' 0 lt' rF- | !

tl \ | f)
--'1, )oio-Lq"ltUrj
-
Facto.s 3n6[ Lhe Je'/e\oPmant a{ -
t, t { .

'' |
C .r '
öoc-ioloqq in l-atln *wre'^oa
UJ
I$o Galtotr
1. J*g;egggn-"
the socrology of socloiogy 1E a chapt€r 1!.the geEerEl sociology
of kEowledge that sb.ould. be df partlcular conc€r!' to tb,6 profegsio-
Eal soclologlst. In prlnclple, 1t 6bou1d t€11 us sonetbhg about
the conditlons that further or lxlpedo wbat today 1s coaslaler€d
sclentlflc soclology,.aud thua glve us sor0e ltraigbta that caa be
useil f,or sorqe practlcal aoclaL etlglneerltlg, @ to d€yel-op
socloiogy a6 a 6clence. F,or tlils to haFp6!. the Eoet rlgoroud
techllques of data alalysls and tbe nost lnaglnatlv€ theortr forDallo!,
worr.1d. be requlred." Uniortunately, what we shell ple8elt bere cones
-rl]lrry lDt f:-||rE7. lr lD tt t3 tr d
tü'lüJr l- I LE -o
whatis pr€genteil heie 1s a klnd of prolegoEetroB to a!. lBT€stl-
gatlo[ of tbat kl!d. fhe focue ls. on latln !,lerlcan soci.ology. tb,e
tecbnlque ls Fore that of the trailltlona:t-äüäropologlst than of
the noilenx Eoclologlst! 1t ls baseal o!' the 4ot€s takeü by a partl-
clpant obeerver, hlDeetf a soclologlstr. teacbl4g 8lsduat€ coul3es
ln a iegloual lDstltutlotr aeperiutlg ol1 tbe ItNlSCo, trafgl]'llg ln
Eost countrles 1n the regton, talklng wlth Bost of tbe aqtlve
soclolbiIlsts trylng to flnA out ho$ 8oclal aclerlce as a sisten
fuactlons. the data, coaaequently' are not stsüilardlzed but lafo]!a'l''
Eo {hat 1s presented ls hardly lore tb.ar a set of hJDotbes€E.
Broadly speeklng, the Eethod of anelys.t3 19 81Ep1y tb16: tbe
autb.or brons aonetblng about ttte 8oc1o1ogy Aovelopsal h trortbent
Europe and USA on the ol1e haEd and 1n SJuthen Suropg an't Lath
AEerlca on tbe otber; fhere'1s a nottceable dlfference in achiev€-
nent, for lBstance, a€ neasu{äd by sor0e El!p].e ladex of wbo ls nosta)
quoted tn artlcl-ea an<l books"l (South quotes North and not w1c€ vqlisa:)
the que8tlotl ls whyr and Elnce a illfference cau olly be erplal!€il
by other dlffereaces, the queatioa la vbat other illfferelcet aeeo
to be rslated to thls dlffereace ln the output of sclertlflc
Eoclology.

Apoht of deperture ts the seLf-analyslar pr€seüt€al by soBe

I'at1a lloerlc€Jl 6oc1o1og1ets, whlcb ca! be subsuEeil uDal€r the haad-
lngs of "the po1ltlcal argunentt, "the ecoaonlc argunent", a.ail
the Eanpo'wer arguEent. The polltlcal argument rute aE follo$a:
soclology 1E n€aü1ngl.ess ldltbout a refatlvely opea aocletyr alDc€
 -2-
lt 1a al1 lnstltutlonallzatlon of 1) a lree search for rel€vart
d.ata about tbe soclety, 2) flee theory fornatloB about the soclety
hcltilllg publlcatlon, alnce acle!.ce by lts requlrene[t of later-
subJeqtlvlty 1s boulil to be a pub11c lnstitutloB. A scleatlflc
product thouLd be zubllcly acces8lble; If 1t ls r'ot lt nay Btlll
satlsfy other Bclelrtlflc requlrenenta, but 1t 1s lEpoBslble to
aaaess wbether lt iloes so or t1ot. S1!ce enplrlcal- deta aüd theory
constructloa are founal tosether ln the soclology of only relatlvely
lctt courtrles (h LA soclology one very often flnds theory irlthout
ilata and ilata !.lthout theory), and these courltrlea terd. to be aoong
the tDoat ope! courtrlee b-y other cr1ter1a, tbere 1a u.udoubtedl,y
aonethlrlg to the argunentl ln open couatry 1s, perhapB lnevltably
so, a plurallet coultry wlth a relatlvely open .rchange narket of
1deo1og1es. Ia tbe closeil soclety the ldeology larket 1s Blao
clo8ed., tb.€re ls a iloDlnant td.eoLogy deflDlng what 1s right and
rhat L8 tme 1n soelal affalrs ntth l{hlch Boclology l{oulil havs to
coEpe-te, atld tbere :.s no Eod.el of boltr alevlallt conceptlonE of soclal
reallty ca! be accoEodateal tn the oplnlon Darket. fhe etroager the
d.onlüa!.t 1aleol.ogy, the oore 'rs1ngu1er1st1c " the colceptlorl of,
8oc1ety, tbe &ore allfflcult the penetratlon of ooclology. fhls oay
also apply to the caae of a very stro4g d.e!0ocrat1c lil€ologJr, aE 1n
the caae of SwltzerlaaÖ.'r
The dlfflcuLty {lth the argueelt 1s lts fallure to explaltr why
soclology a!1d.EoctologlBta do aot use the posslb111t1es there ar€
to d.o lnterestlng ald lnportant regearch and partlcularty the
lnv€ntlveas€a 1n defllllEg a prloll as l8posslble lrlveatlgatlons
that Llth the Earne degree of lnventlverteaa could eaEily have been
launchedi "Th1e does ngt work here ln Latln Anerlea" 1E a favoullte
erpreaalo! the forelg! soclologlst w11.1 get froE h16 lJatln An€rlcan
colLeagues as naIly tlnes a day as he wants 1f he suggests proJ€st8,
aad tbe po11tlca1 argunent wtl1 be anong the nany reason€ glveB.
Än lBterestlDg slde effect of the arguoeD.t 1s the wedge
1t drlves
lD betweel lthat one couLd loosely caLl the fcathol:-c aad the
'ttarxlstI' tradltlons. Wlth Cuba a6 the onty exceptlorx uarrl6tB
often deflne tbenselves as devlants, ss outcastg, as persecuted
nore often tban obJectlve clrcuuatatces should warrart, and
tb.e
lnage of euplrlcaL or free soclology ae 'rloposslbl€i' ts
coDpatlble
rlth their lnage of the exlstl-ug soclat order as bastcatly lEong,
to the extent that they uay not ever want a dlscotlflnßatlon
of thelr
:
-t-
own th€ory becauae 1t lnportaat to keep the lnegs of
becoüsa Eore
the soclal order than to ilovelop soclology, ltB "Catbol1c" scbool'
oft€! of the left nlDg denochrlstla! varlety al,so has 1ts a!gu-
nelts wltb tbe soc1al order but less ba81c onea, and hetrce are nore
prone to search for the feaslble, anil not to d.Eflne lt gl!!g! aB
lnpoeslble. lhls 1! o!1e factor aBong !0a4y that eay eoDtrlbute to
nore eop1rlc16n la lsft lding Cathollc soclologJr.
However, one r'rou1d have to be very bllnal to nany aspEcta of
IJatln.AEerlcan reallty to deay a great deal of valld1ty to the
polltlcal argulleDt. It lE easy to rlillqul-e, ln the Etalilaral &!gg
ray, the atereotJn)eil lnage of the !at1n Allerlcalt Btuale[t: always
on strlke, always lntrlgulag for 6ome restn-rcturlDg of everythllg
f,ron tlnetables to the unlverBe, everythlng ercept bls olf! ' -r
tloplorable level of lglowledge. A guba unaler Batlsta or Castro"and
a..Republ-lca Do!01nicana uniler lruJlllo dld not proEote erplrlcal
soctologJr aE lt ls lorotm fron the North-Eastern corner of the US
or the Nortb-Uestem comer of Europe - and the r0ajor conceru of
the stuilert becoDes the change, 1n actloD tema, of the r6g1nes,
tlot the abatract study of the condltlonB for cha!96. For tbls alBo
tles ln wlth the polltlca1 arguuerxt i the geaerel feellng that other
thlugs are sore urgent, that the conilltlols ln tb.e North-East of
Erezll, or 1a the sLu.ns of the blg capltals (uot to neatlon the
snalL capltals) are such that every hour apeat or acadenlc soclology
la an hour taken fron polltlcaL actlvlty. the gqually obvlous contra-
argunent would. perbaps rull as follows: no aoclal order aucceeds by
everybody dohg the sar0e, for lnstarce polltlcs. Uelther trant, nor
the exlstenslall sts, lf so lnterpreted, nere rlght: 1f I chooae to
becone a sociologlst I do not have to Justlfy thi,B cholqe by saJdng
that I rant alL others to do the satse, or that I cboose on behalf
of hu.na!.lty. 0! the contrary, I nay do it preclsely becauBe othera
alreaily go 1!' for polttlcs, a!d. theIx base ny Jualgnent on re1at1v6
expendabll{ty or substltutablllty: lueglne I caa ilo for sociology
what fel{.otheis cel1 do but aa hlghly replaceabte; polltlcs, Iroultl
tbls not be ar1 argun€üt for ilevotlug . car€er to soclology?
'lry
Besldesi rüho rtl1 argue agalnst the posltlon that tbe soclologLat
cea contrlbute to the creatlon of an lnage not oBl,y of the exl8tlng
aoclal oriler, but el-so to a rlcher vlalou of a future order, ald
rho w111 argue agalnst tbe potentläl po1ltleal usefitlreEe of thls
(even thou8h, uafortunateLy, few soclologlsts do thls)?
 - 4- J

B€fors x€ leav8 the fletd. of arguEentatloE let u8 look cloaer

at the econonlc arguneut l{hlch nuxa a6 followsi rraoc!,ology 1s a
lurrr]|y ard lt costg Duch noney, la our econonleB rs slnpl,y oanaot
afford. lt". Ihe arguDent 16 bolstered by referetlce to tJrplqal
Nortb AnerlcaD reaoarch builget8, lavolvllg costly fleld operatlonq
blg surveys or sonpllcated coEparatlve ileslgns, uuch Mt wort, a
teae of asslstants etc., 1n shor! budg€t8 mnnllg all the way froD
$ 10,OOO to even a nllllon dollar.s, The cost 1s enorrooua, ihe
lruoedlat€ Eoc1al val.ue of 6uch resoarch car be dl8puted, anal thE
argunetlt haa consldcrtr't],c valldlty 1n a stralned eoonony, aE evl-
ilenced by the fact that soclology has galned nonentuD 1n otba!
countrles only after a certaln general affluoBca ln tbe gooEoEy.
But the arguEent, agaln, falls to explah rhy 60 r0ucb alDple
atral cheap enplrlcal. soclology la lot carrled out. It costa abost
nothlng to alo a cont€nt analysls of aewspapers, or aa araly8ls of
€llte conposltLons (econonic, po1ltlcal, niutary,ollles, fo!
tnstance, to se€ hor{ they lnternarry) baseil oa i,äiWg'[fftr i.'],a"
enal] aanple aurveys cerefuLly done. Utrfortu.Dately, naay soclolo-
glatE seen to thtnk that thelr ow!. preetlge 1e Eore proportlo[ate
to the slze of the reseanch budget, tha!1 to the vaUdlty of thstr
theorleE, let nany chances pass by waltlng for the gol-dea opportu_
rlty to rtget a grentrr, aIld Bpend Euch of thelr tln€ nakhg a proJect
'rfouadatlolable ". As years pass by walttng, the lnltlal tralulng
aletortorates and. the chanceE of gettlng the grant b€coue Enaller.
Horever, aE r|lLl be Epelt out ln sone detall, the structure of
I'atln .Aeerlca!. soclology nevertheless offers opportu!,ltleB for tbe
BoctofoglBt who has uever done eDpirlcal work.
.C,fter these lntroductory reDarks 1et ua pass or1 to tb€ factora
nore 1n tlre focus of the soclofogicallJ, tralned anaLyat: the eoclo_
cuLtural frane ln rhlch soclology le auppoeed to develop, to see
fhether there are naulpulable varlab].es wlthla thls frane of refe-
rence that could. be used to etlnulate soclology furtb,€r, so that
one dlal not have to walt for the poli-tlca1 nllletrnluD tor at least
decelllduD), the age of affluetce, or the thlrd,factor: tb€ return
of ao ard eo nany Ph.D.rs froE usA aua furopJj our baslc aagunptlon
can be spelt out at o!,ce: these three factors are not only Bot
Eufflclent, th€re a?e other factors that natr be even Bore lnportaat.
As a poht of departure, let us trtr a siBple typology of atylea of
5

soclol.oglcal work.

, .of soclglgAlcaL liork.

"S6ilology" ls, of course, by no means a ualtary cancept havlng
onfy'önä ilBlted ard recognlzable lnterpr€tatlou. A6 ofieo notfced,
nany eoclologlsts have 11tt1e else ln cosmoll th۟. the tlt1e
itsocloJ-oglst" and vague reference6 tg.thelr
fleld of llterest as
"soclology't. But the lnportant Llnes qf dlvislon fox a fmltfuL
illscusslon are harilly ln terns of "Cathollc" vs. "Manist'r, or
.rrfunctional' vs. trttructural" soclology. Instead, rve suggest that
a typology for cfasslficatlon of work presented a6 goclology can
. be ueanllgfully bas6d on the following llve dll0enslons:
Soclety vs. soclolagy
2. 4q4e of analysls: Descrlptlve vs. noxBatlve
Emplrlcal v6, ao!-enplrlcal
4. Hypotheses: Pxopo sitl"onalLst vs. dlneilslollallst
5: @XIgg I ' Iltegrated. vs. lsolateil
.t
In pr1nclp1e, thls gives a f2-fo1d typology, where the two extrenes,
represented by the {lve left-hand cholces and'the Jlve rlght-hand
cbolces nlrror rglatlveLJr well what 1s often called. I'noilerr:tr vs,
"tradlttoual" soclology. Sl-nco developnent ls identlfled verbally
.as the change frol0 tradltional to Eodern, analy€ls ltl the€e teliEa
".1s . e 6sent1a11y a klud of deveiop'loäu1i aa-a11rsls.

Theflrst dlüeuslon refers to what the soclologlst chooses as

h1s obJect of analysls. In princlple, lt ls sone aspect of soclal
rcal1ty, but nany soclologlsts, 3nd 1n lailn A.nerlca very nany,
focus qn a very speclal part of social reallty | oilclology 1t6elf.
lhat ts, they cosnoent on l'hat other soclologlsts do, 'they urlte
revlews, they crltlclze, they place a new concept or a nev theory
ln it6 soclologlcal context by tracing 1t back to earller authors,
they e6tabli€i1 genealogles of concepts and perspectlves and
theorles. Il] short: thelr style ls the style of llterary cr1tici.6n.
lhelr reallty ls not soqlety but the soqiologlcal ldrror of society,
they wrlte nore (and better) about the llorks of a soclologlst than
of the enplrlcal facts he refers to.
they ars what Zetterberg very aptty haE calleal the ggEgglglgg
of our fleld: the bousekeepers' the llbrarlausr the stocktakers'
they are seta- soc1o1oglsts, not soclologlsts' Nobody wlll deny
thel"r usefu1üesa up to a certaln polBt' exaept l'hen this becones
the donlnant concern and the soclologist decelves hinself lnto
be1lev1!.g that he galns lnslght 1n soslal reality by these exer-
clses ln the hlEtory of sclence and hlstory of ldeas. To a4alyze
how th6 üord "classtt1s used. by a ]xu&ber o.f sociologlsts ls
laterestlag, and nay contrlbute to the understaldlng of social
class as a Eode of hunan existence' but the flndlngs w111 concen-
trate on trlo focl: the blographie6 of i'ndlvtdual socloLoglsts, and
dlffragion pheno!0e&a 1n the coutounity of soclologlsts. The question
1s whether thls should warrant loore tha4 a cursory lnterest by a
ni.nor fractlon of actlve soclologists' and preferably ln thelr
e8erltus years when a klud of leve1 of lntegration is attalned
where ldeas about the genealogy of socloLoglcal ldea6 hawe
crystalllzed in their nlnds. Besldes, o!1y rarefy 1s 1t done ln
an enplrleal way so as to really contrlbute to the soclology of
lorowledge,

The second dlsenslon 1s well-hlo.wn: lt 1s the problenatic dls-

tlnctlon between what 1s and what ouaht to be. Ihis dlüenElot1 ls
hlghly correlated with the first one ln the seDse that the conüen-
tator type of soclologlst seens to be very lrolre to oake Judgments
as to 'what soclol-ogy ought to be like (the present artlcle ls an
exarqple), not only to descrlbe txends and developr0ents. In our nlnd
this ls all to the provlded fi{o condltions are Bet: that a
good.
thorough descriptive or theoretlcal lob ls done, and that advlqe
and facts are kept sufflclently apart to avold confuslon, the
soclologlst should, we fee1, take on nuch loore respoasibillty, have
the sa$e w1fl. : to expose his theorles to clinical tests as the
meilieal man by spe111ng out the poUcy 1np11cat1ors of h1s
flndlngs, But nany sociologlsts seeE to forget that the tltle of
soclologlst glves !.o carte blanche, the legltinacy of the advlce,
lf any, should 1ie wlth the validlty of the data and the careful-
ness of the reasoning, uot 1,llth the (lnagined) status of the author.
fhe thlrd dlnenslon refers to the level relatlve to data at
whlch the Boclologlst ls operatlng. fhe soclologlst usea a systen
of sJmbols, usually words,and most of thea non-techlLcal. Soae
sJ[0bols refer to data, other sjmbole have !o iruqedlate d.ata-
 -7 -
referent, or the referent ls not nade uae of. lhus, one may r,rlte
an artlcLe (llscusslng the coBcept of rrlnteractlöüar la soclal
systegs, or I'status", irlth no data referencea, aüd 1! auch a way
-..t}.at.do eoplrlcal flndlng wilt have any lnpact ol1 the artlcle.
l.Iany confuse thls $lth theory, bBt a theory ls a aet of lnter-
related hypotheses tirat 6tate s#St$intf?.?ü" o ty that sooe-
".ys
thlng ls the ca6e, aBd, consequently, that eooethlug elae la rlot
the caae. Non-emplrlcal sJ.robollc work Eay take the fonc of, expll-
catlo! onty, rlth no proposltloil constructlon. But lt EgI also
lnvolve proposltlon fonaatlon, as 1n the tJelcal work preseated.
by econonetrlclaEs rhere lnportallt varlablea are deflaeal, nathe-
uatlcal relatlo!1s worked out and deductlone nade aI1 at a purely
_

6yBbo11c.1eve1 wlth !o reference to enplrlcal data, but often to

a hJrpothetlcal llorld. populated by hoüo oeconoulcua.Düe to the
lntrlüslc conplexlty of a natheuatlcaL soclology thls Etage 1s
alnoet unh€ard of 1n soclology, and lt nay well be that soclology
t'.111 bypass lt and develop a Eatbeoatlcal soclology nucb Bore ü.ed.
to data than nathenatlcal econonlcs has been - that 16, nueh less
lluked to "lileal casee'r ln the Webellan sense ( toclay often called
"baee-ltrne iodels"). Whether thls 1s beneflclai for ür€ develop_
Bert of sociologlcal tb,eorleE remalns to be aeeu..
Thls then brlngs us to tlie fourth illnenslon: plopo 61tlonallqt
'vs. dlnenaloaallst soclol-ogy. lhe 1dea. 1s taken faon Zetterberg9/and
ls slnpl-F thls; sone eoclol-oglsts prod.uce proposlt:-ons, thby €f
how thlngs are. But nore frequent ln sone soclolägloal Bllleur ls
the d1!oen81onal1st tradltlon: concepts are deflned, even operatloua_
l1zed, taxoEoü1ä s prod.uced by loglcal nr.rltlpUcatloqthe vlrtue of
concelvtng of thexo aB the author suggests and not ln'any otber way
ls Eade very. expUclt - but the varlablea are not related. That
ls: the author takes llo rlsks relatlve to 6oc1a1 reallty, he ex-
cludea IIo consteLlstlon 1n soclal reallty as lnposslble or lnprqb_
ab1e. Äl1.he says 1s that he who wants to descrlbe and explaln
soc1al reallty would do better using certaln coBcepte aDd dlnen_
sion6 than others. It goes
'.1thout saylng that thls klnd öf ana_
lysls very often becoues norratlve. Work of thls klr1d ls l!.d.ls-
penaable, but at the beglnnlng, !'ot at the end of a eclentlflc
proc e I a.

[!.e ]-ast dlnenslon preauppoEes a cholce o! the fourth dlnen_

sloa ln favor of propoEltlons (or hSrpotheses, 1.e. u.nco!.f1rneal
 -ö-

propositl0!6). ProposltlonB can be presented related. to each other

by a relatlon of deiluc1bll1ty, whtcb. is tbe !gE@!g.!! fo::E, or aa
lsolated "flndlngs". Theory-fornatlon, or the lntegratlon of a set
of propoa:.t1o!6, 1g one of the laadnarks of a progresslng scleace.
It 16 an lndlspeüsable part of the conblnatlon of ladueilve anil
d.eductlve notles of reaso!'lug knofi!. as th€ bypothetlco-dealuctlve
[ethod, rhere the goal la a aet of proposittons (relatlng a set of
dlDenslol6 ) auch that al-l proposltlons, and only th.öse that catl be
derlveil fron thls s€t recelve a reaaonable deRree of confirratlo!.
At thls poiut one nlght perhap8 Eake aaother illstlnctlo! by
conblnlng tl{o of these dlüe!.slons, nos. J and 5. 0n th€ one hand
ls tbe typlcal lnducilonlst anong the aoclologlsts. He notk8 with
enplrXcaL data, and establishes, by painstaklng nork, lsolated
proposltlo!.a wlth a hlgh degree of conflroatlo!'. 0n the ottrer band
j-s the dealuctlonlst nho startg fron a theoretlaal perapectlve qnd
deduceE, rnore or less explicltly, more or 1e9s expllc1t and
testable propositlons. llowever, to do thlE he has to neke assuDp-
tlon6 anal lutroiluce d.j-!re!,s1ol1a that be has dlfflcultles in opsra-
t1onallzlng, aad the result 1s a 1ow degree, lf any at all, of
confllBatlou, fhe consequence 1s the ld611 bcowrx dlstiactlon betteea
relatlv€ly flst enplrlclsn on the one hand and abstract theorlzlng
oB tbe otber,

It rould be foolhardy to try to spell out all the po8slble

conbLnatlona la detail, aad to try to Dake a aweeplng characterl-
zatlon of latln Aloerlcan soclology by forclng lt lnto cnc c€ll ln a
typology of the klnd rde have presented,. Latla a---:'lcan Boclology
ls obvlousl-y 1n a tra!,sltlonaL phase l.1th a nuEber of t€ldeacles
crlss-crosslng each other ln an lntereBtlng ruy? For the outslder
fron the North, at elth€r slde of the Atlantlc, the eDphasls on
the study of sociologJr, the nornatlve nod.e of dlscours€, the !o!,-
eEplrlcal tendencles, the tendencles to be dlneuslonallst but also
to produce grand theory atand out - relatlve to vhat he 16 u6ed. to
- wlth so!!e renarkable exceotloas that tend to be non-theoretical
'rl
and hlghly descrlptlve:'One could. easlly denonstrate th18 by neart8
of couparatlv€ content analyals of North and Latln AuerlcaD' out-
put lu soclology, but lt ls hardly leceasary. It 16 nore lapor-
tant to pry lnto the factors coadltloulng 6oc1ology, alrd w€ ere
here thlaklüg of aoclo-cultural factoie. We sha1l dlvlde theo lnto
a

the polnt of vlev of the youoger geueration. Fol aone tlne thls
1e€,d6 to renelra1, bui then the proces€ 16 rEpeateil ulth a lew
perlod of atropby. the scarcity of chalrE nakes the tlne lIltervala
between tbe Jerks qul-ie long, and the lack of coatact (eee below)
the generatlonal conflict very brutal and absoLute. Everlrthlng
oLd ls deflned a€ wroDg e!.d the virtues of ,the nev are greatly
'exaggerated.. There develope a nyth both about the fut11e past
and
about the glorlous future - Just as Ln polltlcs i aDd the new
leadere al1g thelr owix grave by proolslng far icc,nuch.,rl
fhe degree of ascrlptloa attrlbuted here to the statua of the
typlcal latln-Aoerlcan lnteflectual ls a reflectlon of the general
level of aacrlptlveneas 1n the socletles ln the regloa. lhus the
lntellectual has reoarkable dlfflculties nlth !0atual rork. He
needs an offlce asslstant to carry books for h1n fron the l-lbrary,
end shat ls aore slgnlflcant: he has illfflcultles urxdertaklag 6uch
"nanual! Jobs as operatlng an IBM. sorter-counter, a calculatltlg
lirachlne or even a s11de-ru1e. Thls fgrces hln to buy asslstants,
whlch ls co€itly _ and often tlot ratlo|}al .anal reuoves hlu froo
close contac-t nt" data. Even quch 1jn!örtant clerlcal op€re-
"ttfr'
tlons as ätttag llx questlonüalres, levlsüxg then and codlng theDr
are ofte,n .deflned. as beneath h1€ dlg:xtrty.- fh1.r;. lnd.eed, ls also
the case l!. bther comers of the wor1d, but whea 1t hsppens to
soclologlsts who have gone through a perlod of actlve tralnlng and
colttact wlth ilata aad done ihe data processlng alxd. the data ana_
ly61s thenseLves it ls less dangerous !o the proce6s of lntegTatlng
theor:y wlth d,ata. It ls hardly necessery to say that tbere exletg
a sollil body of arguüeüta Justlfyl!.g this lack of contact, argu_
1ng the f,utlllty of enplrlcal researcb 1n genoral, and agalnst
"nathenatlcs'r 1n partlcular. Arguraent s of thls k1nd. are too
s'i{eeplng to have general va1ld1ty, anal serve to ilraw an extra
wedge between enplrlclste and theorlsts.

,Än lnportänt stde-effect of the ascrlbed nature of the status

of the 1ntel1ectua1 iles 1n tbe relatlons betffeen stud.ents and
professors. A professor has pasaed the r0aglc llae, he ls on the
otherc slde, and should have the parapherl1alla of soclat rank.
Uncentalnty, anxlety, lack of real crlteria leail to exceaslve uae
of crlterla extf1n61c to the fleld alEo when the stud.ente are
evaluatlng th€1r teachers: an enotrlrous erßpha8ls oa personal
qualltles, how ve1l does he ta1k, what klnd of tralnlng do€E
he have (candld3tea for fellolrship8 alnoBt lnvarlably refer to
where thelr grof€ssors ha\D beell tralÄEd), to what "schoolr'does
he belong, ho!. old ls he - alnost anythl!.g ercept rhat Boclology
do€s be teach. lhls ls the pattenx of expectatlona often dlrected
to the pTofessofs, aad aa oentloned. above,1t ls couplenentary to
shat the profeaaor ls tralned to expeet fron b,lEs€lf. If he aloeg
Bot keep htuself a€ close to the research froüt as posslblo h€
wlII have llttle else to off€r than extrlnElq crlterla and w111
try to uaxlDlze his achleveEent or. these - one of tben belng 1n
tello8 of rhetorlc. By the fact that he has hls chalr the patt€n
wlll be lns tltutlonall zod 1f 1t ras aot €o 14 advance ! the studEats
lear! that 1t pays and 1111 probably 1r01tate th6 behavlor. For
tbat reaaon thls klnd of professor ls often preferxed to the
real1y loronledgeable one flbo teaches theu Eoclology but nothbg
of the style of the professor ca8te.
lüother s1d6 effect caa be fouBd 1!. tbe reLatlor. the gtud€nts
heve to thelr exani"natlous. To a forelgx obaerver the 1eve1 of
anxlety prlor to au exa.nlnatlon 1a tbe reglon le abrost lncredible
- ualese tbls analysls 1! soclologlcal terls haa eoDe va1ldlty. lte
exalrlnatlon 16 rea1ly a traasltlon r1tual, 1t narks the transltlon
froD oae Btatug to the aext. Ee t{ho aucceeds totally, he gets a
status tb.at glves hi.!! cartain prlvll€ges 1n the genl-caste
Boolety - ard. h6 who fa116 loses all aeceas to these prlvlleges.
ltore lE at stake tban ln other cou!.trles rher€ tbe Etudelt hrora
he oa4 nake up for a falture by achleveüent later otr, that he ls
not so nuch earnarked for l1fe, In an acblevenent-orlentsd soclety
tbey bave alao recelved üore general tralnlng ltl belng evaluateil
14 havlng to prove theEselves for posslble gocla1 Eobillty than ln
a Eore tradltlonal culture. III the latter the dlplona cou[ts, llot
the lglowled.ge - aE vhen appllcaats refer to thelr d.lploEa a!1d. ere
astortshed when they are asked. to denonstrate th€tr browledge.
let u6 then look at 6orüe lEpllcatlons of thle eeBl-ca8te Eoclal
structure for the relatlorj. of tho soclologlst to h1s subject
Eatter, 1.e. soclety, lfuch has been sald about the dlfferences
betwee!. physlcal and soclal sclencea, and cne of these dlfferences
1s of partlcular relevance ln thls connectton. Coufronted r|lth the
elornous conplexlty of hwoan affalrs, wj.th the theoretlcally atrd.
 - ti- -

practlcally chall-enghg task of btowlng nore about the human con-

d1tlon the'soc1a1 bilentlst 1s at one great advantage relatlve
to the phystcal scientlst: he is hlnself part o.f that condltlou.,
both as partlclpant anii cilsbrver, he can dralr oir hls own experl-
erces; 11ke the geologi€t.he ca_a exanlne the layers of social
experle,nce sedlnented ip blg .oJ{nj 41nd. fhe physlcal scientlst
nay report on experlenpes !r1th the forces of gravlty when hs 1e
walkl]]g on a.sllppery road, but his owfl partlclpatlon ln plryslcal
reallty, or at least his abllity to report on h1s owrx body, 1s
neager relatlve to the total inslght 1n Nature revealed by
. physleal sclentists. Of nany soci.al scientlste 1t nay still be
sald tiat a co!.sl4erable part of thelr llterature 1s iaslde then
as experiences that for.n n r."e"volr for hJ.pothe s16-fornat lon,
rnar they get as much out of their data a6 they have ll3slde then_
selves, To rJly unlquely on t_tis woufd lead to a pre-sclentlflc
kllld of phenomenology obllvlous of the publlq nature of sclence
- to dlsca.rd this as a source of l4siqht will at teast Inply a
waste of resources, at worst theoreLical barrenaess.

fhe lmuedlate conclusion is that the richer the socl_a1 sxper_

1e!ce ol the soc1a1 sci€jntlst, the ?icher hi-6 lnsight potentlal,
both,an terss of hypoihe sl s-forllatlon and theory-fornation. Thls
k1!.d. of insight can hardly be obtained. vlcarlou€ly, by neans of
llterature, nolries, reading - for these sources give experlenceE
dlgested aad. noulded by other mlnäs; often in a stereotJ4)ed vay
that' nay lilur sobial: reaiitl,äaa. !äiiötuätö ;oc1a1 xoyths. slnce
" soclal erperienbe has tb do !i.1th depth ald width of socläi 1ntär_
actlon, a very relevant question is slnlLy: what 1s the inter_
actloü range covered by the connunity of sociaf eclentlsts?
Inaglne a Eodel of society trichotonized vextlcally 1!. hlgh,
r0ldd1e and low class, and hori zontally 1n priloary, secondary and
tertlary sectora of productlon. I4any other schenes could be sugges_
ted, but this oae spans the so;1a1 atructure sufflclently well
for our purpose. fhe declslon elite of the society 1s located. in
the tertlary, hlgh ce1l, highly influelced by prinary anal secon_
dary ellte. Acadenlc Man, ar0ong theü sociologists, are probably _
for ie dolnot have data on this for the 'region - to a constder_
able extent born by parents 1n the tertiary olddle classr,L ralsed
by theB, Barrled lnto other fallilles In the same ce1l, and then-
 !

l4 -

setves by defhltloB located 1! tbat sell. To tbe extert thl€ ls

trrre ssocial experleüce 16 ].lElted to the urban upper nlildle clasg
tertlary aector, and eveD !0aln1y to a aarro{ segnent of ihat
AeCXOTi l.E oEf sa!3li.8.uoE I hrvu llrltt bal
hcg€ lllit hard KaCI-
brd k! reclo.!. Bst
But th.
the röolal
loolaI dl|gae
dllta&t ela t
tban 1! ücrtholn ErroPcr
fhere are several qays of conpelsatlng for thls one-sldedness
1n 6oela1 experlence when exogany or social Eobl1lty relative to
onets pareats are less frequently used. lwo such s1n!1e EechanlaEs
extrenely well knovE to Ri.ropea4 and eve[ nuch Eore to North
4nerlcan students are travj lj"ng and slrmrqer-J obs ' often qosbllled.
Ihe soclal lsportance of traldlliag ln sII open eoclety vhere con-
tact 1s faqllltated by wlde dlsperslor of a fa1r1y u4lforn lillol!
and falrly unlforE soclal custo!0s can hardly be ex&ggerated. But
as 1s very vel1 loxolJ! r there ar€ ways of travel,lhg that protoct
the traveler agalnst Dew lupresslons €o efllclentfy that he br1ng6
the {ho1e gjlgg of hls soclal cel1 wlth h1r0, and o4l'y suffera a
certaln dlsplacenent ln space that perrlts h1!! to enjoy other
vlew6 and other klnds of food. The üore darlng and lnaglnatlve
klnd of traveD.lgr such as hltch-hlklng aod suEeex-caupE that

rynH!
Ii Bay be sat- ttrtt .tFe Ftaie of rreco-afry [oes not pernlt
the conpetltlon of experlelr.c e-hungry studonts 1u factorles'on
farns, ln offlces ln sun4er tlBet slüce thls would nean loss of
lobs lor workers who have no a1tematlve6. lr? shall not argue
agalnst that arguüent, but rather polnt out that 1t does not
explaln the üany casea where soclally aalventurous experlences are
not utlllzed. even tbough there woulil hal'e been no such iopllcat1o11
In faet, 'we have encountered nore l4ventlveness la explalai4g why
1t ls luposslble to galD r0ore soclal experlence tha4 1!. galnlug 1t
The consequencesof th16 pattem of u4der-lnteractlon l.lth
dlstant ce1ls ln the Batrlx are ma3y, arxd we shall polnt out three
 - t>-
of that to oui rnlnd are partlcularLy lnportant.
them

ILrst of all, as üentlonecl above,-lt deprlvee the soclo]"ogIst

of a source of lnslght that ls not equall.y delled to h16 colleague
1E certal4 other countrles. This nay reflect on
hypothesls_
folTatlon as .well as lnterpretatlou.
Ser6nd.ly, and ct osely
tled fn dt;;;iil --becau.ee_*o_r
a certaln
alleaatlorx froE other dectors of socletyrldeology frrs
a--i-or" oo_
constralned and free ilay.. preconcelüed 1deas, taken out
ot nore
or less codlfled ideoloä1ca1 orlentations, about how peopt-e are
1n
other.cells iit fhe soclal sLructure are noc sufflclently confronled.
and contrasted wlth dlrect lmpresslons of soc1a1 reallty. To
take
a sleple exa0cp-Le: the appllcatlons of a 61op1e proflt oode] as oo-
tlvatlon theory for othgrs. socrofogtsts uho woulci never thenserves
subscrlbe to the laea that the orify thing that notivated theü was
a destre to earn ooney feel no resLTaln1,s 1n percelving the caplta_
1let as gglg lnteaested 1n naxlnuü noney for.nlr0lnun wörk, or the
'itorkor as slnilarly üotivated. A. closer lcno1,{ledge of then would .,
lnvarlably reveal nua[ces, noxe Identlficatlon, üore.variatloa 1[
notives, but patterns of lnteractfon protect the soclologlst agalnst
thl s lojowledge. Hence a gteat inierest ln the allenatlon of lower.
_
classes: ulthout denylng the reallt,y of thls, a fac1,or oalDtalnlng
the lnage of working class alleuatlon ls the allenatlon of the
lniellechi.a] htrnself, fron his soclety ln general a.nd. 1nd€ed fron
the workins cfass,
Thlrdlt: lack of trainlng in casual, 1!fornal as.s6c la !1on. _IE-
pedes data collectlon. The rules of the caste soclety prescrlbe a
certaln tone of authorlty, nlxed wlth artlflclal ggggl@.I&, and
pat"rnJiiSrif-t'frun the lnte11ectual associates with lower class
Tespoy.cleEta. As aTgued elsevhe?e; -lbls-is cospaLlble rJ1th the typl-
cal lrtervlew survey of lorrör clsss citlzens - but not lr1th e1lte
lnvest1gat1on6, !.or fiith nore enpathic studles do1,'nwards 1a the
soclal structure. In our own experlenee the soclal clussliess and
a{kwqrdness 1n the data collectlon sltuatlo!. 1s a naJor factor when
soclologists often turn agalnst eflpirLcal methode, dell!.e ther0 as
lmpos6lb1e and unrefiable anil as not touchlng 'rvhat is reafly
lmport4ut ". f'hi s 1s uuderstandable; the task 1s conslderably nore
dlff1cu1t than 1n certaln other countrles where class antaqonlsios
a]td .sector dlfferenies have been loore hroken doltn 1it th€ process of
 -LO-

soclal development.

4, D1v161ot1s ln the lnte1lectua1 conüunltv'

So far ue have ireated the lntellectuale as lf they {ere a
unlfled who1e, aBd contrasted theü vlth the rest ot soclety' lhls'
of courae, fa1ls to take l!'to account the slgalftcart illvlslons of
th6 llxtellectual coüüunliy lnto schools' tradltlous' factlous of
all klndE. Sone of the nost lnportant illvlslole of the 6oc1a1
sclence conuunlty {ou1d be: accordlng to po1lt1cal lncllnatlon;
aatlonal vs. Cathollc unlversitlee; accordlng to Dethodology (eü-
plrlcal vs. non- ex0p1r1c a1 ) ; accordlng to place of trallllag {xurope'
üS, at hoEe); not to rRentlon accordltrg to the naDe ol the d18c1-
p11ne. The baslc questlo!. 1s ho\d such schools lelate to each other'
One can concelve ol the rlch flora of soclal sclence orlentatlons
tn latl4 Aroerlca as a reservoil ol llurallsnr where the frultful
l!.terp1ay betteen the schools nlght be beneflclal to all of them'
and to socla1 aclence 1n general, The problen 1s hon to &ake u€e
of th16 re s€rvolr.
As a polnt of departure for an analysls 1et us descrlbe t$o
extrene nodes of lnteractlon bet{een groups which ve can call the
confllct lode a4d tho contact x0ode reepectlvely. They can be seen
as zules 1n a gaue of lnteractLo4, and 14 the ldea1 cases the
grgups have to choose elther of the set ol rules I

h.r1esfor lnteractlon between groupg:

Coufllct nodel Cgltact Bodel
Relatlon to gene- No connon goa19, goals A lot of connon goals,
rel lnage of uutually exc1u61ve aad.goals that look
other group lutually excluslve
cau be red,efl!.e d..

fo help hln 1s to harn To help h1n 1s also

yctrrsoll. to help yoursel"f.
Zero-aun gaüe uodel No!. zero-sur c oope-
ratlon loodef
Ii{ethodologlcal the other group 1s use- Ihe other group ts
1üpllcatlon less for yourself; the usetul to yourself;
differences are so sreat preclsely because of
that there ls no neäd and the great dlfference 6
no u6e for a dlalogue he oay polnt out the
short-coaltrgs bx yout
own thlaklng.
 . ConfLlct üodel Contact Eodel
cdnta6t lnpllca- coataot, the other
'Avo1d. Seek contact, 1n
t1o!d gfpup does not deserve : 6p1te of dlfferenc ss
lt; they reprsdent:sooe- pronote the
you. naJr
- thlng so,laherently bad connon goa1s, serve
that they should DoL be to 1üprove each
rflb Ll rt 5!. oth€r and theroby
serve sone hlgher
value .
tüt
-fbeae two nodes of q-ontasf, are.rIell knowtr to eveay huraB be1Dg.
Iogether rylth a iblrd nodel-,, where one goes actlvely la for daoage
to the other grouptthey Elx h varlouo proportlotr8 and deflne the
atugsphere qt whlch hur0an lnteractlon takeE pla.ce. The confllct
Eodel Is partlcul-arly well hlown fron tbe ltrBtltutlon of po11tlcs,
nbere the perceptlorll_of the other group,aDd the poUcy Lt advo-
cates as <le trluentaf.ttSe general welfare ts baslc. Frbn thls, of
4
courae, lt does not follow loglca11y.that contact shouLd be avolded.
oae nlgb.t alao advocate coltact on the groulds that lt mlght lead
'to sone trl-nd ofcen erslon of the eneEy, or at le3st to btor h1o
better so aa to be better able to beat hlE. Avotdallce of coatact
föllows onljr, as a consequence, ln a culture ileflnlng lt as a
consequence. And thls seems to be an eleEent of the poiltlca1 cul-
tute la eany couttrlegi to have contact r.lth the antago!1st reveals
14ck of slacerlty, lack of seriouenese and bellef 1n onere own
convlctlona, and Eay even be lndlcattve of treacherous notlvatlonE.
At best lt ls hcoEpatlble wlth nalntenance of oners own lndlvldu-
al1ty, at wor!t lt ueans Eub[0tsslon,

. In the-1!6tltutlon oi Sclellce th16 kllld of. tbtBklag has e parti-

cu1ar. neihodologlcal consequence. It 1s easy to talk about the
sc1ey,t1flc requlrenent of "lntersubJectltlty" - that tbe val1dlty
of, proposltlo!.s and theorles shoul-al be conflrhealt br the wlilest.
. ])os.sib1e varlety of coropeteEt scleutlsts - ft ts J].or so eaay ro
1lstltutlona11ze. ln practlce 1t preauppoEee coqtact at all €tageB
1! a .research process, but partlcularf,y :1r. the coEeLudlng phase8,
$ltb other releear.chere - elther persöaal contact or lÄdlrect con-
tact, tb.rougli the nedllx! of 6nets njbllcatlorxs. Dlrect contact ls
preferable, because 1t Eay lead to a pre-publlcatlo! control, a
feed-back at s. atage ln the procese where there 1E stlL1 anple
tlne to nodlfy uethodE aDd hJryothesea. It ls trlvlal, that thls
klnd of coatact ls only valuable lf lt 18 not restricted to a aarrow
c1rc1e of B1!011ar1y tralned researchera, soclallzed lnto a coll€c_
tlvlty so as to afflrn and. reject ln unlaon, and ofteD. subdued by
aLeaon€ respect for the leader of the school,. It 1s the out8lde
crltlclsD that ls valuable - afthough at tlEes the dlalance nay
be so great that there are tgo few corunon references lor a dla-
logqe. thls condltloD, however, stande 1n a vlclous clrcle rela-
tloD' to lack ol cotltact, aad ca! only be broken by establlshllg
sone klnd of contact, dlrect or lndlrect (e,g. by provldlug
opportu.nltles for the two caEls to obtaln the sane klud of tralalag)
llo forelgn obaerv'er wlll fa11 to nötlce the scarclty of lnter-
school contact ln latll1 Anerlca, or the lnteaslty of the rlvalrlea
that q,re nade t[anlfest when elforts are nade to break up ürl8
d f 9!qi."T eqyL+_b_rirlT .bJ clga4l zin€ ccEilsn se$Jna.rs, " e : . 3 r
lericdicaLsr -lnstiiuticns"
v^ qenl-c lnoreedl"ng, The result is a kiirA cf aca_
ofteo a ._:nd cf feudal sysEeü uith.
t Ln€ leuoal told su.rroUnded by an inne.r c.Lrcle of yes_sayers.
_ and an outer circle cf chrcnic anO irs;iitcü-i-'
€ örlticlsal böcauee,.the ideology Äo-sayers,
preceiris 6""i."i'luiir. ili-1..
I criblcs. lhis pat|ern 1s partlcülarly dysfurction;l uhen .-.
o+Er1*.dJf,u]1slfoEEei? comEFned wftE the patte rn of ratld
Instltute-fonnatlon and spl-ltting up of ua1ver61t1e6 to acconaodate
for the dlscontlnutles ln change of scleDtlflc orlentatloD. Oae
gets an extrene nunber of unlveralt1e6, as 1n Colonbta, lunctlonlBg
as a horlzontal caBte systen. fhe uulverslty at whlch a young
person w111 study, 1f any at al-l, cal1 alnost be predlcted at blrth,
a graduate froo one of the un1\relsltles doe€ l1ot becorqe a profes8or
at one of the other unlverslt1es, and uost lüportalat1yr there are
very f€if polats of, acadeDlc coltact (such as regular Eenlnar6,
gueEt lectures, Butual quotatlon, etc.). The colEequence ln thl6
age of tecbdcal a6sl.stance 16 partlcularly depl,orable: lotowleilge
lnJected at one polrlt 1! thls acadenlc structure, by r0eana of a
hone-coElBg ?h.D. or vlsltlng profeEsor, does not spread autoua_
tlcally to the re8t of the structure (by, for lnstance, arra!.ghg
co&non aeulnars to exptolt fuUy the source of knowledge), but
ls contalled wltbln the va11s of otxe of these water_tlgbt coDpart_
nents. The systen fu!,stlolg nore as a systero of groups a! r.ar 16_
celvlng htelllgence they do not want the other party to obtaln,
than as an acadenlc connunlty devoted to thp pronotlon of h.ow_
ledge. Iu one foroulatlo! i the noode1 held to be adequate ID the
fle1d of polltlcs ls used tn the flelal of scleace.
Ihls fou0ulatlon probably also Leads one to sotqs aBssera to
the problen of the orlgin cf thls lray of crganlzlng the asadeulo
 -21 -
It is lnterestlng to conpare thls to the wldely dlffused.
nyth of Latln .Anerlca.Ir .1nd.lv1d.ual1en. fhe precl6e content of
th16 o]rth 1s dlff1cu1t to catch. lut one should rxot conf\rse a
pattern of lrholl er- thalr.- thou "-1sn, nhere secesglon, aeparatlon,
secluslon, c onpartneatail zatlon ar:e preferred to opeo exchange
of ldeas and contact, for lsutual beneflt, wlth lndlvldua1lsn.
One lnterpretatlolx of lüd.tvlduaL1sfi rould be to staüd. by onera
couvlctlons even 1tr a context of opposltlo!. -.but the pattem.
referred to here Is escape fron opposltlon lnto the safety and
purLty of one's own grou!, 0f course, s'clence also develops
by startlng nel' schools, by fresh starts la general - but the
etart 16 nct eEodgh, No researcher has sufflciErxt rlchness 1nslde
hlEeelf to do hl s Job a1o!1e : qglcoltlDlllllLe 4eellq_eloha4€e - ai

At tb.Lsj polnt lt Day be wor th whlle to spe1l out aoEe stnrc-

. tural:reqülsltes lor lnstltutloüallzlng change and excharxge la
- : the lnt'ellectual connunlty. It ls easy io say that ofle Leeds con-
tact bet!,een geleratlons and schools, äi" ttrrt ttu profegsor ahall
keep up to date and not Llnlt hfuoself to the perspectlve8 h€ coB_
qlelod tu hls early youth, But such chaugeB arä not brought about
by rooral1zlng, they nust be bul1t lnto the acadenlc stmcture, e.g.
by such requlrenents aa competltlon. for a chair every flve years,
or a conpulsory patterrr of exchange of professors (the latter 1s
facllltated betwee! natlcjns 1D Latln Aoerlca by Deaus .of the 1l1_
stututlons of polltlcal asylut. and,/or UnLted Natlons teeh!1cai
aaslstance prograxüa, both contrlbute to a clrculdtlol1 of
e1lie).
,, our ana1ysl6
klnds
ls brought, ou_t.nore clearly, boirever, by lndlca_
of po11öy 1np11-air"."-i;rr"i'ri-ääJes to the
:llg.tht:"
cr€re structure of acadcrolc 11fe. ?he i""*iptioo-iä tnat con-
le best in a nllleu of dt.vels1ty sctencä
pi"ruiiJi,-tii onry fr tne
dlverslty 1s nade use of- ""a
:

- Firstofofsoctology
achoots
all: the present structure of self_contalned
wittrln. the -iäy'iiarn,
r ii. tu aue
:roe,.a nuober of good soclologfsts,
"ni"urÄuut-irreJ-ü"Jää"
" too
rorn r.n their tralnlns. n more hexiüre-;y;;;; ;;;iä perElt un1_
student to_plcL gnd cüoose rrre curricuiui,;;;ä ;;ääiy, the
open !1ore for dlfferent perspectlte€.. unfiocrfiy-iä so as ro
cause even thc nost ou"f":r. gy.l:l:"i,ir, a""iä"a a
-ty-ii,u danger be_
De outdated qulckly 1f ore,1s^open to the rapld progress"täFi-rniir
f1e1d. Besldes: thö pre6e4t strrcture ln the
ao.s-oäi-giiä""oot,gh
opportunltles for qraduate€ rn otnär- rieiäsl'J*Bü 'i" pubrlc
oln1strarlon, rar,, -pubtlc rr""itn,--ä"o"äJiäJiti-ää.-ä ad_
iäää-i.äi"r"g
 a

1n soclology so that they carl functlon a6 adequate recelverg of

lrhat the soclologlst has to offer.
Secondly: the present stmcture of ln-breedlng ln the unl-
verslttee ls dangerous wlth students as lllth cattle. Ono
should provlde"sfor nuch lrore exchange by lnstltuthg subetltuta-
blllty of exaElnatloas, 1.e. graduatlag ln one school but vlth
uore posE1bll1ty of lncludlng courses fron differetrt unlversitles.
Thts, ln._turn, nould provlde brldge -head.s ior e pattern of
"exogalry", where the gradulte becoDes profeeaor Ln 6or0e other unl-
verslty than hls own. Ia thls way or1e could really dlaw upon tbe
plurallsn provlded by the present etructure, for mutual exchange
and fertll1zatlon.
flrlrdly: even wlth this pattern there }{ould probabty not
be enough exchange. People have to üeet under posltlve and func-
tionally relevant condltlons for exchange to take place, ReglonaL
lnstltutlous for postgraduate or postdoctorate trainlng osy be
useful here provlded they are rea11y good and the recnlltment
1s done or1 a reasonably s,.ioBetrlc basls, and provlded thls qoatact
potentlal 1s used later by brlnging then together agaln, for coE-
-Cerences atral conparatlve re6earch. l5J

5, lbe cqltural context.

Sofar re have trled to base our reasonlng ou what .l..e olght
call stmctural factors: the nature of the status of the 1nte1-
Lectual, the uodels lor relatlons between lutellectuals, and the
locatton of the lntellectual 1n the soclal context. We lord turtl
to a purely cultural pheao!0erxon, a certaln lutellectual style whlch
no doubt ls of paraDoult lEportance ln thls connectlon. It ls
often referred to as ttschol"astlclsu", "the to$i.et tradltlon'r,rrthe
Spanlsh heritage", "the Latln herltage", etc. lle shall lot uake
any effort to trace 1t back to hl-storlcal or1g1ns, but rather try
to uake nore expUclt the natule of thls cultural etbos as 1t
loplnges oa the lnaglnatlon of the sociofoglstand noulds hls vey
of thtnkllg and actlng as a reseaxcher' More partlcularly' we
should llke to diEregaril the connotatlon ol scholaatlciE!0 aud
tonlsn, partlcularLy 6lace the teadencle6, 1! our experlence'
are equally proaounced anong nore narxlEt orlented 8oc1o1og18ts'
A160, we woul-d. tlke to relterate that rre do aot pass any lirdgr0etltg
as to what 1s good and llhat 1E bad' but rather try to shed sone
11ght on certaln lnteresilng coEllectlons 1n the f1e1d of soclal
thought.
lntellectual actlvlty takes place according to certalu rtrles,
aa does the subtype, the sclentlflc actlvlty whlch la lntelleq-
tual actlvlty 1B a Eore systeoatlc foro. It {ou1d be ea6y to eay
 that the latin tradltlon 16 Dore di:ilüctlve, the North
.A,nerlcan
Aaexlca! and North Europea! uore l]1ductlve reflecttng,
Tespec_
t1vely, a baslcally more ldeationat and baslcally
nore sensate
orlentatlon, But thls
nuch nore enphaais i,l*'li""iji.lil fili'ii;"'1"':,il1r::i"":T:
r"
::i: il":T ;ff:",i"::":i":.H,:";;.::";::-;"';":":$:: ffi":;.
.r synbollc 1trork (concept_formatl on, }ypo the sls_fo rTatl
on, theory_
- ' ' fol.Iaatlol1) should be done prlor to the eBpirlcal work, More ln_
.. portant is a set of assunptlons ebout the relatlon
of the sJmbollc
to the emplrlcal.
Ihe genexaf probl6c0 can perhaps be sl,ated by breaklng the
sc1€,ntif1c process up ln certaln 6teps, atxd search for posltloa6
of reLevanc e in thls connecbion,
'. Inaglne a soclal sclentlst has bee! soclalized. llto a trad.i-
tlon that uakes hlno belleve the f^1 ^a't h- .
1

as to conceDt- 1, each concept such as rdexoocracyt, rsoclologyr,

forI!atlon 'stalus .has one anat only one reaf neal]lng
t{hlcb can be uncovered by traclnq the orlälns
of the word nnd constltuies the irue or räat
meanlng of thä.t word.
1l the word stands for a social lnstitutlon.
then rhe real Eeanlng stands for the eesencö
of that lnstltution (the necessary aJ1d suffi-
cle t col]ditlon for the existence of the
inetl tution )
each phenone.non, stlch as poverty, clas6
dl.fferences, social, üoblllty ean be descrlbed
in one and only one lray vhlch can be uncovered
by analjlsllg . the r.ords that üost accuratel-y
reflect jthe neaning of the phetlo!0enon.
lt ln flndlng these unlque neanlngs and unlqr:e
lypothese8 erqplrlcal I{orts r0Ey be of sons gul-
dance, but täe nala burdeu baa to be carried
by sJ.obolic work, especlally by searchlng for
the tr]re lnterpretatlon of the {ords that are
us e al.
as to theorv- each proposltion has oae and onlF one expla-
fo rna t 1on nation k'hlch 1s the t1]te explatxatlon of the
phenonenou, and lrbich ca.n be found by a
thorough understandlng of the essencä of the
pne4omenon,
a proposltlon alerlves aore couflroatloa fron
lts posltloa ln a theoretical fra.loevork tha!.
 !

-24-
fron soüe enplrlcal colncldenc e
7. a goa! of sclentlflc acttvlty ls the lnte-
lnto one pyraloldal
8r;tloB of hypothesesconslstency'
iheory lrlth i:ärlect and prefer-
ably ön1y cnÄ arloro. If that- axloü 1s fousd
the rest-ls a ProbleE of logic'
the general ldea can be expressed as folloüs: accordllg to thls
tradltloa, there 1E a lot of work that has to be done before any
enplrlcal hvestigatlon should be launched. Concepts have to be
deflned and hypothe6e6 have to be fomulated and iütegrated lnto
theorles. Sutthls 18 not essentlal' for nost staunch enplrlcistg
nould al€o agree to the lutrlns 1c value of a thorough synbollc
lob on al1 three l€vels, pfi.or io the enplrlcal lnvestlgatlon. what
ls easertlal ls the socla1 consequence of thls bellef: a cossta.ut
postponenent of the enplrlcaf {ork becauee the syübollc vork has
st111 not been conpleted - t111 the polnt where the confronta-
tion of theory wlth data becoloes uul!€cessary because the lntemal
coaslstency ls so conpelllng that ore fa1ls lnto the trap of
a pr1or1sm. of ratlona1lstr. tr,[hen confronted vlth data nevertheless
and with discrepancles between theory and data, there are three
1loes of defense that are frequently used:
l. the theory $as rlot lnte[ded to cover social reallty, but
an lEagined reality, $here the fuop11cat1ons of certaiu
assuroptlons have.been spelt out (idea1 case analysis, or
oaae-l.lnc anatys as l.
the theory rellects soc1a1 reality and the data not,
a. because the data-collecti.on 1{as not va1ld,
b. the data-collectlon wa6 va1ld, but dld not reflect
tflre soclal rea11ty,_.as ln the faoous anafyals of
"faf se consclougnesst'.
3y near6 of tbese technlque€, singly or conblaed, the g_El,glg
caa be defended. ad l]lf1nltu8.

To take arx exa.üple: tnaglne we are concer]aeal rlth such con_

cepts as 'rfreedon of declslont'or,'Sustlcert. These belong to the
set of big words, the rord.s that are useil to span the coord.l&ate
systen of our clvlllzatLon. We want to f14d out sonethlng about
then, e.g, by collectlng ca6es uhere the words have beea used.. If
now our assu!0ptlon ls that rdhat a lford has brought together ntll
also conceptuall-y hang togetherra great deal of üentai energy
wlll bave to be used 1n flndLng a cor!8on tlenonlnator 1r1 the count_
1es6 occurrencee of these tenüs, and define as rrwrone', the
 -)q-

occurrences that do not flt' A dlstlact approach vould dlspense

atld eean-
wlth the assil$ptlol of a one-one felatlon betwee! {olrd 1D tbelr
tng ana iather """rr.t thtt blg words also have blg lranges
and proceed by grouplng-togethei usa'ges of tbe
{ords that
usäqe- - _ . 1^l
seelo to be rer.lleo' '

Thls has a gleat deal to do wlth contenlorary soclal solence

ol] a reJec-
nethodology, the ühole läea of "indlcatolrrt ls based
tlon of theiassunptlo'n of unlqleness of neaniug of words or 6tate-
nent.a, and an acceptanee of the idea that aa attltude ean only'
1f st all' be rellably establlshed by neans of 8u1tlp1e questlons
''tapphg tbe sa.üe ulrd erlylüg diuenslon" .
. Another oxanpie: the tendeucy to see different theorles ag
lrutuaLf y exclusive. lo81ca11y only nutually contradl-atory tlreories
are Eutually excluslve; theorles that are not contradtrctory and
refer to the saüe set of phenonenä.c,an be sald to gupplement each
.other, to glve dlfferent perspeqtlves on the pheuouen€,, to accourlt
for one fractlon each of the varlauqe, etc, IJater a setatheoxy eay
be developed that lategrates the varlous theoriest.bü.-t,t_h€ae nil1
allrays be a questi.or of r.rhat to do ln the neantlne, in the short
mn, A consequence of the l'ay of thlnlf,lng portrayed. above is the
Tefusal to let. dlfferent theorles coexls.t nertallyi and. an lnsl-s-
teläe on a ctro:-ce.'One 1s either fer or agäiust a dlalectlc ex-
planation of the historlc process. in tems of eüerge!.ce 'and reso-
l-utlon of class antagonlsqs - one qannot bay: r,OK, that ls lnte-
- restlng, 1et us see how far thls carries us'r. EclectlclsB, here
deflned as the unlntegrated coex.isteac6 of ilifferent theorles
(hjBotheses, nxethods, perspectives, etc.) ls inconpatible wlth
the noaolltislo of thls l4tellectual sulture3/
A thlrd exa.uple: the concern wtth üaslc defilltlons prlor to
research. This does not refer to the concer.n any soelal sclentlst
would accept, of deflnlng the concepts that are particularly
central to hls work ln a reasouably preclbe vay (although lt oay
be argued that thls shou.ld happen para1le1 to the data_c ollec ti orx,
-pxocesslng ä_nd -analy6is, not prior to it). It 1s the.lnslsteuce
on illuntriatifg clearly such old borderlines as the one beiween
soclology and psychology, or betr.een soclology,a4d hlsior5.; or:'
clarifylng the dlstlniltlo!. betwesn huEaü belilgs a;d anlDat-s, the
su1 eeperls ndanlng of soclaf l4teraction, etc. All thls 1s wgxk
 _26-
that ca! be best und€retood as efforts to
start wlth the top of
the pyranld. and rorklng downwaxda. psychologlcally
gave a feellng of safety, of standlng 1t seens to
ou flru grola, e1El1ar to
r,hat the enplrlclst gets {hen he
feels hls dluenslons are well
operatlonallzed and h1s lnstmnents
vs.lld. But lt catr also be seea
as an expresalon of the ca
nunlty : by .erlnlns oou, :ff ;{:fi'"::'li:"'::ri:::til:t"1.::.-
" autonoüy _
of preteniled conpetence and that no psychologlst/
econoulst/anthropologlst ever enter herel
It ls a tlnd of trade
unlonlsa, llke when an electrlcian has to cail
a carpenter to do
sone rork oo the nall that he courd
Just as well have done hr.nself.
thls anounts to a self_sufflclency of the sylcbo11c !ror1d..
411
the soctal sclenttst of th16 kind neeals lever leave hls
llbrary
and hlE study. The euplr1ca1 world becones eplphenonenal and. the
synbolic wortd Teal, the crlterlon of tmth becoues cotxslstency
and not correspondencer the crlterlon of elce11ence beco'ea
fornal
eleganoe and !.ot well lntegrated. and eüp1rlcall-y conflr4ed pro_
po sltlons.

Concluslon.

fhe connectlolr betveeu the stmotural sltuatlon of the Latln

Aüerican lntell"ectua1 ln general and soc1o1og16t 1! partlcutar and
the tJrye of soclology that wlll d.evelop seeEs evident, perhaps too
evldent. Conpare the ease at llhlch the sociologlst can get data
about Boclology wlth the dlfflculty ln gettlng data about a ser0l-
caste soclety: the forner lle can flnd 1n hls llbrary, for the
latter he hae to cross al1 klnds of soclal bou!.darles at great
soclal cosi6 for hlnself and others,,In thls way tbe systelo of
eoc1a1 thought can becooe self-sufflc!.ent, lt can be brought to
fegd on ltself wlth occasto!.al lnputs on sone data, freque[tly
u46 uy eJ v ursr o.

It nay be obJected that the soclologlst coulal uEe hls oüfl

expexlence, {rlte a soclology of soclology or a soclology of
universlty 11fe or else of sonethlng where he already has soclal"
experlence, r,{hy this happene so rarely we do not kuow, but lt nay
be because of a partlcularly strong reslstance agalnst obJectl-
fylng sonethlrlg whlch ls a part of oaeself. lt is our experlence
that only very few soclol-oglsts ln the regio!. are able to glve a
 -I

- 2'7 -

soclo1og1ca1 analysis of a Situation where they thenselves axe

actors - they resort to personallzing' and to
pol1tical and eco-
gysten
nonlcal argunent€. the detached llay of looking at a social
dlstanee'
as a thing is nalnly-applie'l across conslderable soclal-
produqed ln the
as ln the d.e€criptions of other ethnlc groups
Andean republlcs; and of other soc1a1 stxata 1rI
the sore ladustrl-
allzec. natious. A slnple explan]atlon caII also be givea ln
terns
of the polarizatlon 1n sociaL interactlon' To "sociologlze'r uay
catl to the attention sone 'tunapplauded consequences" of soclal
-onets
structures' and to do thls to one of olEr group üay throw
doubt or1 'where one stands. 3ut to do lt to a dlstaut or artagonlst
group nay be soclallY corlect.

The norEatlve loode of soclal analyols, frequently encountered

ln tatj.n Aüerlca, ls condltiolled by the strong inpact of three
sourses of noinatlve th1nk14g: Church, Law and ldeology. In other
lntellectual cllnates the distlaotlon bet'ween r'1srr and 'rought'l
uay be used to serve the filnction of isolatlng the sclentlst frolo
hls soclal context, by outlawlng nomatlve dlscourse to the extent
that efforts to draif the pollcy lnplicatlons of oner€ flndlDgs are
fro{ned upon. Bui there 1s considereble d1€tal]ce betweeo thls and
an obliterät1on of the dlstlnction to the extent that deecrlptive
$ork ls not done and value-?ropo siti ons are presented as 1f they
satl6f1ed the eondltlons for veTlfied factual propositlous. The
dlstlnctlon be tveen de scriptlve/c o gnltlve and norroatlve/evaluatlve
has beeu. crucial ln the developnent of enplrlcal sclence and lf it
ls not lnculcated 1a the students from the beglnnlng the conae_
quence is that they fall back upon their reservolr of nomatlve
culture when lressed for stateüents about sonethlBg.
Ihe condltlons favorlng non-enpir1cal, sJ,rbo11c work have al_
ready been spelt out ln eone detail-: here soclal and cultural
coDdltlons coüblne anal produce a sltuation that ls not ea61ly
overcone. It 1s not only a questlon of lack of access to aoclety,
but also of seelng e!0plr1ca1 uatters l-ea6 relevant. Atd 1;hls tj.es
ln wlth the last two dlneaslons: {hen the polnt of gravlty 16
located in the sr,xbolic work the result ls alnost inevitably a
gEEg, vlth conslderable 1!ternal conslstency but so fev contacts
wlth data that the researcher 1s al!1ost only constralned by the
rules of his sJrnbollc ga.ne. The result Ls a kLn(l cf
verblage that üay be
 -28- !

in lLne with an Lntetlsctual traditLon but hald to opgratloltalLze

for the promotLon of gocLa1 change.

tbl,s potnt otte may retutn for a norEerli to the trro basLc
.A,t
factor€ Ln rhat re hav€ pr€sented as ,native theo4.r, t]le polltLca1
argumeni and the economlc argurnent. fe have baged orrr reasoltlDg
on
thlee lnore medl.at6 factorsl the lnteIl€ctual l.n hls socLa.L contert,
dl\.lslons Ln ths intellectual conmut|Lty and a celtal.n cultural con_
ts*t. llay lt not b€ saLd that they al]- three de.ive f-rottr a. certal.n
socr.o-eeono8Lc syndromg, c} aracteflzed as ndeveloping cou,lltrles r?
?hs rigid1ty of tbe socLa1 structule and lack of contact across
horlzontal and ve!.t1ca1 dl.startces does tlot apply to intellectual-s
alone but is a ilore €etlera]. characterlstic, and so is a8cfl.ption
as a aocto-cultural theme. The use of the confLLct model and the
steop gradients Ln peoplels wL1lLngn€ss to assoclate r'l,th other
peop].e are genera]. reflectiotrs of a hLgh-ly polafizgd socia]- sitn-
atLon with üonopoll.zation of power and lov mobllLty. And the cul-
tural pattern rr'lth i,tg anil-empl-rlclsE and strong rational-ism is
c].ose]-y rolatedb a general ldeology of stab11lty, an iLdeatlonalI
oriantatioD 1!1 Sorokitrr 3 se!.se.

Th6r€ a.re probab]-y not many socLologiats rrho Youj-d deny

the mass1re coEsLsteEcy Ltt the syndrome of traditional- 3ocigty.
IxsagreEmont t'ou].d be ov€r the dareciion of calsallty. I{e ktloir
of no eralde'lcc to xefute a taro-lay modelt modgrn socLety fosüers
dod€rn scl.encer and soderE sclenco tray h€lp create modern society' '
Deve].opn€Et reqttLres a sycbron:lz€d attack I'tl rnarry coxEers of tbe
social coüplex - atld se have I'ndLcated what to us loolts l+e wo1.th-
whl.Le polnts of attack in th6 lnstl'tutl'otl of Sotence'

tn concluslolt to break through thLs socLo_cultutal oo|trplex

ls not easy. Neverthe1€s6, Lt takos Place - Latln AmerLcan aoclology
l-s in a phase of r€lnarkab]'e trallsitLonr on lts r'ay between the two
extreme 1n our dl-sctrssLon. It t111 bo lntsrostlng to aee whether
lhe changB w111 be on].y l-n totlls of cultural style or alao in terBs
of llnl'tatton of the Nortb ot yr o! itl d€ve1opllg a socioLogt that
Ls rell1y adequate to study t]te treEeltdous and dyliad_c llcltrress of the
social fabric of Latl.n America. It l.or:ld be sad if the desire to
devclop ao[€thl'n8 dl.ffersnt fron that ts found l'n thc North 6hou1d
only laad to a parpetuation of mcta-tocl.o1ogy of tbo tslnd diacusred
It6ra and not to fresb lnventl.yeEoss In clttpirlcal. aoclology. tr.or tha
Latt,n-lmerlcan socLal sclontlst has oto adwa'lt ago that collaegu€s 1!1
most parts of thc rorld vl1l envy b$r ! bc har outrr-d6 hL! doorstopr
soc1.ttes so ir!d.na.1y rLch - he t! llke phy3LcLlt that ha6 the rhole
tenperature tant€ at this dtsposal. raletlva to r phyaiclat forcod to
york ln an int€rval of IOo. But llchncss ,.s Eot only ltt,tnulating,
l't ley also o'.€r'ub€l.a - and fle offer that aa a fl,llal crplanatlo!! atld
challang€.
 Tbi6 ya6 r.r,'tton trhl'l.€ the authoi ra! a UIaESCO profossgr at th€
aro_
1o!Of Profaa.or Peter gslntz for bl.6 aJ.rrayr stlEulatl,ng to
the eroallent studoDt s of, tbe thLrd pronotton 1962/69 fot '.nalghts,
llany good
dlaouall.orrt of the subJect.,aDd to Dr. Ddlrmdo fue!.a.ll.da of tb.i : -
trlÄCSO, a,Ed, t EJaDlr! EopeDbayn of th. CEPAL for kestl orttl.ct EE and
lu€t6süion9. I a|' also gratoftrl tö tlre dany rool,al lcl,entlsts r'l.th
t hoü I havo at ok.! - but lobody no|ttlor.d he.e rhould l,rt a.uy .eE s be
held rgaponaLblg for the r.l,er,r glvon. 1160, lt abould bo pobtod out
täat thL! L. not t ttt6ndod aa a faotucl de€crl'ptloa gf th€ rrarl.ety of
latl,n .ADarlaaa aocial scl€rlc€ today, but as ar aa.lysLa urLlg tlt
n1doal typo i teohlrLqu€. t{hat 1s dl'9cusrsd 1r a special Lnt€llsoüual
cttle th.t d.tht be terü6d rtradLtlonal i. ?hl.a rtyl. pc$eate! Irüln
IDetl'can rgolal aclence, but l.! Dot ldontl,cal vlth Ltr- l-t olily hEr
to be utlderltood tg rrndorstand r!or9 fully the dlf,ftoulties tlrat aflls
t! übl.! Lnrittonal p€.Lod.
1) TtrL!, of courle, L. no üfallLble crlt6rl,on. (tr tho oontraryt
übete aro pa+tettra of dafgronce Ln doienca in to!ror61 a.ad 6ocl,ology
in Darttoular, aa ov€r5rrhere ette. Sittce üe do' not have Ln ourr hÄtd!
the otj,terl. of tosr.rot. (lf re had, toDorrror rould have bee! Ln ou.
harrdo ) re aball lot forcsvga! a claate Le the tLde, frcr! goutb to :.
North. The rEa.ons t hy thLr sgeDe! mlLkEty stll' bo 6po1t out ]-atEr,
2) I pernaal of LatlaJrnet"Lca.n loclol,ogLca1 output ru€tegt tb9t tbe
porcontagg of r€f6r9nces thtt ar6 refetetrcEs to Nortlr-.ADet{.can and
Wortb-&rtgp.an socl.olotlrts 1s U-lhaped. Therc t6 a teDdeDoy for s|r
auüäor s!,th9r to vor.L r.DlLds a La€1.a früerork or Is out6lde i,t. Ahg
flrlt o.t6 aay Ltrolude oooasLonal rofor€nce. to [or.th-.ADörlcan socl,o-
log{aüt of undlstruto4 roputatlonr ofüsrl bocause of soie vorbal slEl,-
larity bgtrre! a torid uaed by tbe autbor aad a tc'tt u6ed by tlre a.ut-
har quotod. Ahe lecotd. ca€e of uu1tu.ra1 brLdgolrgadB vhoee -lla.üe of re..
fsrenca Lr out aLdo üh€lr place of rerld€ncs. Owet tlbo, rtth cuttural
alalDt latLott, tha curve t.l.Il. of cotrtae bocoE€ increasLtrgl'y .A-shaped.
lnt€rgfatl!8 IstlnJuerloan t.Lth No!'th-l|'rerioan sqciolo gyl
g ) Interllatl'otal' loöIiJtta Ll.te oüü.er. !öll,otaorr .üehd.üorafd.,ar:&-
€guittbrat*,"j" fle qoutrtqr 3bt har urch jof_ ocEro .aoarcö-.gt od teD{s-..to .
bsro -r$rdb of.,o3har,€oods too. Ther€ a.e bany rgaso!. for tbl,., th€ aLo_
pl'edt otre-bq1ng tb6 f\ütctLonal roltt1on betroetr tna afnenalonä. Tfrua,
tEoduottvtty, techrd.cal blroak-thrbu8hr and relatLve gLze of, the ooouj
]'atl,otr of acr,6Etlrt. rr.tl bo cloa.ly r€Iat6d. Thue, 3 * of the Cirp tn
UEA [per capl'ta Ltcoh€ above I SOOO ) ls lpo|lt on research and.
!.ol'!ont - the correspondlnt flguro! for fndl.a are O.2 * anaf t devo_ ZO.
9ut.plbfnq i. euüoüatLc t there can bo produotlrd.ty of natu$t'
rltD?"I
::1:"!1.1:tbe Soel9t _Ty reat opetrLEg Ln eürrll.Lcal eocial aotence (the
oa.e .of Ualo! ) or bLgh prioductlvlty wtthott .i,.Bvütwgdcac
ltlll,tatl'onr. Tlre oountr*es nbst produc:lwe Ln trod.on socLaJ- scienc€
lüte IrA, porüap! Cdra:la, Ärgentl,tra, the four ltotdl,c couJrtt:t e6'. grttafn.
!:rriroe, Nstlgrlatrda, CerDany, Eola.Ed, IDdLa.and luatraua) arä a fow
eroep-ül,on! aDong. the- rl.ct'er corürtrl,or End (rlth poland ai th6 gnly
Ito..lDle_.raple aU equtl'pod r.l,th institutLonallzod
poutJ oa!. Earket.) It rnight bo iÄtergctl.n8 to €tudtr rhyt lur:au.su ln thg
soDe courrtr:le!
1l_:o1?-lll""-r9r'Ld bracket, o.e. tustr"l.a, Iceratld; Sv-ltzerland, per_
lraPt uanaca, Eclg{.lnn alld lf6v ZealaJra, Italy, Irelarid, Iio6ary aid
USSF !de1d !o littte tn ltorteryr sool,oi.ogy, but 6aere-ts- Uaraty
:ly-:ltfr^: co@on_forüula. Itt aone oaaes the slz€ of the oountlr oäy
Da 1[aufflci€ht (Ic6land], lD.,ot]rer case! 6et*a.|! d.gletl.on of th€.
g:alR+
gttlarl tlr ."t"9f-of soLontr,at. due to peroecutlon atrd arderatioE (Au_
rtill othgr cea€a olo ltr.ag of tl:g sooteüy hEaü con_
pet,.tlo! tl.üh 6r+stlD€ erplalatLolg of ths atmotu;sand-üoo artd fu.EotLon of
 e
!aoL6ty, The [o!t LnPortEnt excePüion at the otlrsr snd of tlre 6oalo,
,.:eii IndLa' ha! probably to do tlth tho 6iEe, plurallrm atld or:L99-
orosr t aDd B!'ttl8h {trtLtdclan.
l+) I a.u tnaouted to PEter Heintz for thls observatl,on.
5\ lutntz tlarüoaln starte his rerrlev nsoclology ln cubat (!!g!g
qln p!€a;nt
Soclologlcat Revterv. 1963, P'.. 624-628) rf{r. ltre ro?ds
aE-dE;; EocT;]-o-cy in ttro vestertr aenao of th€ ltor]'d ls t'apidly dLa-
appeardngn alrd cortclud€a oa1rln8 tTbe hat.d fact for tbe Eorlent ia
tnat ttre odds ate vory much atalnst aoct'ology et the Cuba.n un1we!-
sitLe.tr leferrLng to the Ünl-vot sLty Refor|i Plan of 1962. The Lü-
pfeeslon i.s conflrlo€d by the pressnt autlror vho has had occaslon üo
€ot soEo LDpressLon8 at war{.oüe stag€6 of t}re Cuban revolutj'on (196Ot
i96z; ana 1t63). ahe goneral irqrr€56l,on 1a a Prlorl,sE and getrerdl
taok of 6othodolo8;r.
6) Or frou tlre re81oE its61f. The oxPaial'on ls enorbous, tr'atly be-
oau€€ ner. facultlor and dePar"tdents ln social aclettce ar€ crgated
tc-tht nor. Thus r lt ls rsporüed that th€ nurdber of studsnts of (196tsocl'a:
sct ettoe in Brazla inclsasod by over ltoo porcont tn the l95ors
Report on the ttor1d Soclal sltuationt unlt€d NatLon6 r llert York ' p.
@ dLs€quirtbtiuo that rlrll result frob
ttti s owerproducti.on relatLve to the production of Jobs $-iU be att
:lnportant Bouroe of 6ocl.al' ut8est ln y€ats to cobe. quantityt ewen
qrriu.ty le not enoughi sclentl-Bts have to flrnctLon Ln an adequato
roc1el 6ettLng:.
7) zetterborg, Harrsi nReviev or dtr"r, 1958'
Boskofft ry;*lg9lgEl93l
pp. 95.f. "The g.@gE&,
Tireorr ln coptr.nutv and chärra€" AsR'
@las!/'car ttadltl'ons In coololotiyt.
B) lbfd. t p. 91, The propl sl-tt'onall- 6t s ar€ caL]-ed 'üodol-Lotsn by
Z€ttorborg.
9) for an 1Dter65tl'ng accoutrü of this 6ee Yood' B; end lla€16y'-C' t
iihe 6ocl-a1 ScLences ! Paroohlal or Cogdopo]'1tan? n tr@ll, Deoerlber
f991 , pp. 4l-45' 66peqla111y for the aia1ys13 of hot-th€ aool'olotl'
aeieio-päa lae been äaaptea to the loca1 sltuatt'on' rtlth r:loh anthro-
potogy fn th.e atrdean lepuplLcs and socl'ology of develoltllgnt furthgr
!outh.
10) Tbl. s tradl-tlolt ,.s ospeclally nranLfest anöng the othDo].ogtltt atrd
etiDograplrerr at tlro coutttt{'ea {'ith a }rLgh Prcport1olt of indl.tetrou!
popJitl"n, and taDong lhe soclaa plarrtlo!! of the rcro Lndusttj'Ell'zed
äorrttttf.u. ltre ttero€ndous irnpact of tho rrN cotElrl.ssl'on on LatLn l!o-for
!'l.oa; the ECLA r h.6 ptobably been ben€flcial ln tetrdls of tespect
d.ata but posalü1y aläo har:lful ,'n telor of cultlvatllg at tLttos a '-
kLnd'of bare-foot €bpIrlcLlu.
11) for eoE6 {ndicatt onc, oontLde" tables ln the-A9pondLx of Gsltung'
Joian I T€orfa v Motodos de la Invlt (forthooliLng, ' Ths
tablea G;- bas€d on a contliT-Ealyel e of a nruber of recent laauea
of 6ocla1 scl,enco Jorutl416 llt North AEett ca' Latin At'rg!:lca and
Du.rope;
'f2) see, for lnstance; the Itticlo by Boslsr R.L.! nsocia1 Stratlfi-
o"ifon ir. LatLn Arerical, lner:icatr Jounal of socLolg€v, 1953t pp'
J274J9. Both for Peru arrd Brazll are nEoEe lntell€ctual'E" pracoo
in tfre vsry hLgh€gt strstut! t rrith the porter oll'te'
f3) tAt ths saDe t,.D6; tb€ aclrco1s hawe b6en alsool.atod v'l'th aa ovor-
€ratrha616 on foroal qual.lfiotLons at a:.l' 19vo13 of edlttroYtieDt r fot€n
ffi#*ffi
l*ilfr
llr) Nobody
'HH#ä$#f#N'i*,'qffi$"i{
fll.tl deny the
1- rorces tu" "q"r""oiäil
and 2. forces
at the tide' ao that
trre acaaenrc
t'nportance
iä-i'to
of ettreBely-lot'- salarlesll'st
;;-;;";"otr""
""*i
his trtä-täü"ä"r"toputtt.t"
:"
Jobst
tlilloritv
oft€n three or f,our
tto
-concontratlont
devoroP ol"L€lnal ldeas
tbät
'
rro

prorong:ed stroücb of ä-"iäiittJ üuoh Eore

"tt"
tlroush rear "o,,tt"t """to"]*itiii-l""tr "" "cia3g-3'ian' rlove' ta and
ür.an bls North-Adertcan ""t-Il"pä"tctlts r"."I"1:
"
ll-*l:
' dovn 04 his leisqlre til[e' But
fr.om Jobe and Doetlngs. rrtl'" "fi'o Ytonder' Is-the achigletlent row
agal,n the sociolo8i.st o"äia"t-t"v too :readily conver"ted lnto the
Irecause ' tho pay is lour recel"vea
status syübo].s "*" "o""utpäia-1" """iä'irt"-i"v-irtä r'rgl. rank äcademlc msnof,
'iiä-r'r r'rsh the
;;-ä;;;;tlüB dl'ploma? raik absorbe-too muoh
:l-ncose 1n order to ft"" t.1p-lo "tttfüea atatus arrd ].eaved too l-Lttle
for t} e tool"s of acllievearelti 1 then tbat trank ls Pofhapa too higb?
Xtt ths traDlltlonal" state {,,ta toaty ln 4ost ofthat Latln An€r{ca there
a.!e oth6r costst accordl'ng to ou? observatlole t a!'e ltoro inpof';
tatrt ühan eon€y a.lr.d t,.üe ;h€n lt cortre8 to gyatgm expla1nLn€; lthy LEtellectu-
a1s often arE poorly l!rfo!.!!6d. Iea€ibg a $hore tl..e asclptl-on
ttrodel sas coüplotely walId. Ilt 6uch a systen to tead booke or.Jour-'
nalg after exaltdnatlons t'ou]-d be lot only l-rrelevant but evon Dega-
tl-wet tt rtould be a sign of llrlrer trealnesa t of 1ack of ttugü Llr tne
legttlnacy of ollels posLtl.on. ?o study ttould bs a regresElon to the
pre-dl.plona phase. Arrd even more irnportantly, ,,t 1nPlies dgfl ance a
o3 tlre sydt€|r, an utrderld,nlng of orte I s ot.tt po6Ltl.on ggl!-gÄg-p€t9l4
of onets co1l6agues. Tb.us, an e],Em€nt of dl'sloyalty flould enüer" and
tl.e LnlLacto. of the trorl! li'ould Elrtlclpate saictlons that would deter
hj.!t to the ext€nt the system vag lnternalized. Thrs, rde voutd pre-
dLct a tendoncy to do" the readLng, l.f at allr ln eecret or ab?oad;
and presonü oneaelf +er a nev rite de passaag, not in ths htlnill-
atlng gtualent phas6.
Plnally, there 1s the tremendous cost jnwolwe<l ,.n takin8 6pa!e tl.'|e
gtudLeg, aLnce it means faoily tlue. That the qompronl.ee p"Gt fr|
€uch status confllcts i.a roore to the Fael.ly end tha.n Ln üho Nofth
need6 no further etaboratlon-
t5) Theee fadous and ratolent osc1l].atiotts of th6 pettdululr d.eEcrLblng
genera]. scLentlflc orilontatlon. are accentuat6d by the clroimgtqnce
that_ L!,ütn Am€r:icar l.n ge[eral; ls not 1ocatod al the research front.
Xnt€llectuals retutnl_hg from €xcursLona abroad, to Eutope anal to the
US oan te1l gt ange tal.e8 about the nost recent vatlre Ln soclolog,y Ln
Berkeley or London +rd may turn the pend;ltrrn because they
lat: coDeutrlcate
catr "" a relatlvely röon plete sohool of thought j The ne?
w"ill^be resl sted by l. tlro€e nlro hawe tllorougibty undcrstood. the old.
ancr z. those rrho are too old to chang€ orlentatLorl. If the forrrer
_

are fei' ln llrurbera and the nerr preteEders fof cu1trrlra1 d.oInLtratt.ce do
trot have to invettt rduch ühe&selves but:can import l"t (oarfy a9 U"ot",
part1y as teclrnlLcal aseltance ) the old tradl,tion has
since vet!. felr deriwed real gratLflcation l:roür Lt .Bütllti].; ahatlce
thi6 malces
 ;f'.':."3ü"i:':* ff1."H:T *tr"::": rntetrlectuar process .urd ,oo,e
- -16)_ Ecr.A -a

docurnents r6DeE refer to

. nrtban them as belng predorrrnantly
"raar" .i*J"'"]"satedJ'y

di:ffii:.*#fi: :"':T';Tä:: ä:t ;#r"";:it,:L::",* u,,, vers,-

i+ffi structure
Hffi tr#+3;ä i;t+:ff i:F+ H;*##":rid:. i"ii
19.) The of the unI^verslty
"_
systeB as one of ti1e
";;.;r;t':iili;'
nra-ny factors
:F:#l$;i"ilr:i'.F :il:}".:-:ä:*".F"ffiH;;d:"
:I^Jg::fh. P:l;D"pd,
Dce "sclentiflc
vho has afso.maa. '',",- fri""i"i.i
productt!_t ty and Acadenic. contributions,
century lledlcLnen
o*;.; I ji, -.*:
(ASR. 19
;;+ - ;23\ 3f f ;?13
ör;di;;ä;"
);"*:;:"Tl +H:Ji
-*
in t{ineteenth
"un'
ffi _?B:, +1.
:

Hä- :"1,j::::i;, j,i:

?l soclolosy,
i::::11 I's
i;
1962, pp, 45_8t). A i"i" ii,äi"- "i:f the
ili;i::_
ratter
af'tLcle the rnporiance är "r
t"i*".rr--üiv""st tr,cs lr:ithin
a ouftuTal sphere, rdl|-lch is used ""opetrtion
to explain the gr'olr'th of cefillan
aqlence (p. ozr. One should probably eltphasLre here that high number
of universlties Ls not onou€tl; for 1. they have tqFee each ot?rer as
oompetl-tors, not aa es-sentlally different (like te;hniou&r and a dL_
rrlldty s,jhool ) and 2, they lrawe to b6 f,atriy equäG' size so that
competitl,on l.s lieanLngful. In a hl.ghly cotrtrallzed cou-ntry like
France, where lntellectual lif€ is doEinated by one udverg:lty, sclen-
tlflc atrgphy may colre ealller thal1 ln a federal countrl' ( Germany,
USd, US*) wli1 fa:ir1y equal slze of the un:iwcrsLti€s gESl a patte&
of nobillty bbttreon t}eir. Ma?raLanobls, lr a recent paper at ttre 12
Argvash Conference at Udalpur', Inalia January 1964 stresses the Lmpor-
|ät!ce of a rprofesEional orgiardzation of scientlfto wofi<ers I^{th a1-
mdst urEestrlcted froedorü of mowement rr whl'ch is found 1n UsA and USSR.
In t1le colonlal countri€s ' that are typtcali dotrdnalted by one biB ca-
pital at tl.e ocean side and equipped with €n exploited interior thl-s
Ls nuch drore dIffloult. Thrs r accordl-ng to this foraqula tl.'e most opti-
ol.stic predl.ction of sclentLfic growth in l,stin Amerj-ca ttould l'efor
BrasLl, u1ess some of the Spa!ü-sh speakLng republi-cs enter some kind
of aoaäen{c unlon to prorrtdä a sufficient l'tlt market for talent and mobl'-
firy -ana cobpetltion. One blg unlverslty be satl'sfted l.ith
päulrftrg on old knowledge but lf iit has to compete for its atr pl'estiSe
i-t *ifI fa"ttu tro L[vent '
gomething oew, For t]E sanle reasön insti-
i,,tä-o" department ought probabiy to have
"i;-;;";;";-";;phv. at least ftLl Drofessors'
vdth rotatlng crrairmanstrrpl from lacr' of {onrpeti-
;i;; iB;;:;;ä;, isdz, Ers', p. ?4.menttone this ror the usA)j
j'ntroduced by Professor Afne
20) ?he tradl.tl-otr of etrtpl.rl-cal seEantics
ä*!r-*i trr" univetsity or otr" r1t" done ploEeer{n8 r'r'ork ln lds field'
i3 a close connectj'on bettreen a pblloso-
Z1) Or, rrore 1n detail, thereno19 rotte
s6rd - ono meanin€tr atrdpidlosphv pheno-
f)hv of sclence trrat stresse6 a polLtical
;:'i";'-";;-;;nr*"ti".; o" tr" ot^" hand and rrongr-onels ol/n party
tllat emphar!,ze that the "ir"""".y ls totally
aonopolires lrtrat is r{tht- ;;;;ä"; ai-e rmrtualy eicluslwe like pollti-
ä;";;;;;; oi..".o"t.ito"";- i;-;"" to be one-or.the otherj or' i'lrth
l-äriäiti-"]"i""io"i trt "" t! di""lr"t uttru cult.,ral dLstance betseen the po-
or mentlon argulrents oontra vllat
fitican lrho ls unl,:tlling "i urralilLl-ng to disollss altetta-
}:e has sug{estea ana a sc1ln;tst \dho l's onthtt ls the }Jeäk pollrt ln your
lrlve tlco*!65. si'nprt qlrtsiiottt litt
theory?rr (to t} e scientlst) o. trwhat is the weak polnt In your pro-
(to the polltl,clan) are good tests of ability to to1orate an-
gra.r]?^t
blva{nce, to see scientlflc t}reories 1ike polltlcal progralls as some-
thing that 1s belnB creatöd, not born comp1ete. And fron the coe*l-
st€nce of argument s for or ag:alBat a theory or a proglam {trside a
persob to agsociation q,-lth persons rd-lth other oplnaons the dlstance
l-s also, probably, sma.I1.
Ju.st as ne hawe ar'gued Irhat a style of lnteraction. ldhLch ve hawe
called the confll.ct model. doDdnates in l-Lectual life ::. Laüin Arlefl-
ca one tnay speculate drether the contact style r kraorün fttoa ldeal-1zed
sclentific i4teiactlon, cou]-d doEitrate politica]- life; But that $ou1d
belong to an analysis of polltica] styles.