POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS

NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY (符号和关键词语)

Polynomials (多项式)

• A polynomial in 𝑥 is a mathematical expression of a sum of terms, each of the form 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 , where 𝑎 is

the coefficient and 𝑛 is a non-negative integer.
• A polynomial can also be expressed as a function or 𝑓(𝑥).
• The degree (or order) of a polynomial in 𝑥 is given by the highest power of 𝑥.
• The value of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑐 is 𝑓(𝑐).

Functions (函数)

• Mathematical rules that take an input and produce a unique output

Identities (恒等式)

• An identity is an equation in which the express on the left-hand side is equal to the expression on
the RHS, and where unknown constants can be found by:
o substitution of special values of 𝑥
o comparison of coefficients

Example 1:

For the identity, 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 ≡ (𝐴𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶, find 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶.

-Method 1-

𝑅𝐻𝑆 = (𝐴𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 𝐵)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

= (𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 3𝐵)(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
= 𝐴𝑥 3 − 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝐵𝑥 2 − 𝐴𝐵𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶
= 𝐴𝑥 3 + (𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴 + 3)𝑥 2 − (𝐴𝐵 + 3 − 𝐵)𝑥 − (3𝐵 − 𝐶)

By comparison with 𝐿𝐻𝑆,

𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴 + 3 = 5
2𝐵 + 1 = 5
𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = 2,
3𝐵 − 𝐶 = 2
6−𝐶 =2
𝐶=4

-Method 2-

when 𝑥 = 1, 2 + 5 − 1 − 2 = 𝐶
𝐶=4

when 𝑥 = 0, −2 = 3𝐵(−1) + 4
3𝐵 = 6
𝐵=2

By comparison of 𝑥 3 coefficients, 𝐴 = 2
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS
LONG DIVISION (长除法)

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
= 𝑄(𝑥) +
𝐷(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑥)

𝑃(𝑥) = Polynomial dividend

𝐷(𝑥) = Polynomial divisor
𝑄(𝑥) = Quotient
𝑅(𝑥) = Remainder

Example 2:

3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3 4
= 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 1 +
𝑥−1 𝑥−1

SYNTHETIC DIVISION

REMAINDER THEOREM (余数定理)

𝑏
When 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏), the remainder is 𝑓 ( )
𝑎

Example 3:

Find the remainder when 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 3 is divided by 𝑥 − 1.

when 𝑥 − 1 = 0, 𝑥 = 1

𝑓(1) = 3(1)3 + 4(1) − 6 + 3

=4
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS
FACTOR THEOREM (因子定理)

𝑏 𝑎
If (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓 ( ) = 0. Conversely, if 𝑓 ( ) = 0, then (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑎 𝑏

Example 4:

Can 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 be divisible by 2𝑥 + 3?

-Method 1: Long division-

Since 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 = (2𝑥 + 3)(6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1),

it is divisible by (2𝑥 + 3).

-Method 2: Synthetic division-

3
Since 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 = (𝑥 + 2)(12𝑥 2 −
2𝑥 − 2), it is divisible by (2𝑥 + 3).

-Method 3: Remainder/ factor theorem-

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3

3
3 3 3 3 Since 𝑓 (− 2) = 0, 2𝑥 + 3 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑓 (− ) = 12 (− ) + 16 (− ) − 5 (− ) − 3
2 2 2 2
=0

FACTORING / EXPANDING CUBIC EXPRESSIONS

Factorising cubic expressions

A cubic expression can be factorized into either a product of 3 linear factors, or a product of 1 linear and
quadratic factors, where the quadratic factor cannot be further factorized.

𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ≡ (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)(𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠)(𝑡𝑥 + 𝑢) OR (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)(𝑟𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡)

Sum and difference of cubes

𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Example 5:

If (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 1, find the value of 𝑥 4 − 𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4

𝑥 4 − 𝑥𝑦 3 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4
= 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 𝑦 + 𝑦 4 − 𝑥𝑦 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
= 𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 𝑦) + 𝑦 3 (𝑦 − 𝑥) − 3𝑥𝑦(𝑥 − 𝑦)
= 𝑥 3 − 𝑦 3 − 3𝑥𝑦
= (𝑥 − 𝑦)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) − 3𝑥𝑦
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 ) − 3𝑥𝑦
= 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
= (𝑥 − 𝑦)2
= 12
=1

SOLVING CUBIC EXPRESSIONS

For a cubic equation, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑, the steps to solve for 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 are:
factors of 𝑑
• Find a linear factor (possible factors are ± factors of 𝑎) to get one root
• Factorise the cubic equation with the linear factor
• Factorise the remaining quadratic factor further if possible and solve for the other root(s),
otherwise, use completing the square or quadratic formula

Example 6:

Solve for 𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = 0

Factors of 6: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6

Factors of 2: ±1, ±2

1 3
Possible factors: ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6, ± 2 , ± 2

Try 𝑥 = 2, 𝑓(2) = 2(2)3 + 22 − 13(2) + 6 = 0

∴ 𝑥 − 2 is a factor

2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3)
(𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 3) = 0
(𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
1
𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = , 𝑥 = −3
2
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Example 7:

Solve for 𝑥 if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 36 = 0

𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 36 = 0
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 4) − 9(𝑥 − 4) = 0
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 2 − 9) = 0
(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥 = 4 or 𝑥 = −3 or 𝑥 = 3

PARTIAL FRACTIONS DECOMPOSITION (部分分数分解)

To combine polynomial fractions into a single fraction, we find a common multiple of the denominators.

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥) 𝑃(𝑥)𝑆(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥)𝑄(𝑥)

+ =
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑆(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)𝑆(𝑥)

The method to decompose a polynomial fraction into its partial fractions will depend on whether it has the
following in its denominator:
• Unique linear factors
• Repeated linear factors
• Quadratic factor that cannot be factorised
The degree of the polynomial in the numerator must be smaller than that in the denominator.

Partial fractions: Unique linear factors

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐴 𝐵
≡ +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

Example 8:

6𝑥 + 2
Decompose into its partial fractions.
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 3

6𝑥 + 2 6𝑥 + 2
=
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
6𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵
Let ≡ +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
6𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)
= 𝐴𝑥 + 3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐵
= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 3𝐴 − 𝐵
= (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (3𝐴 − 𝐵)

By comparison of coefficients: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 6, 3𝐴 − 𝐵 = 2

𝐴=2
𝐵=4

6𝑥 + 2 2 4
∴ = +
𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 3
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Example 9:

𝑥2 + 1
Decompose into its partial fractions.
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6

𝑥2 + 1 −5𝑥 − 5
= 1 + (𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
−5𝑥 − 5 𝐴 𝐵
Let ≡ +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 3
−5𝑥 − 5 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2)
−5𝑥 − 5 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 3𝐴 + 2𝐵
−5𝑥 − 5 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (3𝐴 + 2𝐵)

By comparison,

𝐴 + 𝐵 = −5
3𝐴 + 2𝐵 = −5

𝐴=5
𝐵 = −10

𝑥2 + 1 5 10
∴ 2
=1+ −
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6 𝑥+2 𝑥+3
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Partial fractions: Repeated linear factors

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
≡ + +
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑2

Example 10:

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
Decompose into its partial fractions.
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)2

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Let 2
≡ + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶(𝑥 − 1)

when 𝑥 = 1,

1−2+3=𝐴
𝐴=2

when 𝑥 = 2,

22 − 2(2) + 3 = 𝐶
𝐶=3

Comparing coefficients of 𝑥 2 ,

𝐴+𝐵 =1
2+𝐵 =1
𝐵 = −1

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 2 1 3
∴ 2
= − +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2
POLYNOMIALS, CUBIC EQUATIONS, AND PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Partial Fractions: Quadratic factor that cannot be factorised

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
2
≡ + 2
(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒

Example 11:

4𝑥 2 + 8
Decompose into its partial fractions.
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2)

4𝑥 2 + 8 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
Let ≡ +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2
4𝑥 2 + 8 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 − 2)

When 𝑥 = 2,

4(22 ) + 8 = 𝐴(22 + 2 + 2)
24 = 8𝐴
𝐴=3

When 𝑥 = 0,

8 = 2𝐴 + (−2𝐶)
𝐴−𝐶 =4
3−𝐶 =4
𝐶 = −1

Comparing coefficients of 𝑥 2 ,

𝐴+𝐵 =4
3+𝐵 =4
𝐵=1

4𝑥 2 + 8 3 𝑥−1
∴ 2
≡ + 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 2