Department of Mathematical Sciences,

P. D. Patel Institute of Applied Sciences,

Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa
 Unit II : Complex numbers and Roots of polynomial Equations

 Complex numbers and their geometric representation

 Complex numbers in polar and exponential forms
 De Moivre's theorem and its applications
 Exponential, Logarithmic, Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
 Statement of fundamental theorem of Algebra, Analytical solution of cubic
equation by Cardan’s method
 Analytic solution of Biquadratic equations by Ferrari’s method with their
applications.
Fundamental theorem of Algebra:

Statement:
Every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficient has at least one
complex root.
Cardon’s Method
Cardon's Method:
This method is used to find the roots of a cubic equation.
Consider a cubic equation
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 = 0 𝑎 ≠ 0 (1)
Divide equation (1) by 𝑎, we get 𝑥 3 + 𝑙𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛 = 0.
𝑙
To remove the 𝑥 2 term, put 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 3. Then the resulting equation is of the form
𝑦 3 +𝑝𝑦 + 𝑞 = 0 (2)
Now to solve equation (2), put 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣. Then the expansion of 𝑦 3 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 3
gives
𝑦 3 − 3𝑢𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = 0 (3)
From the comparison of equation (2) and (3), we get
𝑝 3 3 3 3 𝑝3
𝑢𝑣 = − and 𝑢 + 𝑣 = −𝑞 or 𝑢 𝑣 = − and 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = −𝑞.
3 27
Therefore 𝑢3 , 𝑣 3 are the roots of the equation
2 𝑝3
𝑡 + 𝑞𝑡 − =0 (4)
27
The solution of equation (4) gives the values of 𝑢 and 𝑣. From that one can find out the first
root of the cubic equation.
After that using the synthetic division method one can easily obtain the remaining two roots of
equation 1 .
Example 1. Find the roots of 𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 33𝑥 + 847 = 0. (C.W.)
Solution. We are given
𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 33𝑥 + 847 = 0. (1)
From (1), we have 𝑙 = −15.
𝑙
Now take 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 3 . Then 𝑥 = 𝑦 − −5 = 𝑦 + 5.
Substitute 𝑥 in equation 1 , we get
3 2
𝑦+5 − 15 𝑦 + 5 − 33 𝑦 + 5 + 847 = 0
∴ 𝑦 3 + 125 + 15𝑦 𝑦 + 5 − 15 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 25 − 33𝑦 − 165 + 847 = 0
∴ 𝑦 3 − 108𝑦 + 432 = 0. (2)
Take 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣. Then 𝑦 3 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 3 .
∴ 𝑦 3 = 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 + 3𝑢𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣 .
∴ 𝑦 3 − 3𝑢𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = 0. (3)
By comparing equation (2) and 3 , we get
3𝑢𝑣 = 108 ∴ 𝑢𝑣 = 36 and 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = −432.
Therefore 𝑢3 , 𝑣 3 are the roots of the equation
𝑡 2 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 𝑡 + 𝑢3 𝑣 3 = 0
∴ 𝑡 2 + 432 𝑡 + 36 3
=0
∴ 𝑡 2 + 432 𝑡 + 6 6
=0
∴ 𝑡 + 63 2
=0
∴ 𝑡 = −63 , −63
Therefore 𝑡 = 𝑢3 = 𝑣 3 = −63 ∴ 𝑢 = 𝑣 = −6
So 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 = −12. Then 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 5 = −12 + 5 = −7.
So 𝑥 = −7 is the one root of equation 1 .
Therefore by synthetic division method, we have
𝑥 3 − 15𝑥 2 − 33𝑥 + 847 = 𝑥 + 7 𝑥 2 − 22𝑥 + 121 = 0
2
∴ 𝑥 + 7 𝑥 − 11 =0
∴ 𝑥 = −7, 11, 11
Hence the roots of the equation (1) are −7, 11 and 11.
Example 2. Find the roots of 2𝑥 3 −7𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 = 0. (C.W.)
Solution. We are given
2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 3 = 0. (1)
7
From (1), we have 𝑙 = − 2.
𝑙 7
Now take 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 3 . Then 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 6 (∗)
If we put equation (∗) in the equation (1), then some of the terms will have fraction. To avoid
this fractions, multiplying equation (1) by 63 , we have
2𝑥 3 (63 ) − 7𝑥 2 (63 ) + 8𝑥(63 ) − 3(63 ) = 0
∴ 2(6𝑥)3 −42 6𝑥 2
+ 288 (6𝑥) − 648 = 0
Putting ℎ = 6𝑥, we get
2ℎ3 − 42ℎ2 + 288ℎ − 648 = 0 (2)
−42
Now from equation (2), we have 𝑙 = 2
= −21
𝑙 −21
Take ℎ = 𝑦 −3. Then ℎ = 𝑦 − =𝑦+7.
3
Substitute ℎ in equation 2 , we get
2 𝑦 + 7 3 − 42 𝑦 + 7 2 + 288 𝑦 + 7 − 648 = 0.
∴ 2[𝑦 3 + 343 + 21𝑦 𝑦 + 7 ] − 42 𝑦 2 + 14𝑦 + 49 + 288𝑦 + 2016 − 648 = 0
∴ 2𝑦 3 + 686 + 42𝑦 2 + 294𝑦 − 42𝑦 2 − 588𝑦 − 2058 + 288𝑦 + 1368 = 0
∴ 2𝑦 3 − 6𝑦 − 4 = 0.
∴ 𝑦 3 − 3𝑦 − 2 = 0. (3)
Take 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣. Then 𝑦 3 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 3 .
∴ 𝑦 3 = 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 + 3𝑢𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣 .
∴ 𝑦 3 − 3𝑢𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = 0. (4)
By comparing equation (3) and 4 , we get
3𝑢𝑣 = 3 ∴ 𝑢𝑣 = 1 and 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = 2.
Therefore 𝑢3 , 𝑣 3 are the roots of the equation
𝑡 2 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 𝑡 + 𝑢3 𝑣 3 = 0
∴ 𝑡2 − 2 𝑡 + 1 = 0
2
∴ 𝑡−1 =0
∴ 𝑡 = 1,1
Therefore 𝑡 = 𝑢3 = 𝑣 3 = 13 ∴𝑢=𝑣=1
So 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 2. Then ℎ = 𝑦 + 7 = 2 + 7 = 9.
So ℎ = 9 is the one root of equation 2 .
Therefore by synthetic division method, we have
2ℎ3 − 42ℎ2 + 288ℎ − 648 = ℎ − 9 ℎ2 − 12ℎ + 36 = 0
2
∴ ℎ−9 ℎ−6 =0
∴ ℎ = 9, 6, 6 are roots of the equation (2)
9 6 6 3
Hence the roots of the equation (1) are , ,
6 6 6
= 2
, 1,1.
Example 3. Find the roots of 𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 + 35 = 0. (C.W.)
Solution: We are given
𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 + 35 = 0. (1)
𝑏
From 1 , we have 𝑙 = = 0.
𝑎
𝑙
Now take 𝑥 = 𝑦 − . Then 𝑥 = 𝑦 .
3

Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑦 in equation 1 , we get

𝑦 3 − 18𝑦 + 35 = 0. (2)
Take 𝑦 = 𝑢 + 𝑣. Then 𝑦 3 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 3 .
∴ 𝑦 3 = 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 + 3𝑢𝑣 𝑢 + 𝑣 .
∴ 𝑦 3 − 3𝑢𝑣𝑦 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = 0. (3)
By comparing equation (2) and 3 , we get
3𝑢𝑣 = 18 ∴ 𝑢𝑣 = 6 and 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 = −35.
Therefore 𝑢3 , 𝑣 3 are the roots of the equation
𝑡 2 − 𝑢3 + 𝑣 3 𝑡 + 𝑢3 𝑣 3 = 0
∴ 𝑡 2 + 35 𝑡 + 63 = 0
∴ 𝑡 2 + 35 𝑡 + 216 = 0
−35± 361
∴𝑡= = −8, −27
2
Therefore 𝑡 = 𝑢3 = −23 and 𝑣 3 = −33 ∴ 𝑢 = −2 and 𝑣 = −3.
So 𝑦 = −2 − 3 = −5. Then 𝑥 = 𝑦 = −5.
So 𝑥 = −5 is the one root of equation 2 .
Therefore by synthetic division method, we have
𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 + 35 = 𝑥 + 5 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 7 = 0
5± 25−28
∴ 𝑥 = −5 and 𝑥 = 2
5±𝑖 3
∴𝑥= 2
5±𝑖 3
Hence the roots of the equation (1) are −5, .
2
Ferrari’s Method
Ferrari's Method:
This method is used to find the roots of a biquadratic equation.
Consider a biquadratic equation
𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 = 0 (1)
Now consider
𝑏 2 𝑏2 2
2 4 3
𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 4𝑥
2
2 2
4 3
𝑏 2
𝑏 2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2 4
Put this value in equation (1), we get
2
2
𝑏 𝑏2 2
𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 = 0
2 4
2
2
𝑏 𝑏2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑥 = − 𝑐 𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑒 3
2 4
Now take any real number 𝜆 and consider
𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑏
2 2
𝑥 + 2
𝑥 +𝜆 = 𝑥 +2𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆2
𝑏2 2 2 𝑏
= 4
− 𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑒 + 2 𝑥 + 2
𝑥 𝜆 + 𝜆2 (by equation (3))
𝑏 2 𝑏2
2
∴ 𝑥 + 2
𝑥 +𝜆 = 4
− 𝑐 + 2𝜆 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝜆 − 𝑑 𝑥 + 𝜆2 − 𝑒 (4)
The right hand side of the equation 4 is the perfect square if and only if
2 𝑏2
𝑏𝜆 − 𝑑 −4 − 𝑐 + 2𝜆 𝜆2 − 𝑒 = 0 (5)
4

The equation (5) gives an equation which is a cubic equation in 𝜆.

Then by Cardon's method one can solve it for 𝜆.
Now if we put this value of 𝜆 in 4 then the right hand side becomes a perfect square.
Therefore from (4), we have
𝑏 2
2 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥 +𝜆 = 𝑥−𝛼
2 𝑏 2 𝑏
∴ 𝑥 +2𝑥 +𝜆−𝑥+𝛼 𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝜆+𝑥−𝛼 =0 (6)
2
Hence from equation (6) one can obtain the required four roots of equation 1 .
Example 1. Find the roots of 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 3 = 0. (C.W.)
Solution: We are given
𝑥 4 −2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 3 = 0. (1)
We consider
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝜆 2 = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 𝜆2 − 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥𝜆 + 2𝜆𝑥 2
= 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝜆2 − 2𝑥𝜆 + 2𝜆𝑥 2
Substitute the value of 𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 from equation 1 , we get
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝜆 2 = 5𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝜆2 − 2𝑥𝜆 + 2𝜆𝑥 2
= 2𝜆 + 6 𝑥 2 + −2𝜆 − 10 𝑥 + (𝜆2 + 3) (2)
Now we will find the value of 𝜆 such that the right hand side of equation (2) becomes perfect
square.
We know that for a perfect square the discriminant Δ of the quadratic equation in 𝜆 must be
zero.
 Δ=0
∴ −2𝜆 − 10 2 − 4 2𝜆 + 6 𝜆2 + 3 = 0
∴ 2𝜆 + 10 2 − 4 2𝜆 + 6 𝜆2 + 3 = 0
∴ 4𝜆2 + 40𝜆 + 100 − 8𝜆3 − 24𝜆 − 24𝜆2 − 72 = 0
∴ −8𝜆3 − 20𝜆2 + 16𝜆 + 28 = 0
∴ 2𝜆3 + 5𝜆2 − 4𝜆 − 7 = 0, (3)
which is a cubic equation. We can easily observe that 𝜆 = −1 is one root of equation 3 .
Therefore from equation 2 , we get
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 2 = 4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 = 2𝑥 − 2 2
∴ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 2 − 2𝑥 − 2 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 + 2𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 − 2𝑥 + 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 = 0 and 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
−1± 1+12 −1± 13 3± 9−4 3± 5
Therefore 𝑥 = = and 𝑥 = 2 = .
2 2 2
−1± 13 3± 5
Hence the roots of equation (1) are , 2 .
2
Example 2. Find the roots of 2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 − 6 = 0. (C.W.)
Solution. We are given
2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 − 17𝑥 − 6 = 0.
4 5 3 2 17
∴𝑥 + 𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0. (1)
2 2
We consider
5 2 25 2 10 3 10
2
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝜆 = 𝑥 + 16 𝑥 + 𝜆 + 4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥𝜆 + 2𝜆𝑥 2
4 2
4
25 5 5
= 𝑥 4 + 16 𝑥 2 + 𝜆2 + 2 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥𝜆 + 2𝜆𝑥 2
4 5 3
Substitute the value of 𝑥 + 𝑥 from equation 1 , we get
2
5 2 17 25 2 5
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝜆 = 4𝑥 + 𝑥 + 3 + 𝑥 + 𝜆 + 𝑥𝜆 + 2𝜆𝑥 2
2 2 2
4 2 16 2
5 2 89 17 5
2 2
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑥+𝜆 = + 2𝜆 𝑥 + + 𝜆 𝑥 + (𝜆2 + 3) (2)
4 16 2 2
Now we will find the value of 𝜆 such that the right hand side of equation (2) becomes perfect
square.
We know that for a perfect square the discriminant Δ of the quadratic equation in 𝜆 must be
zero.
Δ=0
17 5 2 89
∴ +2𝜆 −4 + 2𝜆 𝜆2 + 3 = 0
2 16
289 85 25 2 89 2 267
∴ + 𝜆 + 𝜆 − 𝜆 − − 8𝜆3 − 24𝜆 = 0
4 2 4 4 4
3 89 25 2 85 267 289
∴ 8𝜆 + − 4 𝜆 + 24 − 𝜆+ − 4 =0
4 2 4
64 2 37 22
∴ 8𝜆3 + 𝜆 − 𝜆 − =0
4 2 4
37 11
∴ 8𝜆3 + 16 𝜆2 − 𝜆 − = 0, (3)
2 2

which is a cubic equation. We can easily observe that 𝜆 = 1 is one root of equation 3 .
Therefore from equation 2 , we get
5 2 89 17 5 121
2 2
𝑥 +4𝑥 +1 = +2 𝑥 + +2 𝑥 + (1 + 3) = 𝑥 2 + 11 𝑥 + 4
16 2 16
2 2
5 11
∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 +1 = 𝑥 +2
4 4
2 2
5 11
∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑥 +1 − 𝑥 +2 =0
4 4
2 5 11 2 5 11
∴ 𝑥 + 𝑥
+1+ 𝑥+2 𝑥 + 𝑥+1− 𝑥 −2 =0
4 4 4 4
2 2 3
∴ 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 1 = 0
3
∴ 𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 3 = 0 and 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 2
2 2
− 3𝑥 − 2 = 0.
2
∴ 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 2𝑥 −4𝑥 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 𝑥 − 2 + 1(𝑥 − 2) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 2 (2𝑥 + 1) = 0
1
Therefore 𝑥 = −1, −3 and 𝑥 = 2, − 2.
1
Hence the roots of equation (1) are − 2 , −1, −3, 2.
Example 3. Find the roots of 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 − 40 = 0. (C.W.)
Solution. We are given
𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 − 40 = 0. (1)
We consider
𝑥 2 + 𝜆 2 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝜆𝑥 2 + 𝜆2
Substitute the value of 𝑥 4 from equation 1 , we get
𝑥 2 + 𝜆 2 = 3𝑥 2 + 42𝑥 + 40 + 2𝜆𝑥 2 + 𝜆2
= (3 + 2𝜆)𝑥 2 +42𝑥 + (𝜆2 + 40) (2)
Now we will find the value of 𝜆 such that the right hand side of equation (2) becomes perfect
square.
We know that for a perfect square the discriminant Δ of the quadratic equation in 𝜆 must be
zero.
Δ=0
∴ 42 2 − 4 3 + 2𝜆 𝜆2 + 40 = 0
1764
∴ − 3𝜆2 − 120 − 2𝜆3 − 80𝜆 = 0
4
∴ 441 − 2𝜆3 − 3𝜆2 − 80𝜆 − 120 = 0
∴ 2𝜆3 + 3𝜆2 + 80𝜆 − 321 = 0, (3)
which is a cubic equation. We can easily observe that 𝜆 = 3 is one root of equation 3 .
Therefore from equation 2 , we get
𝑥 2 + 3 2 = (3 + 6)𝑥 2 +42𝑥 + (9 + 40)
∴ 𝑥 2 + 3 2 = 9𝑥 2 +42𝑥 + 49 = 3𝑥 + 7 2
∴ 𝑥 2 + 3 2 − 3𝑥 + 7 2 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 + 3 + 3𝑥 + 7 𝑥 2 + 3 − 3𝑥 − 7 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 10 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0
∴ 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 10 = 0
−3± 9−40
∴ 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 =
2
−3 ± 𝑖 31
∴ 𝑥 = 4, −1 and 𝑥=
2
−3±𝑖 31
Hence the roots of equation (1) are −1,4, 2
.
Thank You…