Department of Mathematical Sciences,

P. D. Patel Institute of Applied Sciences,

Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa
 Unit I : Higher Order Derivatives and Applications

 Set theory and Function

 Limit, Continuity, Differentiability for function of single variable and its
uses. Mean Value Theorem, Local Maxima and Minima
 Successive differentiation: nth derivative of elementary functions:
rational, logarithmic, trigonometric, exponential and hyperbolic etc.
 Leibnitz rule for the nth order derivatives of product of two functions
 Tests of convergence of series viz., comparison test, ratio test, root test,
Leibnitz test. Power series expansion of a function: Maclaurin’s and
Taylor’s series expansion.
 L’Hospital’s rule and related applications, Indeterminate forms
 Power series expansion of a function:
Maclaurin’s and Taylor’s series expansion
Power series expansion of a function: Maclaurin’ and Taylor’s series expansion
we shall discuss infinite series representation of a function, especially in the form of a power
series. Such series expansions are useful to approximate the function numerically by
polynomials e.g. functions such as sin x, log x, ex, etc. For that we shall use Taylor’s series
and Maclaurin’s series expansions in the powers of some variable.
Definition: If 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … . and a are constants, then an infinite series expression of the form
∞
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛 =𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑐2 𝑥 − 𝑎 2
+….+𝑐𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑎 𝑛
+ ⋯ is called a power
series in 𝑥 − 𝑎 .
∞ 𝑛
If we put 𝑎 = 0 then 𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯ is called a power series
in x.
Taylor’s series:
If 𝑓(𝑥) possesses derivatives of all orders at the point a , then 𝑓(𝑥) can be expanded into a
power series of (𝑥 − 𝑎) as follows
𝑥−𝑎 1 ′ 𝑥−𝑎 2 ′′ 𝑥−𝑎 𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + ⋯+ 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯ (1)
1! 2! 𝑛!

Result-1: Replacing x by 𝑎 + ℎ in (1), we get another form of the Taylor’s series is

ℎ1 ′ ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 𝑎+ℎ =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 2! 𝑓 𝑎 + ⋯+ 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 𝑛!

Result-2: If we put 𝑎 = 0 in (1), then we get

𝑥1 ′ 𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 + 2! 𝑓 0 + ⋯+ 𝑓 0 + ⋯ , which known as Maclaurin’s series
1! 𝑛!

expansion of the function 𝑓 𝑥 .

Example 1. Use Taylor’s series to find the expansion of log 𝑒 𝑥 in powers of 𝑥 − 1 . find the
value of log 1.1. (C.W.)
Solution. Here 𝑎 =1
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 1 = 0
1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑓′ 1 = 1
1
𝑓′′ 𝑥 =− 𝑥2 , 𝑓′′ 1 = −1
2
𝑓′′′ 𝑥 =𝑥3 , 𝑓′′′ 1 = 2
𝑖𝑣 6
𝑓 𝑥 =− 𝑥4 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 1 = −6 and so on.
By Taylor’s series expansion, we have
𝑥−𝑎 1 ′ 𝑥−𝑎 2 ′′ 𝑥−𝑎 3 ′′′ 𝑥−𝑎 4 𝑖𝑣
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝑥−1 1 ′ 𝑥−1 2 ′′ 𝑥−1 3 ′′′ 𝑥−1 4 𝑖𝑣
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 1 + 𝑓 1 + 𝑓 1 + 𝑓 1 + 𝑓 1 +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
 𝑥−1 1 𝑥−1 2 𝑥−1 3 𝑥−1 4
log 𝑒 𝑥 = 0 + (1) + (−1) + (2) + (−6) +⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝑥−1 2 𝑥−1 3 𝑥−1 4
log 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 − + − +⋯ (1)
2 3 4
Now put 𝑥 = 1.1 in (1), we get
0.1 2 0.1 3 0.1 4
log 𝑒 1.1 = 0.1 − + − +⋯
2 3 4

= 0.1 − 0.00500 + 0.00033 − 0.00002 + ⋯

≈ 0.09531
 −1 𝜋
Example 2. Expand tan 𝑥 in powers of 𝑥 − . (H.W.)
4
𝜋
Solution. Here 𝑎 = 4
−1 𝜋 −1 𝜋
Let 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥,𝑓 = tan 4
4
1 𝜋 1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = , 𝑓′ = 𝜋2
1+𝑥 2 4 1+
16
2𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓′′ 𝑥 =− , 𝑓 ′′ = − 2
1+𝑥 2 2 4 𝜋2
2 1+
16
and so on.
By Taylor’s series expansion, we have
𝑥−𝑎 1 ′ 𝑥−𝑎 2 ′′
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑓 𝑎 +⋯
1! 2!
𝜋 1 𝜋 2
𝜋 𝑥− 𝜋 𝑥− 𝜋
tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑓 + 4
𝑓′ + 4
𝑓 ′′ +⋯
4 1! 4 2! 4
𝜋 𝜋 2
𝑥− 𝜋 𝑥−
−1 −1 𝜋 4 4
tan 𝑥= tan 4 + 𝜋2
− 2 +⋯
1+ 𝜋2
16 4 1+
16
 𝜋
Example 3. Expand log tan + 𝑥 in powers of 𝑥 using the Taylor’s series. (C.W.)
4
𝜋
Solution: Here 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ = log tan 4
+𝑥
𝜋
Let 𝑎 = and ℎ = 𝑥.
4
𝜋
𝑓 𝑥 = log tan 𝑥 , 𝑓 4 =0
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝜋
𝑓′ 𝑥 = = = cot 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 , 𝑓′ =1+1=2
tan 𝑥 tan 𝑥 4
𝜋 2 2
𝑓 ′′ 𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ 4 = − 2 + 2 = −2 + 2 = 0
′′′ 2 2 ′′′ 𝜋 2 2
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥, 𝑓 =2 2 +2 2 =4+4=8
4
and so on.
By Taylor’s series expansion, we have
ℎ1 ′ ℎ2 ′′ ℎ𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 𝑎+ℎ =𝑓 𝑎 + 1! 𝑓 𝑎 + 2! 𝑓 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑛! 𝑓 𝑎 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋 𝑥1 ′ 𝜋 𝑥 2 ′′ 𝜋 𝑥 3 ′′′ 𝜋
𝑓 +𝑥 =𝑓 + 1! 𝑓 4 + 2! 𝑓 4 + 3! 𝑓 +⋯
4 4 4
𝜋 4 3
log tan + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯
4 3
 𝑎 sin−1 𝑥
Example 4. Obtain the Maclaurin’s series of 𝑒 . (C.W.)
𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
Solution. Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 , 𝑦(0) = 1.
Differentiating with respect to x, we have
𝑎 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑦1 = 𝑒 , 𝑦1 0 = 𝑎
1−𝑥 2
∴ 1 − 𝑥 𝑦1 2 = 𝑎2 𝑦 2
2

∴ 1 − 𝑥 2 2𝑦1 𝑦2 − 2𝑥𝑦1 2 = 2𝑎2 𝑦 𝑦1

∴ 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦2 − 𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑎2 𝑦 = 0 , 𝑦2 0 = 𝑎2
Using Leibnitz’s rule, we get
𝑛 𝑛−1
1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑛+2 + 𝑛𝑦𝑛+1 −2𝑥 + 2!
𝑦𝑛 −2 −{𝑥𝑦𝑛+1 + 𝑦𝑛 (1)}−𝑦𝑛 = 0
∴ 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑛+2 − 𝑥 2𝑛 + 1 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑎2 + 𝑛2 𝑦𝑛 = 0, 𝑛 ≥ 1.
At 𝑥 = 0, we have
∴ 𝑦𝑛+2 0 = (𝑎2 + 𝑛2 ) 𝑦𝑛 0 , 𝑛 ≥ 1.
For 𝑛 = 1,
𝑦3 0 = (𝑎2 + 1) 𝑦1 0 = 𝑎(𝑎2 + 1)
For 𝑛 = 2,
𝑦4 0 = (𝑎2 + 22 ) 𝑦2 0 = 𝑎2 (𝑎2 + 22 )
and so on.
By Maclaurin’s series expansion, we have
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
y 𝑥 = 𝑦 0 + 1! 𝑦1 0 + 2! 𝑦2 0 + 3! 𝑦3 0 + 4! 𝑦4 0 + 5! 𝑦5 0 +⋯
𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑥1 2𝑥
2
2 𝑥3 2 2 2 𝑥
4
𝑒 = 1 + 𝑎 1! + 𝑎 2! + 𝑎 𝑎 + 1 3! + 𝑎 𝑎 + 2 4! + ⋯
 sin−1 𝑥
Example 5. Obtain the Maclaurin’s series of . (C.W.)
1−𝑥 2
sin−1 𝑥
Solution. Let 𝑦 = , 𝑦(0) = 0
1−𝑥 2
1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = sin 𝑥−1 2

Differentiating with respect to x, we have

2 2 2 sin−1 𝑥
1 − 𝑥 2𝑦𝑦1 − 2𝑥𝑦 = = 2𝑦
1−𝑥 2
∴ 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦1 − 𝑥𝑦 = 1 , 𝑦1 0 = 1
Using Leibnitz’s rule, we get
2 𝑛 𝑛−1
1 − 𝑥 𝑦𝑛+1 + 𝑛𝑦𝑛 −2𝑥 + 2! 𝑦𝑛−1 −2 −{𝑥𝑦𝑛 + 𝑛𝑦𝑛−1 (1)} = 0
∴ 1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑥 2𝑛 + 1 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑛2 𝑦𝑛−1 = 0 , 𝑛 ≥ 1.
At 𝑥 = 0, we have
𝑦𝑛+1 0 = 𝑛2 𝑦𝑛−1 0 , 𝑛 ≥ 1.
For 𝑛 = 1, 𝑦2 0 = 0
For 𝑛 = 2, 𝑦3 0 = 4
For 𝑛 = 3, 𝑦4 0 = 0
For 𝑛 = 4, 𝑦5 0 = 64,
and so on.
By Maclaurin’s series expansion, we have
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
y 𝑥 =𝑦 0 + 1! 𝑦1 0 + 2! 𝑦2 0 + 𝑦 0 + 4! 𝑦4 0 + 5! 𝑦5 0 +⋯
3! 3
sin−1 𝑥 2 3 8 5
= 2𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 15 𝑥 + ⋯
1−𝑥 2
Example 6. Obtain the Maclaurin’s series of log sec 𝑥. (H.W.)
Solution. Let 𝑓 𝑥 = log sec 𝑥 , 𝑓 0 =0
1
𝑓′ 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 , 𝑓′ 0 = 0
sec 𝑥
2 ′′
𝑓′′ 𝑥 =𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥, 𝑓 (0) = 1
𝑓′′′ 𝑥 =2𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) =0
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 𝑥 =4𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 + 2𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 0 = 2
and so on.
By Maclaurin’s series expansion, we have
𝑥1 ′ 𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 + 𝑓 0 + ⋯+ 𝑓 0 +⋯
1! 2! 𝑛!
𝑥2 𝑥4
log sec 𝑥 = 2! + 4! ⋅ 2 + ⋯
𝑥2 𝑥4
log sec 𝑥 = 2 + 12 + ⋯
Thank You…