Egyptian Pioneer Schools

Academic year: 201 7/ 2018

Preparatory 2
Science – Booklet
Second Term

Name: __________________ Class ______

1
 Unit 1:
Periodic Motion
Lesson 1:
Oscillatory Motion

Lesson 2:
Wave motion

2
 Lesson 1:
Oscillatory Motion

Periodic motion:

It is the motion which regularly repeated in equal periods of time.

An example is the motion of the pendulum & water waves.

Activity

Aim: To Define each of the following the

concept of oscillatory motion.

➢ Conclusion
1. The coin oscillates around a point of rest
(equilibrium) where the velocity & kinetic
energy of the coin is maximum just before it reaches the point of rest (A).
2. As the coin moves away from the equilibrium point, its velocity & kinetic
energy decrease.
Oscillatory motion

Tuning fork Swing Stretched string

Activity
➢ Aim:To represent oscillatory motion by a graph

3
Pull the spring downwards then let it go. While winding the paper roll
regularly.
➢ Observation:
The graph represents simple harmonic motion (oscillatory motion).

Oscillatory motion:
It is the motion of the oscillating body around its rest point, where the motion is
repeated through equal interval of time.

PROPERTIES OF OSCILLATORY MOTION

1. The Amplitude:
It is the maximum displacement achieved by an oscillating body away from
its point of rest. It is measured in meter (m).

2- The complete oscillation:

It is the movement made by the oscillating body
when it passes a single point in its path of motion,
two consecutive times in the same direction.
Ex.The pendulum completes one oscillation when
it covers the distance: A-B-A-C-A
A complete oscillation consists of 4
amplitudes.(4 displacements)

4
3.The periodic time:

It is the time needed by an oscillating body to make a complete oscillation

The periodic time is denoted by (T).Periodic time is measured in seconds

(s), and it is determined by the relation:

Time (s)
Periodic Time =
No. of complete oscillations

solved example: What is the periodic time for the

pendulum oscillating in the figure?

Periodic time = ½ x4 =2s

Frequency (F):

It is the number of complete oscillations in one second. The

unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).

EX:A simple pendulum makes 50 complete oscillations in 10 seconds, its

frequency is 5 Hertz.Frequency is the reciprocal of the periodic time.

No. of complete vibrations 1

Frequency = Frequency =
Time (s) Periodic Time

Solved exercise
An oscillating body makes 120 complete oscillations in one minute. Calculate the
frequency & periodic time.
F = 120 complete oscillations ÷ 60 s
= 2 Hz
=1/2
= 0.5 s

5
What is meant by: Frequency is the reciprocal of
1- The frequency of a vibrating body = 50 Hz. the periodic time
It means that the number of complete vibrations
made by the body in one second = 50. Frequency × periodic time = 1

2- The periodic time of a vibrating body = 0.1 second. 𝟏

F x = 1
It means that the time taken by the vibrating body to 𝑭
make 1 complete vibration = 0.1 sec.

Solve the following problems:

1-Calculate the periodic time and frequency for an oscillating body that makes 300
complete oscillations in a half a minute.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2-In the opposite figure What is the periodic time?

---------------------------------------------------

3- Calculate the frequency if:

2 seconds
A. No. of complete oscillations = 40 in a time = 4 sec.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

B. No. of complete oscillations = 30 in a time = 2 sec.

The Microwave oven

➢ Microwaves cause the vibration of water molecules
inside food.
➢ Water molecules collide with each other producing
a lot of heat energy to cook the food faster.
➢ Pots made of pottery, ceramics or glasses are used in the microwave.
➢ Metal cooking Pots aren’t used inside a microwavebecause metal
reflects the microwavesbackto the source.

6
 Work Sheet (1)
Q.(1): Choose the correct answer:
1. If the frequency of this oscillating body is 6Hz, then the periodic time equal to
……………………….
( 6 - 1⁄3 - 1⁄6 - 3 )
2. From the opposite figure the amplitude equal……………………….
( 1 -2 - 3 - 4 ) and the complete oscillation equal …………………
( 2 - 4 - 6 - 8 ) cm
3. If the periodic time of oscillating body is 0.1 sec. so the number
of complete oscillations in one minute equal.
( 10 - 600 - 120 - 60 )

Q.(2): Write the scientific terms:

1. The motion made by oscillating body passing through one point two successive times
at the same direction (……………………………..)
2. The motion which regularly repeated in equal intervals of time.
(………………………..)
3. The measuring unit of frequency. (……………………………………………..)

Q.(3): Complete:
1. A complete oscillation comprises ……………………… successive displacements
each one called …………………… .
2. The velocity of oscillating body reaches its maximum value when it passes at the
……………………………… .
3. The equal of multiplying the frequency of an oscillating body and its periodic time is
……………………… .

Q.(4): From the opposite figure:

1. (A) point represents ………………………..
2. (A-B) space represents………………………
3. The path (A-B, B – C, C-A) represents ………………
4. In which point the velocity of the pendulum
reaches its maximum value?

7
Q.(5): Give reasons:
1. The microwave can cook the food faster than the flame.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….
2. Metal pots should not be used in the microwave.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………

Q.(6): What’s meant by:

1. The frequency of the oscillating body.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….
2. The no. of complete oscillations of an oscillating body in 10 sec. is 500 complete
oscillations.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….
3. Oscillating body make 540 oscillations in a minute and a half.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….
4. The maximum amplitude made by oscillating body is 60 cm.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….
5. Oscillating body covers a distance 20 cm in one complete oscillation.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….

Home Work (1)

Give reason for each of the following:
1- Metallic pots are not used in microwaves ovens.
.....................................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
2- The periodic time decreases as the number of complete oscillations increases.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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Problems:
1- Calculate the periodic time of a source that makes 600 oscillations in one minute.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

2- Calculate the frequency of a simple pendulum which makes 720 complete oscillations in
90 seconds.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

3- If the frequency of an oscillating body is 10 Hz, find:

a- Its periodic time.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
b- The time taken to make 300 complete oscillations.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
c- The number of complete oscillations that this body makes in a minute.
…………………………………………………………………………………………

The opposite figure represents an oscillatory motion for a simple pendulum.

Choose the letter that donates:

C.The oscillation of the pendulum forming ¾ complete

oscillations.( )
d.The amplitude. ( )

9
 Lesson 2:
Wave motion

A drop of water that falls on the surface of still water causes the
propagation of concentric circles on the surface of water
&Representswave motion.

The role of waves in energy transfer

Activity :Place the dominos in the form of a line at equal
distances from each other. Push the first domino.
➢ Observation:
• The pieces fall consecutively.
• The first domino piece falls transferring its energy to the
next one. The 2nd piece falls down in turn transferring
the energy to the next piece and so on.
• Energy transfer through the domino pieces continues and the pieces never change
position inthe line.
➢ Conclusion
Wave:
The disturbance that propagates and transfers energy in the direction
of propagation

Activity: The concept of wave motion.

Sound energy causes the vibration of the air &
smoke molecules. The energy is transferred to the
flame.So The flame of the candle vibrates

Wave motion:

It is the movement that results from the vibration of the particles

of the medium in a specific direction.

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The direction of the progress of the wave:
It is the line of wave propagation

Types of Waves

According to the direction of vibration According to the ability of the wave

of the particles of the medium to propagate

Transverse Longitudinal Mechanical Electromagnetic

①According to the direction of vibration of

the particles of the medium:

1. The transverse wave:

It is formed of crests and troughs as compared to the
longitudinal waves which are formed of compressions and
rarefactions.
Crest : The highest point in a transverse wave with
respect to the horizontal line.
Trough : The lowest point in the transverse wave with respect to the horizontal line.

2. In longitudinal waves:
Compression : The point of highest density and pressure of the wave.
Rarefaction : The point of lowest density and pressure
During wave propagation, the particles of the medium do not change position; however
they vibrate around their points of rest

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Comparison between transverse and longitudinal waves.
P.O.C Transverse wave
Definition The disturbance which causes
the particles of the medium to
vibrate perpendicular to the
direction ofwave propagation.
Longitudinal waves
the disturbance that causes the
particles of the medium to vibrate
along the direction of wave
propagation

Composition It consists of crests & troughs It consists of compressions &

rarefactions
Examples Water waves Sound waves

Physiotherapy tubs (Jacuzzi)

Jacuzzi is a tub where water moves in circular waves. It's used to treat sprains and cramps
when filled with hot water and nervous tension when filled with cold water. It’s found in
health clubs.

②According to the propagation of the wave:

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves

They need a material medium to
propagate.
Transverse water waves and sound
longitudinal waves are mechanical
waves.
They do not need a medium to propagate
through as they can propagate through space.
Light waves and radio waves used in radars are
electromagnetic waves. They are all transverse
waves.

➢ Both mechanical and electromagnetic waves propagate in different material media,

however the velocity of mechanical waves is much slower than that of electromagnetic
waves. Electromagnetic waves propagate in space with a velocity of 3 x 108 m/s.

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• We can't hear the sound of solar explosions
Because sound is transferred in the form of mechanical waves which aren’t transmitted
through space. We can see the light coming out of the sun which is transmitted as
electromagnetic waves that can travel through space.

• Thunder occurs with lightning at the same time but we hear thunder after seeing
lightning
Because the speed of light is bigger than the speed of sound.

The following terms are also used to describe wave motion :

1. Wavelength 2. Amplitude 3. Wave velocity 4. Frequency

1. The wave length( λ ):

The unit of wave length is the meter (m) or fractions of a meter.

wave length(λ) of longitudinal wave length(λ) of transverse
P.O.C. waves waves
the distance between the centers of the distance between the centers of
Definition two consecutive compressions or two consecutive crests or troughs
rarefactions

2. The amplitude
It is the maximum displacement achieved by the particles of
the medium away from their points of rest.
- it is measured by meter or centimeter

13
3. The wave velocity
It is the distance covered by the wave in 1 second
The velocity of a wave is calculated by the relation
Velocity (V) = Distance covered by the wave (m)
Time (s)
The measuring unit of wave velocity is m/s

The velocity of sound is constant for the medium . Sound travels with different velocities
in different media. Sound velocity in air

340 m/s
4.Frequency
It is no. of complete waves covered in a second.

𝒏𝒐.𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
F=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

The law of wave propagation

is a relation between the wave velocity (v) , frequency (F) & wave length (λ).
Wave velocity = Frequency x wavelength

V = F x λ

The frequency of the wave The velocity of the wave is The velocity of the wave is
is inversely proportional to directly proportional to the directly proportional to the
the wavelength in the same frequency at constant wavelength at constant
medium ( V is constant) wavelength. frequency.

F V V

λ F λ

14
 Work Sheet (2)
Q.(1): From the opposite figure:
1. The amplitude is ………………
( 2cm – 3cm – 4cm – 8cm )
2. The periodic time ………………
(1⁄8 hz – 4s – 0.25hz – 8s )
3. The frequency is ……………….
( 8s – 4s - 1⁄8 hz - 1⁄4 hz )
4. The wavelength is ……………………….
( 4cm – 0.25hz – 1/8 cm – 10cm )
5. The wave velocity is ………………………
( 1.25 m/s – 0.2m/s – 4m/s – 0.0125m/s )

Q.(2): Complete:
1. The hertz is the measuring unit of …………………………… .
2. ……………….. and …………………………. Are examples of periodic motion.
3. The wavelength of the transverse wave is the distance between ………………… and
………………….
4. The Jacuzzi is used treat the crumbs by …………….water and nervous tension by
…………………… water.
5. The velocity of the wave is constant in the ………………….... .
6. The mechanical wave could be ……………………..and …………………… .

Q.(3):Write the scientific term:

1. The distance between two successive compressions or rarefaction. (…………………)
2. The lowest point of density and pressure in the longitudinal wave.
(…………………….)
3. The wave which doesn’t need a medium to propagate and transfer energy.
(…………………….)
4. The time which required by the source to produce one wave.
(……………………)

15
Q.(4): What’s meant by:
1. A wavelength of a sound wave is 20cm.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
2. The amplitude of a vibrating source is 5cm.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The distance between two successive crests in water wave 10 m.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. The law of wave propagation.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Q.(5): Put ( √ ) or ( X ) :
1. Light and water waves are examples of electromagnetic waves. ( )
2. The frequency of a wave is directly proportional to the wavelength through the same
medium. ( )
3. Transverse wave formed of crests and troughs. ( )
4. The velocity of the wave is the distance covered by the wave in one second. ( )

Home Work (2)

Question (1) What happens when:
1. The particles of the medium vibrate in a direction normal [perpendicular] to the direction
of wave propagation.
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
2. The frequency of a wave is doubled [concerning the wavelength] when the wave velocity
is constant.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. The frequency & velocity of wave propagation decreases to quarter. (Concerning to the
wavelength)
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Question (2) Cross the odd word out, then state the relation between the
remaining:
1. Sound wave – Light wave – Radio wave – Infrared wave.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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2. Pendulum's motion – spring motion – rotator bee motion - stretched spring motion.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Question (3):Solve the following problems
1- If the wavelength of a sound wave produced by a train is 0.6 m and the frequency is 550
Hz, what is the velocity of sound in air?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
2- Light waves propagate in space at speed (3x108 m/s), and the wavelength of light is 5x10-7
m .What is the frequency of this light?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

5s
4-From the opposite figure, find:
a. Number of waves = …….
4m
b. The amplitude = ………
c. Periodic time = ……..
d. Frequency = ……
e. The wavelength = ……..
f. Wave velocity=……… 6m

17
Unit 2:
Sound & light
Lesson 1:
Properties of sound

Lesson 2:
Reflection of sound waves

Lesson 3:

The wave nature of light

Lesson 4:
Reflection & refraction of light

18
 Lesson 1:
Properties of sound
Sound:

It is an external stimulus that affects the ear and causes hearing.

1. Sound is produced by the vibration of the bodies.

2. Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves that travel in different media in the
form of spheres, where the center of these spheres is the source of sound.
3. The velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s
Solved Questions:
a. What’smeant by : the wavelength of a sound wave is 1.5 m ?
Answer: the distance between the centers of two consecutive compressions or
rarefactionsis 1.5 m
b. Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave propagating(traveling) in sea water with
velocity 1500 m/s , the frequency of the wave is 10 hertz

Wavelength = Wave velocity

Frequency
Wavelength = 1500
10
= 0.0015 m

Sounds heard by the human ear are classified into two types:
P.O.C. Musical tones Noise
1- Frequency uniform frequency non-uniform frequency

2- Effect on the ear comfortable uncomfortable

3- Source violin drill

The ears distinguish different sounds because sounds differ in 3 characteristics:

1-Sound pitch. 2- Sound intensity. 3- Sound quality.

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First: Sound Pitch
❖ The sound of the lion is harsh& that
of the sparrow is high.
❖ The voice of the woman is sharp or
high-pitched compared to a man’s
voice which is low-pitched&rough.

The relation between frequency & the pitch of sound.

Sound pitch:
It is a property of sound that distinguishes between harsh (rough) and sharp voices.

1. The sharpness of sound increases as the frequency of the source

increases and vice versa.
2. The vibration of the air molecules above water produces sound. The
pitch changes according to the length of air column.

Steps for determining the pitch of a tone usingSavart’ s wheel:

1-Listen to a tone you want to determine its pitch.
2-Rotate Savart’s wheel at the same time one of the gears
teeth contacts a flexible metal sheet.
3-Increase the speed of rotation till you hears a sound
similar to that of the unknown tone.

So that, by increasing the speed of rotation, the frequency increases and the sound
becomes high-pitched (sharp).

20
A solved example:
What’s the frequency of a tone produced by Savart's Wheel that rotates with velocity of
900 cycles in 3 minutes, the number of teeth of the gear is 30 teeth.
t = 3 x 60 = 180 s
F = 900 x 30
180
F = 150 Hz
Problem(1)
Calculate the frequency of a musical tone similar to the frequency of a produced tone
using Savart’s wheel rotated with a velocity of 960 cycles in two minutes, given that
the number of teeth of the gear is 30 teeth.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Problem (2)
If the frequency of the sound produced by touching a metallic plate with a gear in
Savart’s wheel is 100 Hz. Calculate the number of the gear’s teeth, if the wheel
rotates with speed 120 cycles/minute.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
Problem (3)
Calculate the time in minutes taken by Savart’s wheel to make 600 cycles, f the
frequency of the sound produced by touching a metallic plate with a gear of 60 teeth
is 300 Hz.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Second . Sound intensity( I ):

Sound intensity:

It is a property of sound that distinguishes strong and weak sounds (loud

& quite).

a.The sound intensity at a point:

It is the amount of sound energy falling perpendicular on a unit area surrounding this point
in one second.

21
b. Sound intensity is measured by Watt/meter2
c. Noise intensity is expressed by Decibel scale.

Factors affecting sound intensity:

1) The distance between the sound source and the ear.
2) The amplitude of the sound source.
3) The area of the vibrating surface (a resonating box).
4) The density of the medium through which sound travels.
5) Direction of the wind

①The relation between the distance between the sound source and the ear & the
intensity of sound.
Q: At which position is the sound intensity the highest? …….. I

a b c
d2
The voice is loudest when you are the nearest to the other person.
➢ Sound intensity decreases gradually as the distance between the sound source
andthe ear increases.
➢ Sound intensity at a point is inversely proportional to the square of the
distancebetween the source of sound and that point.

②The effect of the amplitude of the sound source on the sound intensity.
➢ Sound intensity is directly proportional to the square of
the amplitude of vibration of the source.

The figure represents two sound waves A & B. Wave Ahas

higher amplitude & therefore it’s louder.

22
③The effect of the area of the vibrating
surface (a resonance box) on the sound intensity.
➢ When the source of sound touches a resonance box,
the air in the box vibrates increasing the sound
intensity. Due to the increase of the area of the
vibrating surface

G.R :The strings of musical instruments such as (violin& guitar) are fixed above an empty
(resonance) box.
➢ Due to the increase of the surface area of the vibrating body, so the sound intensity
increases.

④The effect of the density of the medium on sound

intensity.
➢ Sound intensity is affected by the density of the medium that
transmits the sound.
➢ Sound intensity increases as the density of the medium increases.

⑤The effect of the Wind direction on sound intensity

➢ Sounds traveling in the direction of the wind are louder than sounds that travel
against wind direction.

N.B :Ear plugs made of silicon are placed in the external ear canal to
reduce noise.

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 Third : Sound quality
The property, by which the ear can distinguish between different sounds according
to the nature of the source, even if they were of the same pitch and intensity

➢ Why are ears able to distinguish between the musical tones produced by a violin
and a piano even if the tones have the same pitch and intensity?
➢ The fundamental tone is a simple tone produced from a vibrating tuning fork.
➢ The tones produced from an instrument is a series of harmonic tones that differ
inintensity & pitch.
➢ Harmonic tones of different instruments are different & help the ear recognize the
source of sound.

Types of sound waves:

Humans are unable to hear all sounds. An example is the sounds produced by dolphins
because the human ears are affected by sounds of a frequency range between 20 Hz - 20
KHz

According to the frequency range heard by humans, sound waves are

classified into:

Infrasonic Sonic waves Ultrasonic

waves waves
Frequency less than 20 Hz between 20 Hz - 20 More than 20
KHz KHz
Sounds produced Sounds heard by the Sounds produced
Example before rainfall human ear by bats &
dolphins

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➢ Ultrasonic waves are used in medical, industrial and military fields such as:
a. Breaking down kidney and ureter stones without surgery.
b. Diagnosis of prostate cancer.
c. Sterilize milk by killing some types of bacteria and stop the action of some viruses.
d. Finding land mines.

Work Sheet (3)

Q.(1): Give reasons:
1. The ultrasonic waves are used in milk sterilization.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The piano sound differs from the violin sound even if they have the same pitch and
intensity.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Sound traveling in air has less intensity than that traveling in carbon dioxide.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Q.(2): What’s meant by:

1. The wavelength of a sound wave is 1.5 m.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Sound intensity.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Sound quality.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Decibel.
………………………………………………………………………………………….

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Q.(3): Write the scientific terms:
1. Sound waves have a frequency less than 20 Hz. (……………………)
2. A property by which the ear can distinguish between the harsh and sharp sounds.
(…………………………)
3. Sound waves are used in breaking down the kidney’s stones. (……………………)

Q.(4): Answer the following question:

1. Savart’s wheel rotate with a rate 300 cycles per minute. A sound with frequency 600
Hz is produced when an elastic plate touches the teeth of the gear. Calculate the
number of the teeth of the gear.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Calculate the number of teeth of savart’s wheel, given that the frequency of the sound
produced is 100 Hz and the wheel rotates 30 cycles/min.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. A sound source produces 3600 cycles in 3 minutes. If its wavelength is 17 meters.
Find the velocity of the sound wave.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Sound waves have frequency 400 Hz in air and its wavelength is 85 cm, calculate the
velocity of these waves.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Home Work (3)

[1] Complete the following:
1- Sound originates from ………… of bodies.
2- Sound is considered from ………… waves, because it needs medium to propagate
through.
3- Sound waves propagate through the medium as spheres of ………… and ………… .
4- Ear plugs are made of ………… are used to avoid the hazards of ………… in loud
places.
5- The human ear can differentiate between the sounds through three different factors,
which are sound …………, sound ………… and sound ………… .

26
6- Sharp tones have ………… frequencies while rough tones have ………… frequencies.

[2]- Choose the correct answer:

1- Sound waves don’t travel though ………… .
a- water. b-air. c- vacuum. d- wood.
2- the sound produced from the school’s bell is considered ………… waves.
a- Longitudinal. b- electromagnetic.
c- transverse. d- longitudinal and transverse.
3- all of the following indicate the nature of sound waves except ………… .
a- It is mechanical longitudinal waves.
b- It propagates as spheres of compressions and rarefactions.
c- It is velocity through air is 430 m/s.
d- No correct answer.
4- Sound wave that propagates through air with velocity 330 m/s and of wavelength 0.1 m,
its frequency equals ………… .
a- 330 kilohertz. b- 3300 Hertz. c- 33 kilohertz. d- 330 Hertz.

5- The sound pitch increases by ………… .

a- The decrease of frequency. b- The increase of frequency.
c- The increase of amplitude.
d- The increase of the distance between the ear and the sound source.

[3]Put (√) or (x):

1- The sound of the electric bell is the highest when it is put under bell jar evacuated from
the air. ( )
2- The sound velocity through liquids is less than that through gases. ( )
3- The human ear can distinguish between sounds through two different factors only sound
pitch and sound type. ( )
4- The type of sound depends on the distance between the ear and the sound source.
( )

6- What does these relations indicate?:

distance covered by a sound wave

1-
time (sec)

number of rotations
2- x number of gear ′ s teeth in savart ′ swheel.
time (sec)

27
 1
3- 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐼) ∝
𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑑 2 )

4- 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑥 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

[5] Problems:
1- A sound source produces 3600 cycles in 3 min. if its wavelength is 17 meters, find the
velocity of the sound waves.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

2- Calculate the wavelength of a sound wave of frequency 17 Hz, if the distance travelled
by this wave in one second is 340 meters.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

3- Calculate the number of the gear’s teeth of savart’s wheel, given that the frequency of the
sound produced is 100 Hz, and the wheel rotates 30 cycles/min.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

4- Find the number of rotations in two minutes made by savart’s wheel producing sound of
frequency 300 Hz, if a metallic plate touches one gear of 100 teeth.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

5- Savart’s wheel produces a sound of frequency 200 Hz, when a metallic plate touches a
gear having 50 teeth. Find the time in minutes taken by the wheel to make 360 rotations.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

28
 Lesson 2:
Reflection of sound waves
Sound waves are reflected when they fall on a reflecting surface.
Sound reflection:
It is the return of sound waves in the same direction due to hitting a reflecting surface.

➢ Sound reflection explains:

The laws of sound reflection.

First law: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.

Second law: The incident sound ray, the reflected sound ray
and the perpendicular line, all lie on the same plane
perpendicular to the reflecting surface.

Angle of incidence: It is the angle between the incident

sound ray and the perpendicular line to the reflecting
surface.

Angle of reflection: It is the angle between the reflected

sound ray and the perpendicular line to the reflecting
surface.

G.R : When a sound ray is incident perpendicular to a

reflecting surface, it reflects on itself.
➢ Because angle of incidence = angle of reflection = zero.

29
Echo: Is the repetition of sound produced due to its reflection.
Conditions necessary for hearing the echo:
1- Presence of big reflecting surface such as walls or mountains.
2- Distance between sound source and the reflecting surface must not be less than 17 meters.
3- Time period between hearing the original sound and its echo should not be less than 0.1
second.

Notice .If the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/sec & its echo in 0.1 sec
So, distance traveled by the sound = velocity x time
= 340 x 0.1 = 34 meters.
i.e.17 meters from sound source to reflecting surface &17 meters from reflecting surface to
ear.

G.R: Echo can’t be heard if the distance between sound source & reflecting surface is
less than 17 meters.
➢ Because the time between hearing main sound & its echo will be less than 1second.
10
Real life applications for echo (or Sound reflection):
1- Determination of the sound velocity (speed) through air.
2- Concentration of sound.
3- Determination of sea depth and fish shoals.
4- Detecting industrial defects.
5- Medical diagnosis.
6- Locating the position of surfaces and barriers.

1-Determination of the sound velocity through air

A solved problem
A girl produced a sound &heard its echo after 3 seconds
Calculate the distancebetween the shore and the cliff .
The velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s.
330 = 2 d
3
d = (3 x 330 ) ÷ 2 = 495 m
Problem: A person stood at a distance of 680 meters from a mountain and produced a
sound. He heard the echo after 4 sec,Calculate the velocity of sound.

30
2- Concentration of Sound:
Sound reflected from a concave surface collect at a point known as the focus of the
surface reinforcing the sound.
Concentration of sound: Is the collection of sound at a point due to its reflection on a
concave surface.
G.R: Worship places & big halls are supplied by concave walls & ceilings.
➢ To concentrate the reflected sound & make sound more clear and more intense.
G.R: The voice of Imam can be heard clearly in all parts of large masjids without using
microphones.
➢ Because the surfaces of large masjids are concave.
G.R: Fennec fox has large ability of hearing.( Or ) Gazelles & foxes have long concaved
ears to concentrate sounds
➢ Because it has large and concave ear pinna that concentrates the reflected sound and
make it more clear and more intense

3- Determination of sea depth and fish shoals:

The sonar device in the ship produces ultrasonic waves. A
hydrophone receives the reflected sound waves from sea bed or
fish shoals.
The depth (d) = velocity of sound (v) x echo time (t)
2
( t ) is the time interval between transmitting and receiving the waves (echo time).

Ultrasonic waves of frequencies higher than 20000 Hz are used for:

1- Estimating the depth of seas.
2- Exploring the fish gathering (shoals) in seas.

Problem 1: A sonar instrument makes an ultrasonic wave in water of a sea. Calculate

the time between sending the sound and hearing its echo if you know that the depth of
the sea is 5.2 kilometers and the sound velocity through water equals 1300 m/sec.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Problem 2: A sailor produced a sound in the sea, he heard its echo after 0.6 second. If
sound velocity through water is 1435 m/sec. Calculate the sea depth.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...

31
4- Detecting industrial defects
The ultrasonic waves can be used in detecting the industrial defects.
Because the waves reflected from the areas which contain air bubbles
(defects in welding or cracks) have different intensity than those
reflected from well welded areas and to avoid disasters.

5- Medical diagnosis:
Ultrasonic waves are used in medical investigations and laboratory
tests& in checking the state of an embryo and in detecting the sex
of the embryo & its health condition.
➢ Because different parts of the body reflect ultrasonic waves in
various intensities.

6- Locating the position of surfaces and barriers.

Bats can use sound reflection (echo) to:
1-Locate the position of their praise.
2-Fly in the dark without colliding with anything.
*Similarly, dolphins can avoid obstacles on their way under
water.

G.R: Bats can fly in the dark without colliding with anything.
➢ Because they produce ultrasonic waves that reflect on the surfaces and barriers then
receive them back & locate their positions.

G.R: Dolphins can avoid obstacles on their way under water.

➢ Because they produce ultrasonic waves that reflect on the
surfaces, then receives them back.

Reducing noise:
1. Carpets absorb many sounds & prevent their reflection therefore they reduce noise.
2. Factory machines are installed on rubber bases which absorb many sounds.

G.R: A piece of moquette or rubber is put under the washing machines.

➢ To absorb the noise produced due to the vibration instead of its reflection from the
glistening surfaces of walls

32
 Work Sheet (4)
Q.(1): Choose:
1. Doctors use waves which have a frequency …………………., to break down the
kidney’s stones.
( less than 20 Hz - 20 Hz - more than 20 KHz )
2. The bat depend on the …………………………. phenomenon in hunting their prey.
( reflection - refraction - echo )
3. When the reflection angle is 300 that means that the angle of incidence equals
………………….. .
( 900 - 600 - 300 )

Q.(2): Give reasons:

1. The ceilings of worship building are built in concave shape (domes).
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Dolphin doesn’t hit any obstacles during swimming in water.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The echo is used in determining the depth of the sea.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. The sound ray that incident perpendicular to the reflecting surface reflects back to
itself.
………………………………………………………………………………………….

Q.(3): What’s meant by:

1. Echo.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Incidence angle.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Angle of reflection.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Second law of sound reflection.
………………………………………………………………………………………….

33
Q.(4): Answer the following questions:
1. A ship made a sound in water then its echo was heard after 2 seconds, if you know that
the velocity of these waves in water is 1000 m/sec. calculate the depth of the water.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. A person stood between two mountains and he was nearer to one of them than the
other. When he produced a sound, its echo was heard twice. The first one after 1.4
seconds from the moment of hearing the original sound and the second one was heard
after 1second from the first echo. Calculate the distance between the person and the
two mountains given that the velocity of sound in air 340 m/s.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. An ultrasonic wave is produced by a ship. The wave hit the sea bed and returned back
after 0.1 seconds. Calculate the depth of the sea given that the velocity of the wave in
water is 1490 m/s.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.(5): Mention some real life applications for echo.

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

Home work (4)

Problems:
1- If the measure of the angle between the incident sound ray and the reflected ray is 140°,
find the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

34
2- A ship made a sound in water then its echo was heard after 2 seconds. If you know that
the velocity of such wave is 1000 m/s. calculates the depth of the water.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
3- An ultrasonic wave is produced by a ship. The wave hit the seabed and returned back
after 0.1 seconds. Calculate the depth of sea, given that the velocity of such wave in
water is 1490 m/s.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

35
 Lesson 3
The wave nature of light
➢ Light: Is an external factor, which affects the eye, causing the sense of vision.
➢ Light speed: Is the distance covered by light in one second.( = 3x108 m/s )
➢ Visible light: Is one of the components of electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength ranges
between 380: 700 nanometers.
➢ The sun is the main source of light on Earth.

Analysis (splitting) of white Light:

➢ White light consists of a mixture of 7 colours which are known as “Spectrum colours”
each color has a certain frequency
➢ These colours are Red - Orange - Yellow - Green -
Blue - Indigo - Violet

When the white light falls on a triangular glass prism.

It analyses into seven spectrum colours. The colours
deviate with different angles.

Physicist Max Planck proved that light waves consist of packets of energy (energy
quanta) called photons .
➢ The energy of the photons is directly proportional with (α) its frequency
➢ The energy of photon = Planck’s constant x the frequency

Red light Violet light

Frequency Lowest frequency Highest frequency
Energy of photon smaller Bigger

deviation Lowest deviation Highest deviation

wavelength Longest wavelength shortest wavelength

36
Light is used in home decorations like:
1)-Spot lights.
2)-Ornamented lamps.
3)-Stand lamps.

Light behavior through different media:

According to the ability of media to allow light to pass through, they are classified
into:

Transparent Translucent
Opaque medium
medium medium
Examples air and pure water Wood & metal Flint glass
Permits the light Does not permit light Permits part of the light
Behavior to pass through to pass through it. to pass through it and
it. absorbs some light.

➢ As the thickness of the transparent medium increases, its permeability for light
decreases.

➢ Light travels through a transparent medium in the form of straight lines. whose size
(thickness) can be controlled
Light intensity:

It is the quantity of light falling perpendicular on a unit area of

a surface in one second.

➢ Light intensity decreases as the distance between the surface and the light source
increases .

Inverse square law of light :

The light intensity of a surface is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between the surface and the source of light.

37
 Work Sheet (5)

Q.(1): What’s meant by:

1. Visible light.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….

2. Translucent medium.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………….

3. The inverse square law of light.

...............................................................................................................................................

4. Light.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..

5. Light intensity.

………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..

Q.(2): What’s happen when:

1. The distance between the light source and the surface is doubled concerning the light
intensity.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Light falls on opaque medium.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Incidence of a white light on one surface of a triangular glass prism.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. The thickness of transparent medium increasing concerning the quality of light that
passes through it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………

38
Q.(3): Write down the mathematical relation that join between the photon frequency of the
light wave and its energy.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.(4): Give Reasons:

1. It is preferred to use mercury lamps in fog.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The energy of red light photon less than that of orange light photon.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Light waves are considered as electromagnetic waves.
………………………………………………………………………………………….

Q.(5): Choose:
1. The quantum of energy of green light is ……………….. the quantum of energy of
yellow light.
( greater than - less than - equal to )
2. White light consists of ……………. Colors.
( 9 - 8 - 7 )
3. The human skin is considered a (an) ………………… medium.
( transparent - translucent - opaque )
4. All of the following are examples of transparent medium except …………………….. .
( glass - tissue paper - clear water )

Home work (5)

[1]. Choose the correct answer:

1. Light waves are ……………….Waves.
a. Mechanical transverse. c. electromagnetic transverse.
b. Electromagnetic longitudinal. d. mechanical longitudinal
2. The quantum of energy of green light is ……………the quantum of energy of
yellow light.
a. Greater than. b. less than. c. Equal to d. no correct answer.
3. The human skin is considered a (an) ……………. medium.
a. Transparent. b. Translucent. c. opaque. d. no correct answer.

39
4. When the distance between the source of light and the surface of a wall decreases,
the light intensity of the surface ……………...
a. decreases b. increases c. is doubled d. remains constant
[2] Write the scientific term:
1. The main source of light energy on the earth surface.(……………………)
2. A medium that doesn't allow light rays to penetrate through. (……………………)
[3] Give reasons for:
1. The energy of red light photon is less than that of orange light photon.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The inability to see the impurities present in black honey.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

[4] What is meant by:

1. Visible light:
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Light intensity:
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
[5] What happens when?
1. Incidence of white light ray on one face of a triangular prism.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The distance between the light source& a surface is doubled concerning the light
intensity.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
[6] Write down the mathematical relation between:
1)-The photon frequency of a wave& its energy.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
2)-Light intensity and the distance between the surface and the light source
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
[7] Cross out the unsuitable word, then write the scientific term:
Yellow / Blue / White / Violet / Red.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

40
Lesson 4
Reflection & refraction of light
① Reflection of light

➢ Light reflection:
It is the returning back of light waves in the same medium on meeting a reflecting
surface.
➢ Reflection of light explains why we see inverted images of trees in pools of rain on
the road.
➢ It also explains the formation of shadow of trees and buildings & other objects.

Types of reflection
Regular reflection Irregular reflection
Examples of the a. Plane mirror. a. A tree leaf.
reflecting surface b. Aluminum foil. b. A piece of leather.
c. Stainless steel tray. c. A woolen jacket.
Definition The incident light rays reflect The light rays reflect non
uniformly in one direction when uniformly in different directions
it falls on a smooth and when it falls on a rough
glistening reflecting surface. reflecting surface.

The laws of light reflection

First law: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Second law: The incident light ray, reflected light
ray & the normal line, all lie in one plane
perpendicular to the reflecting surface.

41
The incident light ray which falls perpendicular on a reflecting surface, reflects on itself.
Because angle of incidence = angle of reflection = zero.

1)-Angle of incidence:
It is the angle between the incident light ray and the perpendicular to the reflecting surface at
the point of incidence.
2)-Angle of reflection:
It is the angle between the reflected light ray and the perpendicular to the reflecting surface at
the point of incidence.
3)-The incident light ray:
It is a ray which is represented by a straight line and it intersect with the reflecting surface.
4)-The reflected light ray:
It is a ray which is represented by a straight line that is reflected from the reflecting
surface.

Technological application of light reflection:

1- Periscope: It is used in
1- In submarines to see what is going on the water surface.
2- To see events happening behind a wall or a barrier.
3- To monitor the dangerous chemical reactions in laboratory.
2- Optical fibers:
They are used in manufacturing medical endoscopes used by
doctors to:
- They use cameras optical fibers are inserted in the body to see
internal organs and diagnose some diseases.
- Visualize injuries.
- Doing high-risk operations using lasers.

②Refraction of light

➢ Light refraction:
It is the change of light path when it travels from a transparent medium to another
transparent medium of different optical density.
➢ Light travels in different transparent media with different velocities.

42
➢ Optical density of the medium: It is the ability of the transparent medium to refract the
light.

G.R: The optical density of a medium differs from one medium to another.
Due to the change in the light velocity through such medium.
➢ As optical density of medium increases, the speed of light through it decreases
and vice versa.

Important Points:

1)-Angle of incidence:
It is the angle between the incident light ray and the normal at
the point of incidence.
2)-Angle of refraction:
It is the angle between the refracted light ray and the normal at
the point of incidence on the surface.
3)-The angle of emergence:
It is the angle between the emergent light ray and the normal at
the point of emergence.
➢
What is meant by angle of emergence in a prism is 500
This means that the angle between the emergent ray and the line perpendicular to the
interface at the point of emergence is 500

Laws of light refraction

1- When a light ray travels from a transparent medium of lower optical

density (air or water) to another of higher optical density (glass).It
refracts near the normal.

2- When a light ray travels from a transparent medium of higher optical

density (glass) to another of lower optical density (air or water). It
refracts far from the normal.

3-When a light ray falls perpendicular to the interface between two

different transparent media. It passes to the other medium without any
refraction

43
Absolute refractive index of a medium (n) :

It is the ratio between the light velocity through air to the light velocity through another
transparent medium.

G.R: The absolute refractive index of any transparent medium is always greater than
one.
Because the velocity of light through air is always greater than the light velocity in any other
transparent medium.

A solved example
Calculate the velocity of light in glass. If you know that (The velocity of light in air equals
3x 108 m/s. The absolute refractive index of glass is 1.5 )

Speed of light (glass) = Speed of light (air)

refractive index of glass

Speed of light (glass) = 3x 108 ÷ 1.5

= 2 x 108 m/s

Critical angle and total internal reflection:

1)-When the angle of incidence is less than 48.6 , the

light ray refracted away from the normal.

2)-When the angle of incidence becomes 48.6 , the

light ray refracted tangent to the separating surface and
the angle of incidence in this case is called critical
angle.( Critical angle of water is 48.6°) .

3)-When the angle of incidence is greater than 48.6 , the light ray reflected instead of being
refracted.

44
 Conclusion:
➢ When the angle of refraction in least optical dense medium (air) is 900 (the refracted
ray is tangent to the interface).The angle of incidence in the most optical dense
medium (water) is called Critical angle of this medium (which differs from one
medium to another).
➢ When the light ray is incident in more optical dense medium with an angle greater than
the critical angle of that medium. It reflects in the same medium which is known as
“total internal reflection”.

Critical angle:
It is the angle of incidence of light ray which travels from high optical density medium to
low optical medium so, the light ray refracted at 90 to the normal.
Total internal reflection:
It is the return of light ray when it is incident in a medium of larger optical dense by an angle
larger than the critical angle of this medium.

Natural phenomena related to light reflection & refraction:

1)-Apparent shapes of objects
Such as when you put pencil in beaker filled with water, pencil appears
as being broken due to the reflection of light.
2)-Apparent position of objects
It means that the objects appear in apparent position slightly above its
real position such as:
➢ The bottom of the swimming pool seems higher than its true
position.
➢ The fish in a glass basin seems at a position higher than its real
position.
3)-Mirage
It is a natural phenomena that the object on the roads at noon
especially in the summer times on the desert as if they had
inverted images on a wet area due to the total internal
reflection.
As the air above the desert road is heated at noon and covers
the Earth surface which leads to the formation of different
air layers of different temperature by convection currents.
so, the light rays come from the object and refract many times from the high layer to the
hot layer.

45
 Work Sheet (5)
Q.(1): Complete the path of the light rays in the opposite figure given that
ray (2) equals the critical angle.

Q.(2): Complete:
1. The first law of light refraction states that ………………………………. .
2. The absolute refractive index of the medium is the ratio between ………………….. to
……………………… .
3. When a light ray falls perpendicular on a reflecting surface, it reflects
…………………… because the angle of incidence equal to the angle of reflection
equal ……………………..
4. Optical fibers used in ……………………. that used in performing dangerous
operations.
5. When parallel light rays incident on a rough surface, they reflected in
…………………… directions and this is called …………………….. .

Q.(3): Choose:
1. From the natural phenomena that is related to total internal reflection of light is
……………………… .
( echo - Mirage - seeing objects above its normal position )
2. The critical angle lies in the medium of ………………… optical density.
( more - less - same )
3. The angle of incidence of light is …………………… the angle of reflection.
( greater than - smaller than - equal to )
4. If the angle between the reflected light ray and the reflecting surface is 300, so the
angle of incidence will be ………………… .
( 300 - 500 - 600 )

46
 5. The device used in submarines to see the bodies outside them on water surface is
called ………………………………. .
( sonar - hydrophones - periscope )

Q.(4): Answer the following questions:

1. Calculate the absolute refractive index of diamond given that the speed of light
through it 1.25 X 108 m/s, and the velocity of light in air is 3 X 108 m/s.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Calculate the velocity of light in glass if the velocity of light in air is 3 X 108 m/s and
the refractive index of glass is 1.5.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.(5): Give reasons:

1. The absolute refractive index of any transparent media is greater than 1.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The floor of the swimming pool appears higher than its original position.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. The ray falling perpendicular on the separating surface between two media different in
optical density doesn’t refract.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Home Work (5)

[1] Complete the path of the light rays, given that the angle of incidence of light ray 2
equals the critical angle.

47
2- Problems:
1- If the angle between the incident and reflected rays is 140°, find the angle of incidence
and the angle of reflection.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

2- Calculate the velocity of light through glass if you know that the velocity of light through
air is 3 x 108 m/s. and the absolute refractive index of glass is 1.5.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

3- Calculate the absolute refractive index of diamond given that the speed of light through it
is 1.5x 108 m/s. [the velocity of light through air is3 x 108 m/s.]
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

[3]

48
 Unit 3
Reproduction & the continuity
of species
Lesson 1:
Reproduction in plants

Lesson 2:
Reproduction in humans

49
 Lesson 1
Reproduction in plants
Flower:
It is the organ of sexual reproduction in flowering plants .
Characteristics of flower
 The seeds & fruits are formed inside the flower.
 The flower arises from a floral bud which emerges from the axle of a leaf called bract.
 The axle may carry a number of flowers which is known as inflorescence.

Structure of a typical flower:

A flower has a thin neck that ends with a receptacle which carries the 4 whorls of the
flower: calyx, corolla, gynoecium & androecium

1- Calyx:
a) It is the first whorl of the flora leaves.
b) It consists of a group of green leaves; each leaf
is called a sepal.
Its function:
It protects inner parts of the flower.
2-Corolla
a) It is the second whorl of the floral leaves.
b) It consists of a group of colorful & scented
leaves; each leaf is called a petal.
Its function:
a) It protects the reproductive organs.
b) It attracts insects.

50
3- Androecium:
a) It is the third whorl of the floral leaves.
b) It is the male reproductive organ of the flower.
c) Its leaves are known as stamens.
d) Each stamen consists of filament ends in
anther, which contains pollen grains
Its function:
It produces & holds pollen grains.

4- Gynoecium:
a) It is the fourth (innermost) whorl of the floral leaves.
b) It is the female reproductive organ of the flower.
c) Its leaves are known as carpals, which look like the flask.
d) Each carpel consists of a swollen part called ovary which is Ovary
connected with a tube called style which ends in an opening called
stigma (maysem).

Its function:
It produces ovules (inside the ovary).

Types (Sex) of flowers:

1- Male flowers:
They contain only male reproductive organs (Androecium).
e.g. (Palms, maize and pumpkins)
2- Female flowers:
They contain only female reproductive organs (Gynoecium).
e.g. (Palms, maize and pumpkins)
3- Bisexual (hermaphrodite) flowers:
They contain both male & female reproductive organs.
e.g. (Tulip, petunia, gelly & wallflower).

51
 Reproduction in plants:

First: Sexual reproduction in plants:

Pollination:
It is the process of transfer of pollen grains from the flower
anthers to the stigmas.

Types of pollination:

1-Self-pollination:Is the transfer of pollen grains from

anthers of a flower to stigmas of the same flower.
2- Mixed pollination: Is the transfer of pollen grains from
anthers of a flower to stigmas of another flower in other plant
of the same kind.

Methods of mixed (cross) pollination:

1) Pollination by air (wind):
 Anthers of flowers are hanged. To open by air.
 Anthers produce big numbers of pollen grains. To
compensate pollen grains.
 The pollen grains are light in weight and dry.To be easily
carried by air.
 Stigmas are feathery sticky like. To catch pollen grains from
air.
2) Pollination by insects:
 Petals are colored & scented. To attract insects to feed on its
nectar.

52
3) Artificial pollination:
 This method of pollination is carried out by man.
(e.g. Palm trees)
Sometimes, man has to pollinate palm trees.
To ensure pollination process as pollination is difficult to occur by air or by insects
II) Fertilization:
It is the process of fusion of the nucleus of the male cell (pollen grains) with the nucleus of
the female (ovum) to form zygote.

Pollen grain germination:

 They are small cells formed in the anther inside
pollen chamber.
 When they become mature, the anther splits
longitudinally& the pollen grains spread in air like
dust.

➢ Stages of fertilization process in plants:

1-After pollination, pollen grain sticks on stigma.
2- Pollen grain germinates forming a pollen tube.
3- Pollen tube extends in style till reaches ovule inside ovary through micropyle.
4- The end of the pollen tube degenerates and one of the 2 male nuclei combines with the
ovum forming zygote.
5- Zygote undergoes divisions to form the embryo inside the ovule.
6- Ovule develops & becomes seed, but ovary develops & becomes fruit.

N.B: -Fruits differ from each other according to the

nature of the ovary where :
 The ovary that contains one ovule, gives a fruit with a
single seed as olives and peaches.
 The ovary that contains many ovules, gives a fruit
with many seeds as beans or peas.

53
Second: Asexual reproduction in plants:
Vegetative reproduction: It takes place via parts of roots, stems, leaves or buds.

1- Natural vegetative reproduction:

It takes place by many ways such as reproduction by
(Rhizomes - Corms – Tubers –Bulbs –Offshoots).
Reproduction by tubers:
The tuber is: - A root as sweet potatoes
- A stem as potatoes.
Some plants form swellings called tubers which store food.
A tuber of potato is cut into pieces so that each piece contains at
least one bud (eye). Then the pieces are buried in the soil in
the season of cultivation. From each bud a new plant
emerges.

2- Artificial vegetative reproduction:

1- Reproduction by cutting:

Cutting:
It iss a part of root, stem or leaf that taken from a plant for reproduction

Observation:

 The buds buried inside soil grow to form the root system of the plant.
 The buds above soil surface grow to form the shoot system of the plant.
 These shrubs are then transferred to soil to grow more efficiently.

2- Reproduction by grafting:
In reproduction by grafting, an individual plant which containing more than one bud, known
as scion (graf), is selected to be placed on another individual known as the stock.

Methods of grafting:

a) Grafting by attachment: In which the scion is attached

to the stock.
e.g. Mango trees.

54
b) Grafting by wedge: In which the scion in the form of a wedge (pencil shaped) is inserted
into a cleft in the stock.
e.g. Large trees

➢ In both methods, the scion and the stock are tightly fled together, wherethe scion feeds on
the juice of the stock.
 The produced fruits by grafting belong to the type of the scion.
 This kind of reproduction is used only between highly similar plant species
Such as:
 Orange &naring (or bitter orange).
 Apples and pears.
 Peaches & apricots.
3- Tissue culture:
Is a process of multiplying a small part of a plant to get many identical parts.
The plant tissue is placed in a culture medium containing nutrients and hormones
An example : Tissue culture from potato

55
 Work Sheet (6)
Q.(1): Choose:
1. The organ responsible for the formation of ova in the flower is the
……………………….. .
( anther - ovary - corolla )
2. The floral whorl which is not found in the female flower …………………………… .
( calyx - androecium - corolla )
3. The fusion of the male cell (pollen grain) and the female cell (ovum) in another flower
to form the zygote called ……………………….. .
( auto pollination - mixed pollination - fertilization )
4. The egg contains ………………… of the genetic material of the plant species.
( half - all - quarter )

Q.(2) Give reasons:

1. The petals of corolla are colored and scented.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
2. Palm trees are unisexual.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
3. Flowers pollinated by insects produce coarse pollen grains.
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
4. The air pollinated flowers produce huge number of pollen grains.
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.(3): In the opposite figure:

1. Replace the numbers with suitable labels. 1 4
2. What is the importance of (1) and (2).
3. What is the sex of this flower. 5

2 3

56
 Home work (6)
[1] Write the scientific term:
1. Short stem where the leaves developed& modified into reproductive organs. (……………)
2. The bisexual flowers. (………………..)
3. The cell resulting from the fusion of pollen grain and the ovum nuclei. (……………..)
4. The reproduction of some plants by parts of the roots, stems or leaves. (……………….)
5. The flowers which contain both androecium& gynoecium. (……………………)
6. A new method to produce large numbers of plants from a small part of it. (………………)

[2] Put ( √ ) or (x), then correct the wrong ones.

1- The wall of the ovary after pollination forms the coat of the fruit. ( )
2- Reproduction by tuber happens in orange& bitter orange. ( )
3- The swollen part which carries the floral leaves is known as the pedicle. ( )
4- The corolla consists of bright colored scented leaves. ( )
5- Each anther consists of two chambers containing pollen grains. ( )
6- Anthers produce ovules. ( )
7- Tulip and petunia are hermaphrodite flowers. ( )
8- The male flower consists of three whorls. ( )

[3] Give reasons:

1. The petals of corolla are colorful & scented.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Palm flowers are unisexual.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Auto pollination can't happen in sun flowers.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Flowers pollinated by insects produce coarse pollen grains.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Potato can be reproduced by tuber.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Reproduction by grafting can’t be used between apples and peaches.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 [4] What happens?
1. When a pollen grain falls on the stigma of a flower.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. To the ovary after fertilization.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. To the zygote.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
[6] Cross the unsuitable word out, then write the scientific term:
1. Stigma / stamen / style/ ovary.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Sepals / petals / tubers / carpals.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Segments / pollination / tarqeed / insertion.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
[7] Choose from column B& C, what's suitable for column A:

[8]

58
 Lesson 2
Reproduction in humans

1. Like all higher animals, humans can only reproduce sexually. A sperm from a man joins
with an egg (ovum) in the woman to produce a new human individual.
2. The offspring is different from the parents.
3. The system responsible for reproduction in humans is called (the genital system).
Male genital system is different in structure & function from female genital system.

First, The male reproductive genital system:

It consists of:
1. 2 testes.
2. Vas deferens.
3. Genital associated glands.
4. Penis.

1)-Testes

- They are 2 glands of oval shape.

- They lie outside the body in a sac like structure called (scrotal sac) (scrotum) which is
hanged between man’s thighs.

Function of testes:
1)-Production of sperms after puberty.
2)-Production of male sex hormone (testosterone) which is responsible for appearance of
secondary sex characters (signs of puberty) in male.
Function of scrotal sac:
It regulates and keeps the temperature of testes 2 degree below the normal body temperature
which is suitable temperature for growth and development of the sperms.
Signs of puberty in male:
1)-Growth of hair in certain body areas.
2)-Harshness of voice.
3)-Development of genital organs.
4)-Growth of bones.
5)-Enlargement of muscles.

59
If the testes are present inside the body and don’t come out during development of the
embryo then sperms will not grow or develop and in the individual become (infertile) or
(sterile).

2)-The Vas deference

Each testis is connected to a group of fine convoluted (looped)

tubes known as (Epididymis) which extends in the form of a
single tube known as (vas deference).

Function of epididymis: Store the sperms

Function of the vas deference:
It transfers the sperms from the testis to the urinogenital duct (urethra).

3)-Genital associated glands:

There are 3 kinds of genital glands connected to the male

reproductive system which are:
1)-Seminal vesicles.
2)-Prostate gland.
3)-Cowper’s gland.

Function of genital glands:

They secrete a seminal fluid (alkaline fluid) which:
1)-Nourishes (feed) the sperms.
2)-Facilitate the flow of sperms.
3)-Neutralizes the acidity of urethra, so the sperms don’t die during passing through
the urethra.

4)-The penis:

- It is a sponge like tissue.

- The urethra passes through it and ends in anurosexual opening, through which the semen
and urine go out of the body but never at the same time.

60
Second: The female reproductive genital
system:

It consists of:
1)-2 Ovaries.
2)-2 fallopian tubes.
3)-Uterus.
4)-Vagina.

1)-Two Ovaries:

- They are 2 glands having the size of an almond.

- They lie inside the body in the lower part of the abdominal
cavity from the back.

Function of Ovaries:
1)-Production of ova where each ovary releases one ripe ovum every 28 days in exchange
with the other ovary. This process is called (ovulation)
2)-Production of female sex hormones which are responsible for:
a)- Estrogen responsible for appearance of secondary sex characters in .
b)-Progesterone responsible for occurrence and continuity of pregnancy.

Signs of puberty in female:

1)-Growth of hair in armpit and pubic.
2)-Softness of voice.
3)-Growth and development of breasts.
4)-Accumulation of fats in some body regions.
5)-Occurrence of menstrual cycle every 28 days as long as the pregnancy not happened.

2)-Two fallopian tubes:

- They are two tubes of funnel shaped opening provided with
finger like projections.
- The inner wall of fallopian tube lined with cilia.
- The two fallopian tubes are open in the upper corners of the
uterus.

61
Function of the fallopian tubes:
-They receive the ripe ovum and direct it towards the uterus by the aid of:
a)-Contractions and relaxations of muscles in the tubes wall.
b)-Movement of lining cilia.

3)-The Uterus:

- It is a hollow pear shaped organ.

- It has muscular wall that can expand as the fetus grows during
pregnancy.
- It is lined with the mucus membrane rich in blood capillaries to form a placenta which is
responsible for the nourishment of the fetus during pregnancy through the umbilical cord.
- It lies in the pelvic cavity between the urinary bladder and rectum.
Function of Uterus:
It protects and nourishes the fetus during pregnancy till birth.

4)-The Vagina:

- It extends from the uterus and ends in the external genital opening.
- It is a muscular tube that expands during the labor to deliver the baby.

Reproductive cells in males and females (sperms and ovum)

The structure of the ovum,
it is large in size (sesame seed size) due to the storage of
the nutrient materials.

Spherical static cell consists of:

1)-Nucleus contains half chromosomes.
2)-Cytoplasm store food and nourishment the cell.
3)-The cellular membrane coat the cell from outside.

The structure of the sperm:

-It is considered very small if it is compared with the ovum.
- It is mobile (not static).
- It consists of:
1)-The head: contains a nucleus with half chromosomes.
2)-The middle part (midpiece): contains mitochondria
responsible for the energy production for sperms movement.

62
 3)-The tail, thin and long responsible for the movement of sperm till reaches the ovum.

Fertilization and embryo formation:

Definition of fertilization:
It is the fusion between the nucleus of male gamete (sperm) with the nucleus of female
gamete to form the zygote.
Note:
1. The body of the living organism consists of cells.
2. The nucleus in the cell contains the genetic material called chromosomes.
3. The chromosomes are responsible for the hereditary traits of the organism.
4. The number of chromosomes for a certain species is constant. Humans have 46
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs in all cells except reproductive cells which have half
the number of chromosomes (23).

Steps of fertilization
- During mating, the male secretes billions of sperms which move from the vagina towards
uterus then to the fallopian tubes.
- The female produces only one ovum in the 14Th day of the beginning of the menstrual
cycle.
- The sperms rush towards the ovum at the beginning of the fallopian tubes.
- The head of the sperm secretes enzymes which dissolve the cellular membrane of ovum
to facilitate its penetration inside the ovum.
- After the penetration of the sperm which consists half chromosomes (23 chromosomes)
fuses with the nucleus of the ovum which consists of half number of chromosomes (23
chromosomes).
- A zygote is formed which consists of 46 chromosomes.

- The zygote transfers to the uterus to be implanted in its lining.

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Development of the embryo

- The zygote divides many successive divisions into many cells and differentiates and
continues to grow forming embryo (fetus).
- The period between fertilization and delivery is known as the pregnancy period which
extends about 9 months

Stages of fetal development:

Duration Development of embryo
The first stage The first 6 weeks of pregnancy Formation of a head & eyes.

The second stage 7th week till 12th week of The face , genital organs &
pregnancy digits appear

13th week till it the 22nd of 1. Development of bones &

pregnancy. circulatory system.
The third stage
2. The embryo movements are
felt by the pregnant mother.
23rd week till delivery. All body systems are
The fourth stage completely developed through
this stage.

64
1. The fetus could be delivered by the twenty eighth week because its respiratory system
can breathe atmospheric air.
2. When the embryo is completely developed , it inverts its position with the head towards
the cervices of the uterus.

Diseases of the genital system

Genital system diseases in male and female are classified into two types:
• First type: diseases not arising from sexual contact like: uterine cancer, prostate
cancer, puerperal sepsis.

puerperal sepsis disease

Means of infection
Bacterial infection (Spherical Bacteria) of the female
reproductive system after child birth.
Incubation period
1-4 days
Symptoms Increase in body temperature, chilling, pallor, severe acute pains
in the lower abdomen associated by secretions from the uterus
with bad smell.
Prevention Sterilizing surgical tools. Avoiding contact with patients.
The mother should avoid exposure to cold air currents.

65
 • Second type: diseases arising from sexual contact, sexually transmitted diseases STDs
like: gonorrhea, syphilis and AIDS.

Incubation period:

It is the period of time between catching an infection and appearance of symptoms on

the patient.

symptoms on the patient.

Syphilis disease
Means of infection Syphilis bacteria (Spiral Bacteria) are transferred from an infected
person by sexual contact.

The bacteria can be transferred from the pregnant woman to her

embryo.

Incubation period 2 to 3 weeks

Symptoms - The formation of a painless hard ulcer on the genital organs.

- Dark brass colored rash appears on the back and hands.
Complications - Tumors in different parts of the body like of the liver, bones and
parts of the genital system.
- The brain may also be damaged and the patient eventually dies.

The effect of smoking and addiction on the genital system:

1- Decrease the formation male hormone in man and female hormone in woman.
2- Lead to the death of the embryos and recent born babies.
3- The intake of drugs by pregnant mother lead to the increase of deformation rate in
the embryos.
Healthy toilet seat cover
A plastic medical cover in the form of an elliptical plastic frame - sold in pharmacies –
should be used in public toilets to avoid infection
66 by some skin and genital diseases.
 Work Sheet (7)

Q.(1): Complete:
1. The sperm consists of ………………., middle part and ……………………. .
2. The testes function is to produce ………………. And secretion of …………………
hormone.
3. The associated gland with male genital system are ……………………
,……………………….and ……………………… .
4. …………………., ……………………….and ………………….are from symptoms of
syphilis.
5. The humane zygote carries …………………… chromosomes.
6. ………………….., ……………………are from the puberty indications in female.

Q.(2): compare between:

1. Syphilis and puerperal sepsis (symptoms)
Syphilis Puerperal sepsis

…………………………………………… …………………………………………
…………………………………………… …………………………………………...

2. The ovum and sperm of human (by drawing).

Sperm Ovum

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 3. The male hormone and female hormones (position of secretion and function)

Male hormones Female hormones

Position of …………………………………….. …………………………………….

secretion
…………………………………… ……………………………………

function ……………………………………. ……………………………………

……………………………………. ……………………………………

Q.(3) Give reasons:

1. The sex of the embryo is unknown before the 7th week of pregnancy.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. Man can’t reproduce asexually.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The semen fluid produced in the urethra before sperms secretions.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. A new labored mother should avoid air current after delivery.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. Fallopian tubes ligation is considered one mean
…………………………………………………………………………………………...

Q.(4): Mention the importance of:

1. The middle part of the sperm.
………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The two ovaries.
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Fallopian tubes.
………………………………………………………………………………………….

68
 Home Work (7)

[1] Write the scientific term:

1. An oval- shaped gland that produces male cells. (……………………)
2. Two glands that produce the female cells in human females. (……………………)
3. The period between the beginning of infection& the appearance of disease symptoms.
(………………………)

[2] Choose the correct answer:

1. The right ovary in the female human produces a mature (ripe) ovum every ……..days.
( 24 - 28 - 34 - 56 )
2. Fertilization occurs when ……………..is formed.
( embryo - Zygote - endometrium - ovum)
3. An ulcer at the tip of the penis in male is due to ……………….infection.
( syphilis - gonorrhea - puerperal sepsis - germen measles)

[3] Complete the following:

1. The ………….glands& …………..Glands are from glands associated with the male
genital glands.
2. The ……………hormone in male& the …………… hormone in female are responsible
for the appearance of secondary sex characters.
3. The sperm consists of ……………….., middle part& ………………..
[4] Mention the function of:
1. The middle part of the sperm.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The scrotal sac.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The uterus.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
[5] Give reasons for:
1. Man can't reproduce asexually.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. The male whose testicles are still present inside the abdominal cavity is infertile (sterile).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Fallopian tubes ligation is considered as one of the means of birth control.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

69
4. The baby can be born in the 28th week of pregnancy.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. A new labored mother should avoid air currents after delivery.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
[6] Compare between :
1. The sperm and the ovum. (3 points only)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
[7] Cross the unsuitable word out, then write the relation between the rest:
1. AIDS / Gonorrhea / Syphilis / Measles.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Testes / Fallopian tube / vas deferens / Scrotum.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….

[8]

[9]

70
 Practical Sheet
Q.1) Write the observation and conclusion for the following experiments:
Exp. ❶

Name of experiment:

Identification of wave concept.

Observation:

The flame of the candle will move.

Conclusion:

The wave is a disturbance that propagates and transfer

energy.

Exp.❷

Name of the experiment:

The effect of medium density on sound intensity.

Observation:

The sound is affected after working the vacuum pump.

Conclusion:

Sound intensity increases as the density of the medium increases.

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Exp.❸

Name of the experiment:

Analysis of white light:

Observation:
The incident light is turned to seven colors which
are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.
Conclusion:
The triangular prism analyzed the white light into the seven colors of spectrum.

Q.2): Identify the sex of the flower in front of you:

( male or female or hermaphrodite )

72