A Report on

“STUDY OF SOLAR POWER GENERATION”

Is submitted to
THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY
In Fulfilment for the award of the Degree In

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
PREPARED BY:
RAKESH NAVADIYA
MADHU GUNTI

GUIDED BY:
Mr. S.J. PATEL
Mr. N.J. YAGNIK

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY
KALABHAVAN VADODARA- 390001

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 THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Major Project Report entitled “STUDY OF
SOLAR POWER GENERATION” submitted by Mr. MADHU
GUNTI (Roll no.:411) and Mr. RAKESH NAVADIYA (Roll
no.:422) has been satisfactorily completed towards the fulfilment for
the award of degree in Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) in Electrical
Engineering of “The Maharaja Sayajirao University” is the record of
work carried out by them under my supervision and guidance. The work
submitted has in our opinion reached a level required for being accepted
for examination.

HEAD

PROF. SATISH K. SHAH

Electrical Engineering Dept.
Faculty of Tech. & Engg.
The M.S. University of Baroda
Baroda.
GUIDED BY:

Mr. S.J. Patel MR. N.J.YAGNIK

Professor, Director,
Electrical Engineering Dept. Shreeji Global Enterprise,
Faculty of Tech. & Engg. Baroda.
The M.S. University of Baroda
Baroda.
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to express our deep gratitude to our academic guide, Mr. S.J.Patel,
associated professor Electrical Engineering Department, The Maharaja
Sayajirao University of Baroda, for his excellent supervision, guidance and
advice.

We are thankful to professor S.K.SHAH, Head of department, Electrical

Engineering Department, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda for
allowing us to do our project work at Electrical Engineering Department, The
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda also we would like to thank to the
other faculties and staff member of Electrical Engineering Department, The
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda for their supports.

We had privilege to work under the esteemed guidance of Mr. N.J.Yagnik

Director, Shreeji Global Enterprise, Vadodara, who visualized our concept and
made this project success. His eagerness to help students in every possible way
and his suggestive ideas acted as the weapon against all the obstacles in the
successful completion of the project.

We would also like to express our gratitude towards Mr. Akhilesh for solving
our difficulties throughout the project.

Most importantly, we would like to thank our parents and our brothers for
everything that they have done for our thought out our life and the joy they
have brought to us for just having their support. Much of our success has been
because of their love and encouragement.

Last but not the least, we extend our warm thanks to all those people who
helped us during our project work whom we might have missed inadvertently.

Madhu Gunti

Navadiya Rakesh

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 ABSTRACT
The depletion of fossil fuel resources on a worldwide basis has necessitated an urgent
search for alternative energy sources to meet up the present day demands. Solar
energy is clean, inexhaustible and environment-friendly potential resource among
renewable energy options. But neither a standalone solar photovoltaic system nor a
wind energy system can provide a continuous supply of energy due to seasonal and
periodic variations. Therefore, in order to satisfy the load demand, grid connected
energy systems are now being implemented that combine solar and conventional
conversion units

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 INDEX
Contents

Chapter no Title Page no

1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................1
1.1 ENERGY CLASSIFICATION........................................................................................1
1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy.................................................................1
1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy....................................1
1.1.3 Renewable and Non- Renewable Energy .................................................2
1.2 WHY WE PREFER SUN NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE THAN
ANOTHER NONCONVENTIONAL SOURCES ................................................................3
1.3 WHAT IS SOLAR.......................................................................................................3
1.3.1 SUNLIGHT.................................................................................................4
1.4 ENERGY FROM SUN.................................................................................................5
1.5 WAYS FOR CONVERTING SOLAR ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY..................5
2 SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Parabolic Troughs..................................................................................................7
2.2 Central Receivers...................................................................................................8
2.3 Dish Systems .........................................................................................................9
2.4 SOLAR THERMAL POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS.................................................10
2.4.1 Rankine-Cycle Systems................................................................................10
2.4.2 Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems..................................................11
3 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY
3.1 BRIEF HISTORY.......................................................................................................13
3.1.1 Photovoltaic cell...........................................................................................13
3.1.2 Basic theory of photovoltaic cell..................................................................13
3.1.3 Series and parallel connection of PV cells....................................................15
3.2 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL..............................................................................15
3.2.1 Crystalline Technology..................................................................................16
3.2.2 Mono-Crystalline Silicon ..............................................................................16
3.2.3 Multi-Crystalline Silicon ...............................................................................16
3.2.4 Thin Film Technology ...................................................................................16
3.2.5 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Technology…………………………………….……........17
3.2.6 Cadmium Telluride Thin Film Technology…………………………………....…………..17
3.2.7 Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology…………………………………..………………..18
3.3 PHOTOVOLAIC MODULES........................................................................................19
3.4 PHOTOVOLAIC ARRAY..............................................................................................19
3.5 ELEMENTS INCLUDED I N A SYSTEM OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION..................20
3.6 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM..........................................................................21
3.6.1 Grid Connected PV Systems........................................................................21
3.6.2 Standalone Systems.......................................................................................22
3.6.3 Hybrid System................................................................................................23

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4 Solar System Design
4.1 Factors to be considered in Solar System Design ………………………………………………….24
4.1.1 Solar Radiation …………………………………………………………………………………….24
4.1.2 Atmospheric effect on Solar Radiation ……………..………………………………….25
4.1.3 Daily and Seasonal Temperature Variations …………………………………………26
4.1.4 Physical parameters ..................................................................................27
• Availability of Land Foundation needs
• Orientation and Obstructions
• Proximity of power Evacuation
• Water availability
• Any industries of pollution nearby
• Power supply for construction
4.2 System Design of Solar Photovoltaic Systems ……………………..……………..…………..28
4.2.1 Load Analysis ...........................................................................................28
• Accurate sizing
• Peak current loads
• Worst case scenarios
• Plan for future
• Compatibility issues
• Determining design margins
4.2.2 Solar Array Design ...................................................................................29
• Collector size
• Selection of most appropriate module
• Dust and Other contaminating effects
• Orientation and Tilt issues
• Design of Balance of Systems (BOS)
4.2.3 Battery Design .........................................................................................30
• Physical and Performance Requirement
• Reserve Capacity
• Temperature and Ageing deration
• Regulation and Charge control
4.3 System Design Philosophy..........................................................................................31
4.3.1 System design issues ...............................................................................31
4.3.2 Installation issues ....................................................................................32
4.3.3 Delivery issues .........................................................................................32
4.4 System Design Procedure ..........................................................................................33
4.4.1 Load Estimation.......................................................................................33
4.4.2 Battery Sizing ..........................................................................................35
4.4.3 Inverter Issues ........................................................................................38
4.4.4 Charge Controller ...................................................................................39
4.4.5 Array Sizing .............................................................................................39
5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
6 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….42

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List of figures
Figure no. Figure name
Figure 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources
Figure 1.2: Ways of converting solar energy into electrical energy
Figure 1.3: Solar thermal
Figure 1.4: Solar Photovoltaic
Figure 2.1 Trough Principle (courtesy of Pilkington Solar International)
Figure 2.2 Trough Drive Mechanism
Figure 2.3 Tower Principle
Figure. 2.4 dish system
Figure 2.5 Rankine-cycle stpp (courtesy of Pilkington solar international)
Figure 2.6 Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems
Figure 3.1: Photovoltaic cell
Figure 3.2: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 1
Figure 3.3: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 2
Figure 3.4: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 3
Figure 3.5: Series connection of cells
Figure 3.6: Parallel connection of cells
Figure 3.7: Mono crystalline silicon cell
Figure 3.8 : Thin film solar cell
Figure 3.9 : Concentrated PV Module (Source: green and go ld energy
Figure 3.10: PV cells are combined to create PV modules, which are linked to create PV
arrays
Figure 3.11: Grid Connected PV Systems
Figure 3.12: Off Grid PV Systems
Figure 3.13: Hybrid System
Figure 4.1: Areas of the world with high isolation (Source: Power from the sun)
Figure 4.2 How much solar energy?
Figure 4.3 Daily and Seasonal Temperature Variations

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1 INTRODUCTION
Energy plays a pivotal role in our daily activities. The degree of development and
civilization of a country is measured by the amount of utilization of energy by human beings.
Energy demand is increasing day by day due to increase in population, urbanization
and industrialization. The worlds fossil fuel supply viz. Coal petroleum and natural gas
will thus be depleted In a few hundred years. The rate of energy consumption increasing,
supply is depleting resulting in inflation and energy shortage. This is called energy crisis.
Hence alter native or renewable sources of energy have to be developed to meet future
energy requirement.

1.1 ENERGY CLASSIFICATION

Energy can be classified into several types:

1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common
primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other
primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances,
thermal energy stored in earth interior, and potential energy due to earth gravity. The major
primary and secondary energy sources are Coal, hydro power, natural gas, petroleum etc.
Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy
sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy
can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or
natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.

1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity,
coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial,
agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the
industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for
economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population. The
energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood,
cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a
price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-
commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
1.1.3 Renewable and Non- Renewable Energy

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 All forms of energy are stored in different ways, in the energy sources that we use
ever y day. These sources are divided into two groups -- renewable (an energy source that
we can use over and over again) and non-renewable (an energy source that we are using up
and cannot recreate in a short period of time).

Figure 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources and Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable and non-renewable energy sources can be used to produce secondary energy
sources including electricity and hydrogen. Renewable energy sources include solar energy,
which comes from the sun and can be turned into electricity and heat. Wind, geothermal
energy from inside the earth, biomass from plants, and hydropower and ocean energy
from water are also renewable energy source However, we get most of our energy from
non-renewable energy sources, which include the fossil fuels -- oil, natural gas, and coal.
They're called fossil fuels because they were formed over millions and millions of year s
by the action of heat from the Earth's core and pressure from rock and soil on the remains
(or "fossils") of dead plants and animals. Another non-renewable energy source is the
element uranium, whose atoms we split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create
heat and ultimately electricity. We use all these energy sources to generate the electricity
we need for our homes, businesses, schools, and factories. Electricity "energizes" our
computers, lights, refrigerators, washing machines, and air conditioners, to name only
a few uses. We use energy to run our cars and trucks. Both the gasoline used in our cars,
and the diesel fuel used in our trucks are made from oil. The propane that fuels our outdoor
grills and makes hot air balloons soar is made from oil and natural gas.

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1.2 WHY WE PREFER SUN NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE
THAN ANOTHER NONCONVENTIONAL SOURCES
Various types of non conventional energy sources are such as geothermal ocean tides, wind
and sun. All non conventional energy sources have geographical limitations. but Solar
energy has less geographical limitation as compared to other non conventional energy
sources because solar energy is available over the entire globe, and only the size of the
collector field needs to be increased to provide the same amount of heat or electricity.
It is the primary task of the solar energy system designer to determine the amount, quality
and timing of the solar energy available
at the site selected for installing a solar energy conversion system so among all
these solar energy seems to hold out the greatest promise f or the mankind. It is free,
inexhaustible, non- polluting and devoid of political control. Solar water heaters, space
heaters and cookers are already on the market and seem to be economically viable.
Solar photo voltaic cells, solar refrigerators and solar thermal power plants will be
'technically and economically viable in a short time. It is optimistically estimated that 50%
of the world power requirements in the middle of 21st century will come only from solar
energy. Enough strides have been made during last two decades to develop the direct
energy conversion systems to increase the plant efficiency 60% to 70% by avoiding the
conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy. Still this technology is on the
threshold of the success and it is hoped that this will also play a vital role in power
generation in coming future.
1.3 What is solar?
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and
consists of hot plasma with magnetic fields. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km, about
109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 2×1030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth)
accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. Chemically, about three
quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The
remainder (1.69%, which nonetheless equals 5,628 times the mass of Earth) consists of
heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, iron, and others.
The Sun's stellar classification, based on spectral class, is G2V, and is informally designated
as a yellow dwarf, because its visible radiation is most intense in the yellow-green portion of
the spectrum and although its color is white, from the surface of the Earth it may appear
yellow because of atmospheric scattering of blue light. In the spectral class label, G2
indicates its surface temperature of approximately 5778 K (5505 °C), and V indicates that

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the Sun, like most stars, is a main-sequence star, and thus generates its energy by nuclear
fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses 620 million metric tons of
hydrogen each second. Once regarded by astronomers as a small and relatively insignificant
star, the Sun is now thought to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the Milky Way
galaxy, most of which are red dwarfs. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is +4.83; however,
as the star closest to Earth, the Sun is the brightest object in the sky with an apparent
magnitude of −26.74. The Sun's hot corona continuously expands in space creating the solar
wind, a stream of charged particles that extends to the heliopause at roughly 100
astronomical units. The bubble in the interstellar medium formed by the solar wind, the
heliosphere, is the largest continuous structure in the Solar System.

1.3.1 Sunlight
Sunlight is Earth's primary source of energy. The solar constant is the amount of power that
the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is
equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one
astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of
Earth is attenuated by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at the surface—
closer to 1,000 W/m2 in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith.
Solar energy can be harnessed by a variety of natural and synthetic processes—
photosynthesis by plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical form
(oxygen and reduced carbon compounds), while direct heating or electrical conversion by
solar cells are used by solar power equipment to generate electricity or to do other useful
work, sometimes employing concentrating solar power (that it is measured in suns). The
energy stored in petroleum and other fossil fuels was originally converted from sunlight by
photosynthesis in the distant past.

1.4 Energy from the Sun

About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.
The Earth receives 174 pet watts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (isolation) at the upper
atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by

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clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly
spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet.

Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption

Solar 3,850,000 EJ[7]
Wind 2,250 EJ[8]
Biomass 3,000 EJ[9]
Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ[10]
Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ[11]

1.5 WAYS FOR CONVERTING SOLAR ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

There are two ways by which we can convert solar energy into electrical energy. These are
as shown in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Ways of converting solar energy into electrical energy

solar thermal: The solar collectors concentrate sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid to a
high temperature. The hot heat transfer fluid is then used to generate steam that drives the
power conversion subsystem, producing electricity. Thermal energy storage provides heat
for operation during periods without adequate sunshine.

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Figure 1.3: Solar thermal

Solar Photovoltaic: Another way to generate electricity from solar energy is to use
photovoltaic cells; magic slivers of silicon that converts the solar energy falling on them
directly into electricity. Large scale applications of photovoltaic for power generation,
either on the rooftops of houses or in large fields connected to the utility gr id are
promising as well to provide clean, safe and strategically sound alternatives to current
methods of electricity generation.

Figure 1.4: Solar Photovoltaic

2 SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY
The solar collector is the first major component of the Solar Thermal power plant. This
report focuses on parabolic troughs and central receivers because they are judged to be the
only solar thermal technologies that can make a significant contribution to the electrical grid
in the near to medium-term. Furthermore, troughs and towers are designed for large-scale

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grid applications, whereas other solar technologies such as solar dishes are better suited to
distributed small-scale application.
2.1 Parabolic Troughs
Parabolic troughs consist of long parallel rows of reflectors (typically, glass mirrors) that are
curved to form a trough. At the focal point of the reflector is the absorber tube or receiver.
The receiver is a pipe treated with a low-e coating encased in a glass cylinder, the space
between the pipe and glass cover is evacuated. The rows are arranged along a north-south
axis and they rotate from east to west over each day. Parabolic troughs can achieve
concentration ratios (ratio of solar flux on the receiver to that on the mirrors) of between 10
and 100.
A heat transfer fluid or HTF (typically, an oil) is circulated through the receiver to remove
the solar heat. The HTF can be heated to temperatures of up to 400 oC. The fluid is pumped
to a heat exchanger where its heat is transferred to water or steam. The parabolic trough
can collect up to 60% of the incident solar radiation and has achieved a peak electrical
conversion efficiency of 20% (net electricity generation to incident solar radiation).
Nine trough systems were constructed in the 1980s and are currently generating 354 MW of
electricity in Southern California. Three types of collectors were used over this period,
however, the basic size and construction are similar. The troughs are approximately 5
meters wide in rows up to 100 meters long. See Section 3.2 for a more complete description
of these plants.

Figure 2.1 Trough Principle (courtesy of Pilkington Solar International)

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 Figure 2.2 Trough Drive Mechanism

2.2 Central Receivers

Central receivers, or power towers, consist of a central tower surrounded by a large array of
mirrors or heliostats. The heliostats are flat mirrors that track the sun on two axes (east to
west and up and down). The heliostats reflect the sun’s rays onto the central receiver. The
sun’s energy is transferred to a fluid: water, air, liquid metal and molten salt have been
used. This fluid is then pumped to a heat exchanger or directly to a turbine generator.
Central receivers can achieve higher concentration ratios (800) and therefore higher
delivery temperatures than parabolic troughs (up to 565 oC). The solar collection efficiency is
approximately 46% and the peak electrical conversion efficiency (i.e., conversion from solar
radiation to electricity) is 23%. Several Central receiver demonstration projects have been
constructed around the world and one commercial plant was built in Southern California:
Solar One. Solar One was recently modified and is now referred to as Solar Two.

Figure 2.3 Tower Principle

2.3 Dish Systems
Dish systems use dish-shaped parabolic mirrors as reflectors to concentrate and focus the
sun's rays onto a receiver, which is mounted above the dish at the dish centre. A
dish/engine system is a stand-alone unit com-posed primarily of a collector, a receiver, and

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an engine (see Fig.2 below). It works by collecting and con-contracting the sun's energy with
a dish-shaped surface onto a receiver that absorbs the energy and transfers it to the engine.
The engine then converts that energy to heat. The heat is then converted to mechanical
power, in a manner similar to conventional engines, by compressing the working fluid when
it is cold, heating the compressed working fluid, and then expanding it through a turbine or
with a piston to produce mechanical power. An electric generator or alternator converts the
mechanical power into electrical power. Dish/engine systems use dual-axis collectors’ to
track the sun. The ideal Concentra-tor shape is parabolic, created either by a single
reflective surface or multiple reflectors, or facets. Many options exist for receiver and
engine type, including Stir-ling cycle, micro turbine, and concentrating photovoltaic
modules. Each dish produces 5 to 50 kW of electricity and can be used independently or
linked together to increase generating capacity. A 250-kW plant composed of ten 25-kW
dish/engine systems requires less than an acre of land. Dish/engine systems are not
commercially available yet, although ongoing demonstrations indicate good potential.
Individual dish/engine systems currently can generate about 25 kW of electricity. More
capacity is possible by connecting dishes together. These systems can be combined with
natural gas, and the resulting hybrid provides continuous power generation.

Fig. 2.4 dish system

2.4 SOLAR THERMAL POWER CONVERSION SYSTEMS
The second major component of the STPP is the power conversion system that is used to
convert the heat into electricity. Two technologies are considered in this study:
· Rankine-Cycle STPP

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· Integrated Solar Combined-Cycle Systems (ISCCS) and other hybrid systems.
To date, all STPPs have been Rankine-cycle systems. Rankine-cycle plants are a mature
technology that offers a high solar contribution. Recently, integrating the solar collector
system with a gas-fired combined-cycle system has been proposed as a lower cost
alternative for generating solar-powered electricity.
2.4.1 Rankine-Cycle Systems
The Rankine-cycle STPP is a steam-based power plant with solar energy as the heat source.
The system is a typical rankine cycle (see figure 1.3). The hot collector heat transfer fluid
Transfers its heat in the heat exchanger to the water/steam. The steam drives the turbine to
Produce electricity. The spent steam is condensed into water in the condenser. The water is
re-heated in the heat exchanger and the cycle repeats.
Because of the seasonal and daily variation in solar radiation, a Rankine-cycle system can
only Be expected to operate at full load for approximately 2400 hours annually (25%
capacity factor) Without the use of thermal storage. In most cases, it makes sense to add a
fossil-fuel heater so That the system can operate at full load for more hours. Sags are usually
designed so that the Plant can operate at full load on fossil fuel alone. Back-up fuels can be
coal, oil, naphtha and Natural gas.
The number of hours a plant operates will depend on local conditions. In most cases,
however, It makes sense to operate this type of plant to meet the daily periods of high
demand for Electricity (10 to 12 hours per day). Rankine-cycle systems suffer from relatively
low efficiencies (whether solar or fossil-fuel Powered). The conversion of heat to electricity
has an efficiency of about 40%. If the conversion Efficiency from fossil fuel to heat is
included, the plant efficiency drops to approximately 35%.

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 Figure 2.5 Rankine-cycle stpp (courtesy of Pilkington solar international)
2.4.2 Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems
Combined cycle natural gas systems are becoming a popular electricity generation system in
areas where natural gas is available. A combined cycle plant uses a gas combustion turbine
as the first stage in electricity generation. The hot flue gases from the turbine pass through a
heat exchanger (Heat Recovery Steam Generator) to generate steam. The steam drives a
steam turbine as the second stage in the electricity production process. Combined cycle
systems have heat-to-electricity efficiencies of approximately 55%. Solar energy can be
integrated into the second stage of this process. These systems are referred to as Integrated
Solar Combined Cycle Systems (ISCCS) (see Figure 1.4). ISCCS differ from the Rankine-cycle
systems in that the solar components are an add-on to a conventional power plant,
sometimes referred to as a solar boost. Solar heat can either generate additional steam in
the Heat Recovery Steam Generator (option A) or can generate low-pressure steam to be
injected directly into the steam turbine (option B). In either case, the capacity of the steam
turbine is increased over that in a conventional combined cycle to handle the additional
solar-generated steam.
At peak output, The solar system accounts for 20 to 30% of combined cycle output. Thus,
the solar systems can boost the output of a 100 MW combined cycle plant to 130 MW. On
an annual basis, the solar contribution drops to approximately 10%. It is important to note
that the solar system does not generate electricity by itself; it is designed to operate as a
power boost when the gas turbine is running. In addition, the system must be well designed
so that the performance of the combined cycle does not suffer when solar heat is
unavailable.
ISCCS offers two main advantages over other power plants. First, the peak capacity of the
power can be increased at a lower capital cost than other power plants because the main
incremental cost (other than for the solar field) is for a larger steam turbine. Second, the
integration of a solar system with a combined cycle boosts power often when it is needed
most. Conventional combined cycle systems suffer a reduction in plant output when the
outdoor temperature is high. The lower density of the air reduces the mass flow through the
gas turbine and therefore reduces its output. Generally, the solar system has its peak output
in early afternoon when the outdoor temperature is highest A second method of integrating
a solar system with a gas turbine plant has been proposed. In this system, referred to as a
Solar Energy Enhanced Combustion Turbine (SEECOT TM), the heat from the solar system is

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used to drive an absorption cooling system (see Figure 1.5). The cooling system cools the gas
turbine inlet air, thereby increasing its efficiency. This approach overcomes the problem
described in the previous paragraph. In addition, the solar generated steam can be mixed
with the gas to increase the mass flow rate and output of the turbine.

Fig 2.6 Integrated Solar Combined Cycle Systems

3 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY

Photovoltaic s offer consumers the ability to generate electricity in a clean, quiet and
reliable way. Photovoltaic systems are comprised of photovoltaic cells, devices that convert
light energy directly into electricity. Because the source of light is usually the sun, they are
often called solar cells. The word photovoltaic comes from “photo” meaning light and

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“voltaic” which refers to producing electricity. Therefore, the photovoltaic process is
“producing electricity directly from sunlight. Photovoltaic are often refer red to as PV.
3.1 BRIEF HISTORY
In 1839 Edmond Becquerel accidentally discovered photovoltaic effect when he was
working on solid-state physics. In 1878 Adam and Day presented a paper on photovoltaic
effect. In 1883 Fxitz fabricated the firs thin film solar cell. In 1941 Ohl fabricated silicon PV
cell but that was very inefficient. In 1954 Bell labs Chopin, Fuller, Pear son fabricated PV cell
with efficiency of 6%. In 1958 PV cell was used as a backup power source in satellite
Vanguard-1. This extended the life of satellite for about 6 years [24].
3.1.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
A device that produces an electric reaction to light,producing electricity. PV cells do not use
the sun s heat to produce electricity. They produce electricity directly when sunlight
interacts with semiconductor materials in the PV cells.

Figure 3.1: Photovoltaic cell

“A typical PV cell made of crystalline silicon is 12 centimetres in diameter and 0.25
millimetres thick. In full sunlight, it generates 4 amperes of direct current at 0.5 volts or 2
watts of electrical power [25].

3.1.2 Basic theory of photovoltaic cell

Photovoltaic cells are made of silicon or other semi conductive materials that are also used
in LSIs and transistors for electronic equipment. Photovoltaic cells use two types of
semiconductors, one is P-type and other is N-type to generate electricity [27].
When sunlight strikes a semiconductor, integer ate pairs of electrons ( -) and protons (+).

Figure 3.2: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 1

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 When an electron (-) and a proton (+) reach the joint surface between the two types
of semiconductors, the former is attracted to N-type and the latter to the P-type
semiconductor. Since the joint surface supports only one way traffic, they are not able to
Rejoin once they are drawn apart and separated.

Figure 3.3: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 2

Since the N- type semiconductor now contains an electron ( -), and P-type semiconductor
contains a proton (+), an electromotive ( voltage) force is generated. Connect both
electrodes with conductors and the electrons runs from N- type to P-type semiconductors,
and the proton from P-type to N-type semiconductors to make an electrical current.

Figure 3.4: Basic theory of photovoltaic cell 3

3.1.3 Series and parallel connection of PV cells
Solar cells can be thought of as solar batteries. I f solar cells are connected in series, then
the current stays the same and the voltage increases.

Figure 3.5: Series connection of cells

If solar cells are connected in parallel, the voltage stays the same, but the current increases.

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 Figure 3.6: Parallel connection of cells
As we know those Solar cells are combined to form a „module to obtain the voltage and
current (and therefore power) desired.

3.2 Types of Photovoltaic’s cells

The heart of the Solar energy generation system is the Solar cell. It consists of three
major elements, namely:
• The semiconductor material which absorbs light and converts it into electron-hole pairs.
• The junction formed within the semiconductor, which separates the photo-generated
carriers (electrons and holes)
• The contacts on the front and back of the cell that allow the current to flow to
the external circuit.

Two main streams of technologies have been evolved for the manufacture of Solar
Cells/Modules namely
• Flat plate Technology
• Concentrated Technology
The Flat Plate Technology is further classified in two ways namely Crystalline Technology
and Thin Film Technology. The Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology has been
classified according to the Type of cell and the Optical system.

3.2.1 Crystalline Technology

Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) was chosen as the first choice for solar cells, since this material
formed the foundation for all advances in semiconductor technology. The technology
led to development of stable solar cells with efficiency up to 20%.

Two types of crystalline silicon are used in the industry. They are
• Monocrystalline Silicon
• Multicrystalline Silicon

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3.2.2 Mono-Crystalline Silicon
Mono-Crystalline Silicon cells are produced by growing high purity, single crystal Si rods and
slicing them into thin wafers. Single crystal wafer cells are expensive. They are cut from
cylindrical ingots and do not completely cover a square solar module. This results in
substantial waste of refined silicon. The efficiency of mono-crystalline silicon cells remains
between 17-18% because of the purity level.
Figure 10 below depicts the Monocrystalline Cell

Figure 3.7: Mono crystalline silicon cell

3.2.3 Multi-Crystalline Silicon

Poly-crystalline silicon cells are made from sawing a cast block of silicon first into
bars and then wafers. This technology is also known as Multi crystalline technology. Poly-
Si cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells as the energy
intensive process for purification of silicon is not required. They are less efficient than
single crystalline cells. The efficiency of poly crystalline silicon cells ranges from13-14%.

3.2.4 Thin Film Technology

In Thin Film Solar technology, a very thin layer of chosen semiconductor material
(ranging from nanometer level to several micrometers in thickness) is deposited on to
either coated glass or stainless Steel or a polymer substrate.
Various thin-film technologies are being developed to reduce the amount of
light-absorbing materials required to construct the solar cell. This results in reduction of
processing cost. However, conversion efficiencies are also lower in these cases (average 7-
10%). As the modules are of lesser efficiency for same level of energy requirement,
longer collector area is required and consequently more requirement of land. This
technology is, therefore, apt where non productive land is available for example deserts
of Rajasthan. They have become popular compared to wafer silicon due to lower costs,
flexibility, lighter weights, and ease of integration. Figure 11 below depicts the Thin
Film Cell

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 Figure 3.8 : Thin film solar cell
3.2.5 Amorphous Silicon Thin Film Technology
Silicon thin-film cells are mainly deposited by chemical vapor deposition (typically plasma-
enhanced
PE-CVD process) from silage gas and hydrogen gas. Depending on the deposition
parameters, this can yield:

• Amorphous silicon (a-Si or a-Si:H)

• Protocrystalline silicon
• Nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si or nc-Si:H), also called microcrystalline silicon.

It has been found that protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline
silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage. The solar cells made from these materials
tend to have lower energy conversion efficiency than bulk silicon, but are also less
expensive to produce. The quantum efficiency of thin-film solar cells is also lower due to
reduced number of collected charge carriers per incident photon.

3.2.6 Cadmium Telluride Thin Film Technology

A Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) solar cell is a solar cell based on cadmium telluride, an efficient
light- Absorbing material for thin-film cells. Compared to other thin-film materials, CdTe is
easier to deposit and more suitable for large-scale production.
CdTe technology significantly refined over the past few years. It is uniquely capable of
producing high-volume, low-cost modules, making widespread, affordable solar electricity a
reality.
The physical characteristics of CdTe are such that it is almost perfectly matched to the solar
spectrum. This allows CdTe modules to absorb more of the available solar energy in
low and diffuse light situations – such as dawn and dusk and under cloudy skies and
convert it into electricity more efficiently than conventional cells. As a result, CdTe thin
film modules will generally produce more electricity under real world conditions than
conventional solar modules with similar power ratings.

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 3.2.7 Concentrated Photovoltaic Technology
In Concentrated Photovoltaic (CPV) systems, solar energy collected over large area is
focused on each cell having smaller area, to achieve higher power output and
improved conversion efficiency. Thus the expensive semiconductor material required
for power generation is reduced giving a substantial cost advantage. Although Si based
SPV technology is fairly mature, CPV technology is still evolving and has a huge potential.
Primary reason for using CPV is that, same amount of semiconductor material can
produce higher amount of energy thus reducing the cost of power generation
significantly. In CPV systems, optical materials like mirror or lenses are us to collect
sunlight on large area and focused onto each cell having smaller area. Despite the
advantages of CPV technologies, their application has been limited because of the costs
of focusing, sun tracking and cooling arrangements. Figure 12 below depicts a
Concentrated PV Module.

Figure 3.9 : Concentrated PV Module (Source: green and go ld energy

3.3 PHOTOVOLAIC MODULES

PV cells are the basic building blocks of PV modules. For almost all applications, the one-half
volt produced by a single cell is inadequate. Therefore, cells are connected together in series
to increase the voltage. Several of these series strings of cells may be connected together in
parallel to increase the current as well.
These interconnected cells and their electrical connections are then sandwiched
between a top layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower level of plastic or plastic and metal.
An outer frame is attached to increase mechanical strength, and to provide a way to mount
the unit. This package is called a "module" or "panel". Typically, a module is the basic
building block of photovoltaic systems. PV modules consist of PV cells connected in

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series (to increase the voltage) and in parallel (to increase the current), so that the output
of a PV system can match the requirements of the load to be powered. The PV cells in a
module can be wired to any desired voltage and current.
The amount of current produced is directly proportional to the cell s size, conversion
efficiency, and the intensity of light. Groups of 36 series connected PV cells are packaged
together into standard modules that provide a nominal 12 volt (or 18 volts @ peak power).
PV modules were originally configured in this manner to charge 12-volt batteries.

3.4 PHOTOVOLAIC ARRAY

Desired power, voltage, and current can be obtained by connecting individual PV
modules in series and parallel combinations in much the same way as batteries. When
modules are fixed together in a single mount they are called a panel and when two
or more panels are used together, they are called an array. Single panels are also called ar
rays. When circuits are wired in series (positive to negative), the voltage of each panel
is added together but the amperage remains the same. When circuits are wired in
parallel (positive to positive, negative to negative), the voltage of each panel remains the
same and the amperage of each panel is added. This wiring principle is used to build
photovoltaic (PV) modules. Photovoltaic modules can then be wired together to create PV
arrays.

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Figure 3.10: PV cells are combined to create PV modules, which are linked to create PV
arrays

3.5 ELEMENTS INCLUDED IN A SYSTEM OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION

The main elements that can be included in a system of photovoltaic conversion are [4]:
Batteries, Photovoltaic Modules, Loads DC and AC, Load Regulator s, Invertors, Converters...
Batteries: Normally they have been considered as a simple element of storage of
electrical energy. Batteries are often sold with a PV system. The primary purpose is to
store the electricity not immediately used, which could be used at some later time. With
net metering, the value of batteries is less because the utility grid basically acts as a
storage facility. For a reliable generation system that can function independent of the
utility grid, however, batteries may be a viable component to the total system. Back-up
generators may be included in a system to provide power when the PV system is not
operating, and are generally included when systems are not grid connected. Neither
batteries nor generators are eligible for rebate money.

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Solar panel: The solar panel is the power source of all photovoltaic installation. It is the
result of a set of photovoltaic cells in series and parallel. Solar panel gives power to
battery or inverter through charge controller (Regulator).
Regulator: It is the element to protect the battery against to risking situations as
over loads and over discharges. The theoretical formulation of the model can be simple,
although it is necessary to consider the peculiar discontinuities of the model and the inter
performance with the rest of the analyzed models.
Inverter: The inverter allows transforming the DC current to AC. A photovoltaic
installation that incorporates an inverter can belong to two different situations, based on
the characteristics of the alternating network. In first an isolated system, where the
inverter is the element of the network and has to feed the set of loads and in second
situation the inverter is connected to the public network, to which it sends the energy
generated by the system.
Converter: The positioning of a converter between the panels and the batteries will
improve the whole photovoltaic installation, allowing different controls from the system.
Depending on the applied regulation, the panels will contribute to the maximum energy
given to the system or the optimal energy for their operation, assuring an efficient charge
of the battery.
Load: It is the component responsible to absorb this energy and transform it into work.

3.6 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

PV technology was first applied in space, by providing electricity to satellites. Today,
PV systems can be used to power just about anything on Earth. On the basis working
operation PV systems operate in four basic forms [29].
3.6.1 Grid Connected PV Systems -These systems are connected to a broader
electricity
network. The PV system is connected to the utility grid using a high quality inverter,
which converts DC power from the solar array into AC power that conforms to the grid s
electrical requirements. During the day, the solar electricity generated by the system is
either used immediately or sold off to electricity supply companies. In the evening, when
the system is unable to supply immediate power , electricity can be bought back from the
network.

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 Figure 3.11: Grid Connected PV Systems
3.6.2 Standalone Systems: PV systems not connected to the electric utility grid are known
as
Off Grid PV Systems and also called „stand-alone systems. Direct systems use the PV
power immediately as it is produced, while battery storage systems can store energy to be
used at a later time, either at night or during cloudy weather . These systems are used in
isolation of electricity gr ids, and may be used to power radio repeater stations, telephone
booths and street lighting. PV systems also provide invaluable and affordable electricity
in developing countries like India, where conventional electricity grids are unreliable or
non-existent.

Figure 3.12: Off Grid PV Systems

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3.6.3 Hybrid System: A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of power
generation,
usually a diesel generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of power generation is
usually a type which is able to modulate power output as a function of demand. However
more than one form of renewable energy may be used e.g. wind and solar. The
photovoltaic power generation serves to reduce the consumption of non renewable fuel.

Figure 3.13: Hybrid System

Grid Tied with Battery Backup PV system: Solar energy stored in batteries can be
used at night time. Using net metering, unused solar power can be sold back to the grid.
With this system, you will have power even if your neighbrhood has lost power.

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4 SOLAR SYSTEM DESIGN
4.1 Factors to be considered in Solar System Design

4.1.1 Solar Radiation

Solar Energy is a perennial and pervasive source of energy. Solar electricity is ideal for
remote electrification in the current context. Standalone SPV power plants is the ideal
choice for rural remote villages where conventional grid extension is not viable either
due to inhospitable terrain or due to poor density of load.
Figure 22 shows regions of high isolation where solar energy conversion systems will
produce maximum amount of energy from a specific collector field size.

Figure4.1: Areas of the world with high isolation (Source: Power from the sun)

The annual average isolation level can be found out in the NASA website given longitude,
latitude, altitude and certain other details. Solar technologies using concentrating systems
for electrical production require sufficient direct beam radiation, which is the beam
radiation from the sun that passes through the planet's atmosphere without deviation
and refraction. Consequently, appropriate site locations are normally situated in arid to
semi-arid regions. Acceptable production costs of solar electricity occur where radiation
levels exceed about 1700 kWh/m²-yr.
Most Suitable regions include the southwest United States, Northern Mexico, the
North African desert, the Arabian Peninsula, major portions of India, Central and
Western Australia, the high plateaus of the Andean states, and Northeastern Brazil.
Promising site locations in Europe are found in Southern Spain and several Mediterranean
islands.

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4.1.2 Atmospheric effect on Solar Radiation
For utilization of solar energy, it is necessary to know the amount of depletion of
incoming solar radiation by the atmosphere. It has been reported that for clear sky
conditions, the fractions of direct solar radiation which is depleted due to various reasons
are: 2

1. Atmospheric scattering 9%
2. Surface reflection 6%
3. Other gases, smoke, dust etc. 3%

Fig 4.2 How much solar energy?

In astronomy, air mass is the optical path length through the earth's atmosphere for
light from a celestial source. As it passes through the atmosphere, light is attenuated by
scattering and absorption; the more atmosphere through which it passes, the greater
the attenuation. Consequently, celestial bodies on the horizon appear less bright than
when at the zenith. The attenuation, known as atmospheric extinction, is described
quantitatively by the Beer-Lambert-Bouguer law.

Air Mass
“Air mass” normally indicates relative air mass, the path length relative to that at the
zenith at sea level. By definition, the sea-level air mass at the zenith is one. Air
mass increases as the angle between the source and the zenith increases, reaching a
value of approximately 38 at the horizon. Air mass can be less than one at an elevation
greater than sea level. However, most closed-form expressions for air mass do not
include the effects of elevation, so adjustment must usually be accomplished by other
means. Designation of Solar Air Masses is shown in Figure 23 below.

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4.3 Daily and Seasonal Temperature Variations

One of the most popular myths about the use of solar energy is that on cloudy days there
will not be any electricity generation. This is classified in detail below:

Solar PV Systems
In a cloudy day Solar PV panels produce electricity from diffused sunlight . The amount
of energy that can be collected is certainly less than the amount that can be captured on a
sunny day, the process of collection depends on degree of sunlight. This energy can be
stored in batteries, which can cater to needs during the night. 3

Concentrating Solar Thermal Heating Systems

Concentrating collectors produce electricity from direct sunlight. So they work best in
climates that have a high amount of direct solar radiation . They do not function on
cloudy days, when available solar radiation is mostly diffused. The amount of useful heat
they produce is mainly a function of the intensity of solar radiation available, the size of
the reflector, how well they concentrate solar energy onto the receiver, the
characteristics of the absorber, and the control of the flow rate of the heat transfer
fluid

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4.1.4 Physical Parameters
The following are the list of a few physical parameters that needs to be considered
while selecting suitable location for the installation of solar energy system. These
parameters are most appropriate for large scale solar systems like solar power plants.

Availability of Land and Foundation needs

The land must be plain and continuous. Non fertile, barren land should only be
considered. Rocky terrain shall be preferred so that the cost of foundation will be cheaper.

Orientation and Obstructions

The proposed land for SPV power generation must have a clear south facing without any
obstruction in Southern hemisphere.

Proximity of Power Evacuation

Proximity of high tension substation is an important factor for the proposed site as the
cost of laying transmission line is significant.

Water Availability
Water is required for the construction purpose and for periodic cleaning of solar
panels as a part of daily Operation and Maintenance.

Any industries of pollution nearby

It is suggested that the site be selected, which does not have any Polluting industries
in the neighborhood. Otherwise the smoke and dust emitted by these industries forms a
deposition on top of panels resulting in Array losses.

Power supply for construction

Availability of adequate power supply for construction work is necessary.

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4.2 System Design of Solar PV Systems
4.2.1 Load Analysis
Accurate Sizing
Accurate sizing of the load involves analyzing the various components in the load list
in terms of energy requirements. It includes the current drawn by each component,
Operating voltage range of that component and its expected duty cycle.

Peak current loads

For equipment loads that are variable or pulsating, identify "peak" current levels
unless definite patterns or duty cycles are determinable.

Worst case scenarios

Assessment of worst case scenario is extremely important because any small increment in
load apart from already assessed load can lead to system unbalance or a cycling down
of battery capacity. So, Assessing worst case load scenario is important. Worst case load
scenario could be consequent to any load variations due to seasonal conditions.

Plan for the future

The system must be designed focusing on the future needs. The system must be scalable to
cater to the needs of expansion.

Compatibility issues
The system must be compatible with existing systems to meet the load requirements.
All the loads must be cross checked to ensure their compatibility of operation
throughout the upper and lower voltage ranges of the solar system.

Determine design margins

Additional design margins to be considered and kept at minimum level to make the system
more cost effective because of the early consideration of worst case load scenario
and possible system expansions.

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4.2.2 Solar Array Design
Solar array is one of the major subsystems of any solar power generating system.
Solar array is formed by connecting solar “modules” in series and/or parallel arrangement.
This array produce direct current with respect to the incident solar radiation.The following
are the factors that need to be considered in designing solar array for power generation.

Collector size
The required solar collector area depends on the solar isolation level of a particular region.
A region with poor isolation level will need a larger collector area than one with high
insolation levels. Once isolation level of a region is known, the required collector size and
energy output can be computed with some precision.

Selection of most appropriate module

Solar modules are often rated on the basis of peak watts , and their electrical
characteristics are described on a current-voltage curve popularly known as I-V curve.
However, the most important factor is the module's behavior under expected
operating conditions. One very important concern is module's charging voltage generation
under expected high temperature. It must be adequate to charge the battery after providing
for system losses.

Dirt and Other contaminating effects

Dirt and other contaminants (e.g. bird-droppings) on the face of the solar array can reduce
the power output. Site conditions should be assessed to gauge the problems associated
with contaminants. The mitigating solutions like special mounting considerations, more
frequent cleaning could be recommend. If the tilt angle of the array is less than 30°,
buildup of dirt and other contaminants can be expected.

Orientation and Tilt issues

The specific orientation and tilt of the solar array should be adopted to optimize system
power during the worst-case periods of the year and when the average solar
insolation is lowest and load requirements are highest. It may be desirable in certain
locations to increase the array tilt to aid the clearing of snow and ice.

Design of Balance of Systems (BOS)

Design of Balance of Systems is a very important factor in system design. Balance of systems
include the Charge controller, Battery, Cables etc. Balance of systems must be designed in
such a way that it is neither too small nor too large.

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4.2.3 Battery Design
Battery selection and sizing is critical to overall system performance and reliability.
The battery serves as an energy buffer, storing excess energy produced by the solar
array during the day and releasing that energy as required during night and periods
of inclement weather, when the array is unable to support the load. The following
are some important factors that need to be considered in designing a battery bank.
Physical and Performance Requirements
The battery should be capable of handling both the physical and electrical rigors of
the application, while providing the desired life expectancy and reliability. Key areas to be
considered include:
• Cycle life
• Capacity to withstand extended undercharged condition
• Capability to withstand extended overcharging when array output is not regulated
• Charge efficiency and degree of self-discharge
• Need for equalization
• Performance and life effects of temperature extremes
• Tolerance of abuse
• Maintenance requirements
Reserve Capacity
The capacity of the battery should be sized to override:
1. Expected uncertainties in solar insolation
2. Any seasonal periods when the array power is unable to fully match the load
requirements.
Temperature and Ageing duration
Battery performance is not static but will vary with age and environmental
conditions. Battery performance should be de rated to compensate for loss of capacity due
to ageing and the reduction in available capacity due to low temperature.
These factors will vary with type of battery. An additional consideration for certain
applications will be the life-shortening effects of sustained high-temperature
environments.
Regulation and Charge control
A system regulator or Charge controller may be necessary to prevent excessive
overcharge during peak periods of solar radiation, which could damage some
batteries, particularly flat plate lead acid batteries and sealed maintenance-free
batteries. A regulator or controller may also be desirable to reduce battery water
consumption and extend required maintenance intervals.

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4.3 System Design Philosophy
The data gathered as indicated above is used to make the choices needed during
system design. Design is not just plugging in some numbers in respective formulae. It
involves balancing calculations with judgments and selecting elements and subsystems
based on information about climate, load and the client background.
A few important steps that need to be considered in system design is given below.

4.3.1 System design issues

Array sizing: The number of modules to be connected in series and parallel to build the
array can be calculated depending on the basis of energy requirement

Battery bank sizing: The capacity and voltage of the battery bank can be calculated
based on the depth of discharge, duty cycle and autonomy required.

Wiring and Safety components: Design should consider safe hardware required like circuit
breaker, fuse etc. for safety of the system.

User interface: Hardware needed to provide user interface like simple dials or fancy
digital meters can be chosen. Remote transmission of system parameters can be designed
incase necessary.

DC or AC or Hybrid: Type of systems like DC system, AC system, Standalone system,

Hybrid system etc. need to be considered.

Array mounting: Mounting structure design must be made allowing provision for module
additions in future.

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4.3.2Installation issues

In a theoretically well designed system, if the equipment is not installed properly, the
system could fail. Bad communications between designers and installers can lead to
wasted time and money resulting in a faulty system.
The following are installation issues that need to be considered in system design:

Pre assemble as much as possible: System should be pre-assembled as much as

possible, and shipped to the site, ready for installation. This ensures that all the
components are working together. If required, finer adjustments can be done at the site as
needed.

Site selection: Site investigation shall be carried out before or during system design to
assimilate the terrain conditions. Foundation design shall depend on the type of soil,
the wind loading, growth of vegetation, subsoil water etc.

Safe practices and codes: Safe practices should be followed during the installation.
All local and regional building codes and safety measures need to be considered.

Inspection: Each component and the sub systems should be fully tested before the
installation is considered complete. Abnormal operations should be corrected.

4.3.3 Delivery issues

One of the parameters that need to be considered during system design is packaging
and transportation issues. The users may not understand the importance of shading
on the modules or regular battery maintenance etc. It is important to visualize post
commissioning scenarios while carrying out system design.

System description manual: User shall be provided with a user manual in simple language.
Working principle of system shall be explained with the help of sketches and diagrams.

Trouble shooting guide: The guide should provide the Symptoms, Possible causes, and
Corrective actions.

Service and Maintenance manual: The manual should show the user with simple
pictures what to check and when and how they should perform the service.

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4.4 System Design Procedure

4.4.1 Load Estimation

Load estimation is associated with careful investigation and calculation as loads

influence every aspect of system design. The most important concern is to know what
influences load efficiency and how to reason out with a client to replace their existing or
proposed load with a more efficient one.
The entire system design is based on size of the load. If the information is
inaccurate, the initial costs will be too high or the array and battery could be too
small and system will eventually fail. So assessment of load is the critical factor in system
design. The following are few important points that need to be considered in load
assessment.
• The load profile through the year must be accurately determined
• Any seasonal variation might influence the choice of tilt angle or battery size for
autonomy
• The duty cycle or hours of operation for intermittent loads must be estimated carefully

Required Formula
1. DC load demand = DC load current (amps) X Hours of operation
2. AC load demand = AC load power (watts) X Hours of operation
3. DC load current (amps) = DC load power (watts) / Nominal DC voltage*
*This formula is used if DC loads are given in watts instead of amps.
Example 1: A small remote cabin owner wants to install some lights and appliances. The
remote cabin will only be occupied on the weekends. He will have two 40 watt fluorescent
lights for bright kitchen lighting, three compact fluorescent lamps (PL Lights) at 11 watts
each for other rooms, a small 40 Watt TV and a 24 watt ceiling fan. All these loads are to
be DC so no inverter is required. All loads will operate
at 12V nominal.

DC Loads Quantity Amps Hours of Days/week Weekly

operation demand (Wh)

Lights 2 3.3 4 2 52.8

PL Lights 3 0.92 5 2 27.6

TV 1 3.3 4 2 26.4
Fan 1 2 8 2 32
Weekly DC Loads (Ah) 138.8

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 Example 2: A small school in a remote area wants to remove their generator and use only
photovoltaics to power all their loads. The school is to be occupied only during the week
(Monday-Friday). The school has eight 40 watt fluorescent lights, small lights in the bath
rooms, four computers, an overhead projector and a small microwave oven for heating
lunches and a refrigerator. Note that the refrigerator is not turned off and must be kept
operating during all seven days.

DC Loads Quantity Watts Hours of Days/week Weekly

operation demand (Wh)

Lights 8 40 8 5 12800

PL Lights 2 11 2 5 222
Computer 4 200 4 5 8000

Projector 1 300 3 5 4500

Microwave 1 800 2 5 8000

Refrigerator 1 300 3 7 16800

Weekly AC loads (Wh) 50320
Week averaged daily load (Wh) = Weekly loads (Wh) / 7
= 50320 / 7
= 7188

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4.4.2 Battery Sizing

A storage battery is an electrochemical cell which stores energy in chemical bonds. In

Standalone PV systems, the electrical energy produced by the PV array cannot always be
used when it is produced. The three primary functions of a storage battery in a PV system
are:

Energy storage capacity and Autonomy:

The purpose of storage system is to store electrical energy when it is produced by the PV
array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed or on demand. In system
sizing process, the PV array is generally sized to satisfy the average daily load demand
during the period with the lowest insolation to electrical load ratio to ensure that
sufficient energy is available at all the times of the year.

Autonomy or days of storage: It is referred in the context of battery capacity of a

standalone PV system. A stand alone PV system is said to have autonomy if
sufficient battery storage capacity is available to operate the electrical loads directly
from the battery, without any energy input from PV array.

The Depth of Discharge (DOD) of a battery: It is defined as the percentage of

capacity that has been drawn from a battery compared to the total fully charged capacity.

Voltage and Current Stabilization: To supply power to electrical loads at stable

voltages and currents, by smoothing out transients that may occur in PV systems

Supply surge currents: To supply surge or high peak operating currents to electrical
loads or appliances

Maximum percentage usable: The battery cannot be discharged completely without

affecting its life. Manufacturers recommend only 80% of deep cycling batteries and
about 50% of shallow cycling batteries be discharged.

Temperature derating: This factor make sure that more capacity is installed at 25 C,
so that when 0 the battery gets cold and loses some capacity, there will still be required
capacity present.

Rate Factor: This factor is included to bring the calculations back to the
manufacturer’s standard rate.

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Required Formulae
1. Battery Voltaic Efficiency = Voltage during discharge / Voltage during charge
2. Battery Coulombic Efficiency = Discharge Ah output / Charge Ah input
3. Amp-hours PV array must produce = Daily load demand in Ah /
Battery Coulombic Efficiency
4. Battery Energy Efficiency = Voltaic Efficiency X Coulombic Efficiency
5. Battery Capacity = (Number of Days of Reserve X Daily load) /
(Maximum % usable X Temperature derate X Rate factor)
6. Number of Series Batteries = Load nominal voltage / Battery nominal voltage

Example 1:
A battery is charged at about 14 volts and discharged at about 12 volts Calculate the voltaic
efficiency of the battery

Battery Voltaic Efficiency = Voltage during discharge / Voltage during charge

= 12 volts / 14 volts
= 0.85
= 85%

Example 2:
The load demand for a remote home is estimated to be 200 Ah/day at 12 V. Using an
average battery coulombic efficiency of 90%, calculate the total Ah that the array must
produce.

Amp-hours PV array must produce = Daily load demand in Ah /

Battery Coulombic Efficiency
= 200 / 0.90
= 222 Ah

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Example 3:
Calculate the battery capacity needed for the remote school with the following assumptions
• The local meteorologist reports that it gets to an average of -20 C in the winter at the
site. 0
• School will operate for 5 days in a week
• Daily load is 421 Ah
• Number of days of reserve is 5 days
• Battery capacity assumed 1560 Ah, 2 V

Solution:
1. Considering the freezing phenomenon, the maximum allowable depth of discharge
is about 50% or 0.5, even though we are using ‘deep cycling‘ type batteries that
usually can be discharged to 80%

Avg. rate of discharge = No. of days of operation X No. of hours a day /

Depth of discharge
= (5 x 24) / 0.5
= 240 hr rate
2. The rate factor for a battery can be obtained from the specific battery table. Assume
the rate factor is 1.56
3. Calculating Battery capacity

Battery Capacity = (Number of Days of Reserve X Daily load) /

(Maximum % usable X Temperature derate X Rate factor)
= ( 5 days X 421 Ah/day) / (0.5 X 0.85 X 1.56)
= 3175 Ah
4. Number of batteries

Parallel batteries = Battery capacity / Chosen battery capacity

= 3175 / 1560 (assumed)
= 2.03
Series batteries = System voltage / Chosen battery voltage
= 24 / 2 (assumed)
= 12

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4.4.3 Inverter Issues

A photovoltaic array and battery produce DC current and voltage. If the load is driven by AC
power, an inverter can be used to convert from DC to AC. Commonly available inverters can
output in Single or Three phase, 50 or 60 Hz and 117 or 220 volts. The following are the list
of important factors that needs to be considered in inverter design.

Inverter efficiency: The inverter should be as efficient as possible, certainly above 90% over
most of its normal operating range. Many moderately priced inverters can achieve above
94% efficiency. Inverter efficiency varies with respect to the amount of power being
generated.

Inverter Output Waveform: The wave form of the inverter output can be an
important factor in matching inverter to load. The waveform describes the way the
current and voltage vary over time. There are three different kinds of wave forms.
They are Square wave, Sine wave, Modified square wave or Modified sine wave.

DC Input voltage: The input DC voltage tends to be a function of the size of the
inverter. As the power through the inverter increases, more current flows and there is
greater internal heating. Small inverters tend to operate in 12V while large inverters tend
to operate in 24V.

Voltage Regulation: At higher power levels, the inverter draws large currents from the
battery. This causes the battery voltage to fall. The inverter should be able to compensate
for this voltage drop and maintain output AC voltage fairly well.

Serviceability: The inverter design should allow easy servicing in the field

Adjustable Threshold: Most Inverters have some threshold of load power requirement
before they actually turn on and commutate to produce AC power. If the load threshold is
higher than some small loads in a house, the inverter may not sense the load and it
will not operate alone. Some inverter models offer an adjustable threshold level.

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4.4.4 Charge Controllers

Battery charge regulation and control of the energy produced by the PV array is a critical
junction in the PV system. The most important functions of charge controllers are listed
below.
• Prevent battery overcharge
• Prevent battery over discharge
• Provide load control functions
• Provide status information to system users
• Interface and Control back up energy sources
• Divert PV energy to an Auxiliary load
• Serve as wiring center

4.4.5 Array Sizing

The basic method to calculate the array size is to divide the average daily Ah load by the
number of Ah that one module will produce in a day. This gives us the number of modules
connected in parallel to produce the current for the load. The number of modules needed
in series is given by dividing the nominal system voltage by the nominal voltage of one
module. The module duration and the coulombic efficiency, the array sizing can be done.

Required Formulae
1. Number of modules in parallel = Daily load (Ah) /
(Coulombic Efficiency X Module Output X Derating factor)
2. Number of modules in series = Daily load (Ah) /
(Coulombic Efficiency X Module Output X Derating factor)
= Nominal system voltage /
Nominal voltage of one module

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Example 1:
For the remote school 24V DC load demand was determined to be 421 Ah/day. The
insolation data from the NASA source is worked out 4.0 kWh/m /day. The module
considered is 75 Wp with Imp of 24.4.A. Calculate the number of modules in series and
parallel. Assume that the conservative battery coulumbic efficiency of 90% and module
duration of 10%

Module output = 4.0 X 4.4 = 17.6 Ah/day

Number of modules in parallel = Daily load (Ah) /
(Coulombic Efficiency X Module Output X Derating factor )
Number of modules in parallel = 421 (Ah) / (0.9 X [1.76 X 0.9] )
= 29.5
= 30 modules in parallel

Number of modules in series = 24 volts / 12

= 2 in series

Total modules = 2 X 30 = 60 modules

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Conclusions

Solar Photovoltaic and thermal power plants will play an important role in the overall

energy supply.

The modules show degradation in power output through years of operation. It is

observed that quality modules is very important in determining the extent of

degradation. The improvements in technology and quality assurance have reduced

this degradation considerably.

Thin film modules will perform better than the crystalline modules in high temperature
zones.

The performance (Capacity utilization factor ) CUF depends on several factors

including the solar radiation, temperature, air velocity apart from the module type and

quality, angle of tilt(or tracking), design parameters to avoid cable losses and

efficiencies of inverters and transformers. There are some inherent losses which can

be reduced through proper designing but not completely avoided.

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REFERENCES

A book of “I Know Solar Now”

By Pankaj R Chaturvedi, Edition : 1st

[http: Photovoltaic Power Generation] “Photovoltaic Power Generation” available at

www.teicontrols.com/.../FinalReport- PhotovoltaicPowerGeneration .pdf

[http:Basic principle of PV cell] “Photovoltaic Power Generation”

www.teicontrols.com/.../FinalReport- PhotovoltaicPowerGeneration pdf

[http: Solar Electric Systems] “Chapter Three Introduction to Solar Electric Systems”
available at
www.ky solar .org/ky_solar_energy_guide/chapter 5/chapter_3_PVintro.pdf

[http:Basic principle of PV cell] “Photovoltaic Power Generation”

www.teicontrols.com/.../FinalReport- PhotovoltaicPowerGeneration pdf

[http:Series and Parallel connection] “Series and Parallel Wiring” available at

www.termpro.com/articles/spkrz.html

A Compendium of Solar Dish/Stirling Technology Solstice

Web site: solstice.crest.org/renewables/dish-stirling/

Distributed Power Technologies—Concentrating Solar Power

DOE’s Distributed Power Program
Web site: eren.doe.gov/distributedpower/ pages/tech_csp.html

Parabolic Troughs: Solar Power Today EREN

Web site: www.eren.doe.gov/success_stories/ opt_parabolic.html

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