TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
membranes.
Learning Competencies
The learners:
 describe the structural components of the cell membrane
 (STEM_BIO11/12Ig-h-11)
 relate the structure and composition of the cell membrane to its function
 (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-12)
 explain transport mechanisms in cells (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
 transport, active transport) (STEM_BIO11/12Ig-h-13)
 differentiate exocytosis and endocytosis (STEM_BIO11/12-Ig-h-14)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
 describe and compare diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport and active
 transport
 explain factors that affect the rate of diffusion across a cell membrane
 predict the effects of hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic environments on
 osmosis in animal cells
 differentiate endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis
Passive transport – diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
Diffusion – the movement of particles of any substance so that they spread out into the
available space
Concentration gradient – the region along which the density of a chemical substance
increases or decreases
Osmosis – diffusion of free water across a selectively permeable membrane, whether artificial
or cellular
Tonicity – the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
Hypertonic – a solution with higher concentration of solutes
Hypotonic – a solution with lower concentration of solutes
Isotonic – solutions of equal solution concentration
Osmoregulation – the control of solute concentrations and water balance
Facilitated diffusion – a passive process driven by the concentration of molecules on the
inside and outside of the membrane.
Active transport – uses energy to move solutes against their gradients
Membrane potential – the voltage across a membrane which ranges from about -50 to 200
millivolts (mV)
Electrochemical gradient – the combination of forces acting on an ion
Endocytosis – the process by which large substances or bulk amounts of smaller substances
enter the cell without crossing the membrane
Exocytosis – the process by which large substances or bulk amounts of small substances exit
the cell without crossing the membrane
Phagocytosis – the process by which solid substances are ingested
Pinocytosis – the process by which liquids / dissolved substances are ingested
Plasma membrane – the membrane found in all cells that separates the interior of the cell
from the outside environment
Vesicles – are compartments formed by a lipid bilayer separating its contents from the
cytoplasm or a fluid-based extracellular environment
Plasma membranes
- are made up of a phospholipid bilayer in an aqueous environment.
- Phospholipids are the foundation of all known biological
- The lipid bilayer forms as a result of the interaction between the non-
polar (hydrophobic or water-fearing) phospholipid tails, the polar
(hydrophilic or water-loving) phospholipid heads, and the
surrounding water.
- The nonpolar tails face toward the water.
- Transmembrane proteins
o float within the bilayer
o serve as channels through which various molecules can pass.
o function as ‘identification tags’ on cells which enable the cell to
determine if the other cells that it encounters are like itself or
not.
o permits cells of the immune system to accept and reject foreign
cells such as disease-causing bacteria.
- Membranes
o Many membrane proteins function as enzymes that speed up
reactions in cells.
o Others act like paste or glue-forming cell junctions where
adjacent cells stick together.
o Membranes also contain cholesterol which reduces the cell’s
permeability to substances and make the bilayer stronger.
Molecules and substances move in several ways that fall within two
categories: passive transport and active transport. In passive transport, heat
energy of the cellular environment provides all of the energy, hence, this is
not energy-costly to the cell. Active transport, however, requires the cell to
do work, requiring the cell to expend its energy reserves.
Diffusion is a type of passive transport described as the natural tendency for
molecules to move constantly. Their movement is random and is due to the
energy found in the individual molecules. Net diffusion occurs when the
materials on one side of the membrane have a different concentration than
the materials on the other side.
Osmosis is a special type of diffusion specifically associated with the
movement of water molecules. Many cells are isotonic to the environment to
avoid excessive inward and outward movement of water. Other cells must
constantly export water from their interior to accommodate the natural
inward movement. Most plants are hypertonic with respect to their
immediate environment. Osmotic pressure within the cell pushes the
cytoplasm against the cell wall and makes a plant cell rigid.

Hypertonic – a solution with a higher concentration of solutes
Hypotonic – a solution with a lower concentration of solutes is hypotonic.
* Water crosses the membrane until the solute concentrations are equal on
both sides.
Isotonic – solutions of equal solution concentration
* This only occurs when the solute concentration are the same on both sides
of the membrane.
What will happen to the red blood cell when immersed in a hypotonic
solution which has a lower solute concentration than the cell?
The cell gains water, swells, and may eventually burst due to
excessive water intake. When placed in a hypertonic solution, an animal cell
shrinks and can die due to water loss.
Water requirement for plant cells is different due to their rigid cell
walls. A plant cell placed in an isotonic solution is flaccid and a plant wilts in
this condition. In contrast with animal cells, a plant cell is turgid and healthy
in a hypotonic solution. In a hypertonic solution, a plant cell loses water,
shrivels, and its plasma membrane detaches from the cell wall. This situation
eventually causes death in plant cells.
Differentiate diffusion from facilitated diffusion.
To control the entrance and exit of particular molecules, selective transport
of materials is necessary. One simple process is facilitated diffusion that
utilizes protein transmembrane channels that are specific to certain
molecules. It is a passive process driven by the concentration of molecules on
the inside and the outside of the membrane. Certain molecules are
transported in and out of the cell, independent of concentration. This process
requires the expenditure of energy in the form of ATP and is called active
transport.
Differentiate endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Large molecules enter the cell by generalized non-selective process
known as endocytosis. Phagocytosis is endocytosis of a particulate material
while pinocytosis is endocytosis of liquid material. In this process, the
plasma membrane engulfs the particle or fluid droplet and pinches off a
membranous sac or vesicle with a particular fluid inside into the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis is the reverse process where a membrane-bound vesicle
filled with bulky materials moves to the plasma membrane and fuses with it.
In this process, the vehicle’s contents are released out of the cell.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a complicated mechanism
involving the transport of materials through coated vesicles. Cells take up
molecules more efficiently in this process due to the receptor proteins on
their surfaces. Each receptor protein bears a binding site for a particular
molecule. If the right molecule contacts a receptor protein, it attaches to the
binding site, forming a pocket and eventually pinching off into the
cytoplasm.
Cell transport refers to the movement of substances across the cell
membrane. The most important feature of a cell’s phospholipid membrane is
that they are selectively permeable, it has control over what molecules or
ions can enter or leave the cell. This feature allows a cell to control the
transport of materials, as dictated by the cell’s function. The permeability of
a membrane is dependent on the organization and characteristics of the
membrane lipids and proteins. In this way, cell membranes help maintain a
state of homeostasis within cells (and tissues, organs, and organ systems) so
that an organism can stay alive and healthy.
Movement of materials across a biological membrane may occur
either actively or passively.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Passive transport involves the movement of material along a concentration
gradient (high concentration ⇒ low concentration). Because materials are
moving down a concentration gradient, it does not require the expenditure of
energy (ATP hydrolysis). There are three main types of passive transport:
1. Simple Diffusion – is the net movement of molecules from a region
of high concentration to a region of low concentration. This
directional movement along a gradient is passive and will continue
until molecules become evenly dispersed (equilibrium). Small and
non-polar (lipophilic) molecules will be able to freely diffuse across
cell membranes (e.g. O2, CO2, glycerol). The rate of diffusion can
be influenced by a number of factors, including: temperature (affects
kinetic energy of particles in solution), molecular size (larger
particles are subjected to greater resistance within a fluid medium),
and steepness of gradient (rate of diffusion will be greater with a
higher concentration gradient).
2. Osmosis – is the net movement of water molecules across a semi-
permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a
region of high solute concentration (until equilibrium is reached).
Because solute cannot cross a cell membrane unaided, water will
 move to equalize the two solutions. At a higher solute concentration  disposing of old or damaged cells
there are less free water molecules in solution as water is associated
with the solute. Osmosis is essentially the diffusion of free water Types of Endocytosis
molecules and hence occurs from regions of low solute  Pinocytosis
concentration. The intake of a small droplet of extracellular fluid. This occurs in
The movement of water across cell membranes and the balance of nearly all cell types.
water between the cell and its environment are crucial to organisms.  Phagocytosis
To explain the behavior of a cell in a solution, we must consider both The intake of a large droplet of extracellular fluid. This occurs in
solute concentration and membrane permeability. specialized cells.
3. Facilitated Diffusion – is the passive movement of molecules across  Receptor-assisted endocytosis
the cell membrane via the aid of a membrane protein. It is utilized by The intake of specific molecules that attach to special proteins in the
molecules that are unable to freely cross the phospholipid bilayer cell membrane. These proteins are uniquely shaped to fit the shape of
(e.g. large, polar molecules and ions). This process is mediated by a specific molecule.
two distinct types of transport proteins – channel proteins and carrier
proteins. Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process by which cells move materials from within the cell
ACTIVE TRANSPORT into the extracellular fluid. It occurs when a vesicle fuses with the plasma
Active transport uses energy to move molecules against a concentration membrane, allowing its contents to be released outside the cell. Exocytosis
gradient. This energy may either be generated by: direct hydrolysis of ATP serves the following purposes:
(primary active transport), and indirectly coupling transport with another  removing toxins or waste products from the cell’s interior
molecule that is moving along its gradient (secondary active transport).  facilitating cellular communication
Sodium-Potassium Pump: a specific case of active transport.  facilitating cellular membrane growth, repair, signaling and
migration
Water and small solutes enter and leave the cell by diffusing through the lipid Types of Exocytosis
bilayer of the plasma membrane or by being pumped or moved across the  Constitutive Exocytosis
membrane by transport proteins. However, large molecules—such as In constitutive exocytosis, extracellular signals are not required. The
proteins and polysaccharides, as well as larger particles—generally cross the majority of molecules traveling to the plasma membrane do so using
membrane in bulk, packaged in vesicles. Vesicles and cell membranes are this pathway.
both comprised of a lipid bilayer, which is why they are capable of fusing  Regulated Exocytosis
with the cell membrane. This fusion between vesicles and the plasma In regulated exocytosis, the expulsion of the materials is controlled,
membrane facilitates bulk transport both into and out of the cell. Like active or regulated, by extracellular signals that cause membrane
transport, these processes require energy. depolarization.

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the process by which cells take in substances from outside of
the cell by engulfing them in a vesicle. It occurs when a portion of the cell
membrane folds in on itself, encircling extracellular fluid and various
molecules or microorganisms. The resulting vesicle breaks off and is
transported within the cell. Endocytosis serves many purposes, including:
 taking in nutrients for cellular growth, function, and repair.
 capturing pathogens or other unknown substances that may endanger
the organism.