1/20/2022

Casting
Foundry & Casting - Basics • Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies
in the shape of the mold cavity.
• The term casting is also applied to the final part
that is made by this process.
• Steps in casting seem simple:
Prof R K Bansal – Melt the metal
Associate Professor – Pour it into a mold
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering
– Let it freeze
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar NIT, Jalandhar
Email: bansalrk@nitj.ac.in • It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back
6000 years.
1 2

1
 1/20/2022

LETS HAVE A LOOK AROUND

3 4

2
 1/20/2022

Capabilities and Advantages of Casting

• Can create complex part geometries
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are
near net shape
• No limitation of weight & size - very large parts
(with weight more than 100 tons), like m/c bed
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that
can melt – both ferrous & non ferrous metals
• Some casting methods are suited to mass
production
• Low wastage of material
5 6

3
 1/20/2022

Disadvantages of Casting The Mold in Casting

• The Mold contains a cavity whose geometry
Different disadvantages for different casting determines the shape of the cast part.
processes:
• Mold is a hollow container(cavity) used to give
– Mold /Pattern is required
shape to molten or hot liquid material (such as
– Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for wax or metal) when it cools and hardens.
some processes; e.g., sand casting
– Actual size and shape of cavity
– Casting Defects frequently occur with slight must be slightly oversized to allow
variation in process variables for shrinkage of metal during
– Labor intensive work & close process control is must solidification and cooling
– Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals – Molds are made of a variety of
materials, including sand, plaster,
– Environmental problems 7 ceramic, and metal 8

4
 1/20/2022

Casting Open Molds and Closed Molds

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of
the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is
more complex and requires a gating system (passageway) leading
9
into the cavity. 10

5
 1/20/2022

Mold Terms
Sand Casting Mold (Closed)
• Mold consists of two halves:
– Cope = upper half of mold
– Drag = bottom half

– Cheek = intermediate molding flask (optional for

bigger molds)
• The rigid metal or wood frame that holds the
moulding sand together is called a flask.
• The two halves separate at the parting surface.
• This is the dividing surface between the two moulding
flasks that makes up the mold.

11 12

6
 1/20/2022

Preparing the Mold Cavity Parts Made by Casting

• Mold cavity is prepared by packing sand around a pattern, which • Big parts
has the shape of the part (as shown in the video sent via link)
– Engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles,
• Uniform ramming of sand is very necessary for green sand
molding process. Uniform ramming of sand during mould wood burning stoves, machine frames, railway
preparation improves mold strength, and makes it dimensionally wheels, pipes, church bells, big statues, pump
stable. Uniform ramming done to obtain a smooth and hard casting housings
surface which prevents break out.
• Small parts
• When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity of the packed
sand has desired shape of cast part – Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying pans
• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal • All varieties of metal can be cast, ferrous and
during solidification and cooling
nonferrous
• Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain its
shape 13 14

7
 1/20/2022

Two Categories of Casting Processes Two Categories of Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal
(less commonly of ceramic refractory material) and
can be used to make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
15 16

8
 1/20/2022

Expendable mold processes foundry

• Casting is usually performed in a foundry
• Foundry = factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metal, performing
the casting process, and cleaning the finished
casting
• Workers who perform casting are called foundry
men

17 18

9
 1/20/2022

Casting Steps Sand Casting Production Sequence

1. Pour the molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow time for metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
– Separate gating and riser system
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required
to improve metallurgical properties

19 20

10
 1/20/2022

The Pattern
• A pattern is a full-sized model of the part which
is made slightly large to account for shrinkage
PATTERN and machining allowances in the casting.
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to work,
but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much
longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
21 22

11
 1/20/2022

1. Solid (one-piece) pattern 1. Solid (one-piece) pattern

• The simplest is made of one piece, called a solid
pattern —same geometry as the casting, adjusted
in size for shrinkage and machining.
• One-piece patterns are relatively cheap to
construct, but the subsequent molding process is
usually slow.
• As a result, they are generally used when the
shape is relatively simple and the number of
duplicate castings is rather small.
23 24

12
 1/20/2022

2. Split patterns 2. Split patterns

• When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal
from the mold cavity, then solid pattern is split in
two parts.
• Split pattern is made in two pieces which are
joined at the parting line by means of dowel pins.
• Split patterns are appropriate for complex part
geometries and moderate production quantities.
• The splitting at the parting line is done to
facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern.
25 26

13
 1/20/2022

3. Loose-piece Pattern 3. Loose-piece Pattern

• Loose piece pattern is used when pattern is
difficult for withdrawal from the mould.
• Loose pieces are provided on the pattern and they
are the part of pattern.
• The main pattern is removed first leaving the
loose piece portion of the pattern in the mould.
• Finally the loose piece is withdrawal separately Loose
leaving the intricate mould. piece

27 28

14
 1/20/2022

3. Loose-piece Pattern 3. Loose-piece Pattern

29 30

15
 1/20/2022

3. Loose-piece Pattern 3. Loose-piece Pattern

31 32

16
 1/20/2022

3. Loose-piece Pattern 4. Gated pattern

• In the mass production of castings, multi cavity
moulds are used.
• Such moulds are formed by joining a number of
patterns and gates and providing a common
runner for the molten metal, as shown in Fig.
• These patterns are made of metals, and metallic
pieces to form gates and runners are attached to
the pattern.

33 34

17
 1/20/2022

4. Gated pattern 5. Sweep pattern

Patterns • Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular
moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep
attached to a spindle as shown in Fig.
• Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal
and is attached to the spindle at one edge and the
other edge has a contour depending upon the
desired shape of the mould.
• The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in
the centre of the mould.
Gates Runner 35 36

18
 1/20/2022

5. Sweep pattern 6. Skeleton pattern

• When only a small number of large and heavy castings
are to be made, it is not economical to make a solid
pattern.
• In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used.
• This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an
outline of the pattern to be made.
• This frame work is filled with clay sand and rammed.
• The surplus clay sand is removed by strickle board.
• For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves
which are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.
37 38

19
 1/20/2022

6. Skeleton pattern Pattern Allowances

• The patterns are not made the exact size as the
desired casting because such a pattern would
produce undersize casting.
Strickle • When a pattern is prepared, certain allowances
board are given on the sizes specified in the drawing so
Skeleton that the finished and machined casting produced
pattern from the pattern will conform to the specified
sizes.
• Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the
39 dimensional characteristics of the casting. 40

20

Pattern Allowances
• The selection of correct allowances greatly helps
to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns
are as follows:
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Machining and/or finish allowance
3. Draft or taper allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
41
1/20/2022
1. Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
• In practice it is found that all common cast metals
shrink a significant amount when they are cooled
from the molten state.
• The total contraction in volume is divided into the
following parts:
a) Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during
the period in which the temperature of the liquid
metal or alloy falls from the pouring temperature
to the liquidus temperature.
42
21
 1/20/2022

Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

1. Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
b) Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the
solidus temperature, i.e. solidifying contraction.
c) Contraction that results there after until the
temperature reaches the room temperature. This
is known as solid contraction.
Shrinkage occurs in 3 steps:
• The first two of the above are taken care of by a. while cooling of metal in liquid
form (liquid contraction); b.
proper gating and riser design. Only the last one, during phase transformation
i.e. the solid contraction is taken care by the from liquid to solid (solidification
shrinkage); c. while solidified
pattern makers by giving a positive shrinkage metal is cooled down to room
allowance. temperature (solid thermal
43
contraction).

22
 1/20/2022

Solidification: Pure Metals

- Because of the chilling action of the
-

mold wall, a thin skin of solid metal is

initially formed at interface
immediately after pouring.
- The skin formed initially has equi-
axed, fine grained and randomly
oriented structure. This is because of
rapid cooling.
- As freezing proceeds, the grains grow
inwardly, away from heat flow
direction, as needles or spine of solid
metal.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology EMU - Manufacturing Technology

23
 1/20/2022

Solidification: Pure Metals

- On further growth of spine, lateral

branches are formed, and as these
branches grow further branches
are formed at right angle to the first
branches. This type of growth is
called dendritic growth.
- The dendritic grains are coarse,
columnar and aligned towards
the center of casting.

EMU - Manufacturing Technology

24
 1/20/2022

2. Machining or Finish Allowance 2. Machining or Finish Allowance

• The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting • The amount of this allowance depends on the size
are generally poor and therefore when the casting of casting, methods of machining and the degree
is functionally required to be of good surface of finish. In general, however, the value varies
finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
achieved by subsequent machining. • The Machining allowance
• Machining allowance is a positive allowance needs to be provided only
given to compensate for the amount of material on those surfaces/sizes
that is lost in machining or finishing the casting. where specified due to
• If this allowance is not given, the casting will functional requirement.
become undersize after machining. 49 50

25
 1/20/2022

3. Draft or taper allowance 3. Draft or taper allowance

• Draft is the taper provided by the pattern maker
on all surfaces of the pattern perpendicular to the
parting surface(s) so that it can be removed from
the sand without tearing away the sides of the
sand mold and without excessive rapping by the
moulder.
• Figure shows a pattern having no draft allowance
being removed from the pattern.
• Till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides
will remain in contact with the walls of the mold,
51
thus tending to break it. 52

26

4. Distortion or Camber Allowance
• Sometimes castings, because of their size, shape
and type of metal, tend to warp or distort during
the cooling period depending on the cooling
speed.
• This is due to the uneven shrinkage of different
parts of the casting.
• Expecting the amount of warpage, a pattern may
be made with allowance of warpage.
• It is called camber.
53
1/20/2022
4. Distortion or Camber Allowance
• For example, a U-shaped casting will be distorted
during cooling with the legs diverging, instead of
parallel .
• For compensating this warpage, the pattern is
made with the legs converged but, as the casting
cools, the legs straighten and remain parallel.
• Warpage depends on the thickness and method of
casting and it is actually determined by
experience. Generally 2 to 3 mm is considered
appropriate for 1 metre length. 54
27
 1/20/2022

4. Distortion or Camber Allowance

Example of camber: (a) Casting without camber,

(b) Actual casting, (c) Pattern with camber allowance

55 56

28
 1/20/2022

5. Rapping or Shaking Allowance 5. Rapping or Shaking Allowance

• Before withdrawing the pattern it is rapped and • This allowance is kept negative and hence the
thereby the size of the mould cavity increases. pattern is made slightly smaller in dimensions
• Actually by rapping, the external sections move 0.5-1.0 mm.
outwards increasing the size and internal sections
move inwards decreasing the size.
• This movement may be insignificant in the case
of small and medium size castings, but it is
significant in the case of large castings.

57 58

29

Foundry Sands
Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without
losing its permeability to air or gases. Green sand is
a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture
in appropriate proportions.
• Sand is Silica (SiO2)
• Good refractory properties - capacity to endure high
temperatures
• Small grain size yields better surface finish on the cast
part
• Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to
escape during pouring
• Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to
interlocking, compared to round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
1/20/2022
Binders Used with Foundry Sands
• Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
– 70 - 85% silica sand (SiO2)
– 10 - 12% bonding material (clay and cereal)
– 3 - 6% water
• Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
– Organic resins (e.g , phenolic resins)
– Inorganic binders (e.g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
• Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to increase strength and/or permeability
30

Types of Sand Mold
• Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water;
– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of pouring
• Dry-sand mold - organic binders rather than
clay
– And mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface
of a green-sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25
mm, using torches or heating lamps
1/20/2022
Desirable Mold Properties
• Strength - to maintain shape and resist erosion (Cohesion &
Adhesion)
• Permeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids
in sand.
 A decrease in permeability usually indicates a closed structure
in the rammed sand, and if the decrease continues, it will lead
to tighter packing and fewer voids hence increase in hardness
of the green sand mold. This increase in hardness can be
measured by mould hardness tester.
• Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
• Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to shrink
without cracking the casting
• Reusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make
other molds 62
31
 1/20/2022

Gating System
 The gating system in a casting mold is the channel,
or network of channels, through which molten metal
flows into cavity from outside of mold.
 Consists of a down-sprue, through which metal
enters a runner leading to the main cavity
MOULD_GATING SYSTEM  At the top of down-sprue, a pouring cup (or
pouring basin) is often used to minimize splash and
turbulence as the metal flows into down-sprue

63

32
 1/20/2022

Gating System Gating System

Sprue
well

Runner
well
Gate

65 66

33
 1/20/2022

Gating System Why Sprue X-section is kept taper ??

• The gates are usually attached to the

1. thickest or heaviest sections of a casting to control
SHRINKAGE
2. to the bottom of the casting to minimize
TURBULENCE AND SPLASHING.
• For large castings, multiple gates and runners
may be used to introduce metal to more than one  In order to keep volume flow rate (Q=VA)
constant. In case, x-section is fixed, increased
point of the mold cavity. fluid velocity due to gravity will increase flow rate.
This can cause air entrapment into liquid metal.

67 EMU - Manufacturing Technology

34
 1/20/2022

Engineering Analysis of Pouring Riser

 It is a reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to
compensate for shrinkage of the part during solidification
Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a solid so
castings shrink upon cooling, which can leave a void at the
1. v: velocity of liquid last point to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing molten
metal at base of sprue
metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that the cavity forms
in cm/sec; g:
in the riser and not in the casting
981cm/sec.sec; h:
height of sprue in cm
2. v1: velocity at section
of area A1; v2: velocity Height of riser
at section of area A2
3. V: volume of mold
cavity
EMU - Manufacturing Technology

35
 1/20/2022

Riser Riser
• Thus, a riser is an additional void in the mould • By designing so, shrinkage voids should be
that also fills with molten metal. located in the riser, not the final casting.
• Riser is a reservoir of additional molten metal
that can flow into the mold to compensate for
shrinkage of the part during solidification .
• The riser must be designed to freeze after the
main casting in order to satisfy its function i.e. it
should have a larger volume-to-area ratio so
that the main casting solidifies first.
71 72

36

Riser Location
• A riser should be located in such a way that
directional solidification is obtained.
• Since the heaviest section of the casting solidifies
last, the riser should be located to feed this
section.
• The heaviest section will now act as a riser for
other sections which are not so heavy or thick.
• For small castings, a single riser can feed the
entire casting, but more than one riser is required
for large castings.
73
1/20/2022
Vent holes
• As the metal flows into the mould, the air that
previously occupied the cavity, as well as hot gases
formed by reactions of the molten metal, must be
evacuated so that the metal will completely fill the
empty space.
• In sand casting, for example, the natural porosity of
the sand mould permits the air and gases to escape
through the walls of the cavity.
• In permanent-metal mould, small vent holes are
drilled into the mould or machined into the parting
line to permit removal of air and gases.
74
37
 1/20/2022

Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity

 Cavity provides the external features of the
cast part
 Core provides internal features of the part.
Core is placed inside the mold cavity with
some support.
 Cores are generally made of the Sand and are
even used in Permanent molds.
Core & Chaplets  Core prints provide support to the cores which
are not stable by themselves

Difference b/w, cavity & core ?

75

38
 1/20/2022

Core
• Cores are produced in wood, metal, or plastic
tooling, known as core boxes.
• A core print is a feature that is added to a pattern,
core, or mold and is used to locate and support a
core within the mold.
• The mold material and the cores then combine to
produce a completed mold cavity, a shaped hole
into which the molten metal is poured and
solidified to produce the desired casting.
77 78

39
 1/20/2022

Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity

Core
Print
Split Pattern with a Core
Core Print
79 80

40
 1/20/2022

Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity

Core

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible
chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
81 82

41

Chaplets
• Chaplets are the supports provided to hold the
core in its position in the mold cavity during
pouring.
• Because the chaplets are positioned within the
mold cavity, they become an integral part of the
finished casting.
• Chaplets should therefore be of the same, or at
least comparable composition wrt material being
poured.
83
1/20/2022
Casting Terms
 Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the
mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding
structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag – lower
molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.
 Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity
is made with the help of pattern.
 Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks
that makes up the mold.
 Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its
permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and
moisture in appropriate proportions.
42
 1/20/2022

Casting Terms
 Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on
the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the
castings.
 Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked,
which is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in side the
castings.
 Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into
which the molten metal is poured.
 Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring
basin, reaches the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal Casting defects
into the mold.
 Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the
sprue to the gate.
 Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
 Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to
take care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
 Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as
it shrinks and solidifies. Also known as “feed head”.
86
 Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

43
 1/20/2022

General Defects: Misrun

General Defects: Cold Shut
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity
Two portions of metal flow together but there is
Reasons: a lack of fusion due to premature (early)
a.Fluidity of molten metal is insufficient freezing
b.Pouring temperature is too low
c. Pouring is done too slowly Reasons:
d.Cross section of mold cavity is too thin Same as for misrun

Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

44
 1/20/2022

General Defects: Cold Shot

Cold Shuts Cold shots are ball-, drop- or pearl-shaped inclusions
which are only loosely attached to the metal. In any
casting method, cold shots can result from turbulences
during the casting process or from spraying effects in
the mold. Some metal parts harden prematurely and
have the form of drops or balls.
Gating system should be
improved to avoid splashing

Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

89

45
 1/20/2022

General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity General Casting Defects: Hot Tears

Depression in surface or internal void caused by Hot tearing/cracking in casting occurs when the molten
solidification shrinkage metal is not allowed to contract by an underlying mold
during cooling/ solidification (residual stress).

Proper riser design can solve this issue

The collapsibility (ability to give way
and allow molten metal to shrink during
solidification) of mold should be
improved

Common defects in sand castings: (e) hot tearing

Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

46
 1/20/2022

Hot tears Hot tears

• Hot tears or cracks can form in castings made
from metals or alloys with large amounts of
solidification shrinkage.
• As the metal contracts during solidification and
cooling to room temperature, it may find itself
restrained by a strong mold or core.
• Tensile stresses can develop while the metal is
still partially liquid or fully solidified but still hot
and weak.
93
• If these stresses become great enough, the
casting will crack.
• Hot tears are often attributed to poor mold
collapsibility.
• Additives, such as cellulose, can be used to
improve the collapsibility of sand molds.
94

47
 1/20/2022

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow (Blow holes)
Balloon-shaped gas cavity on the surface, caused by
release of mold gases during pouring
Low permeability of mold, poor
venting, high moisture content in
sand are major reasons
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting
Caused by release of gas during
pouring of molten metal.
To avoid, improve permeability &
venting in mold

Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

48
 1/20/2022

Sand Casting Defects: Penetration

When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Harder packing of sand helps to

alleviate this problem
Reduce pouring temp if possible
Use better sand binders

Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

97

49
 1/20/2022

Sand Casting Defects: Core Shift

Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
Similar to mold shift but it is the core that is
displaced and the displacement is usually
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
vertical.
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag
It is caused by buoyancy force of
It is caused by buoyancy force of molten metal.
molten metal. Core must be fastened with
Cope an drag must be aligned chaplet
accurately and fastened.
Use match plate patterns

Common defects in sand castings: (g) core shift

Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

50

Sand Casting Defects: Sand Wash
Sand wash, which is an irregularity in the surface of the
casting that results from erosion of the sand mold during
pouring, and the contour of the erosion is formed in the
surface of the final cast part.
Turbulence in metal flow during pouring
should be controlled. Also, very high
pouring temperature cause erosion of
mold.
Common defects in sand castings: (h) sand wash
1/20/2022
Sand Casting Defects: Scabs
Scabs are rough areas on the surface of casting due to un-
necessary deposit of sand and metal.
It is caused by portions of the mold
surface flaking off during solidification
and becoming embedded in the casting
surface
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders
Common defects in sand castings: (i) scab
51
 1/20/2022

Sand Casting Defects: Mold Crack Furnaces for Casting Processes

Occurs when the strength of mold is not sufficient
to withstand high temperatures
 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
 Cupolas
Improve mold strength by reducing  Direct fuel-fired furnaces
grain size and changing binders
 Crucible furnaces

 Electric-arc furnaces
Common defects in sand castings: (j) mold crack
 Induction furnaces

52
 1/20/2022

Cupola Furnace

105 106

53

Application of Cupola Furnace
for production of grey cast iron, nodular
cast iron, malleable cast iron and alloy cast
iron, for melting some copper-base alloys
The main considerations in selection of
cupolas are melting capacity, diameter of
shell.
107
1/20/2022
Cupola Furnace
• Cupola furnace is one of the oldest melting
furnaces used in casting applications.
• For melting the metal, foundry operators put
several layers of ferroalloys, coke and limestone
in the furnace.
• Furnaces that can be operated continuously.
• They have high melting rates so produce large
amounts of metal.
• They are currently being replaced by induction
furnaces because of the high costs involved
108
54
 1/20/2022

Cupola Operation in Brief:

 The charge is introduced into the furnace body

by means of an opening approximately half way
up the vertical shaft.
 The charge consists of alternate layers of the
metal to be melted, coke fuel and limestone flux.
 The fuel is burnt in air which is introduced
through tuyeres positioned above the hearth.
 The hot gases generated in the lower part of the
shaft ascend and preheat the descending
charge.

109 110

55
 1/20/2022

Different zones of Cupola Furnace

Well: the molten metal gets collected in this portion for tapping
out through Tapping Hole.
Combustion zone: A temperature of about 1540°C to 1870°C is
achieved in this zone because of few exothermic reactions.
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 → SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 → 2MnO + Heat
Reducing Zone: Due to an endothermic reaction, the temperature
falls from combustion zone temperature to about 1200°C at the
top of this zone CO2 + C (coke) → 2CO
Melting Zone: The metal charge starts melting in this zone and
trickles down through coke bed and gets collected in the well.
Preheating Zone: preheats the charge from room temperature to
about 1090°C before the metal charge enters the melting zone. The
preheating in this zone due to the upward movement of hot gases.
Stack: the empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone,
provides the passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere from the Cupola Furnace
cupola furnace. 111 112

56
 1/20/2022

Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by

natural gas fuel burners located on side of the
furnace
 Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release
molten metal
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper-base alloys and aluminum

113

57
 1/20/2022

Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture

 Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces

 Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or
high-temperature steel alloy
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and
alloys of zinc and aluminum
 Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b)
stationary, (c) tilting

116

58
 1/20/2022

Crucible Furnaces
 Crucible furnace is for the melting of non ferrous metals.
 Its capacity may range from 30 to 150 kg.
Three types of crucible furnaces:
(a) lift-out crucible
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled
(c) tilting-pot furnace

118

59
 1/20/2022

Electric arc furnace

https://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-coal/how-steel-produced
• The Electric arc furnace process, or mini-mill, does not involve pig
Electric-Arc Furnaces
iron-making. It reuses existing steel, avoiding the need for raw
materials and their processing. Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
• The furnace is charged with steel scrap, it can also include some direct  High power consumption, but electric-arc furnaces can be
reduced iron (DRI) or pig iron for chemical balance. The EAF designed for high melting capacity
operates on the basis of an electrical charge between two electrodes  Used primarily for melting steel
providing the heat for the process. The power is supplied through the
electrodes placed in the furnace, which produce an arc of electricity
through the scrap steel (around 35 million watts), which raises the
temperature to 1600˚C, melting the scrap. Any impurities may be
removed through the use of fluxes and draining off slag through the
tap hole.
• Electric arc furnaces does not use coal as a raw material, but mainly
reliant on the electricity generated by coal-fired power plant elsewhere
in the grid. Around 150 kg of coal are used to produce 1 tonne of
steel in electric arc furnaces.
119

60
 1/20/2022

Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic
field in metal
 Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
 Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can
be closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and
purity
 Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common
applications in foundry work

121

61
 1/20/2022

123 124

62
 1/20/2022

125 126

63
 1/20/2022

Ladles
A ladle is a vessel used to transport and pour out molten Geared ladle
metals. Ladles are often used in foundries.
Foundry ladles are normally rated by their working capacity
rather than by their physical size. Hand-held ladles are typically
known as hand shank ladles and are fitted with a long handle to
keep the heat of the metal away from the person holding it. Dross

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
two-man ladle.
128

64