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Learning:
Learning is a Natural process of growth or change in a person which is manifested as new modes
or patterns of behaviour. It is a permanent change in behaviour and is the result of reinforced
practise through the process of stimulus and response.

Learning is basically psychological in nature; few definitions are offered by psychologists are:
1. Learning is the process where the behaviour of an organism undergoes a change as a result of
experience.
2. Learning is a permanent change in capacity for performance, which is acquired through
experience.
3. Learning is the way through which human beings acquire new skills, knowledge, attitude and
values. The outcomes of learning are the new capabilities possessed by the learner.

Elements of Learning:
The main components of learning are as follows:
1. Learner,
2. Stimulus,
3. The internal conditions of the learner,
4. Response.

Characteristics of learning:
It involves change.
learning involves activities.
It Requires Interaction.
It is a Lifelong Process.
It Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
It is the Process of Acquiring Information.
It involves far more than Thinking.

Theories of learning:
Classical Conditioning Theory
Operant Conditioning Theory
Cognitive Theory
Social Learning Theory.

Classical Conditioning:

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Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning in which an individual responds to a stimulus that

would not ordinarily generate such a response.

Classical conditioning is learning through association and this was discovered by Pavlov, a
Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned
response in a person or animal.

The stimulus for a flow of saliva is the taste of food. But often the mouth waters on hearing it.
Thus, one situation is replaced by another to elicit behaviour.

In this, learning involves a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. Here, the meat
was an unconditioned stimulus; it caused the dog to react in a specific manner.

The reaction that took place when the unconditioned stimulus takes place was termed as an
unconditioned response. The bell was a conditioned stimulus.

When the bell was combined with the meat, it produced a response when presented alone. This is
a conditioned response.

Operant conditioning:

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The second type of conditioning is operant conditioning. Here, a particular behaviour is followed
by a reward or punishment. Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that takes place with rewards and punishments for any behaviour. Through this, an
association is made between a behaviour and a consequence

Cognitive Theory:

Cognition means an individual’s thoughts, understandings, knowledge of interpretations or ideas

about his environment and himself.
This is a process of learning through constructive and active and thought processes, by memory or
practice.

One example: teaching how to look at time.

Someone would have taught you the meaning of the big hand and little hand, and you might have
practised telling the time. This process of learning takes place entirely inside the mind and didn’t
involve any behaviours or physical motions. It is cognitive, meaning an internal thought process.

Social Learning Theory:

The social learning theory also known as observational learning, states that an individual learns
just by being told about something or observing what happens to other people.
One can learn things by observing parents, models, teachers, motion pictures, peers, bosses, TV
artists, etc.

Many patterns of behaviour are learned by just watching the behaviours of others and observing
their consequences for them.

The theory of multiple intelligences was developed in 1983 by Dr Howard Gardner, professor of
education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.
Q. testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr Gardner proposes eight different intelligences to account

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for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. Whatever you are teaching or
learning, see how you might connect it with:

● Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")

● Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
● Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
● Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
● Musical intelligence ("music smart")
● Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
● Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
● Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

⮚ The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
⮚ Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking,
and listening.

2. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7

⮚ Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
⮚ Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective
of others.

3. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11

⮚ During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.

4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

⮚ At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
⮚ Abstract thought emerges.
⮚ Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Stage Age range What happens at this stage?

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Sensorimotor 0-2 years Coordination of senses with motor responses, sensory

old curiosity about the world. the language used for demands
and cataloguing. Object permanence is developed.

Preoperational 2-7 years Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to
old express concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong, but
complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is
developed.

Concrete 7-11 years Concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and
Operational old quantity are understood and can be applied, but not as
independent concepts.

Formal 11 years old Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking.

Operational and older Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become
possible. Concepts leamed in one context can be applied to
another.

Social Development Theory (Lev Vygotsky)

Vygotsky (1978) states: " Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first,
on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and
then inside the child (intrapsychological).
● The second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive
development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of
development attained when children engage in social behaviour.
● Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction.
● The range of skills that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds
what can be attained alone.

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Who among the following proposed theory of Multiple Intelligences?

1. Howard Gardner
2. Albert Einstein
3. Sigmund Freud
4. Jean Piaget

According to Jean Piaget, there are _______________ stages of cognitive development.

1. 4
2. 8
3. 2
4. 6

Which among the following is a cognitive characteristic of learner?

1. Level of visual literacy
2. Academic self-concept
3. Belief
4. Sensory perception

Visual literacy is the ability to interpret, negotiate, and make meaning from information.

Educational Learning Theories

Cognitive Learning Theory

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This theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important part in understanding
how we learn. The cognitive theory understands that learners can be influenced by both internal
and external elements.

Plato and Descartes are two of the first philosophers that focused on cognition and how we as
human beings think. Many other researchers looked deeper into the idea of how we think, spurring
more research. Jean Piaget is a highly important figure in the field of cognitive psychology, and
his work focuses on environments and internal structures and how they impact learning.

Behaviourism Learning Theory

It is the idea that how a student behaves is based on their interaction with their environment. It
suggests that behaviours are influenced and learned from external forces rather than internal forces.

Psychologists have been developing the idea of behaviourism since the 19th century. Behavioural
learning theory is the basis for psychology that can be observed and quantified. Positive
reinforcement is a popular element of behaviourism—classical conditioning observed in Pavlov’s
dog experiments suggests that behaviours are directly motivated by the reward that can be
obtained.

Teachers in a classroom can utilize positive reinforcement to help students better learn a concept.
Students who receive positive reinforcement are more likely to retain information moving forward,
a direct result of the behaviourism theory.

Constructivism Learning Theory

This is based on the idea that students actually create their own learning based on their previous
experiences. Students take what they’re being taught and add it to their previous knowledge and
experiences, creating a reality that’s unique to them. This learning theory focuses on learning as
an active process, which is personal and individual for each student.

Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will bring their own past
to the classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide to helping
students create their own learning and understanding. They help them create their own process and
reality based on their own past. This is crucial to helping many kinds of students take their own
experiences and include them in their learning.

Humanism Learning Theory

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This is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism directly focuses on the idea of self-
actualization. Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization is at the top of the
hierarchy of needs—it’s the brief moments where a person feels all of their needs are met and that
they’re the best possible version of themselves. Everyone is striving for this, and learning
environments can either move toward meeting needs or away from meeting needs.

Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to their self-actualization.
Educators can help fulfil students’ emotional and physical needs, giving them a safe and
comfortable place to learn, plenty of food, and the support they need to succeed. This kind of
environment is the most conducive to helping students learn.

Connectivism Learning Theory

It is one of the newest educational learning theories. It focuses on the idea that people learn and
grow when they form connections. This can be connections with each other or connections with
their roles and obligations in their lives. Hobbies, goals, and people can all be connections that
influence learning.

Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classrooms to help students make connections to things
that excite them, helping them learn. Teachers can use digital media to make good, positive
connections to learning. They can help create connections and relationships with their students and
with their peer groups to help students feel motivated about learning.

Transformative Learning Theory

This is a great approach for adult education and young adult learning. Also referred to as
transformation learning, transformative learning theory focuses on the idea that learners can adjust
their thinking based on new information.

This learning theory was founded by Jack Mezirow, who discovered it after doing studies on adult
women who went back to school. His initial research found that adults don’t apply their old
understanding to new situations and that having a new perspective helped them gain a new
understanding of things as they change. Mezirow also believed that students had important
teaching and learning opportunities connected to their past experiences and that critical reflection
and review could lead to a transformation of their understanding.

This approach works well for adult students, as children don’t have the same kind of transformation
with their learning experiences—and with life experience. Adult students could draw on childhood

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experiences and transforming those beliefs and understandings using critical reflection, leading
them to an understanding of what they should believe and understand as adults.

Overall, the theory states that our worldview is changed the more we learn, which helps us grasp
new concepts and ideas. By getting new information that helps evaluate past ideas, students are
able to make a dramatic educational shift beyond standard learning. Teachers can employ this
learning theory by encouraging their students to learn new perspectives while questioning their
assumptions and open the floor for discourse to cement their new train of thought.

Social Learning Theory

Using this theory can be a valuable tool for dealing with difficult students who like to disrupt the
classroom and cause trouble. This theory focuses on the concept of children learning from
observing others by acting on or not acting on what they see exhibited by their classmates. For
example, they may see a classmate politely asking for a treat and getting one, or maybe they hear
another classmate talking about something new they’ve learned, which teaches the student
something new even if it’s not something they try themselves.

This learning theory was founded by Albert Bandura. He conducted an experiment called the Bobo
doll experiment in the early ’60s, during which he studied children’s behaviour after they watched
an adult act aggressively with a doll-like toy. He noted how the children reacted when the adult
got rewarded, punished, or suffered no consequences after they attacked the doll. Bandura wrote
about his findings in 1977, detailing social learning theory and how it affected the behavioural
development of students.

There are four elements to social learning theory:

● Attention, which calls upon different or unique lessons or activities to help children focus.
● Retention, focusing on how the student will internalize information and recall it later on.
● Reproduction, drawing on previously learned behaviour and when it’s appropriate to use
it.
● Motivation, which can extend from seeing other classmates being rewarded or punished
for their actions.

By using social modelling based on these elements, teachers have a very powerful tool in their
arsenal that can effectively guide their students to be more active in their learning, pay more
attention, and channel their energy into their schooling.

Experiential Learning Theory

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It focuses on learning by doing. Using this theory, students are encouraged to learn through
experiences that can help them retain information and recall facts.

Experiential learning theory, or ELT, was identified by David Kolb in 1984. Though his influence
came from other theorists such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget, Kolb was able to
identify four stages of ELT. The first two stages, concrete learning and reflective observation,
focus on grasping an experience. The latter two, abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation are about transforming an experience. To Kolb, effective learning is seen as the
learner goes through the cycle of experiential learning theory. Students can enter the cycle in any
way and at any point.

Some examples of this form of learning include taking students to the zoo to learn about animals
instead of just reading about them or growing a garden to learn about photosynthesis instead of
watching a video about it. By creating environments where students can learn and experience at
the same time, teachers offer students the opportunity to immediately apply their knowledge and
get real-world experiences. This approach also encourages teamwork and is shown to improve
motivation.

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