Analytical Principles of Engineering Formula Sheet Mock Exam WS-20/21

Formula Sheet
Set Theory

The Power Set P( A) for a set A is the set of all subsets of A .

¿( A) : number of elements of A.
¿A
¿(P ( A ) )=2

Cross product for two sets A × B= {(a ,b)|a ϵ A∧b ϵ B }

¿( A × B)=¿ A . ¿ B

Complex Numbers

The complex number z in standard form: z=x +iy , with x , y ϵR . x=ℜ ( z ) , y=ℑ ( z ).

y
In polar (trigonometric) form z=r ( cos θ+ isin θ ) , where r =|z|= √ x 2+ y 2 and θ=arctan .
x

In exponential form: z=r . e iθ .

De Moivre’s theorem

For a complex number in polar form z=r ( cos θ+ isin θ ) and n ϵ N ;

z n=r n . ¿

In exponential form:
n n inθ
z =r . e

n-th Root of a Complex Number

√
n θ 2 πk θ 2 πk
n i( + ) n i( + )
z k = √r = r e n n
=√ r e n n
, k=0,1, … , n−1

OR

[ θ 2 πk
z k =¿ √n r cos ( +
n n
θ 2 πk
)+i sin( +
n n
) , k=0,1, … , n−1
]
Roots of Quadratic Equations

a x +bx+ c , a ≠ 0
2

−b ± √ b −4 ac
2
x 1,2=
2a

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Analytical Principles of Engineering Formula Sheet Mock Exam WS-20/21

Vector Space

Magnitude of a Vector

u⃗ =( x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n) , the magnitude is |u⃗|=√ x 12 + x 22+ …+ x n2

Dot (Scalar) Product of Vectors

u⃗ . ⃗v =|⃗u||⃗v|cos θ

For 3D vectors u⃗ =( u1 ,u 2 , u3 ), ⃗v =( v1 , v 2 , v 3 ):

3
u⃗ . ⃗v =∑ ui . vi
i=1

Cross Product of Vectors

u⃗ × ⃗v =|u⃗||⃗v|sin θ

For 3D vectors u⃗ =( u1 ,u 2 , u3 ), ⃗v =( v1 , v 2 , v 3 ):

| |
i j k
u⃗ × ⃗v = u 1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3

|u⃗ × ⃗v| = the area of a parallelogram formed by u⃗ and ⃗v.

3 Product of Vectors

Given the tree vectors u⃗ =( u1 ,u 2 , u3 ), ⃗v =( v1 , v 2 , v 3 )∧⃗

w= ( w1 , w2 , w3 ) :

| |
⃗
u1 u2 u3
⃗u . (v ¿× ⃗
w )= v 1 v 2 v 3 ¿
w1 w 2 w 3

The three vectors are linearly independent if this determinant is not equal to zero.

Systems of Linear Equations

Elementary Row Operations

 Multiplication (Division) of a row with a constant (≠0)

 Addition (Subtraction) of a row to/from another row
 Swapping two rows

Echelon Form of Linear System (Gauss Elimination Method):

For a linear system in matrix form: AX =B, build the augmented matrix ( A|B ) . Then use the
elementary row operations to reduce to the triangular form.

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Analytical Principles of Engineering Formula Sheet Mock Exam WS-20/21

For 3×3 Matrix (Linear System):

[ ]
a b cd
0 e fg
0 0 hj

Reduced Echelon Form for the Linear System (Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method):

Reduce further to (I │ B́), I : identity matrix

For 3×3 Matrix (Linear System):

[ ]
1 0 0d
0 1 0g
0 0 1j

Determinant of a Square Matrix

[ ]
a11 ⋯ a1 n
A= ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ with n ≥ 2: the determinant det ( A )is given by
a n1 ⋯ a nn

n
det ( A ) ∶=∑ (−1 )
i+1
. ai 1 . det ( A i ,1 )
i=1

Cramer’s Rule for solving Linear Systems:

T
For a linear system in matrix form: AX =B, where A is an n × n matrix, X =¿ (x 1 , x 2 ,… , x n) with
det ( A ) ≠ 0

The solution of the system is given by:

det ⁡( Ai )
x i= , where Ai is the matrix that result in replacing the i−th -column in A by the column-
det ( A )
vector B( for i=1,2 , …. , n).

Solving Linear Systems using A−1:

If A−1 exists, the solution of the linear system is given by: X =A −1 B

Sequences and Limits:

 Given a sequence of real numbers (a ¿¿ n)¿. We say that the sequence converges to a number
a ∈ R if:

Given any 0< ε ∈ R , there exists an N ∈ N, such that if n> N , then |an−a|<ε .

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Analytical Principles of Engineering Formula Sheet Mock Exam WS-20/21

 The number a is called the limit of (a ¿¿ n)¿, written as: nlim

→∞
( a¿¿ n)=a . ¿

Definition: (Divergent)

A sequence that is not converging is called divergent sequence. In that case the limit either does not
exist or it is equal to ± ∞ .

Rules for evaluating Limits:

Given two converging sequences (a ¿¿ n)¿and(b¿ ¿ n)¿ with nlim

→∞
(a¿¿ n)=a ¿ and lim (b¿¿ n)=b ¿
n→∞
Then:

1. nlim
→∞
(an +b ¿ ¿ n)= lim (a¿¿ n)+ lim (b¿¿ n)=a+¿ b . ¿¿ ¿ ¿
n→ ∞ n→∞

2. nlim
→∞
(an−b ¿ ¿ n)=lim (a¿¿ n)−lim ( b¿¿ n)=a−¿ b . ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
n→∞ n→∞

3. lim (c . a¿¿ n) ¿ c . lim (a¿¿ n)=c . a ¿ ¿where c ∈ R

n→∞ n→∞

4. lim (an × b ¿ ¿ n)= lim (a¿¿ n) × lim ( b¿¿ n)=a × b . ¿ ¿¿

n→∞ n→ ∞ n→∞
lim (a ¿¿ n)
(a¿ ¿ n) n →∞
lim
5. n → ∞ (b¿ ¿ n) = ¿ ¿ ¿, (b¿ ¿ n) , b ≠ 0 ¿
a
lim (b ¿¿ n)= ¿
n →∞ b
6. ¿.

Convergence Theorems:

Theorem: (Squeeze or Sandwich Therorem)

Let (a ¿¿ n)¿and (b¿ ¿ n)¿ be convergent sequences with:nlim

→∞
( a¿¿ n)=a ¿ and

lim (b¿¿ n)=a ¿ , if (for almost all) a n ≤ c n ≤ b n, then lim ( c¿¿ n)=a ¿.
n→∞ n→∞

Theorem: (Monotone Convergence Theorem)

Any bounded and almost always monotonic sequence is convergent.

Theorem: (susequence convergence)

Any subsequence of a convergent sequence is convergent to the same limit.

Theorem: (Absolute-Value Theorem)

If for a sequence(a ¿¿ n) ¿of real numbers: nlim

→∞
¿then lim ( a¿¿ n)=0 . ¿
n→∞

Some “basic” sequences and its convergence behavior

n
1
1. a n ∶=(1+ ) ⟶ e
n

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Analytical Principles of Engineering Formula Sheet Mock Exam WS-20/21

n
1
a n ∶=(1− ) ⟶ e−1
n
n
x
2. a n ∶=(1+ ) ⟶ e x for x ∈ R, n∈ N
n
n
x
a n ∶=(1− ) ⟶ e− x for x ∈ R, n∈ N
n

Arithmetic Sequences/Series:

Let(a ¿¿ n)¿ be an arithmetic sequence with first element a and a constant d , then the general term
is given by:a n=( a+(n−1) ∙ d )

The sum of the first n elements of this sequence is:

n
Sn= ∙ ( 2 a+(n−1)∙ d )
2

or

n
Sn= ∙(a+ an)
2

Geometric Sequences/Series:

Given a geometric sequence (a ¿¿ n)¿with first element a and a common ratio q , then the general
term is given by:
n −1
a n=a ∙ q

The sum of the first n elements of this sequence is given by:

a ∙(1−q n)
Sn=
(1−q)

The infinite sum of a geometric sequence:

∞
a
∑ a ∙q n= 1−q , if |q|<1
i=0

Odd/Even Functions:

(Even functions) a function f is even if for each x ∈ Df : f (−x )=f ( x ) (symmetric around the y axis
or mirroring about the y-axis)
(Odd functions) a function f is called odd if for each x ∈ D f : f ( x )=−f (x ) (symmetric around the
origin)

Periodic Functions:

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Analytical Principles of Engineering Formula Sheet Mock Exam WS-20/21

period(cos x)= period (sin x)=2 π

period( tan x)=π