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Geological Appraisal for Archaeological Site: Suggested Value Addition for

Rajgir, District Nalanda, Bihar

Technical Report · July 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1768.8566

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GEOLOGICAL APPRAISAL FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE:
SUGGESTED VALUE ADDITION FOR RAJGIR,
DISTRICT NALANDA, BIHAR

Sujit Dasgupta
Geologist

Freelance Consultant and Adviser

July 2016
 GEOLOGICAL APPRAISAL FOR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE:
SUGGESTED VALUE ADDITION FOR RAJGIR, DISTRICT NALANDA, BIHAR

Sujit Dasgupta*
Geologist
Freelance Consultant and Adviser

Executive Summary

A two days field visit was taken in and around Rajgir, District Nalanda, Bihar at the instance of Bihar
Heritage Development Society (BHDS), Patna, in connection with providing geological inputs
towards value addition in terms of understanding the context of archaeological material, particularly
those lay scattered in and around Old Rajgir (Rajagriha), an establishment and location that finds
mention albeit with different names in Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas through more recent
historical past commencing from Bimbisara (543-491 BCE).

The kingdom of Old Rajgir is confined in a valley surrounded by lofty hills that stand 200m+ above
the valley level. It consists of Meso-Proterozoic (1.6 to 1 billion years) meta-sediments with quartzite
and phyllite as the major rock type with intrusive quartz veins. The valley and hill are the result of
interaction between lithology and structure; inter-bedded hard quartzite and soft phyllite are thrown
into long and tight folds with steep limbs. The more resistant quartzite rocks form the hills while
phyllite rocks constitute the valley portion. Early inhabitants of the area used soft phyllite for
inscription while hard quartzite was used for sculpture.

The outer cyclopean wall is build up with quartzite and phyllite slabs to add 3-4m height above
200m+ of elevation. It is intriguing to note the necessity of such nominal increase in elevation to
protect Rajagriha sited deep within the valley. This fortification could have been constructed at a
much later date to protect religious sites that occupied hill tops. Inner fortification wall though also
needs review for its purpose this predominantly earthen structure should be mapped and preserved.

The Giriak- Ghorakatora mound east of Panchana River, reportedly preserving cultural stratigraphy
from Chalcolithic to Pala period, offers a possibility of study the scarp section through Holocene
chrono-stratigraphy through dating of fluvial sediments that intercept cultural layering.

Two specimens collected from Banganga valley resembling Palaeolithic stone tolls, appears to be
natural rather than anthropogenic. Further exploratory search suggested.

*Deputy Director General (Retd), Geological Survey of India, Kolkata

1.0 Dr Bijoy K. Chaudhary (BKC), Executive Director, Bihar Heritage Development Society
(BHDS), Patna contacted the author to assist and advice BHDS team working at Rajgir,
District Nalanda, Bihar in connection with their ongoing project for comprehensive
exploration and documentation of various archaeological sites in and around Rajgir. The
primary objective for involving a geologist into this project is to provide geological
inputs that may endow with value addition towards understanding the context of
archaeological materials that lay scattered throughout Rajgir and other collateral issues.
1.1 Reached Patna on 19.06.2016 and had preliminary discussion with BKC. He emphasised
on a few points that includes (i) explain geological framework of the terrain including
type and nature of major rock types that constitutes the Rajgir Hills; (ii) prospect of
mapping of the cyclopean wall surrounding old Rajgir (Rajagriha); explore sites for
reported Palaeolithic tools from the area and (iv) any other issue related with geo-
archaeological exploration in the area. With this briefing mandate the author reached
Rajgir on the morning of 20.06.2016 and got introduced with S/Shri Manas Ranjan
Manvans, Ravi Anand, both from BHDS and Sailesh K Pandey from K.P.Jayaswal
Research Institute, all designated as Research Investigator; these officials accompanied
the author for field traverses. It may be mentioned that though on 20 th Rajgir was hot and
humid, the next two days field visit was severely constrained by intermittent heavy
shower. Also the duration of the visit was insufficient even for approaching all the
important sites.
1.2 On 20.06.2016 traverse was taken from Rajgir (modern) town towards south; crossed the
outer fortification (of stone blocks) through a narrow road gap between Vaibhara (in
west) and Vipula (in east) Hills, followed by the remnant of so called inner (north)
fortification (primarily of earth with occasional stone blocks) to enter the valley where
old Rajgir or Rajagriha was a thriving settlement during the 2nd half of the 1st millennium
BCE. The modern road runs through the SSE trending valley for about 2.0-2.5 km before
crossing the southern inner fortification wall (earth and some stone). Leaving the main
valley of Rajagriha, the road then follows SSW trend and passes through the gap
between the Sona (in west) and Udaya (in east) to enter the plains, south of the Rajgir
Hills. After crossing the Banganga stream, took the road that follows the southern end of
the Sona Hill towards Jethian. The village Jethian (ancient Lativana, Palm Grove) is
historically important as en route Gaya to Rajgir, Buddha was received by King
Bimbisara at this place. Made a short halt at Jethian to enquire about possible access
route towards the northeast corner of the Jethian valley, further east of Chakra Ghat, in
connection with reported Palaeolithic tools from the area. The team returned Rajgir via
the old historical road following the valley between Vaibhara Hill in the north and Sona
Hill to the south. Some of the sites visited include Son Bhandar, Chariot Wheel Mark,
Maniyar Math and Jarasandha Ka akhara apart from close inspection of the cyclopean
wall.
1.3 During the day’s traverse the author explained the geological framework of the Rajgir
Hills to the participant members. An oblique 3D view of the Rajgir Hills (Figure 1)
explains the structural geometry of the area (see explanatory note with the figure). The
major rock types in the area are different varieties of the quartzite and phyllite. Quartzite,
both massive and schistose types are of different colours varying from white, grey,
brown, pink and purple. These rocks are very hard and stand out as high hills in the area.
On the other hand phyllite is thinly laminated, soft, crumples while water charged and
easily eroded. Quartz veins are common in the area intruding along and across the
foliation of country rock, both quartzite and phyllite. Participant members were shown
different varieties of quartzite, phyllite and quartz veins both in field exposure and hand
specimen. It may be noted that inscriptions (Figure 2a) written on the wall of Son
Bhandar or those at Chariot Wheel Mark are mostly over the soft phyllite rock where as
sculptures (Figure 2b) were carved out from the hard quartzite. The Chariot wheel mark
is seen on the soft phyllitic rock and it is possible to make such indentation provided the
wheel rim was metallic and heavy.

Figure 2a Inscription on Phyllite rock at Chariot Wheel [Sankha Lipi

(or Calligraphic Brahmi); comment: Dr Rajat Sanyal, CU]

Figure 2b Sculpture carved out from quartzite and fixed within

Phyllite wall at Son Bhandar
Figure 1 Geological framework of the Rajgir Hills. Names of different hills are after Kuraishi and Ghosh (1951). Geological structure depicted after
consulting a number of reports & maps of Geological Survey of India (see http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/pls/portal/portal.home). The valley between the
Chhatha and Udaya Hills appears to be a synformal valley, Ghora Katora Hill to the extreme NE form the fold closure. An antiformal fold with Ratna and
Chhatha Hills as limbs followed to the north by a synformal closure between Vipula and Ratna Hills is the most probable structure. It appears that the eastern
limit of the old Rajgir valley coincides with the axial depression and traversed by a fault (F-F). West of this fault Sona Hill is an antiformal fold followed by a
major synform to the north. The folds have steep limbs and often overturned. The rising hills expose predominately massive quartzite while low lying areas
constituted of fissile phyllite. Quartz veins both parallel and across foliation are observed.
1.4 The cyclopean wall of Rajgir has been described and discussed in a number of scholarly
publications; the present author primarily consulted two such documents namely that by
Kuraishi and Ghosh (1951) and Chakrabarti (1976) for an appraisal of its status view.
The massive cyclopean wall running for about  40 km atop hills almost encircling old
Rajgir or Rajagriha, arguably for fortification, appears both intriguing and also
enigmatic. The city is located deep within a valley (RL  75m) surrounded by hills (RL
300m+); thus the hills Vaibhara-Vipula-Ratna-Chhatha-Udaya-Sona all stand like sub-
vertical walls of  225m+ height above the valley base, except near the north and south
gates of the so called outer fortification wall (see Figure 3). Erecting an additional 3-4 m
of wall with rock slabs atop wall like hills of Vaibhara – Vipula- Ratna- Chhatha- Udaya
etc appears irreconcilable for fortification purpose, as the hills itself stand like a natural
fortification so far as the kingdom of Rajagriha within the valley is concerned. The
possibility of erection of hill top stone slab wall at a much later date ante to sensu stricto
old Rajagriha establishment could be explored and in that case the concept of outer and
inner fortification of old Rajagriha appears redundant. The so called outer fortification
wall between the Vaibhara and Sona Hills (see Figure 3) though could theoretically
inhibit free access from southwest through the valley, but is location less than a km from
the inner fortification wall casts doubt about its purpose. This earthen dyke like wall
again could possibly be water retention/ flood protection structure unrelated to any sort
of fortification. Similarly at the south eastern portion of the inner fortification, the site of
the ‘Partition wall’ connecting Udyay Hill outer fortification through the valley needs re-
evaluation.
1.5 The cyclopean wall both inner and outer, surrounding old Rajgir needs mapping (the area
of Figure 3) in a reasonably large scale. To start with, aerial photographs of early mid
sixties needs to be studied to map out the walls; followed by study through CARTOSAT
2 stereo pair (1 m resolution). Bihar Remote Sensing Application Centre, Patna may be
approached for this work. Presently the inner fortification (earthen) wall has partly been
obliterated/ destroyed through anthropogenic activity; after proper mapping wherever
possible this wall of historic significance should be restored to its original shape. To
protect and to promote tourism, top surface of the inner wall can be ornamented with
decorative plants so that it can be seen from some distant view point on a nearby hill.
1.6 On day two i.e., on 21.06.2016 the team headed for Ghora Katora and adjacent areas, the
northern most point of the Rajgir Hills (see Figure 1). As guided by the BHDS and
KPJRI officials the idea was visit the Ghora Katora Lake and its surroundings for
archaeological remains including sites for Palaeolithic tools. After reaching the western
bank of the Panchana River skirting the eastern extremity of the Ghora Katora Hill, a
mound with a scarp section was visible at the eastern bank of the Panchana River. There
was no water in the river bed so crossed the sandy bed to study the scarp section. The
scarp is around 2.0 km long exposing river cut section varying between 2 to 4m.
Anticipating a possible shower a quick assessment/ documentation of the site was made
which has been summarised (see Figures 4, 5 & 6).
Figure 3 Map of Old Rajgir (after Kuraishi and Ghosh, 1951). The inner and outer fortification wall
has been coloured to make it prominent.
a. Giriak mound along eastern bank of Panchana River (Google earth 3D) b. View of Giriak mound (view from western bank of Panchana River)

c. Close-up view of southern part of the mound section in (b) above d. Fresh collapsed section of mound with brick layers (loc: south of figure c.)

Figure 4 View of Giriak (Ghora Katora) archaeological mound, eastern bank of Panchana River section, Rajgir.
a. Close-up view of (4d) showing slender (thin and long) bricks [Maurya
period?]

c. Potsherds: Red & Grey Ware; Black and Red Ware strewn along base of b. Close-up view of (a) showing in-situ brick layers [within mixed cultural and
the scarp section [early historic?] fluvial sediment]

Figure 5 Details of scarp section showing in-situ brick layers and potteries collected from the base of the scarp. Note that the site appears to be ideal for
studying Holocene chrono-stratigraphy through dating of fluvial sediments that may occur as deposit layers within cultural material.
 (i)

(ii)

(iii)
[a] [b]
Figure 6: (a) Modern type bricks within mixed hard soil and fluvial sediment (loc: southern part of
Giriak mound, Panchana River section); (b) Potsherds: Red & Grey ware; Black Slipped Ware strewn
along the base of mound scarp.
[b]

The site is close to the village Giriak (72G/12); published literature available (see Tiwari
and Saxena, 2013) indicates that Ghorakatora mound was excavated during 2007-09 by
ASI to document occupational deposit under a five-fold cultural sequence from
Chalcolithic to Pala Period. They further commented that the site may be considered
among the large Chalolithic settlements in Bihar but unfortunately under fast devastation
due to brick industries in the area. As already stated (see Figure 5 explanatory note) the
site must be revisited with specific project to reveal Holocene chrono-stratigraphy.
1.7 The team then traversed towards west to reach the village Jethian and proceeded towards
Bhojpur- Rangpur at the extreme northeast corner of the Jethian valley to explore the
reported locality of a rock shelter and Palaeolithic tools. Reportedly the site was located
about 2km further northeast of Rangpur and the team’s attempt to reach there had to be
aborted due to torrential rain. A better road being available proceeded towards Chakra
Ghat and a traverse was taken along a hilly stream in search to tools but the exercise
remained un-productive.
1.8 After a short break at Jethian the team returned and took another traverse along the
narrow Banganga valley between the peaks 263m and 208 m of Sona Hill. After crossing
the remnant of the outer fortification wall the team members collected two stone tools
like artefact and had to return to camp under heavy rain. Both the samples have been
subsequently handed over to BKC of BHDS. Though the shape of specimens resembled
tools, they lack regular man-made flaking and could as well be natural stones.
Nevertheless the present author posted photographs (Figure 7a, b) of the samples in
Research Gate site and sought comments from archaeologist experts. Several expert
opinion received those include (i) James A Green, Services Unlimited, Hammond, LA,
USA; (ii) Mark Keiter, Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld; (iii) Alan Smith, University of
KwaZulu-Natal; (iv) Jochen E Mezger, University of Alaska Fairbanks; (v) Varoujan k
Sissakian, Iraq Geological Survey (retd); (vi) Habib Alimohammadian, Geological
Survey of Iran; (vii) Md. Sultan-Ul-Islam, University of Rajshahi; (viii) Vivek S Kale,
Advanced Center for Water Resources and Management, Pune.
1.9 JAG and MK observed that in the absence of systematic flaking, the samples look to be
natural rather than man-made. AM was more reserved and commented that he has come
across palaeo-factories where the failures or rocks used to make other tools are strewn
about; he further stressed towards studying of populations of rock shapes (natural and
anthropogenic) in the area to avoid contentious identification. JEM is of the opinion that
though both samples look like they could have been used as a hand axe, they show no
signs of flaking. And these kinds of shapes are very common in massive (e.g. lacking
foliation) quartzite. VKS has a different opinion on the first photograph (Figure 7a); it
can be a Palaeolithic tool with rounded head that can be used for mortaring. He has seen
many such tools in Iraq. Though difficult to comment only through photograph, HA
opined that the specimens do not look like artefact. MSUI observed that as there is no
clear man-made flakes scars, specimens do not look to be artefact. VSK commented that
photos are insufficient to be conclusive and added useful suggestions. Additional
photographs of different views of the specimens were send to Sheila Mishra, Deccan
College, Pune through Bishnupriya Basak, CU; According to her though samples have
shape of handaxe, none of the negative scars are convincing except a few marginal ones
and that could be natural damage.
1.10Inclement weather totally spoiled 22.06.2016 and with great difficulty visited Brahm and
Suraj Kund but nothing could be studied. Returned to camp Rajgir, packed and returned
Patna after a short break at Nalanda Ruins.
Figure 7a Suspected tool from Banganga valley, Rajgir

Figure 7b Suspected tool from Banganga valley, Rajgir

 1.11Concluding Remarks
1.12Just two days visit to Rajgir could at best be considered as reconnoitre traverses for the
author. Nevertheless three points are highlighted for future reference: 1) At least the
portion of cyclopean wall as depicted in Figure 3 needs to be mapped. The inner wall
around old Rajgir must be mapped for its historical significance and be restored with
value added beautification to attract historical tourism. 2) A special project may be taken
involving archaeologist and geologist (Quaternary studies) to establish Holocene chrono-
stratigraphy vis-a-vis cultural sequence at Giriak-Ghorakatora mound east of Panchana
River. 3) A dedicated field trip in search of Palaeolithic tools is suggested.
1.13Acknowledgement
1.14 Dr Bishnupriya Basak, Department of Archaeology, Calcutta University introduced the author
with Dr Bijoy K. Chaudhary, Executive Director, Bihar Heritage Development Society (BHDS),
Patna, who in turn invited the author to visit Rajgir primarily to share geological knowledge and
other related issues with his field staff. The author is thankful to both BB and BKS for this offer.
After returning Patna on 22.06.2016 the author visited GSI office, Patna on 23.06.2016 to consult
geological reports and maps on Rajgir. Thanks due to Shri Som Nath Chandel, Deputy Director
General, GSI, Patna for his warm reception and fruitful discussion. Relevant information on the
archaeology of Rajgir area was thankfully provided by Dr Rajat Sanyal and Dr Kaushik
Gangopadhyay, Department of Archaeology, CU. Shri Basab Mukhopadhyay, Director, GSI,
Kolkata assisted in finalising Figure 1. Last but not the least appreciation is due to several
experts who commented through Research Gate on the nature of two specimens collected
including those from Dr Sheila Mishra, Deccan College, Pune.
1.15 References

Chakrabarti, D.K. 1976. Rajagriha: An early historic site in East India. World Archaeology, 7, 3, 261-
268.

Kuraishi, M.H. and Ghosh, A. 1951. Rajgir (3rd edition), Department of Archaeology, India, p.42

Tiwari, J.K. and Saxena, N. 2013. Recent archaeological investigations in Nalanda and surroundings
Bihar. Pragdhara, 23, 277- 290.

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