TEAM UNIVERSITY KAMPALA

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION-PRIMARY
(IN-SERVICE)

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

MOTIVATION FOR EMPLOYEES: Salient points for the managers

Discussion preceding this section has laid emphasis on meeting employees ’ needs in order

to motivate them into peak performance. Managers are also urged to note the following

points

A. To meet employees’ growth needs

1. Make employees work very challenging- set hard but possible tasks. Work challenge

is a motivator

2. Introduce job enrichment, job enlargement and job rotation- give employees

network when possible to stretch them.

3. Encourage independence and creativity- allow them to think to solve problems.

4. Be willing to offer support and assistance when really needed.

5. Recognize, acknowledge, reward and praise worthwhile performance.

6. Keep employees informed about new developments, policies and decisions in the

organization.

7. Avail training opportunities when needed and possible.

8. Try to find out what motivate employees and provide opportunity for them to achieve

that where feasible.

B. To meet employees’ survival needs

1. Reward and compensate appropriately for services that employees provided- provide

a living wage and a take-home pay that can take employees home.

2. Try to arrange work so that your employees can see the end results.

3. Make sure the work is place is safe.

4. Provide necessary work tools and uniform.

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 5. Provide incentives schemes such as bonuses, prizes, loans and others that you are

capable.

6. Set achievable goals.

7. Recognize employees’ privacy- give them their own space- treat them as human

beings.

8. Provide and ensure job security. Avoid arbitrary treatment of employees.

9. Where possible, and affordable, provide insurance in case of on-the-job accidents.

10. Guarantee future security in terms of pension and gratuity schemes.

C. To meet employees’ belongingness need

1. Try to exercise co-determination decision-making. Try to involve subordinates in the

process of making decisions.

2. Delegate the responsibilities.

3. Get to know employees, if possible by names.

4. Keep in close contact by exchange of information regularly.

5. Communicate effectively and openly with employees.

6. Show respect for employees’ ideas, feelings and views- listen to them with attention.

7. Give recognition to employees as people, and praise them for every little positive

effort exerted.

8. Be accessible, approachable and try to look harmless to your employees.

9. Allow employees to form unions and associations.

EMPLOYEES RETENTION/TEACHER RETENTION:

It is one of the tasks of the Human Resource Management to select the best-qualified

personnel to work for the organization. It is at times, a more difficult task to retain them for

long in that organization. The duration an employee remains in the organization workforce

is the retention capacity of that organization on a particular employee. It is to be noted,

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however, that in many instances the duration of stay is due to lack of alternative. Yet since

the employee still serves the organization he is still been retained by the organization.

Organizations should endeavor to have retention plans, which should be based on why

employees separate (leave) the organization. Exit interviews may provide some useful

information but they could be unreliable since employees leaving rarely state truly the

reasons for their separation. A better method is to conduct attitude surveys at regular

intervals. The retention plan should then address areas in which lack of commitment and

satisfaction does or can arise.

Some common practices that can determine the Rate of Retention (RR) or the Labour

Turnover (LTO) in an organization include the reward system, the job itself, training

opportunity, performance, policy, prospects, working condition, job design and others. It

may need to be reiterated here that High Rate of Retention may imply LTO, and while low

RR implies high LTO.

Employees’ benefit that are capable of retaining them include:

a. Pension and gratuity assurance and commitment

b. car, motorcycle, bicycle etc.

c. on-duty accidents welfare.

d. Medical insurance

e. Other insurances health, accident, life, job etc.

f. Transfer, disturbance relocation allowances.

g. Subsidized meals, transportation, and mortgage.

h. Housing or housing allowance.

i. Children education and welfare.

j. Training opportunities on organizations expense.

k. Permission for public/national or call/duty.

l. Payment of professional subscriptions.

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 m. Permission to join and belong to Trade Unions.

n. Access to sports and social amenities.

o. Maternity or even paternity leaves.

p. Other essential services subscription-Telephone, internet.

q. And any other affordable by the organization on behalf and for the employee. This is

not exhaustive.

Other factors that affect the Rate of Retention (RR) of employees in an organization are:

1. Performance: if employees do not feel conveniently adequate in their jobs, they are

unlikely to stay for very long on the job. Employees can be demotivated if they are

unclear about their responsibilities or performance standards; are uninformed about

how well they are doing their work; or feel that their performance assessments are

unfair. Therefore, management should engage on Management By Objectives (MBO)

to set performance standards with employees so that everyone knows his/her

expected standard of performance.

2. Prospects: surveys into the factors that encourage employee loyalty nearly always

put healthy career prospects ahead of high pay. The message to employers is that

people will respond to recruitment drive of a reliable and challenging position that

has visible progression.

3. Job Design: Employees dissatisfaction results if jobs are unrewarding in themselves.

Jobs should be designed to produce and maximize skill variety, opportunities for

learning, challenge, autonomy, task significance, provide feedback as well as a

suitable ‘fit’ with the individuals doing them.

4. Expectations: although a key part of staff management is motivation, if

expectations are raised about progress or potential rewards but which are not then

met, there will be a subsequent drop in commitment and a possible withdrawal of co-

operation or even from the job as a whole.

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 5. Conflicts and Dissatisfaction with colleagues, and or supervisors. A common

reason for resignation from organization is the feel that management or specific

supervisors are not providing the leadership they should, or are treating employees

unfairly, inequality or are bullying others. Therefore, the challenge to management is

to select supervisors that have adequate leadership training with a human face or

management should try to train those who lack these, as well as equip them with

modern techniques of handling conflicts and grievance procedures.

6. Training and Growth Opportunities: many workers resign their employments if

they were not trained properly or feel that demands are being made upon them,

which they cannot cope without relevant training. They also have prospects of

growth through formal training internally or externally. They are frustrated if they do

not get this. The management should provide adequate induction programme to new

employees; and should provide both internal and external opportunities for further

training for employees.

7. Selection and Promotions: appointing people who are not yet ready for the

demands of a particular job is likely to lead a swift drop in morale and ultimate

voluntary resignation or termination. Also when promotions are not done as at when

due they lead to frustration. It is therefore essential to ensure that selection and

promotion procedures match the capacities and capability of individual to the

demands of the work they have to do; and promotions should be frequent.

8. Commitment: managers must explain and champion the organizations aims to gain

the commitment of other employees. They should demonstrate stake ness in the

organization in order to enlist the stake ness of other employees. Organizational

leadership should be by example. The mission and vision of the organization should

be explained to colleagues and all to see and accept that whatever, positive or

negative, that happens to the organizations fortune has direct or indirect

repercussion on all employees.

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 9. Lack of Group Cohesion: employees can feel isolated and unhappy if they are not

part of a cohesive team or they are bedeviled by disruptive power politics.

Management could retain employees in the organization by solving this problem, if it

builds team spirit, which produces teamwork and it should reward group

achievements, more than individuals efforts.

10.Poor Supervision/Management: indeed, this is an umbrella to all factors 1-9

presented above. When employees work under poor management conditions, they

tend to behave like caged animals looking for the slightest opportunity to escape.

And when such opportunity opens, whether less than the present job, the employees

could leave without looking back. Sovery (1982) as cited in Kisesi (1998) stated that

of all the many different people whose behavior affects an individual’s level of job

satisfaction, the immediate supervisor or manager appears to be the major one. This

is because he/she present most of the time and can either help to raise or lower the

employee’s level of job satisfaction and its attendant motivation when the supervisor

provides or denies the supervisee the necessary desirable support.

Unit 8: DELEGATION OF RESPONSIBLITY

Delegation is a process whereby the leader of an organization divides up his/her

total' and assigns part of it to his/her subordinates.

Delegation involves:

 Determining the readiness, ability and willingness of the teacher to take up

 Then ensuring that the objective to be achieved is clearly understood.
 Delegating the responsibility gradually and giving expert advice.
 Providing sufficient freedom of action to the teacher and means of carrying
responsibility.
 Establishing sound communication procedures between the leader and the
delegate for consultation and co-ordination.
 Correcting mistakes and praising progress.
Importance of Delegation:

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 The most important benefit of delegation is that it reduces the workload of the senior
executive and enables him to devote more time to more important matters
concerning the organization. In schools, for example, the head teacher has to
delegate duties to his staff, such as catering, sports, the school library,
examinations, etc. By delegating work to the 'specialists' who possess the detailed
knowledge for realistic decision-making, tasks are performed quickly and efficiently.
The school administrator maintains his control to school's objectives fulfilled. (ensure
efficiency and also saves time)

Delegation enables real decentralization by increasing the levels at which decisions

are made. This in turn increases flexibility in the organization as every problem is no
longer referred to a central authority for a decision to be taken. For instance,
teachers can take decisions without referring each and every decision to the
principal. In this case delegation permits the making of decision with least delay

Delegation, therefore, gives people the freedom to direct their own activities, to
assume responsibility and thereby satisfy their ego needs. Teachers and students,
for example, develop a sense of participation in the running of their school when
they are given some voice in the decisions which affect them in their day-to day
work. They begin to develop in their own job and also understand the responsibilities
of the head teacher, such people are future reserve of potential administrators or
managers, delegation also helps in job enlargement, i.e. enlarging the scope of
responsibilities .If delegation is not just practiced on

The surface an organization will find that people to shoulder more responsibility as
they develop and their jobs are enriched. .

Delegation also helps in avoiding autocrats within the school organization. It a

healthy convention of delegation tendency among administrators can be minimized.

Delegation also reduces indispensability. It is easy for the next person in line to take
the vacant chair.

METHODS OF DELEGATING-FORMAL/INFORMAL/IMPLIED

When we come to the process of delegation it should be mentioned that there are,
broadly speaking, three methods which are normally followed when delegating work.

These methods are formal, informal and implied. You will appreciate that they are
not mutually exclusive and are used concurrently in most organizations.

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 The formal method of delegating is the usual method followed in most organizations.
Here detailed written instructions are issued outlining the scope of the delegated
work. This method is particularly useful as misunderstandings are avoided and the
subordinate knows exactly what is expected of him. Moreover it facilitates matters
when someone else takes charge of the particular job.

However, in certain cases, particularly where a new activity is involved, it is a little

difficult to visualize the extent of delegation of authority required for the
performance of the assignment. In such cases it is best to adopt a flexible attitude
and use the formal method as a guideline to be altered as soon as deficiencies in the
instructions become apparent.

It will be necessary in such cases to allow the subordinate to use his discretion and
take decisions within certain limits beyond the formal authority delegated. Of course
these decisions must fall within the area of the subordinate's activities and conform
to the established policies of the organization.

Informal delegation is more complicated as it requires a greater understanding

between the superior and the subordinate. Informal delegation is done orally and is
therefore swift.

But it is not always very safe as the subordinates may not have clearly understood
all that the superior was trying to convey. In a school this kind of delegation takes
place when the head teacher orally delegates certain duties to a teacher.

In most organizations formal and informal delegation goes together. Informal

delegation is difficult to achieve unless it is preceded by careful co-ordination and
training of the executive or administrator. It is most successful in organizations
where there is harmony, mutual trust and confidence among the staff and the
administrator.

In an organization where delegation is both formal and informal, it may happen that
as the quantum or volume of the superior's work increases, his subordinate may
draw upon himself a portion of this increased work. This is a method of implied
delegation

The subordinate discharges the work efficiently and draws a part of his senior's
authority which has not been formally or informally delegated to him. The senior,
without actually legating auto-authority, permits it to be exercised by the

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 subordinate. This in turn becomes delegation by convention and helps to create a
greater understanding between the subordinate and his superior.

REASONS FOR DELEGATION

A school head should delegate some of his/her duties or responsibilities so as to

 Ease his/her tasks and enable him/her to devote more time' to important
concerning the school.
 Make work more effective and efficient.
 Share in decision-making and thus make decisions without delay.
 Enable the teachers to grow professionally.
 Enlarge the scope of responsibilities so as to prepare people to shoulder more
responsibilities as they develop and their jobs are enriched.
 Reduce indispensability to make it easy for the next person in the line to take the
vacant chair.
What is to be delegated and the extent of delegation depends on the people
involved and the environment in which they function. However, it is important
that the school heads delegate duties and responsibilities that would contribute to
the training and development of staff. The head teacher should therefore
delegate:
Those areas of work that he/she knows very well.

What a teacher can do easily and with lesser cost.

The head teacher should not delegate:

The authority vested in him/her because the head teacher’s judgment is highly
valued by the organization.

Responsibilities such as where decisions may have unpleasant reactions, e.g. dealing
with ringleaders of a school strike.

Evaluation and appraisal of teachers' performance.

A good school head can delegate authority to do a task, but cannot rid of the
responsibility for getting the task done.

Difficulties / Fears of delegation

A school head may lack confidence in the capability of his /her teachers and this may
lead to fear of delegation or to an over emphasis on control.

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 A school head might fear that the teachers to whom he / she delegates might do
better on the job than him /her.

A school head might be having an attitude of a perfectionist and think that no one
else ca do it the way it should be done.

Some heads fear to delegate because they feel that it might reduce their importance.

Some teachers may be reluctant to take up responsibilities assigned to them because

they feel the school head is lightening his/her own burden and thrusting additional
work on them, while at the same time taking all the credit.

Unit9: Planning

Planning is a purposeful preparation in advance of what is to be done in future. Planning

therefore involves.

 Determination of what is to be done- objectives

 Developing strategies for attaining the objectives e.g. identifying the personnel, time
plan and allocation of resources.

 Monitoring and evaluating procedures to adjust to changing needs and situations

Planning is therefore a continuous spiral process.

Characteristics of an effective plan.

 Is purposeful-the activities are clearly linked to change, goals and priorities.

 Is task specific- the activities are clearly identified and assigned to the doers.

 Has target dates specified and achievement monitored.

 Is integrated; the discrete activities are linked to show interdependencies and

sequencing networks.

 Is adaptable to unexpected problems such as time slippage and unforeseen resistance

 Is cost-effective in terms of the investment of both time and people.

Planning is necessary because it:

 Helps the school to achieve its mission and aims.
 Helps to achieve the long-term vision of the school.

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  Brings various parties - parents, school management committee and teachers - to
work as a team to achieve common goals.
 Avoids frustrations of having to do things the last minute.
 Ensures efficiency.
 Provides for future needs.
 Enhances co-operation of various stakeholders in achieving common goals.
 Links staff development to school curriculum development.
Contents of a school development plan: Among other things. SDP should contain
the following:

 School aims or vision statement, which should relate to the national goals. of
education.
 The mission statement that shows why the school is there, why it exists and its core
business.
 The school motto - to provide a guide, motivation and the drive for the team.
 A description of the school and the community it serves.
 School priorities as arrived at by the stakeholders.
 An action plan for the next three years.

 Information about the school, e.g. number of pupils, pupils by gender and age,
enrolment, number of streams, retention and drop-out rates, etc.
A school head is expected to plan:
 His/her individual time.
 The school timetable.
 Other academic programmes' timetables, e.g. tests. Quizzes. etc. for the term.
 Termly activities, e.g. games. drama, athletics, etc
 School finances, estimates and budgets.
 Use of school plant buildings, gardens, etc.
 Pupil personnel- welfare services, health and security Teacher
personnel - staffing and development.
 Procurement of equipment and books, etc.

Unit 10: Organization

An organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more

persons. It implies a group of persons working together for a common purpose. This
collective effort and pooling of resources to achieve a common aim is what is termed as an
organization. Business firms and schools are examples of organizations.

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Organization implies a network of relationships among individuals and activities. There is a
structural and strategic arrangement of persons in positions and roles (hierarch of authority.
It also implies that resources, activities and authority relationships are so coordinated as to
achieve specified goals. Organization in educational institutions therefore involves an
integration of resources, teachers, learning materials and equipment in the most effective
manner to realize the goals of the school.

Basic elements of a well-established organization.

A well established organization has the following distinctive elements:

• Purpose: Effective organization tends to be purposeful and goal-directed. The

teachers and pupils have a clear sense .of direction. The school vision and mission
statement plus the school slogan and badge express the purpose of a school.

• Structure: This embraces the organizational chart, the committees. The roles, the
hierarchical levels and authority. The procedure in the staff manuals, experience and
structure is determined by work requirements, not by authority, power or
conformity.

• Process: Decisions are made near where the requisite information is rather than
referred up the hierarchy. Authority is delegated accordingly and communications are
frank, open and relatively undistorted. Everyone manages conflicts using problem-
salving methods.

• People: Each individual's identity and freedom are respected and work is organized
as far as possible to this end. Everyone's work is valued. People's interdependence is
stressed.

• Realism: People deal with things as they are. An 'action research' mode of
management predominates. There is widespread awareness of 'health' of the
organization and its parts, just as the human body knows when it feels well or ill.

• Environment: The organization is seen as an open system embedded in a complex

environment with "which it constantly interacts A school would its eyes and ears
open, alertly sensing what is going an in the community making appropriate
responses.

Unit11: Controlling

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Control means to see that everything is done in accordance with the rules that have been
laid down and the instructions that have been given. Controlling involves measuring
achievement against plan and taking corrective actions where appropriate. Control is
checking current performance against pre-determined standards contained in the plans,
with a view to ensure adequate progress and satisfactory performance.

Basically there are three steps to follow in controlling:

(i) Setting standards to arrive at strategic points.

(ii) Checking and reporting on performance.

(iii) Taking corrective action

How should a school head go about the control of instructional programmes? The school
head can control school programmes by:

Ensuring that the staff are using the approved syllabi and have procured other required
materials.

Holding staff meetings to discuss allocation of classes and subjects; review previous
performance and set new standards.

Monitoring class attendance by both learners and the staff.

Monitoring pupils' progress and reviewing performance on termly basis.

Discussing in staff meetings the causes of difficulties experienced, poor performance and
remedial actions to be taken.

Monitoring plans of action, providing necessary support; and praising the teacher's initiative
and creativity.

Importance of Control is;

Increasing size of business

Motivation for efficient employees

For complete discipline

Helpful in future planning

Aids efficiency

Decrease in risk

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Helpful in coordination

Helpful in decentralisation

Unit 12: Team building

A team is a highly communicating group of individuals with diverse backgrounds, skills and
abilities with a common purpose, working together to achieve clearly defined goals, e.g. a
football team.

Team building is a process by which members of a work group diagnose how they work
together and plan changes to improve their effectiveness.

BENEFITS OF TEAM BUILDING

Team management is associated with the following benefits:

It increases co-operation among organizational members.

It spawns new ideas and generates solutions to problems.

It reduces redundant efforts.

It improves product quality.

Stages of team development.

1. Forming: "Everyone accepts more". This refers to the process of seeking information
defining goals. Developing procedures for carrying out is characterized by uncertainty
confusion, dependence on a leader guidance, sizing up others and options given.

2 Storming: "Everyone adjusts more". Members experience conflicts locate and

attempt to resolve differences. Competitions for leaders arise. The major issue is who is
responsible for what.

3. Norming: "Everyone accomplishes more". Cohesion and evidence of now begin to

emerge. Members identify with the group; share feelings receive feedback and develop
Positive sense of success. There is team and high level of dependence on each other.

4. Performing: "Everyone fully functioning" A high level of interference imminent. Cohesion

progresses to collaboration. Members are getting accomplished.

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5. Adjourning: "Existing in style". Team terminates its task, behaviours and from
relations-oriented behaviours.

Factors that influence team effectiveness

Size and purpose. When the team is too large or diverse, some members take off and wait
for others to do it.

Membership and composition. Homogeneous groups tend to function routine standard tasks.
More skill is called for in managing heterogeneous

Norms. Failure to adhere to norms makes others try to enforce the results in sympathy,
unrest, etc.

Status relationship or social ranking. This affects respect, Prestige and power accorded to all
individual members.

Cohesiveness. This is the strength of members’ desire to remain in as how they share in
group goals.

Roles this is the set of expected behaviors attributed to. Some one occupying a given
position and how she perceives it.

The figure below summarizes the factors that influence team effectiveness.

Size and purpose Members

composition and
roles purpose
External
environment
purpose Group
Norms
behaviour out
put
Leadership

Goals
Cohesiveness

The principles for developing a high performance team

• Build team commitment and motivation.

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 • Clarify the team's role within the institution.
• Develop a constructive climate and exercise sensible leadership.
• Create a high achievement orientation and effective teamwork procedures.
• Build efficient teamwork, communication and organization.
• Encourage development of creative capacity.
• Identify individual team player styles and task orientations,

POWER AND AUTHORITY

Power is a form of raw energy that enables a person to carry out his or her own will despite
the protestations of others.

On the other hand, authority is the 'power' to make decisions which the actions of another.
It is a relationship between two individuals, one 'superior' and the other 'subordinate'. The
superior frames and transmits decisions with the expectation that they will be accepted by
the ‘subordinate’. The subordinate too accepts such decisions, and his conduct is determined
by them. In the school, for example, the head teacher makes decisions with the expectation
that they will be accepted and carried out by teachers and pupils. In this case the head
teacher is the superior while the teachers and pupils are the subordinates.

The relationship of authority can be defined, therefore, in both objective and behaviouristics
terms. It involves behaviors on the part of both superior and subordinates. It is when, and
only when, these behaviors occur that a relation of authority exists between the superior
and the subordinated involved. When the behaviors do not occur there is no authority,
whatever may be the paper theory of organizational authority. In the school, for instance,
the head teacher makes decisions that have to guide the smooth running of the school, but
as he makes such decisions, the people carrying them out, that is the teachers and pupils,
have to behave in a positive manner if the decisions are to be implemented. But if they
refuse to carry out the decisions it means the head teacher has no authority even if the
decisions are to be implemented. Authority takes place whenever a subordinate accepts it
and permits his behavior to be guided by a decision reached by a superior, irrespective of
his own judgment as to the merits of that decision.

However it is important to note that authority is not measured by position in the formal
hierarchy alone. One who holds a high position on the organization chart may actually have
little influence in the organization.

KINDS OF AUTHORITY

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Max Weber, a German born in 1864 and one of the earliest writers on management
thinking, made an important contribution to the study of organizations with his theory of
authority structures. One of the points that worried Weber was the authority relationships in
organizations which allow certain people to issue commands to others, and the basis of such
authority. Traditionally, however, authority has been classified in three different categories.
These are traditional, charismatic and legal-rational authority.

Traditional authority

This is the kind of authority which is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition; and such
authority tends to perpetuate the existing social order since the status quo is conceived of
as sacred and inviolable. This kind of authority is anchored in an established belief in the
sanctity of the status of those exercising authority in the past. Obedience is owed to the
traditionally sanctioned position of authority and the person who occupies the position
inherits the authority established by past custom.

The role of the leader is to see that tradition is continued and through this he maintains his
own position and authority. In a school, for example, students may accept the authority of
the position of the principal and the teachers because their parents and grandparents did so
before them. In a family business it is also possible to see this sort of thing happening:
When the son takes over from the founder father, the continued functioning of the firm in a
given pattern is justified as having always been done that way.

Charismatic authority

This kind of authority rests on devotion to an extraordinary individual who is leader by

virtue of personal trust in him and his exemplary qualities. It secures its legitimacy from the
conviction people have that a charismatic leader has a special and unique duty to fulfill for
the revolutionary change of the social order. In this case authority is based on certain
mystical qualities which the leader possesses. This is what Weber called 'charisma', which is
a Greek term implying superhuman or exceptional powers. This type of person could be
classified as a leader of a religious sect or a dictator. People obey him without question.

Charismatic authority tends to be non rational, affective or emotional, and rests heavily on
the leader's personal qualities and characteristics. An illustration here would be students
obeying classroom directives because of a teacher's personal 'mystique'. However,
charismatic leaders in school situations are rarely found nowadays.

Legal-rational authority

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Legal-rational authority is rightful power-a right to command or act and have jurisdiction.
Its legitimacy is by law, and obedience in it is owed not to the individual but 'to a set of
impersonal principles'. For example, the principal of a school holds legal authority in that
school because he is lawfully appointed by the Ministry of Education or by a board of
education which is legally constituted. The principal may be a very young person but the
elderly teachers on the staff must obey the principal because he or she holds legal authority
in the school.

This kind of authority is rational and legal because intelligent and considered means are
designed to achieve the objectives of the school organization, and certain rules and
procedures are laid down within the framework in which the organization functions. These
rules and regulations tie the school organization together.

Types /Sources of power

1. Reward power i.e. ability of an administrator to influence subordinates by rewarding

their desirable behaviour i.e. money, praise, fringe benefits, promotion. There must be
ethical.

2. Coercive power: Leaders ability to influence subordinates by punishing suspensions.

i.e the head teacher can recommend the dismissal of an indisciplined teacher from school,
temporarily a student from attending school / class.

3. Legitimate power: Ability of the leader to influence behaviour of the subordinates

because of his formal position i.e. subjects know that they have to follow a leader ’s law.

4. Referent power: Ability of the leader to influence subject’s behaviour based on their
liking and identification with the administrator. i.e. they are influenced by what the leader
stands for as they wish to be like him. E.g. charismatic head teachers draw many followers
among students and teachers.

5. Expert power: Power based on specialized knowledge and skills. The leader with a
substantial amount of his subordinates who perceive him as a competent and
knowledgeable in the area in which he influences them e.g. head teacher who has held the
position successful for a long time commands the respects of his subjects because of his
experience and knowledge.

Unit 12: The Methods of Administering Education

Introduction

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In this lecture we shall stress the importance of teachers' understanding of how the
education system works and how their own activities fit into it.

In every country education is administered in such a way that the system is expected to
produce the kind of citizens the state desires. This lecture focuses on, two common methods
of administering the system of education; namely;

 Centralized administration and

 Decentralized administration.

The choice of which method of administration, usually depends on the political set-up and
philosophy of a country. It is useful to examine each of the above methods in some detail.

CENTRALISED METHOD OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL

The centralized method is whereby "all the educational services in the country are managed
and controlled under one central authority. The central authority is, normally the
government through the Ministry of Education, The whole country is divided into educational
administrative units (districts) with a uniform ' administration all subordinated to the central
office or headquarters.

Uganda falls under this method of administration; all policies on education are, made in
Kampala and handed down to the District Education Officers and Heads of Institutions to
implement. 'The Minister of Education is supreme on educational policy making. There are
other countries like France, Sweden and, Russia which follow the same system of
centralized administration of Education. Central administration retains services of key
officials such as the Permanent secretary or commissioner of Education but the state (local)
governments have their counterparts only that the jurisdiction of the latter are limited to
their local states.

Advantages of Centralized Administration and Control

The centralized method has a number of advantages, if properly administered,

The following are the major advantages:

(i) The quality of education in the country is generally uniform 'as there is common syllabus
for all levels and there is (are, a central examining body (bodies). At the same time; there
is a common teacher education programmes with a centralized curriculum. ,,:, :

(ii) The system is efficient because the same standards are set for the entire country. No
conflicting inputs are allowed or expected.

(iii) Both the rural and urban areas get equal opportunities for development because it is
expected that schools are located and other resources and facilities are equitably distributed

(iv) 'Control of sources of information (such- as textbooks) is easier to handle

because they are disseminated from a common central source.

v) In a country where there is a political ideology or national philosophy, education is used

as a tool for propagating it. The promotion of a common ideology or philosophy in

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administration. Decisions which could be centrally taken could include those spelling out the
aims arid goals of education, policies on teacher education and management as well as
curricular issues.

Disadvantages of Centralized Administration and Control

The disadvantages of the centralized method are:

(i) Public participation in educational planning is hardly possible as the decision making
machinery is at the centre. Central authority tends to grow by powers which it wields to the
extent that it legislates and statutes; executes and judges. Thus centralized administration
becomes bogged down by a bureaucracy which imposes its will and secures uniformity in
aspects of education where it is least required such as educational Practices and curriculum.

(ii) Centralized systems are somehow anti-ethical to the concept of democracy, mainly
because of lack of local machinery, in some countries provides opportunities for the citizens
to maintain close contact with and control over the public schools. In this case the citizen is
denied the right to feel that the education system belongs to him and so has the obligation
to it. Central control, therefore tends to kill local initiative and enterprise in education as it
places decision making in the hands of a relatively few persons.

(iii) Local conditions and cultures tend to be ignored. Therefore adoption of education and
practices to local conditions are not considered.

(iv). Central control is inflexible with little or no real delegation of responsibility and
authority. The system is difficult to change. You need expensive commissions like the castle,
de Bunsen and Kajuubi Education like Review commission.

(v). The system is expensive. It does not encourage the harnessing of local material or
financial resources to improve facilities for education. Quite often local revenue is deposited
into a common pool which is not necessarily used in the locality where it is generated. There
is too much reliance on the Centre for funding and little local initiative is encouraged.

Review Question

Explain centra1 control of Education.

Give the advantages of centralizing the control of education in a country,

What are the main disadvantages, of centra1isation?

DECENTRALISED METHOD OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL.

Beach (1980) defined decentralization as placing the authority and decision making as close
as possible to the level at which the work is done and Cole defined it as the process in which
the authority to commitment, money and materials widely diffused throughout every level
of the structure.

From the above definitions we learn that in the decentralized method of administration, the
central government transfers its power, authority, control and management of the affairs of
education to local authorities which may either' be: regions, districts or even counties. In

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dealing this, the central authority may exercise some little control or no control at all on the
management of Schools in the local authorities.

A good example of a country with a decentralized system of control in education is the

United States of America where each State has its own structure and system of education.
The system of the administration of education corresponds with the three tiers of
government- Federal, State and Local Government. The Federal Government, for example,
has control over overall policy and certain levels of education such as universities. The
States and Local Governments are delegated powers and authority of control in accordance
to the 10th amendment to the American Constitution whereby the Federal Government has
no control over the administration of education in the areas under the control of State or
Local Governments,

If this system was adopted by Uganda, it would probably mean that each region or district
would have its own structure and system of education without control from the Ministry of
Education headquarters. It is often argued that primary education can easily be
decentralized because it is community based. Inspection, supervision and examinations
could easily be decentralized.

Advantages of Decentralized Administration and control

 Each local authority would have the chance to choose the method and structure of
administration of its schools according to their local needs.

 It permits quicker decision-making. The managers who are closer to the work have the
authority to take action.

 Each local authority would design its own curricula according to their local needs.

 Each local authority would have its own laws governing its own education system.

 Problems of co-ordination, communication and red tape are reduced.

 Appointment of teachers and other educational administrators and managers would also
be localized thus boosting the employment opportunities for the local people.

 Examinations set by one local authority would differ from those set by other local
authorities. Therefore, the quality of education would differ from one local authority to
another. This could be an advantage only to the extent that the standards meet local
needs and are sustainable by local resources.

 Management is freed from operational duties and left to strategic responsibilities, that
is, to think for the organizations.

 It enables delegates to be more flexible in their approach to decisions and thus

adaptable in situations of rapid change.

 It enhances staff motivation when lower ranks get a taste of responsibility; encourages
employees to have more initiative.

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  It ensures the development of more capable managers as they are given plenty of
opportunity to solve problems on the ground, Local managers learn to stand or fall on
their own decisions or actions.

 It promotes free competition which enhances efficiency and improvement of standards

as each authority attempts to produce the type of personnel they require.

 The pluralist method provides wide choice for the citizens in the education of their
children.

Disadvantages of the Decentralized Method of Administration and Control

Among many others, decentralization has the following disadvantages:

1. Disparity of standards from one local area to another on account of unequal distribution
of wealth and facilities.

2. As a result of (1) above, remuneration of teachers and teachers' conditions of service

would differ from one local authority to another.

3. It requires adequate control and efficient communication if major mistakes are to be

avoided.

4. It requires greater co-ordination by the centre to ensure that all delegates at different
points are not working against the interests of the whole education system.

5 . The curriculum would differ in each local area and there would be different examining
bodies and examinations. This may lead to parochialism and empire building and may
create a duplication of examinations. There is central control over curriculum which leads to
a profile ration of standards in the country.

6. It may give the managers in the local authorities a false control of the proper
management of the education system.

7. It brings disparity in supply of manpower as a result of imbalances of educational facilities

and the resource bases of the local authorities.

8. As a result of (7) above, it is subject to substandard quality of personnel getting into

positions of leadership.

9. It has problems of the tenure of employment for non-indigenous personnel serving in

districts other than their native ones.

10. On the job markets, it is difficult to authenticate the credentials one presents.

11. This system of control is subject to misinterpretation and can be abused by producing
citizens who do not have the nation at heart. Consequently, it is likely, to be subjected to
unnecessary fault finding by the central authority.

Conclusion: In this lecture we looked at the two main forms of administering education
namely, centralized and decentralized forms of control. We defined centralization as a means
of placing the authority and decision-making process as close as possible to the level at

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which the work is done; and the decentralization as a method of administration in which the
central government transfers its powers, authority, control and management of the affairs
of education to local authorities. The lecture ended by listing the advantages and
disadvantages of both methods of administration and control.

Review questions

1. Describe the advantages and disadvantage of decentralization of educational

control.

2. Describe how you would adopt centralization of control of education to a newly

created district in Uganda.

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