all mandatory status information
required to be displayed on the bridge.
 Watertight and fire door status - This should include all mandatory status
information required to be displayed on the bridge.
 Accelerations and hull stresses – If a ship is fitted with hull stress and
response monitoring equipment, all the data items that have been pre-
selected within that equipment should be recorded.
 Wind speed and direction - This should be applicable where a ship is fitted
with a suitable sensor. Either relative or true wind speed & direction may be
recorded, indicating which one it is.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
Operation:
 The unit should be entirely automatic in normal operation. Means should be
provided whereby recorded data may be saved by an appropriate method
following an incident, with minimal interruption to the recording process.
Interfacing:
 Interfacing to the various sensors required should be in accordance with the
relevant international interface standard, where possible. Any connection to
any item of the ship's equipment should be such that the operation of that
equipment suffers no deterioration, even if the VDR system develops faults.
Download And Playback Equipment For Investigation Authorities

 The VDR should provide an interface for downloading the stored data and
playback the information to an external computer. The interface should be
compatible with an internationally recognized format, such as Ethernet,
USB, FireWire, or equivalent.
 A copy of the software programme for downloading the stored data and
playback of the information onto a connected external laptop computer
should be provided for each VDR installation.
 The software should be compatible with commonly used operating systems
and provided on a portable storage device such as a CD/DVD/USB, etc.
 Instructions for using the software and for connecting the external laptop
computer to the VDR should be provided.
 The portable storage device containing the software along with the
instructions should be stored within the main unit of the VDR.
 If any non-standard format is used for storing data, software for converting
the stored data into open industry standard formats should be provided on
the portable storage device.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
For VDR’s installed on or after 1 July 2014, additional requirements are laid down by
RESOLUTION MSC.333(90) - ADOPTION OF REVISED PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
FOR VDR’s.
Final recording medium
The final recording medium should consist of the following items:
1) Fixed recording medium;
- Should be installed in a fixed protective capsule, capable of being accessed

following an incident.
- Should be secure against any kind of manipulation / change or deletion of
recorded data;
- Should maintain the recorded data for at least 2 years following termination
of recording;
- Should maximize the probability of survival against fire, shock, penetration
and deep-sea-pressure and recovery of the final recorded data after any
incident;
- Should be of a highly visible colour and marked with retro-reflective
materials;
- Should be fitted with an appropriate device to aid location under water.
2) Float-free recording medium;
- Should be installed in a float-free capsule, fitted with means to facilitate

grappling and recovery;
- Should maintain the recorded data for at least 6 months following
termination of recording;
- Should be so constructed as to comply with the float-free requirements of
EPIRB
- Should be so constructed as to minimize risk of damage during recovery
operations;
- Should be capable of transmitting an initial locating signal and further
locating homing signal for at least 48 hours over a period of not less than
seven days
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NAV-AIDS VDR

recorded data.
3) Long-term recording medium;
- Should be capable of being accessed from an internal, easily accessible area

of the ship;
- Should be able to provide access to the data held on it
recorded data.
 The VDR should be capable of operating from ship's main and emergency
source of electrical power.
 If the ship's source of electrical power supply fails, the VDR should continue
to record Bridge Audio from the dedicated reserve power source for a
period of 2 hours. At the end of this 2 hour period all recording should cease
automatically.
 Recording should be continuous unless terminated at the end of the 2 h
period as described above.
 The time for which all stored data items are retained should be at least 30
days on the long-term recording medium and at least 48 hours on the fixed
and float-free recording media. Data items which are older than this may be
overwritten with new data.
Data Items to be Recorded:
In addition to the requirements specified above, VDR’s fitted on or after 1st July
2014, must also record the following:
 Radar - The electronic signals of the main displays of both ship's radar
installations.
 ECDIS – where ECDIS is fitted, the VDR should record the electronic signals
of the ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of navigation.
In addition, the source of the chart data and the version used shall be
recorded.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
 AIS - All AIS data should be recorded.

 Rolling motion – inputs from an electronic inclinometer if installed.
 Configuration data – This includes information on the sensors and status of
VDR components. This data should be permanently retained in the final
recording media and protected from modification other than by a duly
authorized person following any change to the configuration.
 Electronic logbook - Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook in
accordance with the standards of the Organization, the information from
this should be recorded.
RESOLUTION MSC.163(78) (adopted on 17 May 2004) PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

FOR SHIPBORNE SIMPLIFIED VOYAGE DATA RECORDERS (S-VDRs)
General
 The S-VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of preselected

data items relating to the status and output of the ship's equipment, and
command and control of the ship.
 It must permit subsequent analysis of factors surrounding an incident; the
method of recording should ensure that the various data items can be co-
related in date and time during playback on suitable equipment.
Final recording medium
- Should be installed in a protective capsule of either a fixed OR float-free

type;
- Should be capable of being accessed following an incident but secure
against tampering;
- Should maintain the recorded data for at least 2 years following termination
of recording;
- Should be of a highly visible colour and marked with retro-reflective
materials;
- Should be fitted with an appropriate device to aid location.
 The fixed type protective capsule should comply with the requirements as
set out for VDR, except the requirements for withstanding penetration.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
 The float-free type protective capsule should:

- be fitted with means to facilitate grappling and recovery;
- be so constructed as to comply with the float free requirements of EPIRB
- be so constructed as to minimize risk of damage during recovery
operations;
- be capable of transmitting an initial locating signal and further locating
homing signal for at least 48 hours over a period of not less than 7 days.
 S-VDR should be capable of operating from the ship's emergency source of

electrical power.
 If the ship's emergency source of electrical power supply fails, the S-VDR
should continue to record Bridge Audio from a dedicated reserve source of
power for a period of 2 h. At the end of this 2 h period all recording should
cease automatically.
 Recording should be continuous unless interrupted briefly while saving, or
terminated at the end of 2 h period as described above.
 The time for which all stored data items are retained should be at least 12 h.
Data items which are older than this may be overwritten with new data.
Data items to be recorded
 Date and time - referenced to UTC

 Ship's position – Lat-long, and datum used, derived from an electronic
position-fixing system (EPFS).
 Speed – STW or SOG, indicating which one it is, derived from the ship's
speed and distance measuring equipment.
 Heading - As indicated by the ship's compass.
 Bridge Audio - One or more microphones positioned on the bridge should
be placed so that conversation at or near the conning stations, radar
displays, chart tables, etc., are adequately recorded. As far as practicable, it
should also capture intercom, public address systems and audible alarms on
the bridge.
 VHF Communications - VHF Audio communications relating to ship
operations should be recorded.
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NAV-AIDS VDR
 Radar - This should include electronic signal information from within one of
the ship's radar installations which records all the information which was
actually being presented on the master display of that radar at the time of
recording.
 AIS Data - If it is impossible to obtain radar data, then AIS target data should
be recorded as a source of information regarding other ships. If radar data is
recorded, AIS information may be recorded additionally as a beneficial
secondary source of information on both other and own ship.
 Other items - Any additional data items as required by VDR should be
recorded when the data is available and can be interfaced.
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NAV-AIDS AIS
AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS)

AIS is an automated autonomous system for the exchange of navigational
information between suitably equipped ships and shore stations using distinct
messages and operating at the upper end of duplex marine VHF channels
161.975 MHz (87B) and 162.025 MHz (88B).
Its primary aim is:

 To enhance safety of life at sea,
 To enhance safety and efficiency of navigation
 To protect the maritime environment
AIS is capable of sending and receiving ship information such as identity, position,
course, speed, ship particulars and cargo information to and from other ships,
suitably equipped aircraft and shore stations.
As per Regulation 19 of SOLAS chapter V, AIS must be fitted aboard:

 All ships of 300 GT and upwards engaged on international voyages.
 Cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on
international voyages
 All passenger ships irrespective of size.
The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.
AIS is required to be maintained in operation at all times, except where

international agreements, rules or standards provide for the protection of
navigational information (eg. in piracy prone areas, etc)
Components of the AIS:
1. Dedicated antenna working on very high frequency (VHF)

2. Receiver and transmitter (Transceiver)
3. Processor
4. Display Screen
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NAV-AIDS AIS
Modes of Operation:
AIS is designed to operate in one of the following modes:

1. In a ship-to-ship mode for collision avoidance
2. As a means for coastal states to obtain information about a ship & cargo in a
mandatory reporting system by polling
3. As a traffic management tool when polled by a VTS
4. Pseudo AIS - virtual targets representing navigation marks (buoys, etc)
where there is no physical mark. It is also useful when a distress vessel has
no AIS.
5. AtoN (Aids to Navigation) - mounted on physical buoys, etc.
PRINCIPLE OF AIS:
 The heart of the system is a transmission protocol called “Self-Organizing
Time Division Multiple Access” (SOTDMA). This protocol is what allows AIS
to be autonomous and continuously operational.
 It uses the precise timing of the GPS signal to synchronize multiple data
transmissions from many users on a single narrow band channel.
 Each ship transmits data and receives data from all ships within an area
called the CELL of the ship. The size of the CELL depends on the traffic
density.
 In SOTDMA, each minute of time is divided into 2250 time slots. Each slot is
of 26.67 milliseconds and contains 256 bits of data. The rate of transmission
is 9600 bits/second. Thus, between the A1 and A2 AIS frequencies, there are
4500 time slots
 When a ship enters into a cell, the free slot is then occupied by that ship.
This is automatic and on random basis, using very accurate timing methods
provided by GPS and free slots are tracked and self-assigned. There is no
master station involved. The highly accurate time signals from GPS prevent
over-lapping.
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NAV-AIDS AIS
WORKING OF AIS:
 Each AIS system consists of a VHF transmitter, 2 VHF STDMA receivers (A1 &
A2), one VHF DSC receiver (Ch.70) and standard marine electronic
communication links providing various input data from other devices. An
integral or external GNSS (GPS/GLONASS, etc) receiver provides precise
position information and accurate timing signals.
 AIS messages must be updated every few seconds since the data soon
becomes redundant. Precise timing from GPS signals allow synchronization
of multiple data streams on a single narrow band channel using the
SOTDMA protocol.
 Each ship sends to and receives AIS messages from all other ships or AIS
stations in VHF range. The area within this range is called a CELL & the ship
lies in the centre of this cell.
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NAV-AIDS AIS
 Each AIS transmits and receives over two radio channels to avoid
interference problems and to allow channels to be shifted without
communication loss from other ships.
 If the amount of AIS data begins to overload the system, the size of the cell
is automatically reduced by ignoring weaker stations that lie further away.
 When a ship accesses the system it searches for and acquires an unoccupied
time slot. It transmits its report and also indicates the next location and
timeout for that location.
 Each station determines its own transmission time slot based on traffic
history and knowledge of future actions by other stations.
 System coverage is by line of sight and thus dependant on antenna height.
If obstructions like land are not too high, it may ‘see’ beyond the land.
Typical range at sea is 20 NM. Using repeater stations, range may be
extended.
AIS MESSAGES:
AIS messages are of four types:
STATIC DATA DYNAMIC DATA VOYAGE RELATED SAFETY

DATA MESSAGES
IMO number Position (WGS84 ref.) Ships draft Short messages
Name & Call Sign UTC Time Destination and ETA
Length & Beam COG & SOG Type of Cargo
Type of ship Heading No. of crew members
EPFS antenna Navigational Status Route waypoints
location (manually selected) (optional)
ROT (if available)
Static Data: It is programmed when installing the equipment. This data is sent
every 6 minutes or on request.
Dynamic data : This is sent as per ship’s navigational status and speed.
 At anchor – every 3 minutes
 Speed 0 to 14 knots – every 12 seconds
 Speed 14 to 23 knots – every 6 seconds
 Speed more than 23 knots – every 2 seconds
 Speed 14 to 23 knots changing course – every 2 seconds
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NAV-AIDS AIS
Voyage Related data: This has to be manually entered. It may be password

protected. ETA is usually entered in UTC and UNLOCODES are used for
destination. This data is sent every 6 minutes or on request.
Safety related messages : These are normally sent in text format and may be
directed to specific station or all stations. They may be fixed or free format text,
only to be used to safety related communication. It is not meant for commercial or
personal communications.
USES AND ADVANTAGES OF AIS:
 AIS helps to improve situational awareness for the navigators, by providing

positive identification of vessels. It also helps VTS or SAR aircrafts to
confidently address other vessels by name and indicate their concerns and
needs.
 AIS is a very useful aid to navigation and if used correctly, it can help in
possibly preventing or avoiding a collision or near miss.
 When used with a suitable graphical display, shipboard AIS provides fast,
automatic and accurate information regarding risk of collision by calculating
CPA and TCPA from the position information transmitted by target vessels
which can be compared with ARPA. (accuracy depends on operator fed data
and associated input devices).
 It can also reduced work load associated with verbal reporting system
required by VTS.
 AIS can be interfaced with VDR, Radar and ECDIS.
 AIS can pick up targets even during heavy weather, poor visibility especially
due to rain, etc. AIS can pick up targets beyond small islands and bends.
 AIS does not experience the problem of target swap, range & bearing
discrimination as found in ARPA.
 Pseudo AIS can be used to generate virtual buoys to indicate danger or
installed on light houses, beacons, etc for positive identification. Pseudo AIS
can also be used to generate target in case of SAR operations.
 AIS also contributes to maritime security as authorities can monitor the
movement of vessels. Multiple AIS Coast stations can be linked together to
get extended surveillance.
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NAV-AIDS AIS
LIMITATIONS OF AIS:
 Other ships, specially pleasure craft, fishing vessels, warships and some VTS
stations may not be fitted with AIS or vessels may have their AIS switched
off under certain circumstances (eg. in piracy prone areas)
 User inputs like Heading, speed, ROT, etc may be in error, missing or not
updated.
 Temporary or complete failure of other vessels EPFS may result in DR
position being transmitted.
 Poorly configured or incorrectly calibrated sensors will cause wrong
information to be transmitted, dangerously confusing the receiving vessel.
 If no sensor is installed or the sensor fails altogether, the AIS will
automatically transmit ‘not available’ data value.
TYPES AND CLASSES OF AIS:
There are two main classes of AIS – Class A and Class B as well as different types of
AIS used for shore stations (AIS Base stations), aids to navigation (AIS AtoN), AIS
on search and rescue aircrafts and AIS Search and Rescue transmitters (AIS SART)
CLASS ‘A’ CLASS ‘B’

For regulated vessels For non-regulated vessels (pleasure
crafts, etc)
Uses ‘SOTDMA’ which gives them Uses “Carrier Sense Time Division
priority and effectively guarantees a Multiple Access” (CSTDMA) – they
time slot. sense if a time slot is empty & quickly
grab it.
Overlapping does not occur. Hence, Collisions of time slots can occur.
transmission is guaranteed. Transmissions are not guaranteed.
Tx Power is 12.5 W Tx Power is 2 W
Range is 20-25 NM Range is 7-8 NM
Static & Voy-related data – every 6 mins Static & Voy-related data – every 6 mins
Dynamic data – 2-12 secs Dynamic data (SOG < 2 kts) – 3 mins
At anchor – every 3 mins Dynamic data (SOG > 2 kts) – 30 secs
At anchor – every 3 mins
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NAV-AIDS AIS
AIS Base Stations:

Shore based AIS transceivers operate on SOTDMA and have a complex set of
features and functions that control the AIS devices operating in the area. It has
ability to interrogate individual transceivers for status reports and to transmit
frequency changes.
Aids to Navigation (AtoN):

Shore or buoy-based transceivers which operate using Fixed-access time division
multiple access (FATDMA) are designed to collect and transmit data related to sea
and weather conditions as well as may relay AIS messages to extend network
coverage.
Search and Rescue Transceiver (AIS SART):

It is a specialist AIS device created as an emergency distress beacon which
operated on ‘Pre-announced Time division multiple access’ (PATDMA) or
sometimes called modified SOTDMA. The device randomly selects a slot and
transmits a burst of 8 messages per minute, to maximize the probability of
successful transmission. Its range is upto 5 NM and transmits a special message
format recognized by all other AIS devices.
AIS AS A COLLISION AVOIDANCE AID:

 AIS is not yet recommended as such to be collision avoidance aid. It may be
used in conjunction with other recognised collision avoidance aids such as
Radar and ARPA, etc. but is not meant as a replacement for the same.
 It is not intended to impact the composition of the navigational watch.
 Target identification and tracking may be better than Radar/ARPA as clutter,
target swap, target discrimination problems do not affect the system.
 AIS is a valuable navigational aid but its usefulness is undermined by the
broadcast of inaccurate, improper or outdated data.
 AIS is required to be maintained in effective operating condition and failure
to do so may subject the vessel to fines.
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PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING AIS:
 Static data should be correctly [manually] input at installation & password

protected against accidental change.
 Vessel name should not include prefixes like MV or MT, etc. Do not
abbreviate names. MMSI, IMO number, call sign, etc. should be as per ship’s
official radio station license.
 Dynamic data should be provided via properly installed and calibrated
external sensors that are accurate and continuously operational.
 Voyage related data should be updated as soon as any change occurs.
 Safety related messages should be in English, short, concise and only
contain pertinent navigation safety related information. Only internationally
acceptable Abbreviations should be used.
 Distress / urgency (MAY DAY and PANPAN) messages may be sent via AIS
but should not be relied upon as the primary means for such
communication. Test messages should clearly indicate test mode and
whether reply is requested.
NOTE:
AIS antennas: The AIS frequencies are on the high end of the VHF-FM band (@
162MHz). Because of this, the standard marine VHF antennas may not be used if
they do not provide optimum performance at those frequencies. Use of proper
antenna is therefore important. The AIS antenna must be atleast 2 m away from
conductive objects and ideally 2 m directly above or below the VHF antenna,
otherwise, 10 m horizontal separation. For the AIS-GPS antenna, the suggested
mounting is the one which gives a complete sky view from 5 degrees above the
horizon to 90 degrees (the zenith).
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IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AIS:
RESOLUTION MSC.74(69) (adopted on 12 May 1998)

Annex 3: Recommendation On Performance Standards For An Universal Shipborne
Automatic Identification System (AIS)
 The AIS should improve the safety of navigation by assisting in the efficient
navigation of ships, protection of the environment, and operation of Vessel
Traffic Services (VTS), by satisfying the following functional requirements:
1. in a ship-to-ship mode for collision avoidance
2. as a means for Coastal States to obtain information about a ship & its cargo
3. as a VTS tool i.e. ship-to-shore (traffic management).
 The AIS should be capable of providing to ships and to competent authorities,

information from the ship, automatically and with the required accuracy and
frequency, to facilitate accurate tracking.
 Transmission of the data should be with the minimum involvement of ship's

personnel and with a high level of availability.
 The system should be capable of operating in a number of modes,

1. an "autonomous and continuous" mode for operation in all areas.
2. an "assigned" mode for operation in a particular area such as for traffic
monitoring
3. a "polling" or controlled mode where the data transfer occurs in response
to interrogation from a ship or competent authority.
 The AIS should comprise of

1. a communication processor, capable of operating over a range of maritime
frequencies, with an appropriate channel selecting and switching method.
2. a means of processing data from an electronic position-fixing system which
provides a resolution of one ten thousandth of a minute of arc and uses the
WGS-84 datum.
3. a means to automatically input data from other sensors
4. a means to input and retrieve data manually
5. a means of error checking the transmitted and received data / a built in test
equipment.
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 The AIS should be capable of:

1. providing information automatically and continuously to a competent
authority and other ships, without involvement of ship's personnel
2. receiving and processing information from other sources, including that
from a competent authority and from other ships
3. responding to high priority and safety related calls with a minimum of delay
4. Providing positional and manoeuvring information at a data rate adequate
to facilitate accurate tracking by a competent authority and other ships.
 To enable a user to access, select and display the information on a separate

system, the AIS should be provided with an interface conforming to an
appropriate international marine interface standard.
 For the purpose of ship and message identification, the appropriate Maritime
Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) number should be used.
 Ship Reporting Capacity - the system should be able to handle a minimum of

2000 reports per min.
 A security mechanism should be provided to prevent unauthorised alteration

of input or transmitted data.
 The AIS should be operational and start transmitting within 2 min of switching
on.
 The AIS and associated sensors should be powered from the ship's main source
of electrical energy. In addition, it should be possible to operate the AIS and
associated sensors from an alternative source of electrical energy.
Resolution A.917(22) (adopted on 29 November 2001)

GUIDELINES FOR THE ONBOARD OPERATIONAL USE OF SHIPBORNE AUTOMATIC
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS)
 After activation, an automatic built-in integrity test (BIIT) is performed. In the

case of any AIS malfunction, an alarm is provided and the unit should stop
transmitting. The quality or accuracy of the ship sensor data input into AIS
would not however be checked by the BIIT circuitry before being broadcast to
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other ships and shore stations. The ship should therefore carry out regular
routine checks during a voyage to validate the accuracy of the information
being transmitted. The frequency of those checks would need to be increased
in coastal waters.
 Where AIS information is used with a graphical display, the following target
types are recommended for display:
1. Sleeping target: A sleeping target indicates only the presence of a vessel

equipped with AIS in a certain location. No additional information is
presented until activated, thus avoiding information overload.
2. Activated target: If the user wants to know more about a vessel’s motion,
he has simply to activate the target (sleeping), so that the display
immediately shows a vector (COG & SOG), the heading, and - ROT indication
(if available).
3. Selected target: If the user wants detailed information on a target
(activated or sleeping), he may select it. Then the data received, as well as
the calculated CPA and TCPA, navigational status, etc will be indicated in the
alpha numeric window.
4. Dangerous target: If an AIS target (activated or not) is calculated to pass
pre-set CPA and TCPA limits, it will be classified and displayed as a
dangerous target and an alarm will be given.
5. Lost target: If a signal of any AIS target at a distance of less than a preset
value is not received, a lost target symbol will appear at the latest position
and an alarm will be given.
SN/Circ.227 (6 January 2003)

GUIDELINES FOR THE INSTALLATION OF A SHIPBORNE AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION
SYSTEM (AIS)
1. Antenna Fitting Guidelines: The AIS VHF antenna

 Should be omnidirectional and vertical.
 Should be placed in an elevated position with minimum 2 m horizontal
separation from conductive materials.
 Should not be installed close to any large vertical obstruction.
 Should be able to see the horizon freely through 360°.
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 Should be installed safely away from interfering HF sources like radar &
other radio antennas, preferably at least 3 m away from these sources.
 Should be mounted not less than 2 m directly above or below the VHF
radiotelephone antenna, with no horizontal separation. If it is located on
the same level as other antennas, the distance apart should be at least 10 m.
2. The functionality of the Minimum Keyboard and Display (MKD) should be

available to the mariner at the position from which the ship is normally
operated.
3. A pilot plug is a part of an AIS Class A station. This plug should be installed on
the bridge near the pilot’s operating position so that a pilot can connect a
Personal Pilot Unit (PPU).
4. A simple means should be provided for the operator to input the ship’s
navigational status information into the AIS. The AIS may be connected to the
ship's navigational status lights.
5. Access to MMSI, IMO number and other AIS controls (like power and channel
settings) will be controlled, for example, password protected.
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NAV-AIDS LRIT
LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION & TRACKING (LRIT)
What is LRIT?
The LRIT system provides for global identification and tracking of ships utilizing the
INMARSAT Satellite system. It is a system that requires vessels to automatically
transmit their identity, position and date/time of the position at 6-hourly intervals.
LRIT Regulations
 SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 19-1 on LRIT requires that vessels automatically
transmit their identity, position and date/time of the position at 6-hourly
intervals. The LRIT system is designed in such a way as to limit direct cost to
shipping or search and rescue services with Member States bearing the cost
of the system.
 The Regulation applies to ships engaged on international voyages, including
1. all passenger ships including high speed craft
2. cargo ships, including high speed craft of 300 gross tonnage and above
3. mobile offshore drilling units.
 Compliance with the LRIT requirement is important. Some governments
have indicated that they may not grant entry to their waters or ports, for
vessels that do not comply with LRIT requirement.
 Ships operating exclusively in Sea Area A1 and fitted with AIS are exempt
from LRIT requirements. Coastal trade vessels are also exempt but if they
proceed to an international port for any reason [e.g. dry-dock] they must
fully comply or receive exemption for that voyage.
 Ships operating in Sea Areas A2, A3 & A4 are required to be fitted with LRIT.
 Ships operating in sea area A2 and not fitted with Sat-C are required to have
a dedicated LRIT terminal.
 Ships operating in sea area A4 will require a dedicated LRIT terminal that
operates in conjunction with an approved low-earth orbiting satellite
communication service provider.
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PURPOSE OF LRIT:
1. To allow Member States to receive position reports from vessels operating
under their flag.
2. To allow Member States to receive position reports from vessels seeking entry
to a port within their territory
3. To allow Member States to receive position reports from vessels operating in
proximity to the State’s coastline.
There are two aspects to LRIT:

• The ‘reporting’ aspect where vessels to which LRIT applies, report their
identity and position, with a date/time stamp, every six hours (four times per
day).
• The ‘receiving’ aspect where coastal states can purchase reports when
vessels are within 1000 NM, or port states can purchase reports when
vessels seeking entry to a port at a pre-determined distance or time from
that port (usually up to 96 hour pre-entry).
In simple terms, LRIT is a collection and distribution system for basic information on
vessels.
MODES OF OPERATION:
The LRIT system operates in two modes.
1. APR mode: Ship LRIT equipment must be capable of transmitting at 6H
intervals, information set in an Automatic Position Report (APR), which
includes :
 identity of the ship
 position of the ship
 date and time of the position report
2. Polled Mode: This involves a request and response processes. The

equipment must be able to respond to poll requests for an on-demand
position report and be able to immediately respond to instructions to modify
the APR interval to a frequency of a maximum of one every 15 minutes.
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LRIT Conformance Test:
 The equipment requirement may be met through existing GMDSS

equipment, or other compliant equipment.
 The system must be tested and a conformance certificate issued and held on
board.
 The system must have an emergency power source.
 The LRIT conformance test certificate has no expiration date as long as the
equipment remains the same. However if the status is changed a retest may
be required due to the following reasons:
1. Ship changes or upgrades the LRIT equipment (Antenna, Motherboard,
etc.)
2. The vessels changes Flag.
 IMO has appointed the International Mobile Satellite Organisation (IMSO) as
LRIT Coordinator, who will undertake the audit and oversight functions.
COMPONENTS OF THE LRIT SYSTEM:

The LRIT system consists of
1. Shipborne LRIT information transmitting equipment: Sends APR’s, receives

poll requests and updates the APR frequency accordingly.
2. Communication Service Provider (CSP): It provides the communication

infrastructure and services to ensure end-to-end secure transfer of the LRIT
message (APR) between the ship and the Application Service Provider (ASP)
3. Application Service Provider (ASP): It converts the data to a common data

format and sends it to the LRIT data centre.
4. LRIT Data Center: It stores and processes the data and determines which
reports are to be sent to other coastal/port states via the International Data
Exchange based on the data distribution plan. Member states can deploy
one of the three styles:
 National Data Center: to service their own flagged vessels only.
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 Regional/Cooperative Data Center: to service two or more member

state’s flagged vessels.
 International Data Center: to service vessels of those Member States that
are not using any of the above two.
Also, Vessel Monitoring System [VMS] – providing tracking and data centre
services.
5. LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP): It verifies that the Member State
requesting information must be provided with the same or not. It specifies
which are the parties authorised to receive LRIT data.
6. International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE): It routes data to the authorised

receiving parties.
LRIT information is provided to Contracting Governments and SAR services entitled

to receive the information, upon request, through a system of National,
Regional/Cooperative & International LRIT Data Centres using the International
LRIT Data Exchange.
Each Administration should provide to the LRIT Data Centre it has selected, a list of
ships entitled to fly its flag, which are required to transmit LRIT information,
together with other salient details and should update, without undue delay, such
lists as and when changes occur. Ships should only transmit the LRIT information
to the LRIT Data Centre selected by their Administration.
WORKING OF LRIT:
LRIT data is automatically transmitted every 6 hours through the following route:
1. Ship to Satellite
2. Satellite to CSP
3. CSP to ASP
4. ASP to LRIT Data Center.
5. The LRIT Data Center forwards this information to applicable parties via the
International Data Exchange and after receiving feedback from DDP.
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 Information transmitted by ships through APR is available to the vessel’s Flag

State at all times. For another Flag State to access the information, they will
send a request to the IDE.
 Linked to IDE is the Data Distribution Plan (DDP) that will have the ‘routing
rules’ and this will verify that the ‘requestor’ can access the information.
 Each contracting government will provide these routing rules to the IMO, who
have developed the DDP.
 The DDP ensures that LRIT data flows according to the wishes of a contracting
government – i.e. providing information on vessels within 1,000 nautical miles,
or 96 hours out from port.
 If the DPP verifies that the information request is valid, the IDE will then act as a
link to the requesting data centre and the providing data centre.
ACCESS TO LRIT INFORMATION:

 Flag State: Full access to all ships under their flag.
 Coastal State: Access to enhanced LRIT information & reports. Coastal state
can poll and track ships upto 1000nm from their coast, but not if the vessel is
in territorial waters of another State.
 Port state: Access to enhanced LRIT information & reports. Port state can
poll & track ships at any distance following a notice-of-port-call (usually upto
96H pre-entry), but not if the vessel is in territorial waters of another State.
 Shipowner: Access restricted to own ships.
 Surveyors: Restricted access to verify LRIT conformance tests.
 Agents and charterers: Selective access if granted by shipowner.
 Piracy prevention task forces – access via a special format.
 SAR services – Authorised SAR services may request and receive LRIT data
for vessels within their SAR area, without any cost. However, the cost for
communication and data transfer will be borne by Flag of the vessel from
which the data was requested.
 International Data Exchange: Full access to all data so that it can distribute
as required.
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NOTE:
 Communications Service Provider [CSP] for India is TATA Communications
 Applications Service Provider [ASP] for India is at the National Data Centre
[NDC] at DG Shipping [developed by Antrix/SAC]
 LRIT Data Centre [LDC or DC] for India is the National Data Centre [NDC] at
DG Shipping
AIS V/S. LRIT

AIS LRIT
AIS operates in the VHF band with line LRIT is a Satellite based system and has
of sight transmission and has therefore "global" coverage.
"local” coverage only.
In the case of long range AIS (Satellite LRIT permits bi-directional

based), the satellite system is uni- communication and authorised
directional and can only receive data but requesting authority can poll and
cannot send data or instructions to the instruct the ships system to change its
ships AIS. APR frequency, increasing it to upto
every 15 minutes.
AIS is a continuously on system, LRIT is a continuously on system,

updating its Static, Dynamic, Voyage normally broadcasting an APR only once
data at intervals of a few seconds. every 6 hours.
AIS is a broadcast system, i.e. public, LRIT data is only available to parties that
available to all ships, nearby VTS or are entitled to the information as per
coast AIS stations. The information is the DDP and information must be
free of cost to all. purchased. (except own flag and SAR
services)
AIS is primarily a collision avoidance LRIT is a reporting System that assists

system mandated by the IMO and is of concerned parties like Flag State,
great use to nearby vessels and VTS Coastal State, Port State and SAR
systems. authorities in identifying and tracking
their own vessels as well as vessels
entering or plying within their waters.
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AIS provides navigational information of LRIT provides only vessels identity,

a vessel as well as data regarding the position and date/time information.
type of vessel, her dimensions, draft,
cargo, destination, etc in four msg forms
- Static, Dynamic, Voyage-related and
Safety related.
In AIS, other than Static data, the user In LRIT there is no user intervention.
must manually update Dynamic (nav.
status), Voyage and Safety related data.
There is display onboard for AIS There is no display for LRIT.
AIS data is not stored anywhere. LRIT data is stored and available on
demand.
SWITCHING OFF LRIT:

Systems and equipment used to meet the LRIT requirements shall be capable of
being switched off on board or be capable of ceasing the distribution of LRIT
information:
1. where international agreements, rules or standards provide for the

protection of navigational information; or
2. in exceptional circumstances and for the shortest duration possible where
the operation is considered by the master to compromise the safety or
security of the ship.
In such a case, the master shall inform the Administration without undue delay and
make an entry in the Log Book setting out the reasons for the decision and
indicating the period during which the system or equipment was switched off.
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PERFORMANCE STANDARDS & FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LRIT:

RESOLUTION MSC.263(84) (adopted on 16 May 2008) as amended by RESOLUTION
MSC.331(90) (adopted on 25 May 2012) and as amended by RESOLUTION MSC.400(95)
(Adopted on 8 June 2015)
1. Shipborne equipment
The shipborne LRIT equipment should comply with the following minimum
requirements:
 be capable of automatically and without human intervention on board the

ship transmitting the ship’s LRIT information at 6-hour intervals to an LRIT
Data Centre;
 be capable of being configured remotely to transmit LRIT information at
variable intervals;
 be capable of transmitting LRIT information following receipt of polling
commands;
 interface directly to shipborne GNSS equipment, or have internal positioning
capability.
 be supplied with energy from the main and emergency source of electrical
power
 be tested for electromagnetic compatibility.
2. Data To Be Transmitted From The Shipborne Equipment
 Identity - The identifier used by the shipborne equipment.

 Position - The GNSS position (latitude & longitude) of the ship (based on
WGS84 datum).
 Time Stamp -The date and time associated with the GNSS position. (all time
in UTC)
When a ship is undergoing repairs, modifications or conversions in dry-dock or in

port or is laid up for a long period, the master or the Administration may reduce
the frequency of the transmission LRIT information to one transmission every 24-
hour period, or may temporarily stop the transmission of such information.
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3. Data to be added by the ASP & at the LRIT Data Center:
 Ship Identity: The IMO number, MMSI and Name of ship and type of the ship
using pre-defined codes.
 Time Stamp: Date and time the transmission of LRIT information is received
by the ASP (if used). Also, the date and time the received LRIT information is
forwarded from the ASP (if used) to the appropriate LRIT Data Centre.
 LRIT Data Centre Identifier: The identity of the LRIT Data Centre to be clearly
indicated by a Unique Identifier.
 Time Stamp: The date and time the LRIT information is received by the LRIT
Data Centre. Also, the date and time the transmission of LRIT information is
forwarded from the LRIT Data Centre to an LRIT Data User.
4. Communications Service Providers (CSP)
CSP’s provide services which link the various parts of the LRIT system using
communications protocols in order to ensure the end-to-end secure transfer of the
LRIT information. It prevents the use of non-secure broadcast systems. A CSP may
also provide services as an ASP.
5. LRIT Data Centre
All LRIT Data Centres should:
 Establish and continuously maintain systems which ensure, at all times, that
LRIT Data Users are only provided with the LRIT information they are
entitled to receive.
 Collect LRIT information from concerned ships for the Administration
 Obtain, when requested, LRIT information from other LRIT Data Centres
through the International LRIT Data Exchange
 make available, when requested, LRIT information to other LRIT Data
Centres through the International LRIT Data Exchange
 Execute or relay requests for polling of LRIT information or for change
transmission frequency, through the IDE as applicable.
 Upon request disseminate to LRIT Data Users the LRIT information they are
entitled to receive in accordance with the agreed arrangements.
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 Notify the LRIT Data User and the Administration when a particular ship
stops transmitting LRIT information.
 Archive LRIT information from ships which, for at least one year and in such a
way that the archived LRIT information should provide a complete record
between two consecutive annual audits of its performance.
 For LRIT information archived within the last 4 days, send the LRIT
information within 30 min of receiving a request
 For LRIT information archived between 4 and 30 days previously, send the
LRIT information within 1 h of receiving a request
 For LRIT information archived more than 30 days previously, send the LRIT
information within 5 days of receiving a request.
 Ensure that LRIT information is backed-up at regular intervals, stored at
suitable off-site location and available when needed.
 Maintain a record of the ships which transmit LRIT information to the centre.
 Use a standard protocol for communications and agreed protocols to
connect with IDE and DDP server.
 Use a secure authentication method with LRIT Data Users.
 Add the appropriate data to the LRIT information if not done by the ASP.
 Have access to the current LRIT DDP and to earlier versions of the plan.
 Publish its charges, in a currency to be decided by the Contracting
Government(s) and in SDR (special drawing rights) together with the date
from which the charges are effective.
The performance of all LRIT Data Centres should be audited by the LRIT
Coordinator.
6. International LRIT Data Exchange:
The International LRIT Data Exchange should:
 Route LRIT information between LRIT Data Centres using the information
provided in the LRIT Data Distribution Plan
 Be connected to all LRIT Data Centres and the LRIT Data Distribution Plan
server
 Use a “store and forward-buffer” to ensure LRIT information is received
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 Automatically maintain journals containing message header information to

be used only for invoicing and audit purpose.
 Archive journals, for at least one year and in such a way that the archived
journals should provide a complete record of the exchange activities
between two consecutive annual audits of its performance.
 Receive journals from LRIT Data Centres & combine these journals with its
own journals.
 Use a standard protocol for communications to connect to LRIT Data
Centres and DDP.
 Use a standard secure access method with the LRIT Data Centres and the
DDP server.
 Not have the capability to archive LRIT information.
 Not have the capability to view or access the LRIT information.
 Have access to current LRIT DDP and to earlier versions of the plan.
 Receive information from LRIT Data Centres in relation to the charges they
levy for the transfer.
 Create a master list of charges for all LRIT Data Centres and transmit the
master list of charges to an LRIT Data Centre on request.
The performance of the IDE should be audited by the LRIT Coordinator.
7. LRIT Data Distribution Plan
IMO has established the LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP) and maintains the DPP
and its server. The DDP should include:
 A list indicating the unique LRIT identities of Contracting Governments, SAR

services entitled to receive LRIT information, LRIT Data Centres, the IDE,
ASPs, the LRIT DDP server and the LRIT Coordinator.
 A list of geographical coordinates of points, based on the WGS 84 datum
defining the geographical area so as to measure the required distances from
baseline.
 A list of ports and port facilities and places under each Contracting
Government together their coordinates in which ships may enter or proceed
to.
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 A list indicating which LRIT Data Centre is collecting and archiving LRIT
information for each of the Contracting Governments together with the
related LRIT identifies
 A list indicating the URL’s of each LRIT Data Centre, the IDE and DDP servers.
 A list indicating the ASPs providing services to each LRIT Data Centre
together with the related LRIT identifies
 The contact details of Contracting Governments for LRIT-related matters
 The contact details of SAR services entitled to receive LRIT information
 Information in relation to each LRIT Data Centre and IDE and their points of
contact.
 Information in relation to the LRIT Coordinator, and its contact details
 Information in relation to the DDP and its server and contact details of IMO
officials to be contacted for operational matters and maintenance of DDP.
 A record of all previous versions of the plan together with the dates (period
in force)
8. LRIT SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
 LRIT information should be available to an LRIT Data User within 15 min of

the time it is transmitted by the ship.
 On-demand LRIT information should be provided to an LRIT Data User within
30 min of the time the LRIT Data User requested the information.
 The quality of service given by:
No. of delivered LRIT information meeting latency requirements x 100 %

Total number of LRIT information requests
should be:
1. 95% of the time over any 24-hour period; and
2. 99% over any 1 month
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9. Administrations
 Each Administration should

(i) Decide to which LRIT Data Centre their ships are required to transmit LRIT
information.
(ii) Provide to the selected LRIT Data Centre the ship’s information i.e. Name,
IMO number, Call sign, MMSI Number and type of ship.
(iii) Update the LRIT Data Centre as and when there are changes to the
information provided.
 When there is transfer of flag, the new Administration should provide, without
undue delay, to the selected LRIT Data the following information: Name, IMO
number, Call sign and MMSI Number, type of ship, the effective date and time
(UTC) of transfer and the State whose flag the ship was previously flying, if
known.
 Upon the transfer of the flag or when ship is to be taken permanently out of
service, the Administration whose flag the ship was entitled to fly till now,
should provide, without undue delay, to the LRIT Data Centre the following
information: Name, IMO number, Call sign, MMSI Number, type of ship, the
effective date and time (UTC) of transfer or when the ship will be taken
permanently out of service and the State to which the flag of the ship has been
transferred, if known.
10. Search and rescue services
 When SAR services wish to receive LRIT information, they should indicate to
the LRIT Data Centre the criteria for receiving such information.
 A SAR service should request the provision of LRIT information only via the
LRIT Data Centre serving the Contracting Government in whose territory the
service is located.
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NAV-AIDS AUTOPILOT
AUTOPILOT
INTRODUCTION:
 An autopilot is the ship’s steering controller which automatically
manipulates the rudder to decrease the error between the reference
heading and actual heading of the vessel.
 Autopilot relieves helmsman to a great extent, but it is not a substitute for
helmsman.
 Autopilot also reduces the fuel consumption as the zig-zag course is
avoided.
 An auto-pilot is designed to keep a vessel steady on a particular heading and
is therefore a heading control system.
 Track control systems are designed to keep a vessel on a pre-determined
track throughout its passage and must be interfaced with an electronic
position fixing system like GPS or through an ECDIS, etc. Track control
systems have the capability of heading control systems.
 All vessels of 10000 GT and above must have a heading or track control
system but track control is not mandatory.
 Masters and navigating officers must be fully conversant with the operation
of auto-pilot & change over procedures from auto to manual and vice versa.
SOLAS REQUIREMENTS
SOLAS Chapter V/24 states the following requirements for use of heading and/or
track control systems:
1. Capability for immediate change-over from automatic to manual control in

areas of high traffic density, restricted visibility and all other hazardous
navigational conditions.
2. A qualified helmsperson must be immediately available in such conditions.
3. Changeover to be supervised or carried out by responsible officer.
4. Testing of manual steering after prolonged use of autopilot and before
entering any area requiring special caution. Recommended once per watch.
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TYPES OF CONTROLS:
1. Proportional Control
 With this form of control, the rudder is moved by an amount proportional to

the off-course error, i.e. difference between gyro heading and the set
course. However, as the vessel returns toward the set course, she will
overshoot the required heading due to inertia, and will now start to apply
corrective helm in the opposite direction.
 This process repeats and leads to an oscillation about the required course.
The result is increased steaming distance, increased rudder drag and
increased wear on steering gear and rudder components.
 To suit prevailing conditions, manual adjustment of rudder rate and rudder
limit is also provided.
2. Derivative Control
 With this form of control, the rudder is moved by an amount proportional to

the “rate of change” of the ship’s deviation from the set course. This is
achieved by electronically differentiating the original error signal.
 The initial off-course error sensed causes a corrective helm to be applied.
This reduces the rate of change of deviation off-course and corrective helm
order is correspondingly reduced. This acts like a “counter rudder” limiting
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the effect of the initial rudder order and can further be manually adjusted to
suit prevailing conditions.
 At point X in the figure below, the vessel is on the same heading as the
original course and the rudder will return to midship. The vessel will thus
make good a course parallel to the original but with a small offset. This will
continue until the heading again deviates from the set course.
3. Integral Control
 Data for integral control is derived by electronically integrating the heading

error. The action of this data offsets the effect of a vessel being moved
continuously off course due to effects of wind, current, draft, trim, hull form,
etc.
 Data signals are produced continuously sensing the heading error over a
period of time and applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm.
 Manual setting of permanent helm may be provided but if not utilized, the
integral control will do the job.
Vessel constantly pushed

off-course to Port due to
wind/current, etc. With
Integral control, a small
permanent helm to
starboard will correct
this offset and keep the
vessel on course.
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WORKING OF AUTO-PILOT:
1. Course is selected manually by the course set control. Present heading is
indicated by the Compass. The output from the compass and the signal
from the course selector are fed to the Comparator.
2. Any difference between the two signals causes an output error signal
whose magnitude is proportional to the difference between the two signals
and hence the comparator is also referred to as proportional control.
3. The proportionate error signal is further fed through derivative and integral
controls which provide separate electronically differentiated and integrated
signals.
4. These signals are then fed to the summing amplifier which obtains a
resultant error signal from the PID controls.
5. The summing amplifier in turn passes the signals to the error amplifier
which also receives feedback from the steering gear.
6. The output of the error amplifier is transmitted to the steering gear via the
telemotor transmitter and telemotor receiver.
7. The output of the three controls i.e. proportional, integral and derivative, is
thus combined and net resultant thus obtained eventually drives the rudder.
This type of auto-pilot is referred to as PID Auto-pilot.
8. The proportional control determines the amount of rudder angle to be
used. The derivative control takes into account the rate of change of ship’s
deviation from the set course. The integral control considers the effect of
the ships parameters and external factors and sets a small permanent helm
when required.
9. A combination of proportional, integral and derivative control (PID) will
provide for best course keeping. Additional “weather or yaw” control
allows setting of a “dead band” so that yawing due to sea conditions is only
corrected when it goes beyond the preset limit. This reduces frequent helm
orders and reduces rudder drag and wear and tear on steering gear and
rudder components.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM - PID AUTOPILOT
CONTROLS:
1. Set Course – for setting required heading (course to steer).
2. Off Course – for setting alarm limit of heading deviation. Alarm sounds
when limit is exceeded.
3. Rudder Rate – for setting the rudder response speed i.e. how quickly the
rudder reacts in response to an error signal. If too fast will cause overshoot,
and if too slow steering response will be sluggish.
4. Rudder Limit – for setting the maximum rudder angle. If too large will cause
overshoot, and if too small steering response will be sluggish.
5. Counter Rudder – for counteracting the corrective rudder. As the vessel
returns toward the pre-set heading, the amount of corrective rudder is
reduced and opposite rudder is applied to prevent overshoot or to keep
overshoot to a minimum. Too low setting will allows the ship to overshoot
and too high setting will bring her back on track in long time.
6. Permanent Helm – used to counteract external effects tending to push the
vessel to one side. If left at zero, the integral control will apply a calculated
permanent helm. Manual setting allows fine tuning.
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7. Yaw/Weather – Sea and swell may keep physically tossing the vessels head
to and fro. The auto-pilot will apply corrective rudder each time the heading
deviates from the set course. This control sets a ‘dead band’ across which
corrective helm is not applied. A low value in good weather will help
maintain tight steering control. A high value in bad weather allows the
vessels head to swing through a larger arc before applying corrective helm.
This prevents too frequent application of rudder and reduces rudder drag.
8. Synchronization Control – to synchronize Master Gyro and the repeater for
autopilot. Normally, it is required only if the repeater system is switched off.
9. Auto/Follow-Up/Non Follow-Up – Selects automatic steering or manual
(hand) steering in the Follow-Up mode and in emergency, allows Non
Follow-Up (NFU) steering.
(In the follow-up mode, the rudder continuously follows the steering order. In the
NFU mode, once a helm order is given and the rudder moves to one side, an opposite
helm order is required to take the rudder back to original position. e.g. apply stbd
helm, rudder moves to stbd. Release helm when rudder reaches required value, say
100 stbd. Rudder stays at 100 stbd. Apply opposite helm to port, rudder moves
toward port. Release helm when rudder is at midship and rudder stops at midship.)
AUTO-ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM:

 An autopilot is a ship’s steering controller, which automatically manipulates
the rudder to decrease the error between the reference heading angle and
the actual heading angle.
 Conventional autopilots are based on simple PID Control. In order to
maintain the desired performance of PID-type autopilots, the control
parameters must be adjusted according to the variations in ship’s dynamics
and also environmental disturbances. Ships dynamics vary due to
operational conditions and the main environmental disturbances are wind,
waves and swell, which vary according to the weather and sea conditions.
 It is a tedious process to properly adjust the control parameters of an
autopilot. The adjustment is also approximate and a fixed setting is often
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used during navigation leading to inferior steering quality and inadequate

manoeuvring performance due to excessive rudder motion.
 In order to cope with the problem of parameter adjustment, the Auto
Adaptive Steering system was developed, which not only helped to achieve
great economical improvement in course keeping, but also excellent
manoeuvring performance in course-changing mode.
 Auto adaptive steering system is an advanced version of the conventional
autopilot, which adapts to the steering capability of the ship as well as the
weather conditions. Unlike in the case of PID autopilot, in auto adaptive
steering, the optimum steering is achieved without any manual adjustment.
UNITS OF AUTO ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM:

1. Estimation Unit
 Estimation algorithm is based on Model Reference Adaptive Control System

(MRACS) which consists of the reference model of the ship.
 MRACS gets inputs from Gyro, Speed Log and ROTI.
 The dynamic characteristics of the hull are estimated on the basis of these
inputs and signals are fed to the optimal controller.
 The feedback from steering gear is also received by the MRACS.
2. Optimal Controller
 The optimal controller calculates the rudder angle to be ordered based on

inputs received from the MRACS in comparison with course selected by the
OOW.
 Once the vessel is subjected to yawing, the output from the adaptive
Kalman filter is also received, and the rudder angle is eventually re-
calculated and signals are sent to the steering gears via telemotors.
3. Adaptive Kalman Filter
 In open sea, vessel is subjected to various disturbances caused due to wind,

sea and swells which result into yawing. In case of the PID autopilot,
controls have to be manually adjusted to reduce the effect of yawing.
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 In case of the Auto Adaptive Steering system, the adjustment is done

automatically by means of adaptive Kalman filter.
 It gets inputs regarding the model of the ship from the MRACS. This acts as
the reference as to how the vessel should be behaving normally in
comparison with the present behaviour due to yawing.
 Kalman filter is also interfaced with Gyro, Speed Log and ROTI, and also
coupled with inputs from steering gear.
 Based on the comparison of the model ship and present parameters, the
Kalman filter gives the output to the Optimal controller who further
calculates the rudder angle to be ordered.
 As the weather conditions changes, the yawing is also affected and Kalman
filter adapts to these changes and output from the filter will vary
accordingly. Thus, human intervention is not required.
BLOCK DIAGRAM – AUTO ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM
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MODES OF OPERATION:
1. Course keeping mode: We can select between open sea mode and confined
mode. In the case of open sea, accurate steering is not required. In the case
of confined waters, more accurate steering is needed. OOW should revert
to hand steering as and when required.
2. Course changing mode: MRACS is also used for course changing mode. The
course changing is achieved with constant Rate of Turn (ROT) technique
using minimum rudder angle and hence speed reduction will be minimum.
Auto adaptive steering can also be interfaced with GPS or ECDIS and
alteration of course can be achieved automatically.
When not to use Auto-pilot:

1. In narrow channels
2. In or near areas of restricted visibility
3. In traffic areas when passing close to vessels
4. During pilotage and when manoeuvring at slow speed
5. During large course alteration
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AUTOPILOT:

RESOLUTION MSC.64(67) (adopted on 4 December 1996) ANNEX 3 - AMENDMENT TO
RESOLUTION A.342(IX) ON PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AUTOMATIC PILOTS
General:
 The heading control system, in conjunction with its source of heading
information, should enable a ship to keep a preset heading with minimum
operation of the ship's steering gear.
 A heading control system may work together with a track control system
adjusting its heading for drift.
 A turn rate control for performing turns may be provided.
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Functional Requirements:
1. Adaptability: The heading control system should be capable of adapting
manually or automatically to different steering characteristics of the ship
under various speeds, weather and loading conditions, and provide reliable
operation under prevailing environment and normal operational conditions.
2. Performing turns: The heading control system should be able to perform
turns, within the turning capability of the ship, based either on a preset
turning radius or a preset rate of turn.
3. Rudder angle limitation: Means should be incorporated in the equipment to
enable rudder angle limitation in the automatic mode. Means should also be
available to indicate when rudder limit has been commanded or reached.
4. Permitted yaw: Means should be incorporated to prevent unnecessary
activation of the rudder due to normal yaw motion.
5. Preset heading: Any alteration of the preset heading should not be possible
without intended action of the ship's personnel.
6. Limiting of overshoot: The heading control system should change to a
preset heading without significant overshoot.
Change-Over From Automatic To Manual Steering And Vice Versa:

 Change-over from automatic to manual steering and vice-versa should be
possible at any position of the rudder and should be effected by one manual
control within 3 seconds.
 Change-over from automatic to manual steering should be possible under
any conditions including any failure in the automatic control system.
 When changing over from manual to automatic steering, the heading
control system shall take over the actual heading as the preset heading.
 There should be a single change-over control which should be located in
such a position that it is easily accessible to the officer of the watch.
 Adequate indication should be provided to show which method of steering
is in operation.
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Change-Over From Track Control To Heading Control:

 If the heading control system works as part of a track control system, then
when switching from track control to heading control, the actual heading
should be taken as the preset heading.
 Any switching back to track control shall not be possible without intended
action of the ship's personnel.
Alarms and Signaling Facilities:

1. Failure or reduction in power: An audible & visual alarm with mute function
should be provided in order to indicate failure or a reduction in the power
supply to the heading control system or heading monitor, which would
affect the safe operation of the equipment.
2. Off-heading alarm: An off-heading alarm, both audible & visual with mute
function should be provided when the actual heading deviates from the
preset heading beyond a preset limit.
3. Heading monitor: If the ship is required to carry two independent

compasses, a heading monitor should be provided to monitor the actual
heading information by independent heading sources. An audible & visual
alarm with mute function should be provided when the heading information
in use deviates from the second heading source beyond a preset limit.
4. Indication of heading source: A clear indication of the actual heading source

should be provided.
5. Sensor status: The heading control system should provide an indication

when any input from external sensors used for control is absent. The
heading control system should also repeat any alarm on the status
messages concerning the quality of the input data from its external sensors
when they are used for control.
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Controls:
 The number of operational controls should be such that easy and safe
operation can be achieved and inadvertent operation is prevented.
 If features for automatic adjustment are not incorporated, the heading
control system should be provided with adequate controls to adjust to
effects due to weather and the ship's steering performance.
 The heading control system should be designed in such a way as to ensure
altering the pre-set heading to starboard by turning the heading setting
control clockwise or tilting it to the right-hand side. Normal alterations of
heading should be possible by only one adjustment of the preset heading
control.
 Where remote control stations are provided, facilities for the delegation of
control to the remote station and unconditional return of control should be
incorporated in the master station.
 Except for the preset heading setting control, the actuation of any other
control should not significantly affect the heading of the ship.
Interfacing:
 The heading control system should be connected to a suitable source of
heading information.
 The heading control system should be connected to a suitable source of
speed information when it is used in a turning radius mode or when any
control parameters are automatically adapted to speed.
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PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR TRACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

RESOLUTION MSC.74(69) (adopted on 12 May 1998) ANNEX 2 -
RECOMMENDATION ON PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR TRACK CONTROL
SYSTEMS
These Performance Standards are applicable for track control systems working
at ship's speed from minimum manoeuvring speed up to 30 knots; and
at ship's maximum rate of turn not greater than 10°/s.
 Steering modes - A track control system should be able to steer the ship
from her position:
1. to a single waypoint; or
2. along a sequence of waypoints.
 Starting requirements: The system should allow the OOW to start track
control only if the ship's position, the difference between track course
and actual heading and the ship's manoeuvrability will result in a safe
approach manoeuvre to the track.
 Primary position-fixing system: The primary position-fixing system used

for track control should be an approved electronic position-fixing system
(EPFS).
 Position monitoring: The ship's position should be continuously

monitored by a second independent position source. This monitoring
need not be an integral part of the track control system.
 Early course change indication: In the case of track control by a

sequence of waypoints, an early course change indication should
be given no later than 1 min before the wheel-over line.
 Actual course change and confirmation: An alarm should be given at the

wheel-over line. The system should provide means for the OOW to
confirm the course change at wheel-over. With or without the
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confirmation, the ship should follow automatically the track. If the actual
course change alarm is not confirmed by the OOW within 30 s of wheel-
over, a back-up navigator alarm should be given.
 Change of waypoints: It should not be possible to modify the TO-

waypoint, the FROM-waypoint and the NEXT-waypoint while in the track
control mode without creating a new track.
 Turn performance: The track control should enable the ship to sail from
one leg to another by turns based on a preset turn radius or on a radius
calculated on the basis of a preset rate of turn within the turning
capability of the ship.
 Adaptation to steering characteristics: The track control should be

capable of manual or automatic adjustment to different steering
characteristics of the ship under various weather, speed and loading
conditions.
 Permitted tolerance: Means should be incorporated to prevent

unnecessary activation of the rudder due to normal yaw or sway motion
and statistically scattered position errors.
 Override function: A track control system should have override facility

to terminate track control mode and switch to the override facilities.
 Heading control mode: A track control system may be operated in

heading control mode. In this case, the performance standards of
heading control systems are to be applied.
 Manual change over from track control to manual steering: Change over
from track control to manual steering should be possible at any rudder
angle and under any conditions, including any failure in the track control
system. After change over to manual control, return to automatic control
should require operator intervention.
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 Manual change over from track control to heading control: Any change
over from track control to heading control should be possible under all
conditions. The heading control system should take over the actual
heading as the preset heading. Any switching back to track control
should require operator intervention.
 Steering mode indication: Adequate indication should be provided to

show which method of steering is in operation.
 Heading monitoring: Heading monitoring should be provided to monitor

the actual heading information by independent heading sources. The
heading monitor is not required to be an integral part of the track control
system.
 Alarms and indicators:
1. Failure or reduction in power supply - In case of failure or reduction

of power supply to the track control system which effects its safe
operation an alarm should be given.
2. Position monitoring alarm - An alarm should be given when the
position monitor detects a deviation beyond a preset limit.
3. Heading monitoring alarm- An alarm should be given when the
heading monitor detects a deviation beyond a preset limit.
4. Failure and alarm status of sensor – An alarm should be generated in
case of any failure or alarm status received from the position-fixing
sensor or the heading sensor in use. A back-up navigator alarm
should be given if a failure or alarm status is not acknowledged by
the OOW within 30 seconds.
5. Cross track alarm - A cross track alarm, should be provided when the
actual position deviates from the track beyond a preset cross track
limit.
6. Course difference signal - An alarm should be given if the actual
heading of the ship deviates from the track course beyond a preset
value.
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7. Low speed alarm - If speed through the water is lower than a pre-
defined limit necessary for steering the ship an alarm should be
given.
 Change over controls: Following controls should be provided by a single

operator action, and the switch for change over should be located at or in
the immediate vicinity of the main conning position.
(1) Track control to manual control
(2) Track control to heading control
 Presentation of information: Following information should be displayed

clearly and continuously:
1. mode of steering
2. sources of actual position & speed
3. status and failure of sensors (if any);
4. track course and actual heading;
5. actual position, cross track distance and speed;
6. TO-waypoint and NEXT-waypoint;
7. time and distance to TO-waypoint;
8. next track course; and
9. selected track identification.
The following information should be provided on demand:
a. a list of pre-planned waypoints including waypoint numbers, co-

ordinates, courses and distances between waypoints, turn radius or
rates of turn.
b. all track control related limits and other preset control parameters.
-----------------XXXXXXXXXXX------------------------
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NAV-AIDS ECHO SOUNDER
ECHO SOUNDER
INTRODUCTION:
 An echo sounder in an electronic device that provides reliable information on
the depth of water under a ship to aid navigation in particular in shallow
waters.
 A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. (eg.
Electrical energy to sound). In most cases, a single transducer acts as both
transmitter and receiver. It is mostly located at the keel of the vessel.
PRINCIPLE:
 Short pulses of sound vibrations are transmitted downwards from the
transducer to the seabed. These sound waves get reflected back from the
seabed.
 The reflected waves are received back by the transducer and time taken
from the transmission to the reception is measured.
 Speed of sound through water is known to be about 1500m/s and hence
depth can be calculated which will be half the distance travelled by the
sound waves. Therefore, depth = (distance travelled by sound waves) ÷ 2.
In other words, depth = (speed of sound in water x time taken) ÷ 2.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM:
COMPONENTS:
1. Transmitter - transducer to generate the sound waves
2. Pulse generator – to produce electrical oscillations for the transmitter
3. Receiver – transducer to receive the reflected sound vibrations
4. Amplifier – to amplify the weak electrical oscillations that has been
generated by the receiver on reception of the reflected sound vibration.
5. Recorder – for measuring and indicating the depth
CONTROLS:
1. Range Switch – to select the range between which the depth is to be
measured. (0-50m, etc) Always select the lowest range first before shifting
to a higher range.
2. Unit Selector Switch – to select the unit of depth (Metres, feet, fathom)
3. Gain Switch – to be adjusted to obtain clearest echo line on the paper.
4. Paper speed control – to select the speed of the paper – usually two speeds
are available.
5. Draft Setting Control – normally depth below keel is displayed. If we feed in
the ship’s draft, total sea depth can be displayed.
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6. Fix or Event Marker – it is used to draw a line on the paper as a mark to

indicate certain time. For example, passing a navigation mark or when a
position is plotted on chart, etc.
7. Transducer Changeover Switch – if more than one transducer is fitted.
8. Dimmer Switch – to illuminate the display as required.
PULSE LENGTH
 It is the duration between the leading edge and the trailing edge.
 It determines the minimum distance that can be measured by the echo
sounder. The minimum measurable distance will be half of the pulse length.
 For shallow waters, short pulses are used whereas for deep waters, long
pulses are used.
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF)

 It is the number of pulses transmitted per second.
 It determines the maximum range that can be measured.
 The PRF is normally automatically selected & changes as the range changes.
 For lower range, high PRF is used whereas for higher range, low PRF is used.
TRANSDUCERS:
 A transducer is a converter of energy. Radio frequency (RF) energy when
applied to a transducer will cause the unit to oscillate at its natural resonant
frequency. If the transmitting face of the unit is placed in contact with or
close to seawater, the oscillations will cause acoustic waves to be
transmitted in the water.
 Any reflected acoustic energy will cause a reciprocal action at the
transducer. This means that the reflected energy that comes into contact
with the transducer, natural resonant oscillations will again be produced.
This will in turn cause a minute electromotive force (e.m.f) to be created
which in then processed by the receiver to produce the necessary data for
display.
 Transducers can be of two types:
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1. Piezo-electric / Electrostrictive Transducers

 Piezo-electric transducers make use of the piezo-electric property of certain
crystals like quartz, Rochelle salt, etc.
 The crystal is firmly sandwiched between two steel plates connected to
terminals. When pressure is applied to the two opposite faces, a potential
difference proportional to the applied pressure is created and vice versa.
 If any alternating voltage is applied, the crystals will expand and contract.
Because of this, there is vibration and sound waves are created.
 An applied AC signal sets the crystal (and steel plates) vibrating. Vibrations
are maximum when the applied frequency is at or near the resonant
frequency of the crystal.
 Transducers capable of operating at two or more frequencies are now
available. Hence, the same transducer can transmit as well as receive the
reflected echoes.
 The lower steel plate is in direct contact with sea water. Thus, the hull needs
to be pierced for this kind of a transducer.
 They are smaller and lighter and are most commonly used transducer today.
 Electrostrictive transducers work on the same principle as piezoelectric
transducers but they use polycrystalline ceramics that are not naturally
piezoelectric. They have to be polarised at manufacture by the application
of a steady voltage.
(Note: The piezoelectric property causes the crystal materials like quartz to
generate an electric charge when the crystals are compressed, twisted or pulled.
The reverse is also true i.e. when an electric voltage is applied to the crystals, they
compress or expand.)
2. Magnetostrictive Transducers
 In these transducers, ferro-magnetic material such as nickel is used and a
coil is wound around it.
 When a large current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field
produced will cause the nickel to increase or decrease in length. The amount
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of increase or decrease in length will depend on the ferro magnetic material

used. Annealed nickel has been found to be the optimum material and
hence used extensively in the construction of marine transducers.
 The phenomenon that causes the nickel to change in length under the
influence of a magnetic field is called ‘magnetostriction’. The reciprocal is
also true i.e. when acoustic vibrations cause the nickel to constrict, at its
natural resonant frequency, an alternating magnetic field is produced
around the coil.
 When alternating voltage is applied, there is expansion and contraction of
the nickel which creates sound waves that are directed downwards by a
reflector (for a ring type. Cylinder type does not require a reflector)
 Magnetostrictive transducers are extremely robust and are fitted as an
internal installation. This makes them ideal for use in heavy seas where
pounding could destroy an unprotected Electrostrictive type.
 With increase in frequency, there are magnetic losses. Above 100 kHz, the
efficiency of Magnetostrictive transducer falls and hence, above this
frequency, Electrostrictive transducers are normally used.
Electrostrictive (Pierced Hull Type) Magnetostrictive (Internal hull type)

1. Integrity of the hull is compromised. Integrity of the hull is maintained.
2. Can be serviced only during Can be easily serviced as it is fitted
docking. (Gate v/v fitted types can internally.
be serviced / replaced in water)
3. Can operate as both transmitter andFor shallow depth, dual transducers are
receiver required.
4. There are no hull losses. There is upto 85% loss in power due to
hull plate. Dual transducer means twice
the hull loss, means more power
needed.
5. Electrostrictive type is generally They tend to be large and heavy and
cheaper and lighter. used only on large vessels.
6. Suitable for use at high frequency. Not suitable for use at high frequency
as they will be magnetic losses (some
energy is reflected back by hull plate)
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TRANSDUCER SITING:
 The transducer should be mounted well away from areas close to
turbulence that will cause noise. Areas close to propellers or water outlets
must be avoided.
 The transducer should be mounted in position where there are less chances
of formation of air bubbles, as air bubbles act as large reflectors of
transmitted energy.
 Transducers must be sited as deep as possible, away from sources of noise
and aeration.
 Pierced hull transducers should normally be sited on or near the centre line,
flush with the keel plate.
 Dual transducers are sited to either side of the centre line. In this case a
correction for Pythagoras error must be allowed for.
 Following is the ideal location where air bubble formation is less:
a. Large, fast, deep draft vessels – 1/8 to 1/4 ship length from the bow.
b. Medium speed vessels – forward most position
c. Slow, light draft vessels – 1/4 ship length from aft.
d. Large, wide oil tankers – forward end of engine room.
e. Very large ships – preferably one fwd & one aft– selectable at the bridge.
WORKING:
The echo sounder works on the following two techniques:
1. Ranging
 In a generic echo sounding system, a stylus is mounted on a circular belt
driven by means of a stylus motor, which moves at a certain speed and
transmissions take place only when stylus passes the zero mark.
 A magnet is fixed on the belt that triggers the transmitter to transmit a
pulse every time when the stylus passes the zero mark. The transmission of
the acoustic wave is synchronized with the stylus at the zero mark.
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 The acoustic waves are reflected from the seabed and echoes are received
by the receiving transducer.
 After passing the various stages of the receiver, the current is eventually
supplied to the stylus that burns a coating of a thin layer of aluminum
powder and produces a black mark on the paper indicating the depth of the
seabed.
 This cycle is repeated for every rotation and as the paper is pulled across,
the profile of the seabed is obtained on the paper.
 When a higher range is selected, the speed of the stylus motor needs to be
reduced to cater for the larger range scale. However, with this the scale
magnification is lost as scale becomes congested. To overcome this
problem, some echo sounders work on the phasing technique.
2. Phasing
 In phasing, speed of the stylus motor remains constant. Instead of changing
speed of stylus, the transmission point is advanced i.e. the transmission
start time occurs well before the stylus reaches the top of the recording
paper.
 If the first range is 0-50m, next range will be 50-100m and not 0-100m as in
ranging.
 Various sensors are positioned around the stylus belt. The magnet when
passes the sensors generates the pulse which in turn activates the
transmitter.
 In the diagram, when range is 0-50m, the magnet activates sensor 1 when
stylus passes the zero mark. When 50-100m range is selected, the magnet
activates sensor 2 and transmission takes place early and the stylus will not
pass the 50m mark at the time of transmission. In other words, a delay is
introduced by the Delay Unit 2 and stylus will reach 50m mark (top of the
paper) after a delay.
 Likewise, delay will be more for the next range and stylus will pass the 100m
mark (top of the paper) after a longer delay.
Page 62 of 172
 Thus, the chart covers a constant range (of 50m if ranges are 0-50, 50-100,
etc) and range resolution is not affected as in the Ranging system. The
problem of loss of scale magnification is thus eliminated.
 We must always start sounding at the lowest ranges and check for echoes,
adjust the gain and after that, if required, switch over to higher ranges.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ECHO SOUNDER:

1. The velocity of sound through sea water at temp of 16° and salinity 3.4% is
1505 m/sec and for all practical purposes is approximated to 1500 m/sec. It
varies depending on the density of water as it is primarily affected by
temperature and salinity.
2. Pulse Repetition frequency is the number of pulses produced per second. It is

changed automatically when range is changed. Higher PRF is used for lower
range and lower PRF is used for higher range.
Page 63 of 172
3. The reflective nature of the seabed also influences the reflected signals. Hard,
rocky surfaces are good reflectors whereas soft mud, sand or clay are poor
reflectors.
4. Noise is the most problematic factor. Error is introduced on picking up the

reflected echoes due to the noise. Cross noise is when small part of own
transmitted signal is picked up by the receiver and displayed as a broad line
near the zero mark. Other noises could be Thermal noise (low level and
negligible in modern devices), Sea noise, etc.
5. Attenuation and choice of frequency – in order to produce a reasonably sized

transducer emitting a narrow beam of energy, a high transmission frequency
needs to be used. However, higher the frequency greater will be the
attenuation. The choice of transmission frequency is therefore a compromise
between transducer size, minimal attenuation and freedom from noise.
Typically, large Magnetostrictive transducers with 15-60kHz frequency are
used on large vessels, whereas smaller ships transmit in the band 200-400kHz
using the compact Electrostrictive transducers.
6. Beam width and beam spreading - The transducer power is radiated outward
in a narrow conical beam. The narrower the beam, greater is the concentrated
power and vice versa. Also, greater the depth, the more the beam spreads
resulting in a drop in returned energy. Also, angle of incidence of the
propagated beam is important. When beam is closer to vertical, more will be
the energy reflected by the seabed.
ERRORS OF ECHO SOUNDER:

1. Velocity of propagation in water – the velocity of sound waves taken for
calculation is 1500 m/s which is not a constant. It varies with salinity and
temperature of the sea water. As the velocity is varying, the depth recorded
is erroneous. Modern transducers incorporate a thermometer to allow for
automatic temperature compensation. The maximum error is about 3%
when in fresh water.
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2. Stylus speed error – due to fluctuations in the voltage supplied to the stylus
motor, the stylus speed may be affected and thus cause an error in the
recorded depth. Modern electronic drives are very stable and this error is
very small.
3. Pythagoras Error – this is found when dual transducers are used i.e. one for
transmitting and one for receiving. Owing to the angle of the beam,
measured depth is greater than actual depth. This error is calculated using
the Pythagoras principle. This error increases in shallower waters and is
negligible in deep waters. It must be compensated for at installation.
4. Multiple echoes – very strong echoes may bounce back and forth several
times between the ship’s hull and the sea bed, hence providing multiple
depth marks on the paper.
5. Thermal and density layers – density of water varies with salinity and
temperature to form different layers. Sound waves reflecting from these
layers will record an erroneous depth.
6. Zero Line Adjustment error – when zero is not adjusted properly, it will give
error in reading.
7. Cross Noise – if sensitivity of the amplifier is high, just after the zero
marking, a narrow line along with several dots and dashes appear. This is
due to cross noise, which occurs when small part of own transmitted signal
is picked up by the receiver. Time varied gain control can help reduce this
effect.
8. Aeration – when sound waves are reflected from air bubbles, it will appear
as dots on the recording paper. This is known as aeration. This can be due to
pockets of air bubbles created during heavy seas, major alteration, pitching
in light condition or astern propulsion.
Page 65 of 172
MAINTENANCE:
1. Check voltage supplied to stylus motor as per manual.
2. Transducer must be thoroughly checked as per manual if accessible.
3. If not assessable, transducers must be checked at dry dock, and it must be
ensured that the transducer is not painted.
4. Carbon dust must be periodically removed / vacuumed.
5. Moving parts must be lubricated at regular intervals as per manual.
6. Calibration may be carried out using hand lead line.
7. Sufficient spare paper rolls and other spares must be available on board.
MODERN OR DIGITIZED ECHO SOUNDERS:

 Modern digital echo sounders are highly complex and sophisticated devices.
 They have many more features than the conventional echo sounders.
 They are usually paperless. However, paper printing is also possible.
 The recorded trace has clear time stamp. It saves recorded data of depth,
position and time of upto 24 hours.
 They provide multi colour digital and graphic display and are capable of dual
frequency operation. Range can be manually or automatically selected.
 They can be interfaced with GPS, ECDIS, Radar, etc.
 They have easy settings for drafts, units of depth, event marks, etc and
various alarm functions such as UKC alarm or depth alarm, etc.
 Modern digital echo sounders require almost no maintenance of any kind.
However, they may be interfaced with other equipments and hence, proper
functioning should be checked by running the built in test programs both on
the echo sounder and on associated devices.
Page 66 of 172
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ECHO SOUNDERS:

RESOLUTION A.224(VII) - PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ECHO SOUNDING
EQUIPMENT amended by RESOLUTION MSC.74(69) (adopted on 12 May 1998)
Echo sounding equipment should comply with the following performance

requirements. These Performance Standards are applicable for ship speeds from 0
up to 30 knots. Sound speed in water for the purpose of this standard is set at
1500 m/s.
1. Range of depth - Under normal propagation and sea bed conditions the
equipment should be capable of measuring any clearance under the
transducer between 2 m and 200 m.
2. Range scales - The equipment should provide a minimum of two range
scales one of which, the shallow range, should cover a range of 20 m, and
the other, the deep range, should cover a range of 200 m.
3. Main display - The primary presentation should be a suitable graphical
display which provides the immediate depth and a visible record of
soundings. The displayed record should, show at least 15 min of soundings.
4. Other displays - Other forms of display may be added but these should not
affect the normal operation of the main display.
5. Pulse repetition frequency - The PRF should not be less than 12 pulses per
minute on the deep range and not less than 36 pulses per minute on the
shallow range.
6. Roll and pitch - The performance of the equipment should be such that it
will meet the requirements of the performance standards when the ship is
rolling ±10° and/or pitching ±5°.
7. Multiple installations - More than one transducer (Tx+Rx) may be fitted. But
when more than one transducer is used, means should be available to
display the depths from the different transducers separately and a clear
indication of the transducer(s) in use should be provided.
8. Data storage - It should be possible to record on paper recording or other
means the information about the depth(s) and the associated time for 12 h.
There should be means to retrieve the recorded information.
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9. Accuracy of measurement - Based on a sound speed in water of 1,500 m/s,

the tolerance of the indicated depth should be either ±0.5 m on the 20 m
range scale, ±5 m on the 200 m range scale; OR ±2.5% of the indicated depth,
whichever is greater.
10. Display scale - The scale of display should not be smaller than 5 mm per
metre depth on the shallow range scale and 0.5 mm per metre depth on the
deep range scale.
11. Depth alarm - An alarm signal, both visual and audible with mute function,
should be provided to the OOW when the water depth under the keel is
below a preset value.
12. Failure or reduction in power supply - Alarm signals, both visual and audible
(with mute function) should be provided to the OOW to indicate failure or a
reduction in the power supply to the echo sounder which would affect the
safe operation of the equipment.
13. Controls - The function of range scale selection should be directly
accessible. All controls should be accessible & recognizable in all light
conditions.
14. Marking - The graphical display should be capable of showing depth marks
at intervals not larger than one-tenth of the range/scale in use and time
marks at intervals not exceeding 5 min.
15. Paper recording - If paper is used for recording, there should be a clear
indication when the paper remaining is less than 1 m.
16. Interfacing - Output(s) should be available from which depth information
may be supplied to other equipment such as remote digital displays, VDR,
track control system, etc. The interfacing shall be such that will comply with
the relevant international standards.
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Page 68 of 172
NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
SPEED LOG
ELECTROMAGNETIC LOG:
 An Electromagnetic Log, sometimes called an "EM Log", measures the speed
of a vessel through water.
 It consists of an electromagnet with coils and sensors, SW conductor, Master
unit with amplifier and speed-distance recorder.
Principle:
 The E.M. log works on the principle of electromagnetic induction as stated in
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. When a moving conductor cuts a
stationary magnetic field or when a moving magnetic field cuts a stationary
conductor, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the conductor. The
amplitude of the EMF induced is directly proportional to the speed of
movement of the conductor or magnetic field.
 E=FxLxV
(where F = magnetic field strength, L=length of the conductor, V = velocity of
the conductor through the magnetic field)
 If F and L are constant, we can find the velocity (V) and when velocity is
integrated with time, we can also find the distance.
Construction:
 The Log extends upto about 20cm outside the hull. It can be retracted when
required.
 Sensors are fitted to obtain the water flow and the Master unit is fitted to
calculate the speed and distance.
 The induced EMF being very small needs amplification. Hence, an amplifier is
also provided.
 Two electrodes are provided to pick up the e.m.f.
 Indicators are provided to display the speed and distance.
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
Block Diagram – Electromagnetic Log
Working:
 In the EM Log, an electromagnet consisting of a coil carrying A.C. current
generates a vertical magnetic field around the probe.
 As the moving water passes through the magnetic field an EMF is induced in
the water. This EMF is directly proportional to the speed of the water across
the hull.
 In the EM Log, if ‘F’ and ‘L’ are maintained constant, then velocity (speed
through water) is directly proportional to the EMF induced. However, the
induced EMF varies with the conductivity of water. (Sea water is a good
conductor while fresh water is not such a good conductor of electricity)
 The EMF is picked up by a pair of probes (electrodes) that are in contact
with the water. The voltage drop is fed to the amplifier and finally applied to
a meter that displays the ships speed. Speed integrated over time allows the
unit to display the distance run.
 NMEA outputs to other equipment may also be provided.
 The log is calibrated for zero speed when vessel is stationary and with a
measured mile run and input to the meter is adjusted accordingly.
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
Limitations / Errors:
1. Sitting of the probe: The sitting of the probe is critical as wrongly fitted
probe will lead to wrong representation of vessel’s speed. This is minimized
by careful sitting of sensors as well as by calibrating the instrument during
installation.
2. Rolling and Pitching: There may be slight error in the speed calculated if the
vessel is rolling and pitching. However, these are reduced by having an
electrical time constant that is longer than a period of vessel’s motion.
3. Sign of speed: The EM log can show the astern speed as well, but without
sign when AC current is used. If DC current is used, it will show the sign.
4. Other limitations: The EM log provides only the STW i.e. speed of water
flowing past the hull of the ship. This flow can vary due to the hull form.
Also, it is greatly affected by currents flowing under the ship. Hence, when
navigating in area of great current, one must exercise precautions.
Advantages:
1. No moving parts
2. Not affected by marine growth
3. Simple and reliable
4. Easy to calibrate and maintain
Disadvantages:
1. Only reads speed through the water
2. Ocean current affects speed measurement
3. Induced EMF varies with conductivity of the water
4. Measurement affected by uneven flow of water past the hull.
5. Sensor protrudes below the hull and is subject to damage
6. Roll and pitch leads to errors
Page 71 of 172
NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
DOPPLER LOG
Principle:
 Doppler log works on the principle of Doppler Effect, which is a shift in
frequency between a transmitted signal and a received signal caused by the
motion of the vessel.
 Doppler Effect can be observed on any type of wave – light wave, sound
wave, water wave, etc.
 It is the apparent shift in frequency produced by a moving source and/or
observer i.e. relative motion of the frequency source and observer. If both
are not moving w.r.t. each other, no Doppler shift will take place.
 Doppler effect can be explained using a few equations. Consider, Frequency
transmitted = Ft, Frequency received by the observer = Fr, Speed of sound
through water = c, Vo = Velocity of observer, Velocity of source = Vs
𝑐
If source moves towards stationary observer, Fr = Ft x (Vo = 0)
𝑐−𝑉𝑠
𝑐
If source moves away from stationary observer, Fr = Ft x (Vo = 0)
𝑐+ 𝑉𝑠
𝑐+𝑉𝑜
If observer moves towards stationary source, Fr = Ft x (Vs = 0)
𝑐
𝑐−𝑉𝑜
If observer moves away from stationary source, Fr = Ft x (Vs = 0)
𝑐
𝑐− 𝑉𝑜
If both move away from each other, Fr = Ft x
𝑐+𝑉𝑠
𝑐+𝑉𝑜
If both move towards each other, Fr = Ft x
𝑐−𝑉𝑠
 Since in the Doppler Log, source and observer are the same, we get,
𝑐+𝑉
Fr = Ft x (where v = velocity of the ship)
𝑐−𝑉
 If a signal beamed in the forward direction reflects off an object and is

returned to the vessel, it will suffer an apparent frequency shift which is
proportionate to the vessels movement. The vessels speed can thus be
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
calculated based on the difference in frequency between transmitted and

received signals. Since there is generally no reflecting surface ahead of a
ship at sea so we use the sea bed to gauge the ships speed.
 The Doppler transducer is mounted on the keel and produces a
concentrated, conical beam of energy. The sound waves are not sent
straight down, but at an angle so as to cause Doppler shift.
 An angle of 60˚ to the keel has been found to be suitable and will reflect a
signal of sufficient strength back to the receiving transducer.
 If ‘α’ is the angle of incidence of the acoustic beam from the keel, we get,
𝑐+𝑉 cos 𝛼
Fr = Ft x
𝑐−𝑉 cos 𝛼
Since ‘Fr’, ‘Ft’, ‘c’ and ‘α’ are known, speed of the ship (v) can be calculated.
Janus Configuration:
 When using a single transducer, if the angle ‘α’ changes during pitching or
due to incorrect trim, longitudinal parameters will change and speed
indicated will be in error as calculation of speed is done with angle as 600.
 To avoid this to some extent, two acoustic beams are transmitted, one
ahead and one astern. This kind of a transducer assembly is called ‘Janus’
configuration, named after a Roman God who possessed two faces and was
able to see into both the future and the past.
 With two beams, the Doppler shift formula changes and accuracy is
improved with a slight error still present. The Doppler shift (Ft-Fr) is now
given by the formula:
2 v Ft
(Ft-Fr) = (cos α + cos α’) (where α=α’=600),
𝑐
2 v Ft c (Ft −Fr )
∴ (Ft-Fr) = (0.5 + 0.5) ∴ v=
𝑐 2 𝐹𝑡
 Thus, we see that the amount of Doppler Shift (Ft-Fr) depends on the
transmitted frequency (Ft), velocity of transmitted signal (c) and velocity of
the transmitter/receiver i.e. the ship (v).
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
 Hence, if transmission angles are 600both sides, then they can be effectively
ignored, cancelling the effects of pitching on the speed indication.
 With a Janus configuration, and 30 trim, it is seen that the error is reduced to
0.2% (but not fully eliminated) as compared to the 5% error if single
transducer arrangement is used.
 A second transducer assembly may be set at right angles to the first one to
get dual axis speed i.e. longitudinal speed and as well as transverse speed.
 Also, transducer arrangements may be at the bow and the stern to show
the vessel’s movement during turn manoeuvres.
Effect of Pitching on a Janus Configuration Transducer
Dual axis speed measured using 4 beams
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
Working:
 A transducer broadcasts a continuous beam of sound vibrations with
velocity of about 1500 m/s in water. The transducer is usually mounted at
the keel, toward the bow, where disturbances due to engine, propeller
noise and aeration effects are least. The same transducer serves as both
transmitter and receiver. Transducers used are of the electrostrictive type.
 The acoustic beams are transmitted at an angle of about 600 from the keel,
which is found to be the optimum angle of incidence with the seabed, which
will reflect a signal of sufficient strength to be received by the transducer.
 The Log registers the change in frequency between the transmitted and
received signal and then calculates the velocity of the ship.
 The beams are continuous, narrow and high in frequency. The frequency
varies from system to system but usually is in the range of 100 kHz to 1 mHz.
 When signal is bounced off the sea bed, called Bottom track, speed
indicated will be the speed over ground (SOG).
 In deep waters, where ground cannot be found, the signals will be bounced
off a layer of water (water track) and the speed indicated will be the speed
through water (STW).
 The Doppler log normally measures the SOG to about 600 ft depth. (about
180m) After this depth, signals may return from a dense, colder layer of
water located throughout the oceans called the deep scattering layer (DSL).
Signals from the DSL are not as accurate as those from the bottom
reflections, but can be used to obtain the STW when SOG is not available.
 The system may automatically or manually switch over to water tracking
from Bottom tracking at increased depths.
 Logs with both longitudinal and transverse speed function may also have
digital displays and connections to GPS allowing for a berthing mode. Digital
signals may be fed to various other equipments like auto-pilot, radar, ECDIS,
etc.
Page 75 of 172
NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
ERRORS:
1. List & Trim – a change in trim from the calibrated normal, will affect the fore
and aft speed, whereas excessive list will affect the athwartship speed. A
Janus configuration transducer reduces this error to a negligible amount.
Heaving i.e. vertical movement has no effect on the calculated speed.
2. Instrumental Error – the difference in the transmitted and received

frequencies measured by the fwd & aft transducers must be measured
accurately. Any error in this measurement will directly reflect in the speed
calculated. Also, incorrectly calibrated equipment will have a fixed error.
3. Side Lobe Error – when side lobe reception dominates the main beam
reception, there will be an error in the speed. This happens more on sloppy
bottoms where side lobe reflects at a more favourable angle and has less
path beam than the main beam.
4. Rolling and Pitching – If vessel is pitching at angle Φ and speed is indicated

as ‘x’, then the actual speed is ‘x/cosΦ’. The digital indicator will fluctuate
between the actual speed and the value lower than the actual speed.
5. Velocity of the transmitted wave: The velocity of the transmitted wave (c)
changes with temperature, salinity and pressure. It is assumed to be 1500
m/s at 160C and 3.4% salinity. However, depending on the seawater, the
value of ‘c’ will vary. To compensate for the error due to temperature, a
thermostat is mounted near the transducer.
6. Transducer Orientation – the transducer must make a perfect 600 angle

w.r.t. the keel or else the speed indicated will be inaccurate.
7. Oscillator Frequency – the frequency generated (Ft) by the oscillator must

be accurate & constant or else speed will be in error. This is not normally an
issue in modern systems as they use very stable & controlled oscillators.
8. Cross Noise - It is affected by cross noise if located too close to the

propeller, thrusters, drain tubes, echo sounder transducer, etc.
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
9. Aeration – An aerated water layer will reflect signals giving rise to errors.
Aeration in the proximity of propellers/bow thrusters while coming along
side causes errors. Also, sand / mud in suspension in shallow, disturbed
waters will lead to errors.
Calibration:
 It is necessary that the Doppler log be correctly calibrated at installation.
 The unit must be first correctly zeroed. This can be done while alongside or
at anchor when speed over ground is zero.
 Scale calibration is done during sea trials, when time taken to cover a
measured mile is noted and speed is calculated. The calculated speed is
compared with the speed displayed and necessary adjustments are made.
Advantages:
1. High accuracy
2. Can measure very low speeds
3. Can measure ahead, astern & athwartship speed
4. Can be used for ocean navigation in water track mode showing STW (set
and drift must be accounted for in this mode)
5. Useful in berthing and manoeuvring in ground track mode
6. May provide a docking mode display for easy assessment of vessels
movement when berthing
7. May be manufactured to show water depth as well (echo sounder function)
Disadvantages:
1. Fairly complex device
2. Janus configuration transducer protrudes a little below the hull
3. Damage to the hull near the transducer may cause deflection of the
transducer mounting leading to errors
4. Accuracy may be reduced in rough weather (BF 6 and up)
Page 77 of 172
NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR SPEED & DISTANCE MEASURING

EQUIPMENTS:
RESOLUTION A.824(19) - PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR DEVICES TO MEASURE AND
INDICATE SPEED AND DISTANCE as amended by RESOLUTION MSC.96(72) (adopted on
22 May 2000)
Introduction
 Devices to measure and indicate speed and distance are intended for
general navigational and ship manoeuvring use. The minimum requirement
is to provide information on the distance run and the forward speed of the
ship through the water or over the ground. Additional information on ship's
motions other than in the forward axis may be provided.
 The equipment should comply fully with its performance standard at
forward speeds up to the maximum speed of the ship.
 Devices measuring speed and distance through the water should meet the
performance standard in water of depth greater than 3 m beneath the keel.
 Devices measuring speed and distance over the ground should meet the
performance standard in water of depth greater than 2 m beneath the keel.
Methods Of Presentation
 Speed information may be presented in either analogue or digital form.
 Where a digital display is used, its incremental steps should not exceed 0.1
knots.
 Analogue displays should be graduated at least every 0.5 knots and be
marked with figures at least every 5 knots. If the display can present the
speed of the ship in other than the forward direction, the direction of
movement should be indicated unambiguously.
 Distance run information should be presented in digital form. The display
should cover the range from 0 to not less than 9999.9 nautical miles and the
incremental steps should not exceed 0.1 nautical miles. Where practicable,
means should be provided for resetting a read out to zero.
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
 The display should be easily readable by day and by night.

 Means should be provided for transmitting measured speed and distance
run information to other equipment fitted on board, in accordance with the
relevant international marine interface standards.
 If equipment is capable of being operated in either the "speed through the
water" or "speed over the ground" mode, mode selection and mode
indication should be provided.
 If the equipment has provision for indicating speeds other than on a single
fore and aft direction, then both the forward and athwart speeds should be
provided either through the water or over the ground. Resultant speed and
direction information may be provided as a display selectable option. All
such information should clearly indicate the direction, mode and validity
status of the displayed information.
Accuracy Of Measurement
 Errors in the measured and indicated speed, when the ship is operating free
from shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, sea bottom type,
current and tide, should not exceed the following:
a) for digital display - 2% of the ships speed, or 0.2 kts, whichever is greater;
b) for analogue display – 2.5% of ships speed, or 0.25 kts, whichever greater;
c) for output data transmission – 2% of the ships speed, or 0.2 kts,
whichever is greater
 Errors in the indicated distance run, when the ship is operating free from
shallow water effect and from the effects of wind, sea bottom type, current
and tide; should not exceed 2% of the distance run by the ship in 1 hour or
0.2 nautical miles in each hour, whichever is greater.
 If the accuracy of devices to indicate speed and distance run can be affected
in use by certain conditions (e.g. sea state and its effects, water
temperature, salinity, sound velocity in water, depth of water under the
keel, heel and trim of ship), details of possible effects should be included in
the equipment handbook.
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NAV-AIDS SPEED LOG
Roll And Pitch

 The performance of the equipment should be such that it will meet the
performance standards when the ship is rolling up to ±10º and pitching up to
±5º.
Construction And Installation

 The system should be so designed that the method of attachment of parts
of the equipment to the ship or damage occurring to any part of the
equipment which penetrates the hull should not result in the ingress of
water to the ship.
 Where any part of the system is designed to extend from and retract into
the hull of the ship, the design should ensure that it can be extended,
operated normally and retracted at all speeds up to the maximum speed of
the ship. Its extended and retracted positions should be clearly indicated at
the display position.
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Page 80 of 172
NAV-AIDS GPS
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

 GPS is a satellite navigation system, funded and controlled by the US Dept. of
Defense.
 It provides specially coded satellite signals that can be processed in a GPS
receiver to compute the position and velocity.
 It was developed by the USA in 1973 and became fully operational in 1995.
 Initially, it started with 24 satellites, 8 each in 3 orbital planes. But it now has
4 operational satellites in 6 orbital planes.
 Initially, Precise Position Service (P-Code) was reserved for military use and
civilians were using the C/A Code which was intentionally degraded (selective
availability) – reducing the accuracy by about 100 meters.
 In the year 2000, ‘selective availability’ was turned off and accuracy to about
30 meters was made available to all users.
 As of today, the C/A Code gives accuracy of about 5-10m, and the P(Y) Code
gives accuracy of 2-9m.
 Today, apart from GPS, other similar positioning systems exist, such as
1. Russia’s GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) – 3 orbit planes, 8

satellites each, completed in 2013, giving accuracy of upto 10 m.
2. Europe’s Galileo Positioning System – 24 satellites + 6 spare satellites. The
system is expected to be fully operational by 2020, giving accuracy upto 1 m.
3. India’s Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System - accuracy to 20 m with
3 geosynchronous satellites + 4 in inclined geosynchronous orbit. The system
is expected to be operational from early 2018.
4. China’s Compass [BeiDou] Navigation System – 10 geosynchronous /inclined
geosynchronous satellites covering Asia/pacific (operational 2012). It is
expecting global coverage by 2020.
STRUCTURE OF GPS:
GPS comprises of 3 segments:
(1) Space Segment:

 Broadcasts coded radio signals and timing signals towards users on the earth
 Receive commands from the ground stations
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 Atleast 24 satellites or space vessels, 6 orbital planes i.e. atleast 4 satellites

per orbit.
 Equally spaced orbits (60 degrees apart), inclined at about 550 w.r.t. the
equatorial plane
 At least 6 satellites are visible at all times from any point on earth and at
least 4 satellites will have an elevation of over 9.50. Additional satellites are
provided as back-up in case of failure of operational satellites
 Satellites orbit at an altitude of approximately 20200 km above the surface
of the Earth
 Each satellites makes 2 complete orbit each day with a speed of 3.9 km / sec.
(2) Control Segment:

 It consists of a Master control station (Colorado), an Alternate Master
control station (California), four dedicated ground antennas (Two In Atlantic
Ocean, One Each In Indian Ocean And Pacific Ocean), and six dedicated
monitor stations (one each at the master control station and the four ground
antenna stations)
 The monitoring stations track and obtain data from the satellites and pass
the information to the Master control station.
 The master control station calculates and predicts the future path and
position of all GPS satellites. It also determines the error of the atomic clocks
in the satellites and provides the corrections required to keep them
synchronised with ground clocks. Clock offset to correct to UTC is also
computed.
 The satellite ephemeris, almanac for all satellites and satellite status
information is uploaded to the satellites from the Master station through the
ground [antenna] stations.
(3) User Segment:

 Records and interprets the radio signals broadcast by the satellites.
 It consists of a receiving antenna, a GPS receiver with built-in processor and a
display unit.
 They usually interact with other nav. Systems using standard communication
protocols like NMEA183, etc providing time, position, elevation, speed,
direction, etc.
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PRINCIPLE OF GPS:
 GPS works on the principle of ‘Ranging’. The GPS receiver calculates its
position by comparing its own self-generated timing signals with timing
signals sent by orbiting GPS satellites. The time taken by the satellite signal
to reach the receiver multiplied by the speed of radio waves gives the range
to the satellite. Three ranges from 3 satellites are used for 2-D fixing while 4
ranges from 4 satellites are used for a 3-D fix.
 Average Speed and direction is obtained from successive position fixes.
 Instantaneous speed is obtained from the Doppler shift of the satellite
carrier frequency.
 Consider Satellites 1, 2 and 3 and a GPS

receiver on the Earth. Say Satellite 1
transmits signal at time ‘t’ and the GPS
receiver picks up the signal at time ‘t1’.
 Therefore, Range (R) = C x (t-t1)

Where, C=speed of radio waves (3 x 108),
(t-t1) = time taken for signal to reach
receiver.
 We are thus located on the surface of a

sphere of radius P1, centered on satellite 1.
 Similarly, we can get P2 and P3 using the other two satellites. Knowing
location of all 3 satellites in space, we get 3 ranges that intersect at P which
is the FIX.
GPS FREQUENCIES:
L1 Signal – 1575.42 MHz – consists of both C/A code and P-Code

L2 Signal – 1227.6 MHz – consists of only the P-Code
Each satellite transmits pseudo random noise (PRN) signals on these two different
frequencies.
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PSEUDO RANDOM NOISE CODES:
 The Pseudo Random Noise Codes (PRN Codes) are binary codes consisting of
a sequence of +/- 1’s. These signals resemble random noise and are
generated using code formulated by Robert Gold and are also known as the
Gold Code.
 The codes act as timing signals and also help to identify the satellite.
 They are based on the atomic clock frequency of 10.23 MHz
 Due to the fact that all satellites work on the same frequency, each of them
has a unique PRN Code so that they can use the same frequency without
jamming each other.
 PRN Code is a very complicated digital code made up of ‘on and off’ pulses. It
is so complicated that it almost looks like a random electrical noise. Hence
the name ‘Pseudo Random’.
 They are of 2 types –Precision Code or P Code and Coarse Acquisition Code
or CA Code
The P-Code:
 Available for civilian use since the year 2000. Previously only available to the
US Military and allies.
 It is superimposed on both the L1 carrier frequency of 1575.42 MHz and L2
carrier frequency of 1227.6 MHz.
 It is 26.7 terabytes long, repeating once every 267 days. Extremely long code
length makes it difficult to lock on to the P-Code.
 It has a frequency of 10.23 MHz
 Wavelength is 30 meters and tracking accuracy is 1% of wavelength or 0.3
meters.
The C/A Code:

 Used by civilians
 It is superimposed on the L1 carrier frequency of 1575.42 MHz.
 Sequence repeats itself after every millisecond and it has a frequency of
1.023 MHz.
 Wavelength is 300 meters and tracking accuracy is 1% of wavelength i.e. 3
meters
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Note:
The P(Y) Code : For security reasons, to prevent spoofing or hacking of the system
by enemies, the P code is further modulated by a W code to create the P(Y) code.
This code is available only to authorised users. For example, the US government,
military, etc.
Function of the PRN Code:

 For satellite identification since each satellite has a unique code
 For measurement of propagation time from satellite to the user
WORKING OF THE GPS:
 The PRN Code (P-Code or C/A Code) identifies the satellite to be used.
 The satellite transmits a Navigation Message containing GPS Date and Time,
ephemeris data to determine the position of the satellite in the orbit and
almanac data to give information regarding other satellites.
 The Navigation Message is of 30 seconds and is transmitted by each satellite
in the form of 50 bits/sec data frame (Total 1500 bit frame). This data is
different for each satellite and is previously supplied to it by the Master
Control Station. The Navigation Message is divided into 5 sub-frames each of
300 bits, transmitted at 50 bits/s taking 6 seconds to transmit. Each
subframe starts with ‘Telemetry’ word containing the satellite status and
followed by HOW (hand over word) which enables a receiver to acquire the
Code. The remaining part of the 5 subframes are as follows:
A) 1st Subframe contains data relating to satellite clock corrections, accuracy
and health of the signal.
B) 2nd & 3rd subframe contains satellite ephemeris defining the position of
the satellite
C) 4th subframe contains the Almanac, orbital data, health and configuration
status for every satellite, user messages, UTC calculations, etc.
D) 5th subframe gives the almanac (continued) of all other satellites, thus
allowing the user for optimum choice of satellites for position fixing.
 The PRN Code and Navigation message are superimposed by Phase

Modulation onto a carrier frequency (L1 or L2) that is picked up and decoded
at the receiver.
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 The receiver locks on to one satellite and from this satellite, it obtains the
almanac of all the other satellites and thereby selects the most suitable ones
for position fixing.
 Knowing the time the signal was transmitted by the satellite and the time
the signal was received at the receiver, the time taken for the signal to reach
the receiver is calculated. With this, range is calculated and thus, the position
is obtained after determining distances from the receiver to each of the
selected satellites.
 Since it is not possible to precisely synchronize satellite clock and receiver
clock, the ranges calculated will be in error. Hence, these are known as
Pseudo (false) ranges and appropriate corrections must be applied to get
the True Ranges.
 This is done by selecting an additional satellite and solving 4 equations to
obtain x, y, z and Δt (lat, long, altitude and error in time)
 Assuming the receiver position is at (x, y, z) relative to the centre of the

Earth based on the WGS84 spheroid, satellites S1, S2, S3 and S4 are used for
position fixing.
 Their positions from the Ephemeris are known to be: (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2)
and so on.
 This gives us the following equations:
Where PR is the Pseudo Range obtained from each of the satellite and
(C x Δt) is error in range measurement due to user clock error.
 Here, there are 4 unknowns i.e. x, y, z and Δt. Hence, by solving the above
four equations, a 3D Fix (lat, long & altitude) can be obtained. In case of a
craft floating in water, a 2D Fix (lat-long) is required and is obtained by 3
equations using 3 satellites. On board GPS receiver has a processor that
solves these equations.
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 To compute speed and direction, two methods are used.

A) The Doppler shift in received GPS signal can be used to compute the
relative speed of the receiver w.r.t. the satellite.
B) Average speed / direction is computed by measuring the difference
between two successive positions. The longer this interval the more
accurate the calculated average speed/direction.
ERRORS IN THE GPS:
1. Atmospheric effects
Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as
they pass through the Earth’s atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. These
effects are smallest when the satellite is directly overhead and become greater
for satellites nearer the horizon, since the path through the atmosphere is
longer. They are further classified as:
(A) Ionospheric Delay:

 As the two transmitted carriers must pass through the ionosphere, a speed
reduction is caused by the refraction of the radio waves.
 The extent of the delay and consequently the error introduced into the
pseudo-range measurement is dependent upon the electron density the
radio wave encounters along the signal path. Electron density itself is
dependent upto three factors – the time of the day, the elevation of the
satellite and latitude of the receiver.
 Ionospheric error is inversely proportional to the square of the carrier
frequency. Hence, the GPS satellites transmit on two frequencies so that the
delay may be quantified in the receiver, an error correction figure calculated
and applied to the final fix solution. After all corrective data has been applied
to the solution in a single frequency GPS receiver, fix error due to ionosphere
is unlikely to exceed 10m.
(B) Tropospheric Delay:

Troposphere also introduces a delay into the pseudo-range calculation. This
error, however, is independent of frequency, but it is predictable. The GPS
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receivers hold a software solution in the form of a mathematical model to

eliminate the effect of this delay. Figures for relative humidity, pressure and
temperature are interfaced with the processor to produce corrective data
which is then applied to the fix calculation. Error from this source is unlikely to
exceed 1 m.
2. User Clock Error:

All satellites are fitted with atomic clocks which have great accuracy. It is not
feasible to install atomic clocks onboard due to its high cost. The receiver
clock is a common crystal clock which is not as accurate as the satellite’s
atomic clock. If user clock is not perfectly synchronized with the satellite clock,
range measurement will not be accurate. For this, the receiver clock time is
updated every sub-frame (6 seconds) and residual error is compensated for by
computing the clock error (Δt) using pseudo ranges from 3 or 4 satellites. (3
satellites for a 2D Fix and 4 satellites for a 3D Fix).
3. Satellite Clock Error:

 The satellites use atomic clocks running at 10.23 MHz to precisely time their
transmissions. Owing to the effects of relativity, the atomic clock in a GPS
Satellite runs slightly faster when in the orbit.
 To correct for this, before the launch, the clocks are set to run at
10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz. The atomic clocks have an error
of about 8-17 nanoseconds per day leading to measurement error of about 2.5
to 5 m.
 Updating the atomic clocks daily will shorten their life. Hence, updating is
done after the error accumulates to about 1 millisecond. Meanwhile, the
errors in clock data are monitored by ground based stations and information
is passed on to the Master Control Station, who then uploads the clock data
to the satellite as part of the Navigation Message.
4. Geometric Dilution of Precision:

The angular separation between satellites determines the angle of cut, which
governs the quality of position obtained. Wider the angular separation between
satellites, the better is the accuracy of the fix. Low value of GDOP indicates high
accuracy of fix. Knowing the position of the satellites from the almanac, the
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receiver automatically selects the best configuration of satellites based on their

geometry and elevation. GDOP or DOP values are displayed on the receiver unit.
DOP may be expressed separately as HDOP (horizontal), VDOP (vertical), PDOP
(positional -3d) and TDOP (time)
5. Multipath Error:
This is caused when signals are received indirectly from other obstructions such
as building, walls, beacons, etc. When the receiver antenna receives both direct
and indirect signals (via reflected paths), at slightly differing times, both the
signals mix together and distort the signal fed to the receiver thus leading to
errors. Final fix errors of about 1 m can be produced by this effect. Careful
positioning of the antenna will eliminate this error.
6. Deviation of the satellite from predicted path (Ephemeris Error):
The satellites are monitored by the ground stations and their paths are
predicted. However, some satellites may slightly deviate from their predicted
path resulting in small positional inaccuracy.
7. Datum Shift:
The central reference point for the GPS system is the centre of the earth in the
WGS84 spheroid. When plotting on charts based on other datum, a correction
must be applied to the displayed position.
Because of the various possibilities of error, the GPS must be used with caution,
particularly in congested waters, narrow channels, etc., where small errors in fix
position may lead to navigational disasters like grounding, collision, etc.
GPS ALARMS
GPS receivers allow the setting of various alarms like:

 Cross Track Error Alarm – warns the navigator that vessel is off its intended
route line.
 Arrival Alarm – informs the navigator that vessel is approaching a
destination waypoint.
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 High DOP Alarm – warns navigator when DOP value is high and fixes may be
unreliable.
 No Fix Alarm – warns navigator when no GPS signal is received.
 Anchor Watch Alarm – sounds when vessel goes beyond set limits from
anchor position
 Proximity Alarm – similar to arrival alarm; triggers when nearing a set
position.
DILUTION OF PRECISION (DOP)

 Dilution of Precision (DOP) is a term used for expressing the mathematical
quality of a solution. DOP can exist in one dimension only. Examples are:
1. Time DOP (TDOP) - is the error in positioning due to clock errors.
2. Horizontal DOP (HDOP) - is the error in the horizontal plane or 2-Dfix (x, y
axis or lat and long)
3. Vertical DOP (VDOP) - is the error in the vertical plane (z axis or altitude)
4. Geometric (GDOP) – is the error due to satellite geometry or positioning
in the sky.
5. Position DOP (PDOP) - is the error in a 3-D fix (x, y, z axis or lat, long, alt)
 Out of all, the PDOP is of most value to a navigator. PDOP in the GPS has an
optimum value of unity. If the figure is higher, the solution is diluted. The
PDOP will approach unity when a solution is made with a satellite overhead
and three other satellites evenly spaced at low elevation angles.
Alternatively, if all satellites are in the same plane, PDOP would be near
infinity and the fix would be unsound. Modern GPS receivers may be
programmed to reject a position solution if the PDOP level is high.
 The geometry of the satellite can also seriously affect the accuracy of a
position fix. When pseudo ranges are measured from satellites that are close
together in the sky, the result is an enlarged area of improbability resulting in
a bad GDOP. Alternatively, if the satellites are well spaced, the improbability
area would be smaller. Modern GPS receivers pick the optimum satellites
from those available for position fixing.
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DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)
• It is used to enhance the accuracy of a normal GPS.

• In the DGPS system, a DGPS Reference station is situated at a fixed location
and it downloads the GPS data from the satellites.
• A computer at the fixed location calculates the pseudo-range from the GPS
satellites and then compares it with the known ranges for that precise
geographic location.
• It then computes a range error figure which is then broadcast over the MF
band to all mobile stations to improve positional accuracy.
• Corrections may be given in one of the following styles:
1. The position correction in terms of lat, long, altitude (x, y, z) or,
2. The correction to be applied to pseudo-ranges of each satellite.
• Specially equipped GPS receivers receive the error information and apply
necessary corrections to their own fixes.
• These corrections are valid only within a specified area about the DGPS
ground station.
• On-board receivers may be programmed to auto track DGPS stations, receive
the corrections from them and apply the same to their own fixes.
• DGPS removes common mode errors i.e. errors that are common to both
reference and remote receivers (not multipath and receiver noise). Errors are
more common when receivers are close by.
• In very restricted waters, multipath errors in DGPS can be significant. Hence
it is important to use other means for position fixing such as Radar. The users
GPS receiver always applies the newest corrections received and depending
on the user-to-reference receiver separation and the age of the correction
applied, DGPS can give accuracy of upto about 1-10 m based on C/A Code
using standard positioning system.
• For maritime use, DGPS monitor stations have been established around the
coast of some 28 countries.
GEODETIC DATUMS & DATUM SHIFT:

 Hundreds of geodetic datum are in use around the world. GPS positions are
referenced to ‘World Geodetic System 84’ datum (WGS 84) commonly used
on navigational charts.
 The Earth has a highly irregular and constantly changing surface. Models of
the surface of the earth are used in navigation, surveying and mapping.
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 Referencing the geodetic coordinates to a wrong datum can result in

positional inaccuracy of hundreds of metres.
 On navigational charts that use a different datum, a correction known as
‘datum shift’ needs to be applied for plotting positions received from the
GPS. The ‘datum shift’ is usually given as a note on the chart, below the title.
 It should be note that some large scale charts (approach charts) may use a
local datum. GPS positions must be corrected before being applied on such
charts. On some charts, this shift in unknown and a cautionary warning is
given to this effect.
 Each datum is shaped for use in a specific area of the earth. However, the
World Geodetic System can be used anywhere in the world for marine
navigation because the GPS system is based on WGS and it covers the entire
earth.
GLONASS:
 It is Russia’s version of the GPS and is an acronym for Global Navigation
Satellite System.
 The system possesses similar architecture to the GPS.
 Work on the system began in 1976 and it became fully operational in 1996.
 It is the most expensive program of the Russian Federal Space Agency.
 As compared to GPS that has 31 satellites; GLONASS has 24 satellites
covering the Earth.
 It has better accuracy than GPS but the coverage is not as good as GPS when
used alone.
 When used with GPS, it can improve accuracy with coverage. It is more
useful in high northern latitudes.
 The accuracy is upto 2 m which can be reduced when used in conjunction
with GPS.
 In any place where GPS signals are stuck, you can be tracked accurately by
GLONASS satellites.
GALILEO:
 It is Europe’s own global navigation satellite system.
 It can provide very accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under
civilian control.
 It is interoperable with GPS and GLONASS.
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 It offers dual frequencies as standard and can achieve accuracy within of 1 m.

 Fully deployed Galileo system will consist of 24 operational satellites + 6-in-
orbit spares.
 They will be positioned in 3 Medium Earth orbit planes, 23222 km above the
Earth.
 It is expected to be fully operational by 2020.
 Once this is achieved, it will provide good coverage even upto 750N latitude.
 It is also expected to help in SAR using the present Cospas-Sarsat system.
The satellites will have a transponder which will be able to transfer the
distress signal of a user to the RCC, which will then initiate rescue operations.
At the same time, it will send a response signal to the user informing him
that the situation has been detected & help is on the way.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF GPS:
RESOLUTION MSC.112(73) (adopted on 1 Dec’ 2000) ADOPTION OF THE REVISED

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR SHIPBORNE GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
RECEIVER EQUIPMENT
(A) GPS RECEIVER EQUIPMENT
 "GPS receiver equipment" i.e. all the components and units necessary for the
system properly to perform its intended functions should include the
following as a minimum:
1. antenna capable of receiving GPS signals
2. GPS receiver and processor
3. means of accessing the computed latitude/longitude position
4. data control and interface
5. position display and, if required, other forms of output.
 The antenna design should be suitable for fitting at a position on the ship
which ensures a clear view of the satellite constellation.
 The GPS receiver equipment should:

1. Be capable of receiving and processing the Standard Positioning Service
(SPS) signals and provide position information in lat-long, WGS84 co-
ordinates in degrees, minutes and thousandths of minutes and time of
solution referenced to UTC.
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2. Means may be provided for transforming the computed position based

upon WGS-84 into position compatible with the datum of the navigational
chart in use. Where this facility exists, the display should indicate that co-
ordinate conversion is being performed, and should identify the co-
ordinate system in which the position is expressed.
3. Operate on the L1 signal and C/A code
4. Be provided with at least one output from which position information can
be supplied to other equipment. This output must be based on WGS-84
and as per international standards.
5. Have static accuracy such that the position of the antenna is determined
to within 100 m (95%) with HDOP = 4 or PDOP = 6.
6. Have dynamic accuracy such that the position of the ship is determined to
within 100 m (95%) with HDOP = 4 or PDOP = 6 under the conditions of sea
states and ship's motion likely to be experienced in ships.
7. Be capable of selecting automatically the appropriate satellite-
transmitted signals for determining the ship's position with the required
accuracy and update rate.
8. Be capable of acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 30 min,
when there is no valid almanac data.
9. Be capable of acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 5 min,
when there is valid almanac data.
10. Be capable of re-acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 5 min,
when the GPS signals are interrupted for a period of at least 24 h but
there is no loss of power.
11. Be capable of re-acquiring position to the required accuracy, within 2 min,
when subjected to a power interruption of 60 s.
12. Generate a new position solution at least once every 1 sec (0.5 sec for
High Speed Crafts)and provide output to a display and digital interface.
13. Have a minimum resolution of position, i.e. latitude and longitude, of
0.001 minutes
14. Generate COG and SOG and UTC and provide output to the digital
interface. The accuracy requirement for COG and SOG should not be
inferior to the relevant Performance Standards for Gyro Compass &
Speed & Distance Measuring equipment.
15. Have the facilities to process DGPS data fed to it as per standards set by
ITU-Radio regulations.
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16. When a GPS receiver is equipped with a DGPS receiver, performance

standards for static and dynamic accuracies should be 10 m (95%)
17. Be capable of operating satisfactorily in typical interference conditions.
(B) PROTECTION
 Precautions should be taken to ensure that no permanent damage can result

from an accidental short circuit of the antenna or any of the GPS receiver
equipment, inputs or outputs for a duration of 5 min.
(C) FAILURE WARNINGS AND STATUS INDICATIONS
 The equipment should provide an indication of whether the position

calculated is likely to be outside the requirements of these performance
standards.
 The GPS receiver equipment should provide as a minimum:
1. An indication within 5 s if either the specified HDOP has been exceeded;
or a new position has not been calculated for more than 1 s. (In which
case, the last known fix with time must be output until normal operation
is resumed, with indication of this state so that there is no ambiguity)
2. A warning of loss of position
3. DGPS status indicating the receipt of DGPS signals whether DGPS
corrections are being applied to the indicated ship's position.
4. DGPS integrity status and alarm
5. DGPS text message display.
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NAV-AIDS BNWAS
BRIDGE NAVIGATIONAL WATCH ALARM SYSTEM

(BNWAS)
PURPOSE:
 To monitor bridge activity and detect operators disability which could lead
to marine accident.
 To monitor awareness of the OOW and automatically alert the Master or
other qualified Officer if for any reason the OOW becomes incapable of
performing his duties.
WORKING:
 BNWAS achieves its objectives by a series of indications and alarms to alert

first the OOW and, if he is not responding, then to alert the Master or
another qualified officer.
 Additionally, the BNWAS may provide the OOW with a means of calling for
immediate assistance if required.
SOLAS requirement:
 BNWAS is a safety system that is made mandatory by SOLAS V/19 for all
passenger ships and cargo ships of 150 GT and above.
 BNWAS should be in operation whenever the ship is underway at sea.
(All other characteristics of BNWAS are covered in the required Performance

Standards as described below)
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PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
RESOLUTION MSC.128(75) (adopted on 20 May 2002) PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR

A BRIDGE NAVIGATIONAL WATCH ALARM SYSTEM (BNWAS)
1. Operational modes
The BNWAS should incorporate the following operational modes: -
A) Automatic (Automatically brought into operation whenever the ship’s

heading or track control system is activated and inhibited when this system
is not activated)
B) Manual ON (In operation constantly)
C) Manual OFF (Does not operate under any circumstances)
2. Operational sequence of indications and alarms
 Once operational, the alarm system should remain dormant for a period of
between 3 and 12 min.
 At the end of this dormant period, the alarm system should initiate a visual
indication on the bridge.
 If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible alarm
on the bridge 15 s after the visual indication is initiated.
 If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage remote
audible alarm in the back-up officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the
first stage audible alarm is initiated.
 If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote
audible alarm at the locations of further crew members capable of taking
corrective actions 90 s after the second stage remote audible alarm is
initiated.
 In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote
audible alarms may sound in all the above locations at the same time. If the
second stage audible alarm is sounded in this way, the third stage alarm may
be omitted.
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 In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may
be set to a longer value on installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow
sufficient time for the back-up officer and/or Master to reach the bridge.
3. Reset function
 It should not be possible to initiate the reset function or cancel any audible
alarm from any device, equipment or system not physically located in areas
of the bridge providing proper look out.
 The reset function should, by a single operator action, cancel the visual
indication and all audible alarms and initiate a further dormant period. If the
reset function is activated before the end of the dormant period, the period
should be re-initiated to run for its full duration from the time of the reset.
 The reset function should be by a single operator action. The reset function
may be by use of reset devices that are part of the Main BNWAS panel or by
external inputs from other equipment capable of registering physical
activity and mental alertness of the OOW.
 A continuous activation of any reset device should not prolong the dormant
period or cause a suppression of the sequence of indications and alarms.
 Means of activating the reset function should only be available in positions
on the bridge giving proper look out and preferably adjacent to visual
indications. Means of activating the reset function should be easily
accessible from the conning position, manoeuvring position, look out
positions and bridge wings.
 Reset devices - should be designed and installed so as to minimise the
possibility of their operation by any means other than activation by the
OOW. Reset devices should all be of a uniform design and should be
illuminated for identification at night.
4. Emergency call facility
 Means may be provided on the bridge to immediately activate the second,

and subsequently third, stage remote audible alarms by means of an
‘Emergency Call’ push button.
Page 98 of 172
NAV-AIDS BNWAS
5. Accuracy
 The alarm system should be capable of achieving the required timings with
an accuracy of 5% or 5 s, whichever is less, under all environmental
conditions.
6. Security
 The means of selecting the Operational Mode and the duration of the
Dormant Period should be security protected so that access to these
controls should be restricted to the Master only.
7. Malfunctions
 If a malfunction is detected or power supply failure to the BNWAS is

detected, this should be indicated. This indication should be repeated on a
central alarm panel if fitted.
8. Presentation of Information, Alarms and indications
 Operational Mode - The operational mode of the equipment should be

indicated to the OOW.
 Visual indications - The visual indication initiated at the end of the dormant
period should be a flashing indication, that is visible from all operational
positions on the bridge where the OOW may reasonably be expected to be
stationed. The colour of the indication should be chosen so as not to impair
night vision and dimming facilities (although not to extinction) should be
incorporated.
 First stage bridge audible alarm - The first stage audible alarm which sounds
on the bridge at the end of the visual indication period (15s) should have its
own characteristic tone or modulation intended to alert, but not to startle,
the OOW. This alarm should be audible from all operational positions on the
bridge where the OOW may reasonably be expected to be stationed. It may
sound from one or more sounding devices. Tone/modulation characteristics
and volume level should be selectable during commissioning of the system.
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NAV-AIDS BNWAS
 Second and third stage remote audible alarm - The remote audible alarm
which sounds in the locations of the Master, officers and further crew
members capable of taking corrective action at the end of the bridge
audible alarm period should be easily identifiable by its sound and should
indicate urgency. The volume of this alarm should be sufficient for it to be
heard throughout the locations above and to wake sleeping persons.
9. System physical integrity
 All items of equipment forming part of the BNWAS should be tamper-proof

so that no member of the crew may interfere with the systems operation.
10. Power supply
 The BNWAS should be powered from the ships main power supply. The
malfunction indication, and all elements of the Emergency Call facility, if
incorporated, should be powered from a battery maintained supply.
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Page 100 of 172

NAV-AIDS ROTI
RATE OF TURN INDICATOR (ROTI)

Purpose:
 The ROTI provides the instantaneous rate of turn in terms of degrees per
minute at which the vessel is turning to Port or Stbd. It is one of the most
important instruments a helmsman can have when steering a course. It can
also be used to turn at a steady rate of turn, which is very important in
pilotage waters.
 Unlike road vehicles, a ship does not turn sharply. This is due to lesser friction
in water and the influence of momentum that the vessel continues on her
initial course for some time & then begins to turn slowly & then rapidly later.
Vessel thus traces a curved track that can be treated as an arc of a circle.
 Small ships with smaller arcs will have not much a problem in turning. Larger
ships with greater radii need to be treated differently, especially when
altering courses in restricted waters or near navigational hazards.
 ROTI thus fitted assists the OOW to execute and monitor the progress of the
vessel along a curved segment of the charted course.
Requirements:
 As per SOLAS V/19, ROTI is mandatory for vessels of 50,000 GT and above.
Design:
 The indicator has to be an analogue indicator having a circular dial with zero
on top, port turn indicated to the left of the zero and stbd turn to the right.
 Digital displays if provided must clearly indicate P/S turn. The analog type is
compulsory, whereas the digital one may be fitted as its repeater.
 It may be an independent unit or part of other equipment such as gyro,
autopilot, etc and must be approved by the administration.
 As per IMO standards, graduations are provided to indicate rate of turn upto
atleast 30 deg/min on either sides. Some may have graduations upto 60
deg/min as well.
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
Principle:
 The principle of the ROTI is based on a gyroscope with an availability of
turning in just one direction.
 When the ship is steering a straight course, the gyroscope will point in the
straight direction and the pointer will point to zero on the display.
 When the vessel makes a turn to port, the gyroscope will turn (tilt) to port
side due to inertia and this will be pointed on the display of the ROTI. The
same applies to a stbd turn.
 The rate of tilt of the gyro is proportional to the rate of turn of the vessel and
the pointer indicates this on a calibrated scale.
 The Rate of Turn is based on the following formula:
𝑉 57.3
ROT = 𝑥 (deg/min) where V = vessel’s SOG in knots and
𝑅 60
R = radius of turn in NM
WHEEL OVER POINT:

 It is the point on the initial course at which the wheel is put over to initiate
the turning of the vessel.
 It is obtained by intersection of initial course and wheel over line.
 The distance between the WOP and the point at which the ship commences
its turn is denoted by F and depends on the following:
1. Size of the vessel (length, beam, etc)
2. Loaded or ballast condition (displacement)
3. Speed, trim and type of the vessel, etc.
WHEEL OVER LINE:

 If we have cross track error on the initial course, we can continue and
commence alteration on reaching the wheel over line. It is a line parallel
to the final course, which cuts the initial course at the WOP.
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
 The distance at which the Wheel over line is to be drawn parallel to the
final course is given by the formula: Distance = F sin ϴ + R (1-cos ϴ)
(Where ‘F’ is the distance between WOP & point when the vessel begins
to turn, ‘R’ is the radius of the turn and ‘ϴ’ is the difference between the
initial & final course)
 The value of ‘F’ is usually taken 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 NM for small, medium and
large vessels respectively.
TURNING:
 Factors that affect a turn are:
1. Structural design & length of the vessel.

2. Draught, trim & list of the vessel.
3. Size & motive power of the main machinery.
4. Amount of helm used.
5. Available depth of water.
6. External forces such as wind & current.
 A vessel trimmed by stern will steer more easily, but the tactical diameter of
the turn is increased. Trim by head will decrease the diameter of the turning
circle but it will be difficult to steer the vessel.
 When a vessel is listed, turning circle will be larger when turning into the list.
 There are two basic turn methods, namely, constant radius turn and
constant rate turn.
1. Constant radius turn - when rudder is applied such that the vessel swings in
an arc about the centre of a circle having the required radius.
2. Constant rate turn – when rudder is applied such that the rate of turn
remains steady throughout the turn.
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
CONSTANT RADIUS TURN:

 Vessel has to decide radius of turn depending on the manoeuvring
characteristics of the vessel and the available sea room.
 Also, the depth of the water must be considered since turning circle may
become almost double in shallow
waters.
 In the diagram, PB is the initial course
& BN is the final course.
 It is impossible to execute a sharp
turn at ‘B’; hence vessel has to start
alteration of course early so as to
travel the arc AC.
 This is achieved by using radius ‘R’
from point ‘O’, which is the centre of
the arc AC. This point ‘O’ could be a
fixed radar conspicuous object or in
its absence, an imaginary point.
 Using simple calculations, the centre
‘O’ can be found and arc AC is drawn.
 The vessel has to now travel along the arc AC using the ROT calculated so as
to achieve a constant radius turn.
 It must be noted that, for the vessel to begin altering at point ‘A’, the wheel
has to be turned over even before reaching ‘A’, in order to allow for the
delay between the turning of the wheel and the actual response of the
rudder and inertia of the vessel.
Method of calculation:
 Decide on the required radius of turn ‘R’ based on the vessels turning ability,
loaded condition, weather and the proximity of navigation hazards. (Usually
between 0.5 and 1 NM)
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
57.3 𝑉 𝑉
 Calculate ROT (deg/min) = 𝑥 = 0.955
60 𝑅 𝑅
 Draw arcs with radius R1 and R2 from any points on the Old and New course.
 Now, draw tangents to arcs. The intersection of the tangents is the centre of
the required turn circle.
 With the acquired centre, and the radius ‘R’, draw arc to join old & new course.
 F distance is taken from vessels
manoeuvring diagram and the W/O
line / WOP can be marked.
 Commence turn at W/O line or
WOP & maintain calculated ROT to
achieve the required radius of turn,
so that vessel follows a curved path
along the arc.
 Monitor turn by position fixing,
parallel indexing, VRM, ECDIS, as
applicable, so that vessel is not
deviated due to external forces
(wind/current) and is clear of all
traffic and navigational hazards.
CONSTANT RATE TURN:

 In this method, the ROT is kept constant. We know that ROT is given by V/R.
 If ROT is to be kept constant, we need to keep V/R constant. But this is not
possible, because as the ship turns, her speed (V) reduces. Thus, radius R will
have to be varied proportionally if we need to keep ROT constant.
 Thus in constant rate turn, radius R does not remain same and changes as the
vessel negotiates the turn. Practically, ROT is calculated for the mean speed
(mean of speed at the start and end of the curved segment). This value
corresponds nearly to vessel’s position midway on the arc. At other locations
on the arc the value of the radius will differ from ‘R’. But these variations are
small and within practicable and tolerable limits.
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
CONSTANT RATE TURN CONSTANT RADIUS TURN

Larger drift angle with a Lesser drift angle & hence lesser
corresponding loss of speed loss of speed
A large rudder angle is needed to At the end of the turn, the new
steady the vessel on new course course can be steadied with lesser
rudder angle
Uncertainty of ship’s position during Proper control of ship’s position
the turn during the turn
Higher fuel consumption due to Lesser fuel consumption, with
zigzagging with excessive use of helm. reserve rudder and engine power
available
EXECUTING AND MONITORING OF TURN:

 If the point ‘O’ chosen is radar conspicuous and fixed, a VRM (variable range
marker) can be used and distance can be monitored as turn is executed.
 If the point ‘O’ is an imaginary point, then the position of the vessel has to
be plotted on chart to monitor the progress of the turn.
 Alteration to be started when vessel arrives at the WOP or the wheel over
line.
 The desired rate of turn to be achieved to follow the arc AC and wheel to be
adjusted accordingly.
PERFORMANCE STANDARS FOR ROTI:

Resolution A.526(13) adopted on 17 November 1983
1. The ROTI should be capable of indicating rates of turn to stbd and to port of
the ship to which it is fitted.
2. The ROTI may be self-contained, alternatively it may be part of, or derive

information from any other appropriate equipment.
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
3. Indications:
 The indication required should be provided by an analogue type indicator
(preferably circular). Where circular indicator is used, ‘0’ must be uppermost.
 A turn of ship to port should be indicated on the left of the zero point and a
stbd turn to the right of the zero point.
 If the actual rate of turn exceeds the full scale deflection, this should be
clearly indicated on the display.
 In addition, an alpha-numeric display may be provided. Positive indication of
port and stbd should be provided on such displays.
 The length of scale in either direction from the zero should be atleast
120mm. The sensitivity of the system should ensure that a change in the rate
of turn of 10 per minute is represented by atleast 4mm on its scale.
4. Range Scale:
 A linear range scale of atleast 300 per minute on either side should be
provided. This scale should be marked in intervals of 10 per minute on both
sides of the zero. The scale should be marked with figures every 100 per
minute. Every 100 mark should be significantly longer than the 50 mark, which
in turn should be significantly longer than the 10 mark. The marks and figures
should preferably be red or light colour on a dark background.
 Additional linear range scale may be provided.
 Damping of the ROTI should be provided with a time constant which may be
varied during operation in the range zero to atleast 10 seconds.
5. Accuracy:
 The difference between the indicated and actual ROT should be not more
than 0.50 per minute plus 5% of the indicated ROT of the ship.
 Periodic rolling motion of the ship with amplitude ±50 and period of upto 25
seconds and periodic pitching motion with amplitude ±10 and period of upto
20 seconds should not change the mean value of the indicated ROT by more
than 0.50 per minute.
 The ROTI must meet the above requirements at all ship speeds upto 10 kts.
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NAV-AIDS ROTI
6. Operation:
 The ROTI should be ready for operation and comply with these standards
within 4 minutes of being switched on.
 The design should be such that whether operating or not, the ROTI will not
degrade the performance of any other equipment to which it is connected.
 The ROTI should include means to enable the operator to verify that it is
operating.
Note: Where AIS is fitted, the ROTI should be interfaced with the AIS so as to
broadcast to other vessels and VTS the information on the ROT.
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Page 108 of 172

NAV-AIDS GYRO COMPASS
GYRO COMPASS
Introduction- The Gyroscope
 A gyroscope consists of a mass in the form of a rotor or wheel which is
suspended in such a way that it is free to spin about an axis passing through
its centre of mass and perpendicular to the plane of the rotor. This axis is
referred to as the spin axis. Ideally the spin axis bearings should be
frictionless so that any rotation imparted to the rotor is maintained.
 If the gyroscope is not constrained in any way so that there are no forces
acting upon the rotor so as to alter the direction in which the spin axis
points, then the gyro is called a free gyroscope.
 The best example of a free gyroscope is the earth itself which is rotating
about one of its diameters, or indeed any astronomical body. Such bodies
are freely suspended in space and if we disregard the small gravitational
forces arising from the presence of other astronomical bodies, then the
spinning earth may be considered to be free from any external forces which
act to change the direction in which its spin axis points. The earth therefore
exhibits the properties of a free gyroscope.
 In order to construct a free gyroscope on the surface of the earth, the rotor
must be supported against the effect of the earth’s gravity. The supports
must be designed to maintain the freedom of the spin axis of the rotor to
take up any direction without constraint.
 For achieve this, the gyroscope is mounted on a circular ring in the same
plane as its spin axis. This ring is connected to a vertical ring at points
perpendicular to the spin axis. This vertical ring is then connected to the
outer ring or frame at points perpendicular to the horizontal axis. By having
such an arrangement, the gyroscope is not constrained in any way so as to
alter the direction of the spin axis. It is then said to have ‘Three degrees of
freedom’. Such a gyroscope having three degrees of freedom is called a
‘Free Gyroscope’.
 A free gyroscope will therefore have -
1. Freedom to spin about the spin axis
2. Freedom to tilt about the horizontal axis
3. Freedom to turn in azimuth about the vertical axis.
Page 109 of 172

 An arrangement of gimbals is used to

give the rotor freedom to tilt and turn in
azimuth.
AA = Spin Axis
BB = Horizontal Axis for tilting
CC = Vertical Axis for turning in Azimuth
 If such a rotor is made to rotate about

its spin axis with a relatively high
angular velocity, then the free
gyroscope will exhibit the property of
Gyroscopic Inertia or rigidity in space.
 Apart from this, it also exhibits the
property of ‘precession’ whenever a
torque is applied to the spin axis.
 Let us discuss these two properties of Arrangement of a free gyroscope
the free gyroscope is detail.
(A) Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in Space

 When the rotor of a free gyroscope is spinning, the forces that are acting of
the rotor are the centrifugal force which is directed radially outwards and an
equal and opposing force which is directed radially inwards. This opposing
force is provided by the cohesion of the particles in the solid rotor. Both
these forces are acting in directions which are in the plane of the rotor and
therefore do not act to change the plane in which the rotor is orientated.
 If the friction in the spin axis bearings is neglected, the rotor will continue to
spin with a constant velocity and will maintain its orientation of the plane of
the rotor in space. The spin axis will therefore preserve its orientation to a
fixed point with respect to space. (not to a fixed point on earth). This
property of the free gyroscope is known as Gyroscopic Inertia or Rigidity in
space. This is due to the law of conservation of momentum.
 It resists any attempt to change its direction of spin. Thus, a free gyroscope
has high directional stability.
Page 110 of 172

 For a stationary observer on the Earth, it seems that the axis of the
gyroscope completes a full rotation once in a day. This is because of the
rotation of the Earth. In spite of the rigidity in space, the gyroscope on Earth
will move along the direction of the rotation of the Earth, thus showing an
apparent motion.
 The gyroscopic inertia of a rotor may be expressed quantitatively by its

angular momentum (H). This will determine how much force is necessary to
change the direction in which the spin axis points at a given rate of spin. The
angular momentum depends upon:
a) Angular velocity of the rotor (ω) and
b) Moment of inertia of the cross section about the spin axis (I)
 The moment of inertia of the cross section expresses the moment that the
mass of the rotor exerts about the spin axis. This will determine how easy it
is to initially set the rotor spinning or to increase or decrease the angular
velocity when it is spinning, which is to change its state of motion.
 The moment of inertia will depend upon the mass

of the rotor and also upon the distribution of that
mass with respect to the spin axis. The greater the
proportion of mass which lies towards the
circumference of the rotor the greater will be the
moment of inertia and the greater will be the
gyroscopic inertia for any given angular velocity.
For this reason, the rotors are designed with a
heavy rim and a relatively light internal
construction which is only sufficient to maintain
the strength of the rotor. The figure alongside
shows the cross section of two rotors. The
moment of inertia of the cross section of rotor A
will be greater than of rotor B. Rotor A will
therefore possess greater gyroscopic inertia for
any given angular velocity of spin.
 Angular momentum (H) is given by the product of the angular velocity and
the moment of inertia of the cross section about the spin axis. (H = ω.I)
Page 111 of 172

(B) Gyroscopic Precession

 Precession is the angular displacement of the spin axis of a gyroscope when
a torque is applied to the spin axis. The resulting displacement of the spin
axis will not be in the direction of the applied torque, but in direction
perpendicular to it.
 Any external force or couple which acts on the rotor may be resolved into
components about the three axes i.e. the spin axis, the horizontal axis and
the vertical axis.
 A couple producing a torque about the spin axis
does not cause precession. The torque acting in
the plane of the rotor will merely increase or
decrease the rate of rotation of the rotor about
the spin axis. Frictional forces in the spin axis
bearings will decelerate the rotor. A torque
which acts so as to oppose friction and thus
maintain a constant angular velocity must be
provided in a gyro compass. This will be the
function of a rotor motor.
 A couple which acts in a plane which is perpendicular to the plane of the
rotor will contain a zero component about the spin axis. Such a couple may
be resolved into components about the vertical axis and the horizontal axis.
The figure below shows a rotor with a couple acting in a plane
perpendicular to the rotor plane such as to cause a torque about the
horizontal axis. The effect of the torque must cause tilting of the spin axis
i.e. north end down and south end up. But this is not the case. The element
of the rotor which is shaded however must move in a direction which is the
resultant of its angular velocity about
the spin axis and the motion imparted
to it by the external couple. It will
therefore move in the direction
indicated by the dashed line. It must
eventually arrive at a point displaced in
azimuth from the point X, which
means that the spin axis must rotate
about the vertical axis, a movement in
azimuth.
Page 112 of 172

 We can therefore conclude that a couple acting perpendicularly on the

plane of the rotor about a horizontal axis will produce a rotation of the
spin axis about the vertical axis and vice-versa.
 In order to determine the direction of the precession, we must mentally

carry the point of application of the force around the rotor through 900 in
the direction of spin. The rotor will now turn, or precess, as if the force
were acting at this displaced (new) point.
 In the figure A below, a couple acts about the horizontal axis. This is
equivalent to a force acting on the rotor at F. if F is now carried around
through 900 in the direction of spin, it will arrive at F’. Therefore, the rotor
will precess about the vertical axis, the north end moving to west and the
south end moving to the east.
 In the figure B below, a couple acts about the vertical axis. This is equivalent
to a force acting on the rotor at F which when moved through 900 in the
direction of spin would arrive at F’. Therefore, the rotor would tilt or precess
about the horizontal axis with the North end tilting up and the south end
tilting down.
Page 113 of 172

 The rate of precession of the gyro axis is directly proportional to the applied
torque and inversely proportional to the gyroscopic inertia which is
expressed by the angular momentum possessed by the rotor. Thus,
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑇
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 𝑂𝑅 𝑃 ∝
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐻
FREE GYROSCOPE ON THE ROTATING EARTH (TILT & DRIFT)

 The orientation of the plane of the rotor is constant with respect to space
(rigidity in space) and this direction will apparently change when considered
with respect to the surface of the rotating earth. With respect to the Earth’s
surface, it will not point in a fixed direction but will exhibit tilt and drift.
 Any star in the heavens is at such a vast distance from the earth that is can
be considered as lying in a constant direction in space. Now if we consider
the spin axis of a free gyro to point at any such star (known as gyro star),
then the motions of the spin axis relative to the earth can be understood by
considering the daily motion of the gyro star.
 The direction in which the gyro axis points relative to the Earth’s surface
may be expressed by:
a) The Tilt: This is the angle of elevation or depression of the spin axis above
or below the horizontal.
b) The Azimuth: This is the direction in which the spin axis points relative to
the direction of true north.
 The tilt and the azimuth of the gyro spin axis is equivalent to the altitude
and azimuth (bearing) of the gyro star.
 By convention, the tilt and the azimuth of the North end of spin axis (the
end which is directed towards the north) is stated and used in gyro theory.
 The movement of the spin axis relative to the earth's surface may be
expressed by:
a) Tilting: This is the rate of change of the tilt of the spin axis.
b) Drifting: This is the rate of change of the azimuth of the spin axis.
 The tilting and drifting of the spin axis are equivalent to the rate of change
of altitude and the rate of change of azimuth (bearing) of the gyro star.
 Thus, a free gyroscope traces a circular path due to tilt and drift and moves
through 3600 in one sidereal day.
Page 114 of 172

FORMULAE FOR TILTING & DRIFTING

By considering the apparent daily motions of the stars, we may deduce simple
formulae for the Tilting and Drifting of a free gyro.
Tilting (Tg)
 If a free gyroscope is situated on the equator with its spin axis directed to
East, it can be assumed to point a star with zero declination which is about
to rise. The spin axis of the gyroscope will follow the movement of this star
and will tilt upwards as the star rises. After about 6 hours, the axis will be
vertical and after about 12 hours, it will be horizontal pointing west. Thus,
after one sidereal day, the gyroscope would have tilted through 3600, thus
the rate of tilt is 150 per hour.
 If the free gyroscope is situated on the equator with its spin axis directed to
North, the spin axis would point to a Pole-star and would have no apparent
movement relative to the Earth. Thus, the rate of tilt is zero when spin axis
points North and maximum when spin axis points East. Thus, rate of tilt
varies as sine of Azimuth.
 A free gyroscope at the pole with its axis horizontal would have a turntable
motion due to Earth’s rotation i.e. it would follow a fixed star around the
horizon but it would not rise or set. Thus, the movement will be entirely in
the horizontal plane thus making the tilt zero. Therefore, the rate of tilt is
maximum at the equator and zero at the poles. Thus, rate of tilt varies as
cosine of latitude.
∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑖𝑙𝑡 (° 𝑕𝑟) = 15 sin 𝐴𝑧. cos 𝑙𝑎𝑡.
Drifting (Dg)
 A free gyroscope situated in the North Pole with its axis horizontal, will have
an apparent movement, which is entirely in the horizontal plane. Its axis will
appear to move clockwise when seen from above due to the anti-clockwise
rotation of the Earth below it. This circular motion causes the gyroscope to
drift 3600 in one sidereal day i.e. the rate of drift is 150 per hour. In other
words, the earth's rotation to the east will cause the spin axis to appear to
drift to the west at a maximum rate of 15° per hour.
 A gyroscope at the equator with its axis horizontal will not drift at all,
irrespective of the direction in which the spin axis points.
Page 115 of 172

 Therefore, we see that the rate of drift is maximum at the poles and zero at
the equator. Thus, the rate of drift varies as sine of the latitude.
∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 (° 𝑕𝑟) = 15 sin 𝑙𝑎𝑡 .
∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 (° 𝑕𝑟) = 15 sin 𝑙𝑎𝑡.

TILTING = 15 sin (Az) cos (lat) (At equator, Tg = 15 sin Az) (At poles, Tg = 0)
When pointing East of meridian, tilting is upwards. (Tg = +ve)
When pointing West of meridian, tilting is downwards. (Tg = -ve)
DRIFTING = 15 sin (lat) (for a horizontal or nearly horizontal spin axis)

(At equator, Dg = 0) (At poles, Dg = 150/hr)
In the Northern Hemisphere, drifting is Eastwards (Dg = +ve)
In the Southern Hemisphere, drifting is Westwards (Dg = -ve)
nb
FLOW CHART TO CONVERT FREE GYRO TO GYRO COMPASS:
Page 116 of 172

CONTROL OF GYRO:
 A free gyro does not constitute an instrument which may be called a compass.
The direction of the spin axis relative to the earth’s surface continually changes
unless directed towards one of the celestial poles.
 In order to make the spin axis of a gyro point in any constant direction w.r.t.
the earth’s surface, the ever present drifting and tilting caused by the rotation
of the earth must be compensated for by causing equal and opposite motions.
 To produce a compass, we must produce an instrument which will seek and
settle in the meridian, and if disturbed from the meridian, will return to it.
 The first step in converting a free gyro into a gyro compass is to ‘control’ the
gyro or make it north seeking. In general, this is done by creating a torque
about the horizontal axis when the spin axis tilts out of the horizontal. This
torque about the horizontal axis will produce a precession in azimuth (about
the vertical axis) and cause the spin axis to seek the meridian.
 Controlling the gyro can be done by either using top heavy arrangement,
bottom heavy arrangement or liquid ballistic arrangement.
Top Heavy Arrangement:

 In this method, a weight is placed on top of the rotor casing such that when
the spin axis is horizontal, the centre of gravity of the weight and centre of the
rotor are in the same line. In this condition, the weight will produce no torque
on the rotor and will be completely ineffective.
 The spin axis of the rotor, if initially horizontal, will not remain so and will tilt
due to the rotation of the earth. Let us consider the spin axis
directed to the East of the meridian that will cause it to tilt
upwards. This condition is shown in the figure alongside.
 The centre of gravity of the weight and the centre of the rotor
are no longer in a vertical line. Thus, the weight now causes a
torque about the horizontal axis which tends to topple (tilt)
the gyro even further out of the horizontal. This effect is as if a
force was applied to the south side of the rotor casing at the
bottom. If this point is imagined to be carried 900 around in the
direction of the spin, which is anticlockwise as viewed from the
south, it will be evident that the spin axis will precess in
azimuth such that the north end moves to the west i.e.
towards the meridian. This precession is called ‘controlled precession’.
Page 117 of 172

 The direction of spin of the rotor must be in such a direction as to produce a

westerly precession of the spin axis when titled upwards and an easterly
precession when tilted downwards.
Bottom Heavy Arrangement:

 This method is similar to the ‘Top Heavy’ method, but in this case, the
weight is placed at the bottom end of the rotor casing. Again, with the spin
axis horizontal, the COG of the weight and centre of the rotor are in the
same vertical line and no moment about any of the three axes is produced.
 When the spin axis tilts up and out of the horizontal as shown in the figure
below, the centre of the rotor and the COG of the weight are no longer in
the same vertical line and a torque is produced about the horizontal axis.
 This effect is as if a force was applied to the south side of the rotor casing at
the bottom due to the bottom weight. If this point is
imagined to be carried 900 around in the direction of the
spin, which in this case must be clockwise, when viewed
from the south, it will be evident that the spin axis will
precess in azimuth such that the north end moves to the
west i.e. towards the meridian. This precession is called
‘controlled precession’.
 Thus, we see that the direction of spin of the bottom heavy
gyro must be clockwise when viewed from the south i.e.
opposite to that of the top heavy gyro which spins in the
anti-clockwise direction. This is to produce the desired
precession to west when spin axis is tilted upwards and to
the east when the spin axis is tilted downwards.
NOTE: The control precession will not always be directed towards the meridian. As
long as the spin axis is tilted upwards, the precession will carry that end towards the
west towards the meridian and continue doing so even after the axis has passed to
the west of the meridian. Similar effect will take place when spin axis is tilted
upwards and precession will carry the spin axis to the east towards the meridian and
thereafter to the east of the meridian.
Page 118 of 172

Liquid Ballistic Arrangement:

 The control of a gyro by solid control weight is not used in practical compasses
as its use presents problems when the compass is subjected to accelerations
associated with the movement of a ship in a seaway. Commonly used is a
gravity control by a liquid ballistic, which flows between the north and south
sides of the rotor under the influence of gravity when the gyro axis tilts out of
the horizontal.
 The figure alongside shows a rotor and rotor casing
and a pair of bottles or pots, one to the north and
the other to the south of the rotor. These pots are
connected at the bottom of the casing by an
unrestricted pipe which allows free flow between
the two pots. The pots contain a quantity of liquid;
commonly used is mercury because of its high
density. The pots are also connected by a pipe
between their upper ends to allow for relief of
pressure. The whole is symmetrical about the east –
west axis and the centre of mass of the ballistic system must coincide with the
centre of the rotor when the spin axis is horizontal and the liquid must be
equally distributed between the pots. In this condition, the rotor axis is
horizontal and therefore the liquid will be evenly distributed in both pots and
therefore have no effect on the gyro i.e. no torque is exerted about any of the
gyro axes.
 In the figure alongside, the north end of the
spin axis has tilted upwards, and there has been
a flow of liquid to the south control pot. The
imbalance now causes a torque about the
horizontal east-west axis. The effect is as if a
force were exerted on the rotor at the bottom
on the south side (at F). This is identical to the
action of the top heavy arrangement.
Therefore, the spin must be anticlockwise
viewed from the south in order to create the
required westerly precession when the north end tilts up. This method is used
in compasses manufactured by Sperry Gyroscope Company Ltd.
Page 119 of 172

Effect Of Control Precession On Free Gyro
 All of the above three methods discussed provide controlled precession (P)
which will damp the drift (Dr).
 To study the effect of control precession on a free gyro, let us consider a
controlled gyro with its spin axis horizontal and pointing to the East of
north. The figure below shows the path traced by such a gyro in North
latitude.
 The spin axis is horizontal in Position A pointing the horizon, hence the control
weight has no effect. Drift is to East as it is directed below the celestial pole. As
the north end of the spin axis tilts upwards, the control weight causes a
precession westward. But this precession is directly proportional to the tilt.
(derivation given later) With a small tilt, the control precession will be less than
the drift and the spin axis will continue to go to East. (from A to B)
 At position B, the control precession has increased with increase in tilt and
becomes equal to the drift. At this point the spin axis will cease to go to East
and will move vertically upwards under the influence of the tilting.
Page 120 of 172

 As the tilt increases further, so does the control precession which will now be
greater than the drift and the spin axis will move to westwards towards the
meridian. As azimuth decreases from Position B to Position C & D, the tilting
will decrease from maximum at B (max. azimuth) to zero at the meridian. The
increase in control precession and the decrease in tilting are evident in the
length of vectors at Position C & D.
 At position E, the axis is aligned with the meridian, the azimuth is zero.
Therefore, ‘tilting’ is zero. The ‘tilt’ is maximum at this point so that the control
precession is also maximum and the spin axis moves rapidly to the west.
 As it passes to the west of the meridian, the tilting becomes negative as the
spin axis tilts downwards. As the tilt decreases, so does the control precession.
As the azimuth increases, the negative ‘tilting’ increases. As the ‘tilt’ decreases
from maximum at the meridian, the control precession also decreases.
 At position H, the tilt and control precession decreases enough to become
equal to the drift. The westward movement therefore ceases and thereafter it
moves to the east. The azimuth is maximum at this point so that the tilting will
be maximum negative.
 At Position I, the axis is again in the horizontal and the control precession has
gone to zero.
 As the spin axis tilts below the horizontal, the control precession becomes
eastward and then aids the drift and the axis moves rapidly towards the
meridian. It is in the meridian at Position J and the tilting is zero. The ‘tilt’ is
maximum at this point. It then becomes positive and the spin axis moves
upwards and then returns to the initial position A to complete the ellipse.
 Therefore, the effect of control precession on free gyro is such that it will
oscillate with the spin axis always seeking the meridian but never settling in the
meridian. The path traced by the gyro now will be elliptical compared to the
circular path traced by the free gyroscope which was not controlled. The ellipse
traced out will be of the same dimension on each oscillation.
The effect of Latitude on Controlled Ellipse:

 At equator, the horizontal spin axis pointing to East will be subject to only
tilt, and no drift. In the absence of any drifting, the spin axis must move
westward when north end tilts upwards and eastward when it is tilted
down. The ellipse thus traced will be symmetrical about the horizon as well
as about the meridian.
Page 121 of 172

 In general, we can say, the greater the latitude, greater is the drifting and
greater must be the tilt to give a control precession to equal the drifting.
 The controlled ellipse is therefore lifted relative to the horizon by an
increase of northerly latitude. In contrast, an increase in southerly latitude
will depress the controlled ellipse below the horizon.
Controlled Ellipse traced by a Gyro on Equator
Controlled Ellipse traced by a Gyro in South Latitude
Page 122 of 172

To show control precession is proportional to the Tilt

Consider a top heavy controlled gyro with the north end of the spin axis tilted
upwards by β0 (positive tilt). The control weight exerts a moment about the
horizontal axis equal to W.x where W is the weight placed on the top of the rotor
casing and x is the horizontal distance between the centre of the rotor and the
weight acting downwards.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑊𝑥
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐻
From the diagram, we see,

x = h sin β
…where ‘h’ is the vertical distance between
centre of the rotor and COG of the weight.
𝑊 𝑕 sin 𝛽
∴ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐻
Since W and h are constants, they can be replaced by a controlling constant ‘B’.
− 𝐵 sin 𝛽
∴ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ….negative sign as per the sign convention for Pc.
𝐻
(Controlled Precession upwards or eastwards is
positive and downwards or westwards is negative)
If the tilt β is small, as is the case with a gyro compass,

then sin β0 = β (tilt in radians)
−𝐵𝛽
∴ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐻
Therefore, as B and H are both constants determined by the construction of the

gyro, it may be said that the precession is directly proportional to the tilt β.
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑃𝑐) ∝ 𝛽
Page 123 of 172

DAMPING THE CONTROLLED ELLIPSE

 The controlled or north seeking gyro will never settle in the meridian. It will
only oscillate about the meridian.
 The requirement for a gyro compass is that it will initially seek and attain the
meridian, and settle in an equilibrium position pointing north, and if
disturbed from this position will return to it. That means the equilibrium
position must be stable.
 The term 'damping' means the provision of a precession which will cause
successive oscillations of the controlled ellipse from side to side of the
meridian, to reduce in amplitude until they are infinitely small, and an
equilibrium position is reached. The controlled ellipse becomes in fact a
spiral inwards towards this equilibrium position.
 Damping may be achieved by the provision of a precession in tilt (towards
the horizon) known as ‘damping in tilt’, or a precession in azimuth (towards
the meridian) known as ‘damping in azimuth’.
(A) Damping in Tilt

 To create a precession in tilt i.e. about the horizontal east-west axis, a
torque about the vertical axis is required. To achieve this torque about the
vertical axis, a number of different methods are in use.
 A rather simple arrangement is shown in the
figure alongside. A rotor and a rotor case are
shown. A small damping weight of about 17
grams is placed on top of the rotor case in the
plane of the rotor and offset to the west of
the vertical axis. The rotor casing is supported
inside a vertical ring which is so connected to
the rotor that it tilts when the rotor is tilted.
In other words, when the rotor tilts, the
vertical axis also tilts. This method of damping
requires this ‘nominal’ vertical axis to tilt out
of the vertical and thereby produce a torque
about the vertical axis. This torque produced
is equal to Wx sin tilt. (where W = damping
weight, x = offset of the weight from the
‘nominal’ vertical axis)
Page 124 of 172

 When the spin axis is horizontal, the damping weight has no effect. But
when the spin axis tilts out of the horizontal, the damping weight will exert
a torque about the vertical axis which has tilted out of the vertical.
 The torque about the vertical axis results in a precession about the
horizontal east-west axis i.e. a precession in tilt. The offset of the damping
weight to the WEST of the vertical axis in a top heavy gyro (spinning anti-
clockwise) produces a downward precession of the north end of the spin
axis when this end tilts upwards, and an upward precession when the spin
axis tilts downwards. The damping precession (Pd) is thus always directed
towards the horizontal.
 The magnitude of the damping precession is directly proportional to the tilt.
To show damping precession is proportional to tilt
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑥 sin 𝛽

𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = =
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐻
(where W = damping weight, x = offset of the weight from vertical axis, β = tilt)
Let the constants W and x be represented by the damping constant ‘S’, and for
small angles of tilt assume that sine of tilt is equal to the tilt in radians. Then:
− 𝑆 sin 𝛽
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐻
−𝑆𝛽
∴ 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)
𝐻
As S and H are constants determined by the construction of the gyro, then we

may say that for small angles of tilt (as is the case with a gyro compass) the
damping precession (Pd) is proportional to the tilt.
∴ 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑑 ∝ 𝛽
 Damping Precession (Pd) is downwards when spin axis is tilted upwards.

 Damping Precession (Pd) is upwards when spin axis is tilted downwards.
 In other words, ‘Pd’ acts towards the horizontal.
 Also, Pd ∝ β (angle of tilt in radians)
Page 125 of 172

Effect of Damping Precession on the Controlled Ellipse
The effect of introducing a damping precession can be explained by the following

figure showing the path traced out by the projection of the north end of the spin
axis of a controlled and damped gyro in north latitude.
 The spin axis is initially set horizontal with one end pointing east of the
meridian. At position A, the spin axis is horizontal and there is neither
control precession nor damping precession. This end will immediately
acquire a positive tilt due to the earth’s rotation and also drift to the east.
 As the spin axis goes out of the horizontal, a westerly control precession
and a smaller damping precession towards the horizon are introduced. The
westerly control precession reduces the easterly drifting and the downward
damping precession reduces the upward tilting.
 At position B, the tilt has increased to the value which gives a control
precession equal to the drifting. The easterly drifting therefore ceases at
this point. Since azimuth is maximum at this point, so it’s the tilting. Thus,
the spin axis moves upwards. As the spin axis proceeds further, the ‘tilting’
will be reduced by the damping precession.
Page 126 of 172

 As the ‘tilt’ increases, so does the control precession and damping

precession. There will come a point before the spin axis reaches the
meridian when the ‘tilting’ will be equal to the damping precession. The ‘tilt’
will therefore be maximum at this point, which is Point C in the figure.
 At the meridian, the tilt has reduced and ‘tilting’ goes to zero. As the north
end of the spin axis moves to the west of the meridian, the ‘tilting’ becomes
downwards and is now acting with the damping precession. The axis moves
rapidly towards the horizontal.
 At position D, the maximum azimuth is reached where the control
precession is again equal to the drifting and therefore the north end of the
spin axis ceases to move westward and thereafter starts moving to east
towards the meridian. Note that each time the spin axis comes to the level
of settling position, the control precession equals the drifting and azimuth
reduces. After a number of oscillations, it will therefore reduce to zero.
 When the spin axis again reaches the horizontal, the control precession and
damping precession again reduce to zero. As the north end of the spin axis
tilts below the horizontal, the control precession becomes eastward, that is
in the same direction as the drifting. The damping precession becomes
upwards towards the horizontal.
 Maximum downwards tilt of the spin axis will occur before it reaches the
meridian, where damping precession is equal and opposite to the tilting. As
it crosses the meridian, the spin axis is already moving towards the
horizontal. One complete oscillation about the meridian is completed when
the axis arrives at Position E.
 The degree of damping is expressed by the ‘damping factor’. This is defined
as the ratio of the total swing in azimuth on two successive half cycles.
(Ratio A:B as shown in the figure)
 This movement of the spin axis will continue till it reaches an equilibrium
position at which drifting is equaled and opposed by the control precession
and tilting is equaled and opposed by the damping precession.
 A gyro damped in tilt (damping precession) will always be displaced from
the meridian which constitutes an error of the compass. This error is called
the ‘latitude error’ or ‘damping or settling error’. The spin axis will reach
equilibrium to the east of the meridian in the Northern hemisphere and to
the west of the meridian in the Southern hemisphere. In other words,
damping error is easterly in Northern latitude and westerly in Southern
latitude.
Page 127 of 172

DAMPING ERROR
Azimuth at the equilibrium position of a spin axis of a gyro compass damped in tilt
is known as ‘damping error’. It applies only to the gyro compasses damped in tilt.
It is easterly in the Northern hemisphere and westerly in the Southern
hemisphere. Damping error is NIL at the equator.
Deriving an expression for Damping Error (DE):
Considering a gyro in its settling position (equilibrium) in Northern Hemisphere,

At equilibrium, Upwards forces = Downward forces
∴ Upward Tilting (Tg) = Downward Damping Precession (Pd)
∴ Eastward Drifting (Dg) = Westward Control Precession (Pc)
We know,
↓ 𝑃𝑑 = ↑ 𝑇𝑔 = 15 sin 𝐴𝑧 cos 𝑙𝑎𝑡 …..(i)
𝑃𝑐 = 𝐷𝑔 = 15 sin 𝑙𝑎𝑡 …..(ii)
Dividing (i) by (ii),
𝑃𝑑 sin 𝐴𝑧 cos 𝑙𝑎𝑡

=
𝑃𝑐 sin 𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝑃𝑑
∴ sin 𝐴𝑧 = tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑑
∴ sin 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑥 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝑃𝑐
𝑆
∴ sin 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑥 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝐵
… . (𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
sin 𝐷𝐸1 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡 1

∴ sin 𝐷. 𝐸 ∝ tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡 OR =
sin 𝐷𝐸2 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡 2
Page 128 of 172

For Sperry gyro compasses, damping ratio (Pd: Pc) = S:B = 1:40
tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡
∴ sin 𝐷𝐸 =
40
For small angles, sin ϴ0 = ϴc (in radians)
tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡
∴ 𝐷𝐸 𝑐 =
40
57.3 𝑥 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡

∴ 𝐷𝐸 𝑜 = ≈ 1.43 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≈ 57.30 )
40
The above expression can be directly used to find damping error in degrees for a
gyro compass (damped in tilt) with a damping ratio of 1:40.
If the Damping Error of a Gyro compass damped in tilt at a position in 450N is

1.50E. Calculate the damping error of the same compass in position 600S and the
gyro course to steer if true course to steer is 0900 (T).
sin 𝐷𝐸1 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡1

=
sin 𝐷𝐸2 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 1.5 𝑡𝑎𝑛 45

∴ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐸2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 60
∴ sin 𝐷𝐸2 = 2.60 𝑊 𝑎𝑠 𝐷𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝐻𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
If damping error is 2.60W and true course to steer is 0900(T),

Gyro course to steer would be 092.60(G)
Thumb Rule:
Damping error West (SH) – Gyro Best (Gyro error HIGH)
Damping error East (NH) – Gyro Least (Gyro error LOW)
Page 129 of 172

Curve of damping error
Why does the spin axis of a gyro compass damped in tilt finally settle east of the
meridian with an upward tilt in the Northern hemisphere and to the west of the
meridian with a downward tilt in the Southern hemisphere and on the meridian
with no tilt on the equator?
 At equilibrium, resultant of all forces is zero. That means, upward forces are
equal to downward forces and westerly forces are equal to easterly forces.
 In the Northern hemisphere, drift (Dr) is eastward. To control eastward
drift, westward control precession (Pc) is required. Westward control
precession can occur only if the spin axis is tilted upwards. Hence, the
reason for an upward tilt in equilibrium position in Northern Hemisphere.
Since the spin axis is tilted upwards, the damping precession (Pd) acts
downwards as it always acts towards the horizontal. To control the
downward damping precession, an upward tilt is required. An upward tilt
can occur only if the spin axis is pointing to the east of the meridian. Hence,
spin axis of a gyro compass damped in tilt finally settles east of meridian in
the Northern hemisphere.
Page 130 of 172

 In the Southern hemisphere, drift (Dg) is westward. To control the

westward drifting, control precession (Pc) must be Eastward. Control
precession is eastward only if the spin axis is pointing below the horizontal.
Hence, the reason for a downward tilt in the Southern hemisphere at
equilibrium position. Since the spin axis is tilted downward, the Damping
precession (Pd) acts upwards (towards the horizontal). To control upward
damping precession, downward tilting is required which can occur only if
the spin axis is pointing west of the meridian. Hence, spin axis of a gyro
compass damped in tilt finally settles west of the meridian in the Southern
hemisphere.
(B) Damping in Azimuth (Damping towards the Meridian)

 The amplitude of successive oscillations may be reduced by a precession in
azimuth, that is a precession towards the meridian. Such a precession is
therefore similar to the control precession, but in order to damp the
controlled ellipse it must act with the control precession, when the control
precession is directed towards the meridian, and must oppose the control
precession when it is acting away from the meridian. Thus the motion of the
axis towards the meridian will be increased and its motion away from the
meridian will be decreased.
 A damping precession in azimuth must be created in a similar way to the
control precession, that is by a torque about the horizontal east-west axis.
 The damping precession created in this method must always be directed
towards the meridian. This may be achieved by creating the precession in
azimuth by a torque about the horizontal axis by a flow of liquid under the
influence of gravity when the axis tilts, but causing a lag between cause and
effect by introducing a restriction to the flow.
 The figure (A) alongside shows the
direction of the precession in
azimuth without any restriction
causing delayed action. The
direction of rotation of the rotor is
clockwise viewed from the south,
i.e. that direction appropriate to a
bottom heavy compass.
Page 131 of 172

 The control precession is produced by a bottom heavy effect while the

damping precession is produced by a top heavy effect. The resulting
precessions will therefore be of opposite direction.
 The figure (B) alongside now shows the
effect of introducing a lag (delay) in the
action of the damping precession equal
to one quarter of the period of
oscillation. By doing so, the direction of
the damping precession now becomes
always towards the meridian. What has
occurred is that the precession which
originally was caused when the axis was
in the north end up and to the east
quadrant, now does not occur until the
north end is up and to the west. The precession which would originally
occur when the north end was up and to the west does not occur until the
north end is down and to the west and so on. This kind of a delay results in
the damping precession acting with the control precession when the
control precession is acting towards the meridian and acting against it when
it is acting away from the meridian. This is shown in the figure (C) below.
 It is important to note however that to achieve this, the control precession
must be obtained by a bottom heavy arrangement while the damping
precession in azimuth must be obtained by a top heavy arrangement. The
Anschutz gyro compass uses this method of damping.
Page 132 of 172

 It is important to realize that the damping precession produced by this

method can only be produced when there is a change of tilt (tilting) of the
spin axis. No damping precession can be caused when the spin axis has a
constant tilt. This is because the delaying action of the restriction to the
flow of the liquid, can only be effective when there is, in fact, a flow. At
constant tilt, there will not be any transfer of liquid and hence, the delaying
action will be ineffective. When the axis has settled it will have a constant
tilt, and hence, in the settling position there will be no damping precession.
Effect of Damping in Azimuth on the Controlled Ellipse

 The figure below shows a damped spiral traced out by the north end of the
spin axis of a gyrocompass damped in azimuth. The directions of the vectors
representing the damping precession assume that the delay in the action of
the damping torque is exactly a quarter of the cycle. This is not necessarily
so and the exact shape of the trace may vary.
 It is important to note however that the axis will cross the meridian moving
horizontally, because at the moment of being in the meridian the ‘tilting’ is
zero. On the other hand, the spin axis will reach maximum azimuth and
commence moving back towards the meridian, and under the action of the
damping precession towards the meridian, the spin axis will move in
azimuth more rapidly when moving towards the meridian than when
moving away from the meridian. With this, the tilt is reduced on successive
oscillation and the spin axis finally settles on the meridian.
Page 133 of 172

 When the compass is settled, the spin axis has a constant tilt. The delaying
action of the damping arrangement will have no effect as there is no flow of
liquid. The damping element is then acting merely as an additional control
element, but as the damping torque is produced by a top heavy effect
whereas the control precession is produced by a bottom heavy effect, the
damping precession will just reduce the effect of the control precession.
The compass will settle with a ‘slight tilt’ of its spin axis such that the
combined effect of control and damping precession (Pc-Pd) exactly
balances the drifting. However, the ‘tilting’ must be zero to produce an
equilibrium. The settling position must be therefore with the spin axis in the
meridian. There is no damping or latitude error.
 The figure below shows the settling position of a gyro damped in azimuth in
the North and South latitude.
a) For a compass in North latitude,

drifting will be clockwise or north end
to the east. The precession required to
equal and oppose the drifting will be
north end to the west. This will require
an upward tilt of the spin axis.
In this condition, - Pc+Pd+Dg = 0
b) For a compass in South latitude,

drifting will be anticlockwise or north
end to the west. The precession
required to equal and oppose the
drifting will be north end to the east.
This will require a downward tilt of the spin axis.
In this condition, +Pc – Pd – Dg = 0
A compass damped in azimuth will therefore settle with the spin axis
aligned with the meridian but with a small upward tilt in the northern
hemisphere and a small downward tilt in the southern hemisphere.
Page 134 of 172

ERRORS OF THE GYRO COMPASS:

 There are two errors of the marine gyro compass for which compensation
must be made in the use of the gyro. In addition, there are errors which
must by their nature, be eliminated as far as possible in the design of the
compass, but which remain as a small residual uncorrectable errors, of
which the operator must be aware.
 The two main errors of the marine gyro compass are:
a) Latitude Error (Damping Error)
b) Course Latitude and Speed error (Steaming Error)
A) Latitude Error (Damping Error)

 As explained earlier, the damping error is applicable for gyro compasses
damped in tilt which will settle with a displacement from the meridian. The
gyro compasses that are damped in azimuth are not subject to this error.
The magnitude of the error will be determined by the design and
construction of the individual compasses. As shown earlier, damping error is
proportional to tan of latitude. Damping error will be easterly in the NH and
westerly in the SH and nil at the equator.
 There are three methods in which this error can be corrected.

(i) A table and/or graph is provided by the Manufacturer. This graph/table of
damping error (E/W) against latitude (N/S) must be referred & damping
error applied manually to all the courses steered and bearings taken.
(ii) An arrangement is provided by the Manufacturer such that the lubber
line will turn as per the latitude set by the operator. The lubber line will
turn clockwise for an easterly damping error (NH) and anticlockwise for a
westerly damping error (SH).
(iii) A potentiometer knob is provided by the Manufacturer. Depending on
the set latitude, the potentiometer provides electric signal to a
correction torque motor which applies torque about the vertical axis
which results in precession about the horizontal axis. With this
precession, the gyro will point to the meridian without going to the East
or West i.e. without any damping error. Input from GPS may also be
provided for the present latitude of the vessel.
Page 135 of 172

B) Course Latitude and Speed error (Steaming Error)
 If the ship is moving across the surface of the earth with a velocity which
has a northerly or southerly component, the compass will settle with
respect to a false meridian and not the true meridian. Such a velocity will
produce a false tilting of the spin axis. If the course is E-W, there will be no
such false tilting due to the earth’s rotation from west to east.
 The false tilting will be upwards for a vessel steaming north and downwards
for a vessel steaming south. Thus, for a vessel steaming northwards, the
compass will settle to the west of the true meridian due to upward tilt and
for a vessel steaming southwards, it will settle to the east of the true
meridian due to downward tilt.
OE = Earth’s travel in unit time

OV = Ship’s travel in unit time
OR = Resultant travel of compass
in space through unit time
ON = True meridian
ON’ = Virtual meridian
Angle NON’ = Angle EOR = C.S.Error

(westerly as vessel steaming North)
Derivation of ACCURATE Formula:

AD = Linear speed at which any body on
earth is taken to East due to earth’s rotation
from West to East. Since Earth rotates 150/hr
or 900 miles per hour, and since this linear
speed is maximum at the equator and
minimum at poles,
AD = 900 cos lat.
For a ship steaming a NE’ly course at speed ‘v’ knots,
AB = resultant travel of compass in space. Therefore, due to this upward tilt, the
gyro settles to the west of the meridian.
Page 136 of 172

In any case, the false meridian always will be perpendicular to resultant AB.
In ΔBCD, angle CBD is the course (Co) and BD = ‘v’
∴ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜
In ΔABC, angle BAC is the Course Speed Error (CSE).
𝐵𝐶 𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
∴ tan 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = =
𝐴𝐶 900 cos 𝑙𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜
(where ‘v’ is SMG in knots, Co = ship’s CMG)
If we draw the above figure for SE’ly course, we would arrive at the same formula.
However, if we draw the above figure for SW’ly or NW’ly courses, we would see
that the formula would have a –ve sign in the denominator. Thus, we can arrive at
the following conclusions:
1. C.S.E. is westerly whenever there is a Northerly component in the course (N,

NNE, NE, NNW, NW, etc) and it is easterly whenever there is a Southerly
component in the course (S, SSE, SE, SSW, SW, etc)
2. C.S.E. when westerly is termed HIGH and when easterly is termed LOW.
(Thumb Rule: Error East - Gyro Least, Error West - Gyro Best)
3. The error is directly proportional to the ship’s speed. If SMG = 0, error will
be NIL. Error increases as the speed increases.
4. The error is directly proportional to the cosine of the CMG. That means error
will be maximum on course 000 and 180 and NIL on course 090 and 270.
5. Courses with Easterly component have +ve sign in the denominator. Hence,
error will be lower in value. Course with Westerly component have –ve sign
in the denominator. Hence, error will be higher in value.
6. The error is inversely proportional to the cosine of latitude. Thus, error is
maximum on poles & minimum at the equator. At latitude increases, CSE
increases.
Page 137 of 172

The same formula can also be derived by considering the new equilibrium
position, when the tilting due to the earth's rotation is equal and opposite to the
tilting due to the vessel's speed.
Tilting due to earth’s rotation = Tilting due to ship’s motion
(900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 ∓ 𝑣 sin 𝑐𝑜) 𝑥 sin 𝐴𝑧. = 𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 𝑥 cos 𝐴𝑧
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
∴ tan 𝐴𝑧 =
900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 ∓ 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜
To get rid of the ambiguity of –/+ sign, we can use the below formula:
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = −
900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜
NOTE: The denominator will always have + sign as sin Westerly courses will make
the denominator negative anyway. The negative sign outside takes care of the
naming of the CSE. If course has northerly component, final answer will be
negative and error will be westerly (HIGH) and if course has southerly component,
final answer will be positive and error will be easterly (LOW). For this to hold
good, we must apply Course in three figure notation.
Derivation of approximate formula:
Since the gyro compass’ CSE will not be more than 100
For small angles of ϴ,
tan 𝜃° = 𝜃 𝑐
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 𝑐 ≈
Page 138 of 172

Since (900 cos Lat) is a very large value as compared to (v sin Co), for upto a
latitude of 600, we can ignore (v sin Co),
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 𝑐 ≈
900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡
𝑐
2𝜋 = 360°
180
∴ (1)𝑐 ≈
𝜋
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 180
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 𝑜 ≈ 𝑥
900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝜋
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 This approximate formula is a practical workable

∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 𝑜 ≈
5𝜋 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 formula and may be used upto latitude of 600.
Thus we see that unlike the damping error, this error does not depend in any way
upon the design and construction of the compass. Thus, the error is same for all
compasses, being determined by the course, speed and latitude of the vessel.
This is evident from the formulae discussed above.
The steaming error increases with the speed and latitude. The formula can be
used only when speed of the vessel is small compared to the linear speed of the
earth’s revolution. This will be the case for all marine crafts. At high speeds such as
that encountered in aircraft and in any craft in very high latitude, this formula
cannot be used. For this reason, a marine gyro compass cannot be used in aircrafts
due to a high steaming error.
The steaming error can be compensated by either shifting of the lubber line by an
amount equal to the error or by extracting the error from tables supplied and
applying them. Many makers also provide some form of a corrector (correction
torque motor) which allows the operator to set the speed from 0-35 knots and
latitude upto 700 N&S. Inputs from GPS may also be used to obtain the SMG and
latitude.
Page 139 of 172

NUMERICALS
FORMULAE:
Total Error = D.E. ± C.S.E. (Same name add, opp. name subtract)
𝑃𝑑 sin 𝐷𝐸2 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡2 NH = DE is Easterly

sin 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑥 tan 𝐿𝑎𝑡 = SH = DE is Westerly
𝑃𝑐 sin 𝐷𝐸1 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡1
𝐷𝐸 ° = 1.43 tan 𝑙𝑎𝑡 (approximate upto 70° lat and when Pd/Pc ratio is 1:40)
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 –ve means W’ly error, +ve means E’ly error.

𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = − Course with N’ly component, error is W’ly
900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜 Course with S’ly component, error is E’ly
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 𝑜 ≈ Approximate formula for upto 600 latitude
5𝜋 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡
In latitude 320N, the damping error is 1.20E. Calculate the total error of the same
gyro compass when making good a course of 3150(T) at a speed of 18 knots in
latitude 480(S)
We know,
sin 𝐷𝐸1 tan 𝐿𝑎𝑡1 sin 1.2 tan 32

= ∴ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐸2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑡2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐸2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 48
∴ 𝐷𝐸2 = 2.13° 𝑊 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑕, 𝐷. 𝐸. 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑦
By the accurate formula for C.S.E,
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
18 cos 315
∴ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = −
900 cos 48 + 18 sin 315
Page 140 of 172

∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = −1.237° = 1.237° 𝑊
Total error = D.E. ± C.S.E = (2.130 W + 1.2370 W)
∴ Total error = 3.3670 W
The axis of a gyro compass damped in tilt uncorrected for course speed and
latitude error and Damping error points true north in latitude 610N when making
good a course of 3450 and speed of 20 knots. On reaching 700N parallel of
latitude, the course is required to be altered to 2050 and speed reduced to 15
knots. Calculate the combined error (CSE + DE) on the new course and gyro
course to steer assuming that the gyro does not have any other error.
Since the uncorrected gyro is pointing to True North,

We can say that the CSE and DE are equal and opposite.
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜
20 cos 345
∴ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = −
900 cos 61 + 20 sin 345
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = −2.566° = 2.566° 𝑊
Thus, D.E. at this latitude is 2.5660E.
sin 𝐷𝐸1 tan 𝐿𝑎𝑡1 sin 2.566 tan 61

= ∴ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐸2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑡2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝐸2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 70
∴ 𝐷𝐸2 = 3.91° 𝐸
For 700N latitude,
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 15 cos 205

𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = − = −
900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜 900 cos 70 + 15 sin 205
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸2 = 2.582° 𝐸
Page 141 of 172

Total Error = D.E ± C.S.E. = 3.910E + 2.5820E
∴ Total Error = 6.50E
True Course = 2050(T) and Total Gyro Error = 6.50E (low)
∴ Gyro Course to steer = 198.50(G) (Error East, Gyro least)
In latitude 710N, a vessel steering 045o (T) and 0420 (G) at 15 knots, sees another
vessel right ahead approaching exactly head-on at a speed of 10 knots. What is
the course of the other vessel if the gyro compasses of both vessels are damped
in tilt and of same make and type, with both errors uncorrected. (Assume no
other errors are present)
True course = 0450 (T)

Gyro course = 0420 (G)
Gyro Error = 30 (E) (Low)
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = 2.0° 𝑊
Total Error = D.E ± C.S.E.

∴ 30 (E) = D.E. ± 2.00 (W)
∴ DE = 5.00 (E)
Other vessel’s course = 45 + 180 = 2250 (T)

Since both vessels are in sight of one another (almost same latitude) and the
compasses are of the same make and type, damping error of the other vessel is
also equal to 50 (E)
For C.S.E. of the other vessel,

Page 142 of 172

∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = 1.42° 𝐸
Total Error = DE ± CSE = 50 (E) + 1.420 (E) = 6.420 (E) (low)
True course of other vessel = 2250 (T)

Total Gyro error = 6.420 (E)
Gyro course of other vessel = 218.60
A vessel is making good a course of 2000 (T) at 15 knots in latitude 40030’ S.

Calculate the total error for a gyro compass damped in tilt with the damping
ratio of 1:40.
𝑃𝑑 1
sin 𝐷𝐸 = 𝑥 tan 𝐿𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥 tan 40.5
𝑃𝑐 40
∴ 𝐷𝐸 = 1.22° 𝑊 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑕)

900 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣 sin 𝐶𝑜 900 cos 40.5 + 15 sin 200
∴ 𝐶𝑆𝐸 = 1.19° 𝐸
Total error = DE ± CSE = 1.220 (W) – 1.190 (E)
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.03° 𝑊 ≈ 𝑁𝐼𝐿
A vessel leaves a port located near the equator on a straight rhumb line course
steaming at 24 knots. The vessel’s Anschutz Gyro Compass has Course speed and
latitude error of 1.50 (Low). Few days later in the voyage, still steaming the same
course but at 20 knots, the charted transit bearing 1770 (T) of two hill tops was
read at 1750 on this gyro compass. Assuming that gyro has no other errors,
estimate the latitude of the vessel.
Anschutz gyro compasses are damped in azimuth. Therefore, there will be no

damping error.
Page 143 of 172

Initial Gyro error (CSE error) = 1.50 (E),

Since CSE is easterly, the vessel’s course has a Southerly component i.e. vessel is
steaming southerly.
Since the latitude is near the equator, we can use the approximate formula for
CSE, that is,
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 24 cos 𝑐𝑜 1.5 𝑥 5𝜋

𝐶𝑆𝐸° = ∴ 1.5° = ∴ cos 𝑐𝑜 = … … (𝑖)
5 𝜋 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 5 𝜋 cos 0 24
After a few days, Gyro error (CSE error) = 1770 (T) – 1750 (G) = 20 (E)
Since the course is unchanged, substituting the value of ‘cos Co’ from equation (i),
𝑣 cos 𝐶𝑜 20 𝑥 1.5 𝑥 5𝜋 20 𝑥 1.5

𝐶𝑆𝐸° = ∴ 2° = ∴ cos 𝑙𝑎𝑡 =
5 𝜋 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 5 𝜋 cos 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝑥 24 2 𝑥 24
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑡 = 51.30 S (as CSE is Easterly, vessel is steaming southerly)
OTHER ERRORS:
a) Change of course and speed error:

- Whenever the course and/or speed changes, the steaming error also
changes. The difference is significant mainly when the ship is proceeding at
full speed and makes a large alteration of course.
- In these circumstances, the compass may lose its steadiness during the time
taken by the compass to find a new equilibrium
position.
- The difference between the steaming errors
calculated before and after the manoeuver is
known as the ‘change of course and speed error’.
- When a vessel changes course say from 0000 to
1800, the CSE will change from West to East as
shown in the figure alongside.
Page 144 of 172

b) Ballistic deflection:
- This error applies only to gyro compasses that have liquid ballistic
arrangement to achieve controlled gyro. Ballistic deflection is the
precession resulting from accelerations imparted to the compass by a
change in the speed and/or course of the vessel.
- If the speed of the ship in the northerly component is reduced, the steaming
error will also be reduced. For the northerly course, the steaming error was
originally westward. This will become less westward due to this manoeuver.
So the change in steaming error is easterly. Thus, the gyro axis will move
eastward to find a new settling position. Due to this reduction of speed,
mercury will flow from the south pots to the north pots producing north
heaviness (north end tilts down) resulting in an easterly precession.
- If the speed of the ship in the northerly component is increased, the
steaming error will also be increased. For the northerly course, the steaming
error was originally westward. This will now become more westerly due to
this manoeuver. So the change in steaming error is westerly. Thus, the gyro
axis will move westward to find a new settling position. In this case,
mercury will flow from the north pots to the south pots producing south
heaviness (north end tilts up) and a westerly precession.
- Such a precession caused from accelerations due to change in speed /
course and the subsequent movement of the ballistic liquid is called as
‘Ballistic precession’. Fortunately, as discussed in both cases above, the
precession is in the same direction as the change in steaming error.
Correction of Change in CSE and Ballistic deflection:

 Considering the example shown previously, a vessel changing course from
0000 (T) to 1800 (T), will have a change in its CSE from 2.50(W) to 2.50(E) i.e.
the axis must precess 50 to the East to achieve the new settling position.
 The same manoeuver will also produce a ballistic deflection north end to the
East. The amount of ballistic deflection must be just sufficient for the spin
axis to reach the new settling position and no more.
 By experiments, it has been found that if the undamped period of the
compass is made to be 84.4 minutes then the ballistic deflection will be just
sufficient to precess the compass to its new settling position after an
alteration of course or speed. This period is called ‘Schuler period’ and a
gyro so designed is said to be ‘Schuler Tuned’. By doing this, the gyro settles
at the new meridian and does not do the spiral.
Page 145 of 172

 Gyro compasses, in which correction torque motor is

used to correct the CSE, will only be subjected to
Ballistic deflection. Hence, they cannot be ‘Schuler
tuned’. In this case, the error remains and the user
has to wait till the gyro settles.
c) Ballistic Tilt
- If a precession which is proportional to the tilt of the spin axis is used for
damping (i.e. compass damped in tilt), then the false tilt introduced by an
acceleration of the vessel, which causes ballistic deflection will also cause a
precession in tilt, by the action of the damping element. The compass will
then deflect in azimuth (ballistic deflection) & also deflect in tilt (ballistic tilt).
- An acceleration of the vessel southward (turning to South, increase in
southerly speed, or reduction in Northerly speed) will cause a torque about
the vertical axis which will result in a precession about the horizontal axis. i.e.
the north end tilts upwards. Similarly, an acceleration of the vessel northward
(turning to north, increase in northerly speed or reduction in southerly speed)
will cause the spin axis to tilt downwards.
- In compasses that use ballistic deflection to compensate for the change in
course latitude and speed error, the axis will arrive at the new settling
azimuth slightly displaced in tilt from the settling position. The compass will
therefore require to execute a small damped spiral until its spin axis truly
settles. This is shown in the figure below. Change of course from N to S
causes a change in CSE to east. The ballistic deflection resulting from the
change in course precesses the spin axis to East. However, if the compass is
Schuler tuned, it will arrive in the correct azimuth at the end of the alteration,
but the spin axis will be precessed
upwards due to ballistic tilt.
- Because of the damped spiral traced
out while settling, there will be a
slight error in azimuth which will
reach the maximum after one
quarter of the period of oscillation
i.e. after about 22 mins. Thereafter,
the error will reduce and on every
successive oscillations may be
considered negligible.
Page 146 of 172

d) The First Rolling Error
- If an unsymmetrical pendulum (e.g. a ring) is tied as a bob and set oscillating,

it would be found that it tends to align so as to have the maximum moment
of inertia lying in the plane of the swing. Similarly, when vessel is rolling and
the gyroscope is swinging like a pendulum in gimbals, a torque is produced
about the vertical axis tending to turn the plane of the vertical ring into the
plane of the swing. This results in a subsequent wander of the compass.
- This is prevented by the manufacturer by using compensator weights that are
attached on each side of the vertical ring thereby making the moment of
inertia of the rotor equal in all directions about the vertical axis.
e) Rolling Error 2 / Intercardinal Rolling Error
- This is an error produced on the control element by the acceleration

associated with the motion of the ship in a seaway.
- The gyrocompass is made to settle on the meridian under
the influence of weights. Thus, it will also be caused to
shift due to other forces acting upon those weights.
- Let us consider the surge of mercury caused in both the

north and south pots by a vessel rolling. If the ship is
steaming due north or south, no redistribution of
mercury occurs due to roll and there will be no error, as
shown in the figure alongside.
- But with a ship is steaming due east or west, maximum lateral acceleration
occurs in the north/south direction causing north or south heaviness and
subsequent precession of the
compass. However, rolls to port and
starboard are equal, producing
equivalent easterly and westerly
precession. Resulting mean-error is
therefore zero, as shown in the
figure alongside.
Page 147 of 172

- If the ship is on an intercardinal

course, the force exerted by the
mercury (or pendulum) must be
resolved into north/south and
east/west components. The result
of the combined forces is that
precession of the compass occurs
under the influence of an effective
anticlockwise torque. (as shown in
the figure) Since this error is of
great concern at intercardinal headings, the error is also known as
‘Intercardinal Rolling error’. Damping the pendulum system can dramatically
reduce this error. This error is approximately corrected by restricting the bore
of the tubes connecting the mercury pots, so that the surge of mercury lags
by more than a quarter of period behind the roll.
- The same effect is also caused by the shifting of the link attachment (between
rotor casing and mounting bracket). When vessel rolls on an E-W course,
vessel rolls N-S and there is no shifting of the link attachment. When on N-S
course, the swing is in E-W plane. There is no surge of mercury but the link
attachment shifts alternately between E-W. However, since vessel rolls evenly
both sides, the average value is not affected and the settling position is not
disturbed. Now consider vessel rolling in NE course. The swing will be in
NW and SE plane. Both the effects will be seen now. Mercury will surge and
the link also will be shifted. On NW swing, mercury will surge to N pots and
link will be carried westwards and vice-versa on SE swing.
Page 148 of 172

GYRO COMPASS PERFORMANCE STANDARDS:

A./Res.424(XI)
 Definitions
1. The term "gyro-compass" comprises the complete equipment and
includes all essential elements of the complete design.
2. The ''true heading" is the horizontal angle between the vertical plane
passing through the true meridian and the vertical plane passing through
the ship's fore and aft datum line. It is measured from true north (000°)
clockwise through 360°.
3. The compass is said to be "settled" if any three reading taken at intervals
of thirty minutes, when the compass is on a level and stationary base, are
within a band of 0.7°.
4. The "settle point heading" is the mean value of ten readings taken at
twenty minute intervals after the compass has settled as defined above.
5. The "settle point error" is the difference between settle point heading
and true heading.
6. The "other errors" to which the gyro-compass is subject are taken to be
the difference between the observed value and the settle point heading.
 Method of presentation: The compass card should be graduated in equal

intervals of one degree or a fraction thereof. A numerical indication should
be provided at least at every ten degrees, starting from 000° clockwise
through 360°.
 Illumination: Fully adequate illumination should be provided to enable

reading of scales at all times. Facilities for dimming should be provided.
 Accuracy and Performance:

a) When switched on in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions
the compass should settle within six hours in latitudes of up to 60°C.
b) The settle point error at any heading and at any latitude up to 60° should
not exceed it 0.75 x sec. lat where heading indications of the compass
should be taken as the mean of 10 readings at 20 minute intervals.
c) When switched on in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions,
the compass should settle within six hours in latitudes of up to 60° when
Page 149 of 172

rolling and pitching with simple harmonic motion of any period between
six and fifteen seconds, a maximum angle of 5°, and a maximum
horizontal acceleration of 0.22 m/s2.
d) In latitudes of up to 60°,
(i) The residual steady state error, after correction for speed and course
influences at a speed of 20 knots, shall not exceed ± 0.25 x sec. lat.
(ii) The error due to a rapid alteration of speed of 20 knots should not
exceed ± 2°.
(iii) The error due to a rapid alteration of course of 180° at a speed of 20
knots should not exceed ± 3°.
e) The maximum divergence in reading between the master compass and
repeaters under all operational conditions should not exceed ± 0.5°.
 Power supply: The equipment should be capable of operating continuously

with the presence of variations of the power supply that are normally
expected in a ship. Means should be incorporated for the protection of the
equipment from excessive currents and voltages, accidental power reversal,
etc. If provision is made for operating the equipment from more than one
source of electrical energy, arrangements for rapidly changing from one
source of supply to the other should be incorporated.
 Interference: All steps should be taken to eliminate or suppress as far as

practicable, the causes of electromagnetic interferences between the gyro-
compass and other equipment on board. Each unit of the equipment should
be marked with the minimum safe distances at which it may be mounted
from a standard or a steering magnetic compass.
 Durability and resistance to effects of climate: The equipment should be

capable of continuous operation under trip conditions of vibration, humidity
and change of temperature likely to be experienced in the ship in which it is
installed.
 Construction and installation:

a) The master compass and any repeaters used for taking visual bearing
should be installed in a ship with their fore and aft datum lines parallel to
the ship's fore and aft datum line to within ± 0.5°.
Page 150 of 172

b) The lubber line should be in the same vertical plane as the centre of the
compass card and should be aligned accurately in the F&A direction.
c) Means should be provided for correcting the errors induced by speed
and latitude.
d) An automatic alarm should be provided to indicate a major fault in the
compass system.
e) The system should be designed to enable heading information to be
provided to other navigational aids such as radar, automatic pilot, etc.
NUMERICAL ON PERFORMANCE OF GYRO:
𝐶~𝐵 𝐶~𝑆𝑇 𝑆𝑇 ~𝐵
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = = =
𝐴~𝐵 𝑆𝑇 ~𝐵 𝐴~𝑆𝑇
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 % = 1 − 𝑓 𝑥 100
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝐴 ~𝑆𝑇 < 0.5°, 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦.
Where,
ST = Theoretical settling point
SA = Actual settling point
A = First maximum reading,
B = minimum reading,
C = second maximum reading
Page 151 of 172

QUESTION:
During the performance test of a gyro compass, following readings were

observed;
At 1320 hrs, 1st maximum reading was 3030
At 1400 hrs, minimum reading showed 253o
At 1430 hrs, 2nd maximum reading was 272o
Finally at 1447 hrs, the compass settled on a ship’s head of 2670.
Calculate the damping factor, damping percentage, period of gyro and state if
the settling position of compass is satisfactory as found by the test..
From the Data,

A = 3030, B = 253o and C = 272o
𝐶~𝐵 272 − 253

𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = = = 0.38
𝐴~𝐵 303 − 253
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 % = 1 − 𝑓 𝑥 100 = 1 − 0.38 𝑥 100 = 62%
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 14: 47 − 13: 20 = 1 𝑕𝑟 27 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠 = 87 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑠
𝐶~𝑆𝑇 272 − 𝑆𝑇
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓 = = = 0.38
𝑆𝑇 ~𝐵 𝑆𝑇 − 253
∴ 0.38𝑆𝑇 − 96.14 = 272 − 𝑆𝑇 ∴ 𝑆𝑇 = 266.8°
𝑆𝐴 = 267° … . . (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)
∴ 𝑆𝐴 − 𝑆𝑇 = 267° − 266.8° = 0.2° < 0.5°
∴ 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦.
---------------XXXXXXXX---------------
Page 152 of 172

NAV-AIDS MISC. QUESTIONS
MISC. QUESTIONS
ECDIS
What are the advantages of an ECDIS over conventional paper charts?
Following are the advantages of an ECDIS over conventional paper charts:

1. Availability: One of the great advantages of ECDIS over paper charts is the
availability of electronic charts – especially when voyage orders are received
at the last minute. It makes the chart ordering process very quick and the
electronic charts are readily available at any time unlike the paper charts.
2. Speed and Accuracy: Passage planning has become much faster with the
use of ECDIS and most ECDIS units have a facility where the waypoints can
be imported into an excel format which reduces the effort to manually input
the waypoints when compiling the Voyage Plan. Daily reporting data such as
Distance to Go, Distance Covered, Average Speed, etc. can be done quickly
with hardly any effort.
3. Corrections: With paper charts, a lot of time had to be dedicated towards
chart corrections. With ECDIS, weekly updates are received via Email which
has to be downloaded on a flash drive and loaded onto the ECDIS. Even the
time consuming T&P notices are now shown electronically on the ECDIS.
4. Continuous Monitoring of Vessel’s Position: Unlike paper charts that
required manual plotting of vessel’s position, ECDIS enables the user to see
the vessel’s position in real time without user action. The ECDIS is interfaced
with both the vessel’s independent GPS transceivers, thereby making the
system work even if one fails. However, since GPS is also prone to errors,
one must always check the accuracy of automatic fixes by using Radar and
visual fixes whenever possible.
5. Anti-Grounding Alarms and Settings: ECDIS was actually born as an Anti-
Grounding aid to Navigation. The ability of the ECDIS to warn the user of
approaching shallow waters makes it one of the most useful equipment on
the bridge. However, the safety settings such as safety frame, safety depth
and safety contour must be correctly and carefully inputted.
6. Interfacing: ECDIS can be interfaced with the Radar, Speed Log, GPS, echo
sounder, anemometer, etc. This provides the user a variety of useful
information at one centralized location i.e. the ECDIS display screen.
Page 153 of 172

7. User Determined Alarm Settings: While there are certain safety critical
alarms that are ON by default and cannot be changed, there are a host of
other alarms and warnings which may be switched on or off by the User
depending on the situation and the requirement. Prudence should be
exercised when activating or deactivating alarms and warnings.
8. Enhances Search and Rescue Capability onboard: Modern ECDIS units have
some or the other facility that enhance the SAR ability of the vessel. The
search patterns are automatically drawn by the ECDIS where the user only
has to select the search radius, track spacing and other such parameters.
The ECDIS unit also has a Man Overboard (MOB) function which can be
activated in the event of a person falling overboard. This marks the position
/ datum which are used as a reference for rescue and recovery.
9. Cost Efficient: Electronic Chart Permits are obtained electronically with
minimum data usage. Paper charts on the other hand have to be delivered
physically which involves handling fees by the agents, especially if ordered
at the last minute. Also, on rare occasions vessel’s had to divert only to pick
up charts if the voyage was changed at the last minute. This involved
massive costs such as Agency fees, Boat costs, etc. All this can be avoided
by using Electronic Charts.
10. Environmentally Friendly: When paper charts got old or when new editions
were issued, the old ones had to be disposed off, many of which were not
even used. Also, a lot of paper was used to print out blocks, tracings and
T&P notices. This does not happen now with the ECDIS.
What are the disadvantages of ECDIS?
1. Over-Reliance: With an equipment which is seemingly fool-proof, there is a

tendency for navigators to over rely on it. The consequences of such over-
reliance can be disastrous. It must be remembered that the purpose of the
ECDIS is to facilitate efficient navigation, not to substitute it.
2. Errors of the inputs to ECDIS: Erroneous position inputs from the GPS or
loss of GPS signal can have grave consequences with the ECDIS going in DR
mode. If the alarm is missed out, the result can be disastrous. Other inputs
such as the Gyro, Anemometer, Echo Sounder, etc should also be frequently
verified.
3. Wrong Settings: Feeding in wrong parameters for safety critical settings
such as the Safety Depths, Safety Contours, etc. can give a false sense of
safety.
Page 154 of 172

4. Alarm Deafness: If alarms start going off too frequently, the navigator could
end up in a dangerous situation called Alarm Deafness. This leads to the
watch keeper acknowledging the alarm even without checking what it was.
This must be avoided and alarms should be carefully chosen which are
appropriate to the prevailing conditions. Every single alarm should be
checked and investigated prior acknowledging.
5. System Lag: Modern ECDIS software can have a lot of data to display which
can slow down the system leading to system lag.
6. Specialized training: All officers must undergo type specific training for the
type of ECDIS fitted on the vessel. This results in additional costs to the
Company/Owner. Due to this, some companies have decided to select a
single manufacturer to supply the company’s fleet with ECDIS.
7. Information Overload: It is very easy to over feed information on the ECDIS.
A lot of data which was earlier marked on charts now has to be fed on the
ECDIS. Some of this information can be missed out in the clutter of
information already present on the ECDIS.
Differentiate between raster and vector charts.
Raster Charts (RNC’s) Vector Charts (ENC’s)

It is a direct copy of paper chart. It is a computer generated chart.
Entire chart is stored as one layer. Thus, Information can be displayed selectively
information cannot be displayed and queried as it is stored in layers.
selectively and queried.
Display regeneration takes time. Display regeneration is faster.
It is not a seamless chart. It is a seamless chart. (smooth &
continuous)
It has same symbols and colours as on Symbols will be as per IHO standards.
paper chart.
Memory requirement is higher. It requires comparatively less memory.
It is simpler and cheaper to produce. It is costly and time consuming to
produce.
Scale of the chart cannot be changed. Each chart can be viewed on a different
scale.
During ‘look ahead’, next chart may be All charts will be on the same scale.
on a different scale.
Information can only be added. Information can be added and deleted.
Page 155 of 172

How are ECDIS charts corrected?

 Different software such as Chartco, E-navigator, etc. are available which
serve a variety of purposes mainly ordering, installing & updating of charts.
 For correction of the charts, every week a request must be sent via email in
order to receive the chart corrections. Once the corrections are received in
email, the same must be applied on the ECDIS as well as on the software
used for the upkeep of the ENC’s.
 It must be ensured that all charts are displayed as ‘Up-to-date’ both on the
ENC list on the ECDIS and software used.
 Similar request is also sent for T&P corrections (AIO) which is received via
email and applied is the same manner.
 The corrections must be saved as a back-up for use when new charts are
ordered. In such a case, the new charts must be installed using the Base
DVD’s and the permits must be applied. The BASE DVD may be not of the
present week. Thus, the corrections from the date of the Base DVD till the
latest week must be applied using the back-up corrections saved. Similarly,
AIO must be saved as a back-up too.
 Some countries do not issue T&P notices for ENC’s. For such countries, T&P
must be manually plotted on the ENC’s.
 Any Nav-area warning or NAVTEX warning must be checked on the ECDIS if
it is plotted automatically. If not, it must be manually plotted.
Describe the IMO performance standards for ECDIS.

Resolution MSC.232 (82) - Adoption Of Revised Performance Standards For ECDIS
General:
1. The primary function of the ECDIS is to contribute to safe navigation.
2. ECDIS should be capable of displaying all chart information necessary for
safe and efficient navigation and should have at least the same reliability
and availability of presentation as the paper chart.
3. ECDIS should facilitate simple and reliable updating of the ENC’s.
4. ECDIS should reduce the navigational workload compared to using the
paper chart. It should enable the mariner to execute in a convenient and
timely manner all route planning, route monitoring and positioning.
5. ECDIS should be capable of continuously plotting the ship’s position.
6. ECDIS should provide appropriate alarms or indications with respect to the
information displayed or malfunction of the equipment.
Page 156 of 172

Provision and updating of chart information:

1. The chart information to be used in ECDIS should be the latest edition.
2. The contents of the SENC should be adequate and up-to-date for the
intended voyage. It should not be possible to alter the contents of the ENC.
3. Updates should be stored separately from the ENC.
4. ECDIS should be capable of accepting official updates to the ENC data
provided in conformity with IHO standards. These updates should be
automatically applied to the SENC.
5. ECDIS must also be able to accept updates to the ENC manually entered.
Display of SENC information:

1. ECDIS should be capable of displaying all SENC information.
2. ECDIS should be capable of accepting and converting an ENC and its
updates into a SENC.
3. SENC information available for display should be subdivided into three
categories i.e. Base Display, Standard Display and All Other Information.
4. Standard Display must be presented at any time by a single operator action.
5. When an ECDIS is switched on following a switch off or power failure, it
should return to the most recent manually selected settings for display.
6. It should be easy to add or remove information from the ECDIS display.
7. It should not be possible to remove information from the Base Display.
8. It should be possible to change the display scale by appropriate steps either
by chart scale values or ranges in nautical miles.
9. It should be possible for the mariner to select a safety contour from the
depth contours provided by the SENC. ECDIS should emphasize the safety
contour over other contours on the display, however if the mariner does
not specify a safety contour, this should default to 30m. If the safety
contour specified by the mariner or the default 30 m contour is not in the
displayed SENC, the safety contour shown should default to the next
deeper contour. An indication of this should be provided.
10. It should be possible for the mariner to select a safety depth. ECDIS should
emphasize soundings equal to or less than the safety depth whenever spot
soundings are selected for display.
Scale: ECDIS should provide an indication if the information is displayed at a larger
scale than that contained in the ENC or when own ship’s position is covered by an
ENC at a larger scale than that provided by the display.
Page 157 of 172

Display of other navigational information:

 Radar information and/or AIS information may be along with other
navigational information may be added to the ECDIS display. However, it
should not degrade the displayed SENC information and it should be clearly
distinguishable from the SENC information.
 It should be possible to remove this information by single operator action.
Display mode
1. It should always be possible to display the SENC information in a ‘north-up’
orientation. Other orientations are permitted. When such orientations are
displayed, the orientation should be altered in steps large enough to avoid
unstable display of the chart information.
2. ECDIS should provide for true motion mode. Other modes are permitted.
When true motion mode is in use, reset and generation of the chart display
of the neighbouring area should take place automatically at own ship's
distance from the edge of the display as determined by the mariner.
Display, Colours and symbols

 IHO recommended colours and symbols should be used to represent SENC
information.
 ECDIS should be capable of displaying information for route planning and
supplementary navigation tasks and route monitoring.
 The effective size of the chart presentation for route monitoring should be
at least 270 mm x 270 mm.
 The displayed information must be clearly visible to more than one observer
in the conditions of light normally experienced on the bridge of the ship by
day and by night.
Route Planning
 It should be possible to carry out route planning and route monitoring in a
simple and reliable manner.
 It should be possible to carry out route planning including both straight and
curved segments. It should be possible to amend a planned route w.r.t.
adding, deleting or moving waypoints. It should be possible to plan one or
more alternative routes in addition to the selected route. The selected route
should be clearly distinguishable from the other routes.
Page 158 of 172

 Indications should be given if the mariner plans a route across an own ship's
safety contour, or prohibited or unsafe area.
 It should be possible for the mariner to specify a cross track limit at which
an automatic off-track alarm should be activated.
Route Monitoring
 For route monitoring the selected route and own ship's position should
appear whenever the display covers that area. It should be possible to
display a sea area that does not have the ship on the display (e.g. for look
ahead, route planning), while route monitoring.
 It should be possible to return to the route monitoring display covering own
ship's position immediately by single operator action.
 ECDIS should give an alarm if, within a specified time set by the mariner,
own ship will cross the safety contour.
 The ship’s position should be derived from a continuous positioning system.
Whenever possible, a second independent positioning source, preferably of
a different type, should be provided. In such cases ECDIS should be capable
of identifying discrepancies between the two sources.
 ECDIS should provide an alarm when the input from position, heading or
speed source is lost. ECDIS must repeat this alarm, but only as an indication.
 The positioning system and the SENC should be on the same geodetic
datum. ECDIS should give an alarm if this is not the case.
 It should be possible to display time-labels along a ship's track manually on
demand and automatically at intervals selected between 1 and 120 minutes.;
 It should be possible to enter the geographical co-ordinates of any position
and then display that position on demand. Also, it should be possible to
select any point on the display and read its geographical co-ordinates.
 ECDIS should provide the capability of manual position fixing and calculate
the resulting position of own ship.
Voyage recording
 ECDIS should store and be able to reproduce certain minimum elements
required to reconstruct the navigation and verify the official database used
during the previous 12 hours. The following data should be recorded at one
minute intervals: time, position, heading, speed, ENC source, edition, cell
and update history.
Page 159 of 172

 In addition, ECDIS should record the complete track for the entire voyage,
with time marks at intervals not exceeding 4 hours.
 It should not be possible to manipulate or change the recorded information.
Testing & Malfunction:

 ECDIS should be provided with means for either automatically or manually
carrying out on-board tests of major functions. In case of a failure, the test
should display information to indicate which module is at fault.
 ECDIS should provide a suitable alarm or indication of system malfunction.
Back-up arrangements:
 Adequate back-up arrangement should be provided for safe navigation for
the remaining part of a voyage in the case of an ECDIS failure. A safe take-
over of the ECDIS functions should be provided in order to ensure that an
ECDIS failure does not develop into a critical situation.
Interfacing:
 ECDIS should be connected to the ship's position fixing system, gyro
compass and to speed and distance measuring device. For ships not fitted
with a gyro compass, ECDIS should be connected to a marine transmitting
heading device.
 The interfacing should not degrade the performance of any equipment
providing sensor inputs or degrade the performance of the ECDIS.
 ECDIS may provide a means to supply SENC information to external
equipment.
Power Supply
 It should be possible to operate ECDIS and all equipment necessary for its
normal functioning when supplied by emergency power.
 Changing from one source of power supply to another or any interruption
of the supply for a period of up to 45 seconds should not require the
equipment to be manually re-initialized.
Page 160 of 172

COURSE RECORDER
Describe a course recorder. List the entries you will make on course recorder
during the course of entire voyage. Explain setting and alarms of the course
recorder. What maintenance would you carry out on this instrument?
 Course recorder is a navigational equipment for automatically recording the

course of a vessel over a period of time. The record is done on continuous
paper belt. It is linked to the gyro compass, or transmitting magnetic
compass, to provide a timed record of the movement of the ship's head.
 A compass repeater motor in the course recorder actuates a mechanism
which operates a stylus or pen to produce a trace on the course recorder
graph. The trace may be produced by an ink pen but is usually marked by a
stylus on electro-sensitive paper.
 Some course recorders are fitted with a single pen where the width of the
paper corresponds to 3600 change of compass heading. On other course
recorders, the width of the paper represents only 900 or 1800 so that an
additional pen, known as a zone pen, is used to show which sector of the
compass is indicated.
 The recording paper has a time scale. It is driven by a paper feed motor. The
normal practice is to set the time indicated on the paper to UTC or GMT.
 The trace of the course pen should indicate the compass heading but may
not do so if the pen was set incorrectly.
 Course recorder is not a mandatory equipment onboard. However, it is
fitted on many vessels as a means of complying with Regulation 28 of
SOLAS Chapter V. This regulation requires all ships engaged on international
voyages to keep on board a record of navigational activities and incidents
which are of importance to safety of navigation and which must contain
sufficient detail to restore a complete record of the voyage.
Entries to make on Course Recorder:

 On arrival to a port where vessel is expected to stay for a long time, the
course recorder is switched off. At this time, the course recorder must be
dated and signed with the time of switching off or all fast.
 Prior departure, the course recorder is switched on and the UTC and
heading are set correctly. At this time, the paper must be dated and signed.
Page 161 of 172

 Every day during the voyage, the navigating officer will check the course
recorder and will sign and mention the date.
 Any other event that needs to be recorded can be mentioned on the course
recorder graph. It is advisable to mention the date everyday as it will ease
the process of investigation if at all the course recorder graph is used for
any such investigation.
Settings and alarms:

 Since the course recorder is not mandatory, there are no performance
standards stated for this instrument. The manufacturers may however have
a gyro failure alarm or no paper feed alarm linked to the course recorder.
 In a conventional course recorder, settings are provided for the user to set
the present course and adjust it if there is any error. Also, the paper can be
manually rolled down in order to set the correct UTC time.
Maintenance:
 Once every watch, ensure correct course is being recorded.
 Once every watch, ensure the recording is done for the correct GMT.
 Once every day, ensure that paper is adequate atleast for the next day.
 Once every day, ensure that the stylus is in contact with the paper and the
trace is legible.
 Check that the bulbs provided for the course recorder are working and
adequate spares are available.
AUTO-PILOT
Detail various settings of the auto-pilot for optimal performance.
Following settings of the auto-pilot are used for optimal performance:
1. Set Course – for setting required heading (course to steer).

2. Off Course – for setting alarm limit of heading deviation. Alarm sounds
when limit is exceeded.
3. Rudder Rate – for setting the rudder response speed i.e. how quickly the
rudder reacts in response to an error signal. If too fast will cause overshoot,
and if too slow steering response will be sluggish.
Page 162 of 172

4. Rudder Limit – for setting the maximum rudder angle. If too large will cause
overshoot, and if too small steering response will be sluggish.
5. Counter Rudder – for counteracting the corrective rudder. As the vessel
returns toward the pre-set heading, the amount of corrective rudder is
reduced and opposite rudder is applied to prevent overshoot or to keep
overshoot to a minimum. Too low setting will allows the ship to overshoot
and too high setting will bring her back on track in long time.
6. Permanent Helm – used to counteract external effects tending to push the
vessel to one side. If left at zero, the integral control will apply a calculated
permanent helm. Manual setting allows fine tuning.
7. Yaw/Weather – Sea and swell may keep physically tossing the vessels head
to and fro. The auto-pilot will apply corrective rudder each time the heading
deviates from the set course. This control sets a ‘dead band’ across which
corrective helm is not applied. A low value in good weather will help
maintain tight steering control. A high value in bad weather allows the
vessels head to swing through a larger arc before applying corrective helm.
This prevents too frequent application of rudder and reduces rudder drag.
8. In auto adaptive steering, the optimum steering is achieved without any
manual adjustment.
Explain the purpose of transmitting heading device (THD).

 A transmitting heading device (THD) is an electronic device whose purpose
is to provide information about the ship’s true heading. It provides this
information to the navigator who uses it for navigation and also inputs are
provided to other equipments such as the Radar, ARPA, AIS, VDR, etc.
 The THD consists of two basic parts: the sensing part (a device capable of
detecting heading information) and the transmitting part (a device which
receives heading information from the sensing part and converts it into the
required accurate signal).
 The IMO documents do not specify what sort of sensor must be used to
measure the ship’s true heading. Thus, the THD heading sensor could be
satisfied by a gyrocompass or an electronic magnetic compass, corrected
for variation and deviation and capable of meeting the minimum standards.
 SOLAS requires all ships of 300 GT and upwards and passenger ships
irrespective of size to be fitted with a properly adjusted transmitting
heading device, or other means to transmit heading information for input to
the Radar, ARPA and AIS.
Page 163 of 172

AIS
Write short note on Pseudo AIS.
 Pseudo AIS means a virtual AIS target that is created from a shore station
without actually installing an AIS transponder in that particular location.
 Pseudo AIS can be used to generate virtual buoys to indicate wrecks or
other dangers.
 Pseudo AIS can also be used to mark Virtual Buoys in a navigational channel.
A Virtual Buoy is essentially an AIS message sent by the VTS or Port
Authorities to ships in the port area, giving the details of navigational buoys
that are not physically present. Ships that are fitted with an AIS transponder
can use this information to safely navigate through narrow channels and
avoid obstructions. This sort of a system is extremely cost-effective because
the expenses involved with installing and maintaining a physical buoy are
negated. It is also beneficial to navigation because the buoy will show up on
AIS-linked radar screens irrespective of the visibility or weather conditions.
 Pseudo AIS can be installed on light houses, beacons, etc for positive
identification.
 Pseudo AIS can also be used to generate target in case of SAR operations if
the distressed vessel is not equipped with AIS.
State Indian Administration criteria for carriage of AIS on ships trading on Indian
Coast
As per various circulars of DG Shipping, following is the criteria for carriage of AIS
on ships trading on Indian Coast:
 SOLAS requirement must be complied i.e. All ships of 300 GT and upwards
engaged on international voyages, Cargo ships of 500 GT and upwards not
engaged on international voyages and all passenger ships irrespective of
size must be fitted with AIS.
 Moreover, all fishing vessels above 20 meters in length must be fitted with
an AIS. This is also applicable to foreign fishing vessels issued with a Letter
of Permit (LoP) to operate within Indian EEZ.
 Similarly, vessels between 100 & 300 GT operating within the Coastal Waters
of India are required to fit AIS.
 All vessels, other than fishing vessels, above 15 tons GT shall also fit an AIS
of Class A or Class B.
Page 164 of 172

What is the mandatory testing requirement of AIS?

 As per SOLAS, the automatic identification system (AIS) shall be subjected
to an annual test. The test shall be conducted by an approved surveyor or
an approved testing or servicing facility. The test shall verify the correct
programming of the ship static information, correct data exchange with
connected sensors as well as verifying the radio performance by radio
frequency measurement and on-air test using, e.g., a Vessel Traffic Service
(VTS). A copy of the test report shall be retained on board the ship. The test
must be carried in accordance with the guidelines of the Organisation.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS
Write short note on Geocentric coordinate system PZ 90.

 PZ-90 is a geodetic datum developed by Russia, similar to the WGS84, and
used as a nominal system for GLONASS navigation. It was created in the
year 1990.
 It was realized by positioning 26 ground stations established from
observations of the Geo-IK geodetic satellite.
 It was modified in 2005 and renamed to PZ 90.02. The accuracy of the
geocentric position of points was improved to 0.3-0.5 metres from the
previous 1-2 metres.
Write short note on Orbital error of GPS.

 Orbital error is also known as Ephemeris Error.
 GPS receivers calculate coordinates relative to the known locations of
satellites in space, a complex task that involves knowing the shapes of
satellite orbits as well as their velocities, neither of which is constant.
 The GPS Control Segment monitors satellite locations at all times, calculates
orbit eccentricities, and compiles these deviations in documents called
ephemerides. An ephemeris is compiled for each satellite and broadcast
with the satellite signal.
 Some satellites may slightly deviate from their predicted path resulting in
small positional inaccuracy. GPS receivers that are able to process
ephemerides can compensate for some orbital errors.
Page 165 of 172

State the approximate values of the errors in the position obtained by GPS.
 Error due to Ionospheric delay is unlikely to exceed 10m.
 Error due to Tropospheric delay is unlikely to exceed 1m.
 Multipath error can be about 1 m depending on the antenna positioning.
 DOP error depends on the PDOP (position dilution of precision) value and
the URE (User range error). If URE is 30m, and PDOP is unity, then best
accuracy is 30m. But if PDOP is 2, accuracy is drops to 60m.
 Satellite clock error is unlikely to exceed 1m as regular unlinking of clock
data reduces it to a minimum.
 Ephemeris and user clock error is unlikely to exceed a few meters. (1-3 mtrs)
LRIT
Short notes on LRIT coordinator

 IMO’s Maritime Safety Committee has appointed the International Mobile
Satellite Organisation (IMSO) as the LRIT Coordinator.
 The functions of the LRIT Coordinator include:
1. Assisting in the establishment of the IDE and IDC.
2. Auditing the performance of all new DC’s and IDE.
3. Reviewing the performance of the system on an annual basis, through
review and audit of ASPs, DCs and the IDE, verifying in particular that
Contracting Governments and SAR services receive the information they
are entitled to, and not any information to which they are not entitled.
4. Providing an annual report to the Maritime Safety Committee on the
performance of the LRIT system including any non-conformities, and
making any appropriate recommendations with a view to improving the
efficiency, effectiveness and security of the LRIT system.
 The LRIT Coordinator is authorized to charge for the services it provides.
 Information in relation to the LRIT Coordinator, and its contact details are
maintained in the LRIT Data Distribution Plan and its server
Page 166 of 172

ECHO SOUNDERS
List the types of transducers used in echo sounders? Discuss the advantage and
disadvantage of each.
Transducers that are commonly used in echo sounders are of the following type:
1) Electrostrictive transducers or Piezoelectric transducers
2) Magnetostrictive transducers
Electrostrictive transducers - Advantages:

1. They are smaller, lighter and cheaper.
2. They can be designed to operate as both transmitter and receiver.
3. There are no hull losses and they are suitable for use at high frequency.
Electrostrictive transducers - Disadvantages:

1. The lower steel plate is in direct contact with sea water. Thus, the hull
needs to be pierced and integrity of the hull is compromised.
2. These can be serviced only during dry-dock or under water.
3. The fragility of the crystal imposes power restraint. Thus, it cannot be
used for measuring great depths.
Magnetostrictive transducers – Advantages

1. Magnetostrictive transducers are extremely robust and are fitted as an
internal installation. This makes them ideal for use in heavy seas where
pounding could destroy an unprotected Electrostrictive type.
2. Integrity of the hull is maintained as the hull does not need to be pierced
for this kind of a transducer. Also, it can be easily serviced as it is fitted
internally.
Magnetostrictive transducers – Disadvantages

1. With increase in frequency, there are magnetic losses. Above 100 kHz,
the efficiency of Magnetostrictive transducer falls and hence, above
this frequency, Electrostrictive transducers are normally used.
2. For shallow depth, dual transducers are required. There is upto 85%
loss in power due to hull plate. Dual transducer means twice the hull
loss, means more power needed.
3. They tend to be large and heavy and used only on large vessels.
Page 167 of 172

SPEED LOG
What are the advantages of Doppler Log over Electro-magnetic log?

Following are the advantages of Doppler Log over Electro-magnetic log:
 It can be used in both Water track mode as well as Ground Track mode.
 It is useful in berthing and manoeuvring as it provides Speed over ground.
 It has comparatively higher accuracy.
 It can measure very low speeds and is not affected by uneven flow of water
past the hull.
 It can even measure athwartship speed by using dual transducers.
 It may be manufactured to also show water depth. (echo sounder function)
 It is not affected by the conductivity of the water.
 Speed Error due to trim is reduced greatly by using the Janus configuration.
RATE OF TURN INDICATOR
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of constant rudder angle turn and

constant radius turn.
CONSTANT RUDDER ANGLE TURN CONSTANT RADIUS TURN

1. Larger drift angle with a Lesser drift angle & hence lesser
corresponding loss of speed loss of speed
2. A large rudder angle is needed to At the end of the turn, the new
steady the vessel on new course course can be steadied with lesser
rudder angle
3. Uncertainty of ship’s position Proper control of ship’s position
during the turn during the turn
4. Higher fuel consumption due to Lesser fuel consumption, with
zigzagging with excessive use of reserve rudder and engine power
helm. available
Page 168 of 172

Give a general description of the Rate of Turn indicator and the precautions to
take while using ROTI.
General description of ROTI:
 Unlike road vehicles a ship does not turn sharply. With lesser friction in
water and under the influence of momentum, a vessel continues on her
initial course for some time, beginning to turn slowly and then rapidly later.
Thus, a vessel traverses a curved track which can be treated as an arc of a
circle. For small ships such arcs are small and can be executed without much
problem. But for large sized merchant vessels, these arcs assume greater
radii and need to be treated differently. This becomes all the more
important when vessel is altering courses in restricted waters or in close
proximity to navigational hazards.
 In the passage plan, it is also required to lay courses in curved segments,
where required and to mark the wheel over positions. In view of the above,
vessels having 50,000 GT and above are mandatorily required to be fitted
with ROTI. ROTI assists OOW in planning, executing and monitoring vessel’s
progress along curved segment of charted course.
 The purpose of ROTI is to provide rate of turn to port and to starboard side
of ship. The indicator is usually in the form of a circular dial with zero at top.
Port turn is indicated on left of zero and starboard turn on right of zero.
Graduations are provided to indicate ROT up to at least 30 degrees/minute
on either side. ROTI can be self-contained, or it may derive information from
other equipment or it may form a part of the other equipment.
Precautions while using ROTI:

 The speed to be used for calculating the rate of turn is speed over ground
(speed made good) and not speed over water.
 Initially a large helm is required to achieve the calculated rate of turn. The
helm must be immediately eased as soon the rate of turn is achieved, to the
bare minimum required to maintain the rate of turn.
 In case of constant radius turn, careful watch on the SOG must be kept, so
that as the speed drops the rate of turn can be correspondingly reduced.
 It is always safe to over-estimate the ROT marginally rather than under-
estimate it, since if the ship turns faster it is easier to reduce the ROT rather
than trying to increase the ROT at a later stage if she is turning slowly at the
initial stage.
Page 169 of 172

How will you make correction in the position of WOP when the set and rate of
the current is known?
In order to make correction in the position of WOP / WOL when set and rate of
current is known, we must carry out the following steps:
A) Calculate the time taken to complete the turn in minutes…..(i)

(Difference between the initial course and final course) ÷ ROT calculated
B) Calculate time taken to cover the ‘F’ (advance) distance in minutes…..(ii)

(‘F’ distance ÷ Speed in knots) x 60
C) Calculate total time of influence of the current in minutes i.e. (i + ii)
D) For this time, find the corresponding drift i.e.

(Rate of current x Time of influence/60)
E) From the WOP, mark this drift in the direction opposite to the set of current.
F) Now transfer the final course to pass through this new point ‘E’ marked.
This is the new wheel over line and the point at which it intersects the initial
course is the new WOP taking current into account.
Page 170 of 172

Describe the procedure to execute a constant radius turn with current.
Following is the procedure to execute a constant radius turn with current:
 Calculate the ROT using the formula by substituting values of ‘V’ and ‘R’.
57.3 𝑉
ROT (deg/min) = 𝑥
60 𝑅
 Using radius ‘R’, from any point on the final course, draw an arc towards the
initial course. Similarly, from any point on the initial course, draw an arc
towards the final course. Draw tangents to these two arcs parallel to the
final and initial courses respectively. The point of intersection of the two
tangents is the point ‘O’ or the centre of the turning circle.
 With this point as the center, the curved segment of the turn can be drawn.
 To mark the WOP (without current), we will use the formula:
Distance of WOP from alteration point = F sin ϴ + R (1-cos ϴ)
(The value of ‘F’ is usually taken 0.1, 0.15 and 0.2 NM for small, medium and
large vessels respectively or as one ship’s length in NM.)
 After marking the WOP (without current), we need to calculate the drift. For
this, we will calculate the time of influence of the current i.e. the time taken
by the ship to cover the curved segment and the ‘F’ distance. This ‘time
divided by 60’ must then be multiplied by ‘Rate of current’ to get the ‘Drift’.
 From the WOP (without
current), this drift must
be applied in the
direction OPPOSITE to
the direction (set) of the
current. A line parallel to
the final course must be
drawn through this point
in order to get the Wheel
Over Line (taking current
into account) and the
point at which this line
intersects the initial
course is the WOP
(taking current into
account).
Page 171 of 172

Explain methods of monitoring the turn of a vessel.
Following are the methods of monitoring the turn of a vessel:
When Object ‘O’ is visually conspicuous:

Any radius to the point of contact of a tangent is
perpendicular to the tangent. This means that for
vessel to remain on the curved track, the object
‘O’ must remain abeam or very nearly abeam. If
the object is falling abaft the beam, it means that
vessel is going outside the arc (or she is turning
slowly) and ROT needs to be increased by giving
greater helm. Conversely, if object is moving
ahead of beam, vessel is going inside the arc (or
she is turning too fast) and ROT needs to reduced
by easing the helm.
When Object ‘O’ is Radar conspicuous:

In this case, VRM along with parallel indexing techniques is utilized for keeping the
vessel on the curved segment of the track. Both RM and TM modes are equally
suitable for the procedure.
When Object O is imaginary:

In this case vessel’s position has to be closely monitored at more frequent
intervals to ensure that the vessel stays at the curved segment of the track.
With ECDIS onboard:

As per IMO performance standards for “route planning and monitoring” on ECDIS,
it should be possible to draw both straight and curved segments of planned
courses. During route planning, the operator enters the turn radius and the ECDIS
automatically draws the curved segment and the WOP / WOL. ECDIS provides real
time position fixing. Hence, executing and monitoring ship’s progress along any
curved segment is very easy. Hence, the OOW knows the position of the vessel at
any given moment during the turn.
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Page 172 of 172

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NAV-AIDS INDEX

NAVIGATIONAL AIDS INCLUDING COMPASS

(Prepared by Rohan D’souza)

Sr. No CONTENTS Page Nos.

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA (i)

VOYAGE DATA RECORDER (VDR)

What is VDR & S-VDR?

Purpose & Function Of VDR:

2. Audio Module – This module consists of an audio mixer for recording

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 1

Block Diagram – Voyage Data Recorder

3. Bridge Remote Alarm Module – This consists of a small panel connected to

5. Final Recording Module (Protected storage unit)– This is a crash-proof,

6. Replay Module – It is an optional module and used to download and replay

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 2

VDR / S-VDR – Data to be Recorded

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 3

VDR / S-VDR – Ownership & Recovery

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 4

 As per SOLAS Chapter V/20, it is mandatory to have VDR fitted on the

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR VDR:

RESOLUTION A.861(20) adopted on 27 November 1997

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 5

1. Be capable of being accessed following an incident but secure against

 The design and construction should be in accordance with the requirements

Data Selection And Security

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 6

Data items to be recorded

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 7

Download And Playback Equipment For Investigation Authorities

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 8

Final recording medium

The final recording medium should consist of the following items:

1) Fixed recording medium;

- Should be installed in a fixed protective capsule, capable of being accessed

2) Float-free recording medium;

- Should be installed in a float-free capsule, fitted with means to facilitate

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 9

- Should be secure against any kind of manipulation / change or deletion of

3) Long-term recording medium;

- Should be capable of being accessed from an internal, easily accessible area

Data Items to be Recorded:

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 10

 AIS - All AIS data should be recorded.

RESOLUTION MSC.163(78) (adopted on 17 May 2004) PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

 The S-VDR should continuously maintain sequential records of preselected

Final recording medium

- Should be installed in a protective capsule of either a fixed OR float-free

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 11

 The float-free type protective capsule should:

 S-VDR should be capable of operating from the ship's emergency source of

Data items to be recorded

 Date and time - referenced to UTC

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 12

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 13

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM (AIS)

Its primary aim is:

As per Regulation 19 of SOLAS chapter V, AIS must be fitted aboard:

The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.

AIS is required to be maintained in operation at all times, except where

Components of the AIS:

1. Dedicated antenna working on very high frequency (VHF)

COMPILED BY: ROHAN D’SOUZA 1

AIS is designed to operate in one of the following modes: