f}IE TTSW

T$fER}IAtIOIfAI }fitrTTARY OR}XR -

rjf$ A.EAT THREAT TO HUHA}I SECURIEY

$n_Essay on Olobal Armaaent. Structural

H l ,l i i a rl su a n d A l ter natlve Secur lty

Jan /berg

Department of $oclo lo g y
lepartnent of P ea c e a n d Co n f lic t Re s e a rc h
IJni'rerslty of lund , S we d e n
thair in Conflict a n d ? e a c e Re s e a rc h
tiniversity of 0s1o
P .0. B ox lo?o, 0s1o 5 , No rwa y
f r l n th e Z o ti n ce n tu ry the nilitar y, diplomatic,
e c o rro mi c a n d p ro p a g a nCa aspects of war have
u n d e rg o n e a tra n sfo rn ation. Host states fr om
fear of w a r h a ve te n deu to lngr ease ar maments,
t o su b j e ct th e i r ro i e io moffi.
o r g a n i ze th e i r n a ti o n al econom y anci cpinion in
t h e i n te re st o f e ff l eient war wl- iir out r eaiizlng
t h a t th e i r e ffo rts d ecr eased their secur it:r
tt

Qu i n cy H ri g h t, A S tudy of W ar ( 1964) ,itaLics added,

tfftre nechanism that peace is based on should be

built i n to th e stru ctur e and be pr esent ther e
as a re se rvo l r fo r tbe systenn itself to dr aw
u p on , j u st a s th e h e althy body has the
a b i li ty to g e n e ra te its own antibooi- es and
d o e s n o t n e e d a d h o c adm inistr ation of
m e d i ci n e . l {o re p & rtl cular l- y, str uciir r es inust
b e found that renove t n e c a u $ e s o ; - wa rs a n c
o ffer alternat:-ves to wa r in s lt u a t rio n s wn e re
w a rs ml e h t o ccu r.rl
Jo h a n Ga l tu n g , P e ace, W ar and Defence ( fgZe)

I'In politics there are o n iy t wo o e c is iv e p o we rs ,

the organisec force o f t h e State, t h e A rmy , a n , f ,
tlie unorganised, eiene n t a l f o rc e o i t h e p o p u la r
n &s ses. ll

Fre o e ri ck S n g e i s, fhe Role of For ce in iiistor y ( igeg)

Co n te n ts

I n i ro cu ctl cn 1

S&e New Intersati.qngi Si"iitaiXlQrder (SIMO) 4

I Olobaiiaat-l- oIt 1o
1. Center arnenent Srnanlcs 1L
2 . A rn e tn a de to the per ipher y L1
5 , P e rl p h e rai ar &s pr oductlon \2
i i " $ u cl e a r technology l2
5. A West-Buropean n1l1tary-1nduetr1al
co mp l e x I3
6 " An Atlantlc Defenc e Flarket t5

II l ra n sn e ti o n sl iaaii$n 14
7 . Arns capi-tai i.nt egrati on 14
8. Arms proj ect nanragement 15
'l q
9. Researcli, deveiopaent and plaaning
1o. &rsanent econosoice 15
iL" Arass j.nterest lntegration J.O

III i{iiitari s;s t7

.|
1 2 . C i vl i -n i i itar y isomor pbien L(
?,

(f) o ro wtb 1o
(2 ) Ge ntr allzation 7o
(f) S xc ess of &eans tt
(+ ) te chnolor y 92
(i ) C l a ssee aq

(6 ) S p aee 41
(?) riae 43
(a ) Eplstenologr 44
 ( g ) l{an-man relati- one 45
(fo ) Man-Nature relatlone 45
(11) I{rUo and lfrE0 47
(fa ) In fl e xi bie r esponse And e r ieis 48

L 7 . Mi l i ta ry monopoly 5t
L 4 . S o cl a l v-u lner ab111ty 57
L 5 . In se cu ri ty 51

Alterlrative S
Consl"derati,one 54

1. S e e u ri ty a s a basi.e hum n need 54

2. A l te rn a ti ve d,efence etr ategie s 59
? P e a ce fu L society ald conetr uctive
d.ef enee 74

$ o t a rs a n d re fe re n ce s 84
 l n tro d u cti o n

W o r l d n i l i ta ry e xp e n d i tur es passed fl L bn a day in l- 977t

r e a c h i n g / 4 o o b n a ye ar which is appr oxlnately / >o m r i an
hour and. roughly f, too for each human belng on Xarth. Thj-s
w a s t h e p ri ce o f w h a t i s usually te:r ued secur i.ty.
Th l e p ri ce l n cre a sed 3o tir nes in r eal ter m s thr oughou t
t h l s ce n tu ry. H o w e ve r, the 2oth centur y 1s pr obably the m os t
w a r - r l dd e n of ail 1 n Wester n hlstor y; at least Loo nil- l1on
h u r n a n b e i n g s l o st th e i r l1ves in war on aver age 15oo & c i ay .
O n i y sl n e e 1 9 4 5 th e re have been 12o war s all over ttr e wor i d,
prlnarily l n th re p e rl p h er y of the globa1 system ( l) .
I n th e n a n e o f se cur ity, ar m aneni spr eads its br anches
h o r i z o n ta l l y to e ve r mor e nations and peoples at ih same ti ne
& s i t te n d s to ro o t i tself ever m or e deeply into soclai
f o r m a ti o n s cre a trn g new ones, m aintaining other s while
d e s t r o yi n g sti 1 l o th e rs.
A l th o u g h vi rtu a l l y lnpossible to gr asp in its etr lking
a b s u r dl ty, w e sh a 1 l try to appr oach the pheno&ena r elated. to
t h e s e d e ve l o p me n ts w i th ln a conceptual fr anewsr k of a
N e w I nte rn a tl o n a ] l 'Ii l i ta r y 0r o.er ( NIM O) . Galning m om$tium as
lt l s a E a re su l t o f socalled legitiaate secur ity neede of
 2

a l l - n a t i o n s, i t re p re se n ts pr obabl- y the lar gest single tir r ea t

t o h u n a n se cu rl ty a n d th e sur vival of m ankind. To counter -
e c t i t effe ctl ve l y i s a c ivil- izational chall"enge or :ily compa r abl e
1 n s c o p e a n d d e p th w i tb thar of er eating a r r u1y equitabl- e
N e w I n t e rn a ti o n a l 0 rd e r rneeting ihe needs of ti:e str uctur aiJ,y
u n d e r d e ve l o p e d ma j o ri ty of peoples. And as sG sir ,r ngly
e m p h a s l ze d b y th e N o n -a l 1 igned Nations the establishing of
a N e w l nte rn a ti o n a i E co n omic Or der ( W ffC) wiii noi stani &
e h a n c e un L e ss th e a rma n e nt tr ends ar e effectiveiy r ever sed.
f h l s e ssa y (2 ) a tte mpts, fir st anc. for emosi. to give the
c o n c e p t ,o f th e _ N IMO a re asonably pr eeise content ewalr fr cn
t h e s t a tu s o f a me re sl o gan. In thj- s r espect it is cr nsicier ec i
e s p e c i a l .l y re l e va n t to re late the r fhar dwar er r deveiopmer r ts
w i t h t h o se o f so ci a l a n d econom ic d.r ivlng for ceg and conse-
q u e n c e s , i .€ . th e tra n sn a tlonal- lzation of ar ns pr ociuction and
t h e n i l l t ari sn w h i ch i s a phenom enonat the 1evel of socr al
etructure. fh i e 1 s n o t too often done within peaee r esear ch,
n o t t o me n ti o n th e d e l i b e rate exclusicn of such. factor s t- n
lnternatlonal d l sa rn a me n t negotiations whicir , m or e of ten tha n
n o t , f o cu s a t symp to ms the ar ns - not their r &atsor i cf etr e.
i { o we v€ r, th e re i s n o endeavour on the par t oi i::e wr iter
r ; o d e i l v er a d e ci si ve o r concluding coneept of r he lr liitO w e
a r e m u ch & o re a t th e e xp lor ator ly stage hopefuir ;; stinulatlng
i n e r e r e se a rch a s w e l l a s a dialogue about counter neasur es"
S e co n d l y, th e re i s the id.ea that the concep' r o_! n- Li:' iLr i r y r
e a n b e u se fu l tr-y e e p l o ye d not only as a cescr i- ptive concepi,
' n u t a s a n a n a l -yti ca i to o l r d:ich denanCs a r eLiance up on
^oar tly
a l r e a d y e xi sti -n g th e o ri e s of nilitar ism, par ily an upc.eting
a n c i r e n e n ra l . If so r tb .e re is a possibility that nllitar ism
e a n s e r v6 a s a b rl d g e h e a d to a deeper under standl4g of the
v e r y i n po rta n t w a ys i n w hich social anC milltar y str uciu- r es
i n t e r a c t.
T h i rd l y,th e e ssa y aims at pointing out tbe need fcr a
d i s c u s s l o n o f p e a ce fi .r.l s!r uctur es, constr "r ctivE _llef ence and
human securi"tg. The ratlonale behinci th.is is that if it is
 3-

t r u e t h a t d l re ct vi o " l -e nce and ar m asent as one ofl ets' tooie

g r o w o u t , 6 0 to sp e a k, of str uctur al viol- ence , tJr e quesr i ons
c o u l d h e a sl e d r Wh a t w ouio be the imaginabie and possibie
c h a r a cte ri sti cs o f n u ch iess vioient str uctur es? Po u' hlch
d e g r e e w o u l d a l te rn a tl ve social for r oations h"a.,,rae kr no cf
built-in d e fe n si ve ca p acity or fir u:er str engthr q to whicb.
c i . e g r eew o u i d th e Y e n p l o y non- m llitar jr means of defence. Woul d
t h e y me e t th e l e g i ti ma te secur ity neeCs of human beings at
ali?
fh i e laet p a rt,
e ven nor e tl?an the for r aer , w1l1 be
t e n i a t ive , e xp l cra to ry. It will aiso 1r - r eecii- ate1;r
be clear to
t n e r e a d e r th a t th e re i s ver y 1itt1e attention !aa,: to the
q u e s t i on cf stra te g i e s - how to nove fr on tne pr esent ar m ar nent
t r e n d s to r*a rd s a n a l te rnative. this together with m uch
m o r e el a b o ra ti o n o n w h at is found on the foLl- owing pages -
s h o u l d b e th e o b j e e t o f much mor e r esear ch, oiscussion and
e x p e r i me n ta tl o n .
 4

lh e New In t e rn a t io n a l

M l l itary 0 rd e r (Uf uO)

T a b l e 1 o n th e n e xt p a g e outlines the New Inter nationai

Mllttary 0 rd e r a s co n ce l ved of in this essay; ii; has tnr ee
m a l n d l n e n si o n s n a ki n g u p buildi.ng biocks each of vhich
h a s a n un b e r o f e l e me n ts an< i sub- elem ents.
T h e re a so n s fo r p l e a ding this r ather br cao nodei
w h i c h t o so me ma y n o t e ven r epr esent toc m uch inaer cohe-
r e n c e - n a y b e i l l u stra te d by aski- ng counter questions: W hat
1 s t h e r e su l -t o f stu ci yi n g only builoing biock I the
a r m s s y ste ms th e mse l ve s?
W e w o u l d p re su me th at 1t wouid enci up in a ster j- ie
a r n a m e n t stu d y co ve rl n g only empir ically obvious m amr festa-
t i o n s o f tre n d s, sto ckp i l i ng data without m ucn tir eor etlcal
g r o u n d l n g o r a rg u me n t a n d leavlng us with littIe, 1f any,
u n d e r s t an d i n g o g th e co mplex cir ivi:r g for ces nail"itar y as
w e l l a s cl vi l . It w o u l d also be a highly unfor tunate om m is-
s i o n o f a l l d i scu ssi o n s of stm ctur al violence. Fina1ly,
i ' b w o u l d l e a d to th e mo st typiea3- tr sr m^scontr olil pr oposals
l s o i a t e d a n d fo cu ssl n g u pon synptons aa is the case with so
m u c h o f th e i n te rn a ti o n a l disar m ament negotiations.
 5-

table 1 T h e N e w In te rn atlonal M iii"tar y Or tier ( NLilCi

D i n e n sl o n s E l euEnts Fccus

I
OIOBAIIZATION 1 . C enter ar m ament ar ms
poIlt 1co- t. Arms trade
7 Peripheral- arnc produetl on lf arus
n i l i ta ry N uclear technology rl
4, control
q
West-European FItrC
6 . A tlantie defence nar ket

II
TRANSNATIO- 7. A rns capital lntegr atlon arms
NAtrIZATION 8. A rms pr oject nanagement pr odue tl on
9. R&D and plarming
e c on o mi c 1o. tfconYe rsiont
A rm ament econonics
11. A rm s i.nter est inteqr atlon

III
MITITARISM 12. C 'r vj- 1- niiitar y is onor phisn sociaL and
L1. Militar y nonopoly nilr tar y
s o c i o l o g l ca l 14. S ocial vulner abiliff str uctu r es
15. fn eecur ity rfs oc ial
tr ansfo r -
nati ons rf
 o

H owever, weapons syste n s do not d e s c e n d f ro u the sky;

the ar e part and parcei of c o n f , lic t f o rn a t io n e u s o c ia l snd
eco n o n ic etruetures anci fu n c ' lio n s in t : -me a n d s p s . c e . f h u s ,
stu d yin g both block* I and" , i wo u ld " lmp ro v e the p ie t u re
co n stde r a bly as block iI c o r. rt a ir: s t ire e ie me n ' , s h a v rn g to do
wlth nilitary-economlc aric " li-v i-i-e c o n o n ic c iriv irrg f o rc e s .
Jisp e cla lly the elements 1o a n d ii c o u id s e rv e a s p o s s ib le
ga tewa ys to relating civil a n d n ilit a ry d . y n a mic s , e.g. wi-t h in
th e fr am ework of tire a:-l-rta ry -: -rrd u s t rla l- c o mp ie x t a e o riz in g
a s we lL &s the marxi-st-orien t e o c o : rc e p t u a llz a t ic n o f a rn a me n t
a s a syetemic necessity of c a p il, a iis n .
But there ls st11l the ri-s k that s * c } : . c o n s ra e ra t r-c ris
w ou ld l 1mit themselves to a lmo s t e x c iu s iv e ly t h e n iilt a ry
tsp h e r e t and oniy 1nc1uc.e s t ru c t u ra l f e a t u re s f ro n t h e c iv j-l
f sp h e r e r to the anountr tha t s u c h r. s e rv e t o e x p la ln f f in p u is rl

to ar m a ment anc. arns produc t io n .

Il og lcaily, therefore, wlt h in t liis Eype cf re a s o n ln €
p r o p o sa ls are lixeJ-y to colf , e o u i e n p h a s rz l-n 6 ; : ; e c o n t ro i of
a r m s p r o duction, nationailza t io n of e n t e rp ris e s , b u le a u e la t lc -
l eg isla ti ve neasures, regj-s t ra t io n oj a rms t ra n s a c iio n s , the
er e cti on of new naraonai an o s u p ra -n e ij-i: n a i c o n t ro i b o d ie s
n :r d - m ore recer:.il-y, with & f u iu re -o rie n ie d . \ ra e w & n e mp h a s i s
u p cn the possibiliiies of c o n v e rs lo n , J. e. c n a n g in g f ro n
n ilitar y to socraiiy useful p ro c iu c t io n "
N one of ihese, howeve r, a . re iik e ly to r, t v e a n y n a J o r
r n fl ue n ce upon soci-ety at ia rg e . A n c l t n is * : , : : ' E c is e l, rr tLe
p r o b le n : If 1t 1s correct ' b h a t a rma n e n t a n d e v e ry t h in g tnat
g o e s wlth it in the iao<ier n wo rld h a s a c q u ire o a s u b s t a n t ia l
i nfl ue n ce upon societiee and, at the s a & e t in e , is the ' rp ro c i u c t ' r
of th e l nteraction of eerta ln c h a ra c t e ris t lc s of these s o c le -
tie s - how should we ever llo p e f o r a c h a rrg e t o wa rd rr i)e a c e a nd
disa r n a m ent if the need for d e e p s iiu c t u ra l- t ra n s f o rn a t a o n s
is syste maticali;.r ignored?
Thus, the third block : -s a n o c e s t attenpt to c o me t o
gr ip s wlth the interaction of c rv il a rrd r: n ilit a ry t s p h e re s ' at
a de e p e r and emplricaily le s s -t ra n s p a ra n t 1 e v e l.
 :t cDuici ir,.: il;..i..:rt.a:-iei 1;hrrc i$e geneiai tirinking vsitliin
th is biock i"s ,.rtrtsuiar. , i, u , )' * o n s : ic le ie t io n s f r* n i: t h e r f ra ra e -
wo r ks. Thus , & . number ,lf . ; l a b a i- -L r; $ u e s e " g . p o p u la t i o n
g r O w th, r:.nejr:ploynejlij, : r ' " ic a il-o i" l, ] -n t u s : ; ria i-i z & r, 1 } -t L s h e a 1 t b , ,
h a b itat, f ood are r-r" ' rr€ a -s in g iy d is c u a s e t ' : .a h , . , . .o: b l e ; rs
ar isin g ou.t of soLj ii--e. ; ; n l: ii ; ; : u c t u r€ s . . r-i-rrci: iia i o -f c v er *
t/un.,:er*a',/eiop n e n t
de ve i CIpmen or : : e n i e t / p e rip n e : ; r"
Hci; ti.s r e*st ;;-i-: : : r. li; r; * t -l b : i' i, riil in c rt r. ; in g ta :ti ;' patt-c:1
CIf r i rdicaL thj. r'a i{cr-: a s c n : 1 a : s , " u ilr: re s e e iris ic b e c p iin r s -
ti c to appeii.: n,i. nu,a . , e n in g u r: c e rs t u rrc ir-5 of! 4 e " le L c f o r
stn r cturaf- cha;:ge! and rio t o n ly iu ric ; t - o r. a l r* , lr: f lc a t io n s a:rd
ad a p tatlons iha.t fiinc t j. o n s i re a e i: e s 1 : , r* , { is ii; d . ir* re a i " o ,
tr a n sferring S estern :ec lu rc ic g r'
c r= c c rr* . in , ; rr5 ' c e : 1 t re r: a t ion
eco n cni.c g::*w1-A w.n:*h ; : h c : : . ' i; -; -a ie r F : , ric x ie d o wn r! wiil- n o
l-onger Co tire t,,'!ci ia r' : rs s sat sfy -oasic
hun an maierial
-
a n d non-mate::lar iieeC i; o f * , h e n a u iie s . I n s t e a , C o ' rv h a t i s n e e d e d
is tr ansfornaticn of ori o rc e rs e c o ro ra ic , p o iit ic a ' . ,
soclal aJici cul-turai ma;r tur"n $L.:-r w;lL cone ab out
- wl:rci:, ii
only 1n ihe ;nr,'r1*it"twhen more and more peri pne::i-, ;:k-ttcris
eu b a r k uporr se-r.;'-::elian e e , i i. s s o c ia t i o ; : iio : , ii: e : : - c r. wo r i c
a n a '- Jrrter lrer,siiorizt,nttl- b iiit c -o : i' " c ; , --: a ii! ' -t -t i-e s.
-[n t.&]"s if gh*; i;, :iL'ii:. ..-"-*:r--.,-t!-'.
;ec;ria.r t"L.a; rn.-a;+i-
f a ci::;; fi" e gio-ra i p:c'i,- c r: le ra -, e a ' ic a : f la f f e n is a j: a riJ -* ; a r ! z a -
ticn sucii':r'a,',r"joig;:,'t,ron ; o i; -' ^ d e r" iy ln g s t ru c s ; : * s l. rt r: e i d c u
d iscu gsei ci;en no1, e 1 r€ n : -n t h e e y n f a r le s s < : --' . . c ; --t ; t p r o p o s e d
irr the j-nterna';i onr;:- .f,ara. Plany ctherwlse e,ii:eli *;i't a:-raiys es
go tl ie p:"ecemea-I wey J -n p } , y ir: g t . n a t we c a n g e t :1C ci a rms
1. e " the tosis ot' a-rsc t -. " . : ; . 1 -* n c e- wit iio u r ; e r' , -n d : ' ic i o f
( <r r s ube:tantj-al]y reduc i: € ) s t : u c t u ra l v io L e i-ic e * n ic h causes
so nuch - but not all of the a rn a me n t s " ilo w c o q re t h a t
su ch analyses s*st ofte n re f ra in f ro m a r; . ; u j-n g c ie a d -J r That
to d iearm, the worLd s ils ii- n e e a t ru ly n e iv : : . a t io n a l a : iil- j-n* ; e r -
r :,ati onal- orde:san*. t"hat g u c ii o rd e : s s h o u lc i b e b a s e i on certain
cr ]- te fj.e of pe& ce fuines s a n d , -u n u s , re q u c e s u b s i' ; a it ia i: -y t r e
ne e ct for armanents s.nc" n : rit e ry Ce f e n c e me a s iire s .
 i5

1o . A rmament econoni-cg

' Ihis ele m ent is based on the 1c.ea - o r ra t h e r e x p e rie n c e

t ha t m or e and roore security a l, c d e f e n c e g e c ls io n s a re t a k e n
on th e ba si-s of econonic con s id e ra t io n s a n d ie s s a n e ' le , * * on
actua l se curlty anallrses.
Systen cost expJ-osions, s t a n d a rd iz a t lo n , s a v in g of
t axpa ye r st money, combatting u n e n p lo y n e n t , a c q u irin g t ire n e we st
t echn o lo g y, off-settj-ng balarrc e -o f -p a y ro e n t p ro b ie ms , c iv il-
sp in - o ff effects, regi-ona'i d e v e io p n e n t p o t e n t ia l ana the
survival of indivioual companies are all- argunents exenpl:-fying
the m en tl oned trend.
It ls & ore oftet heard. t h s t d is a rn a n e n t p ro p o s a is a re
turned down on such econt>mic grounds than on reaeon:.ng 1n
t em s of an encangereti seeu rL t y p o s lt lo n .
Thls nay pornt to soioe s 3 rs t e mic n e e d f o r a rma me n t and
n ot o n ly atl ar& ament need of the s J rs t e a ; it s h o u lc l s t j-n u la t e
the d e ve lo paent and renewal of tne n a rx is r t n e o riz in g about
t he r ole of arn& ments within the c a p it a lis t s y s t e m. llo we v e r,
e u ch r e a o oning shoulC be strip p e d of it s d . o g n a t ls m a n d b e
r ncr e or ie n ted towards a::. und e rs t a r: d in g o f t h e c h il. ra . c le . i: , rf
er a a m e r r t processes inan is f ro s t often the cese. It
e ro u -ld r t r1
l ;h e i,t c&se , aiso be stri-pi:ed o : ' r-t s : : a n J , rc o i^ rila d . ' 'a t o rg a s s e r-
t j- o n s, e.g. as to tne basic ir; ; ic t lo i' ^ of a ra a . a e n t in the eco-
no m y a $ well as of the weak n e s s e s in n e re n t in nuch of the
un d e r c on surnptlon argument (f : ) .

L 1 . A rn s i n t e re s t l r:tegr ati on

T h e r e i s a ri ch va ri e ty o f theor iee concer ning ar ln&m r :na

r fc o m p l e x e a rt; th e ma i n i n te rest s seem, howevetr , to be uhe
Mliitary, th e In ci u stri a l i sts, r he Sur eaucr ats anc ttr e Scien-
ti s t s ( U l l S ). X a ch o f th e m ha,s a substantiai lnter est in ar -
m a m e n t v e rsu s d j .sa rma me n t anq they belong to the catego:.r ; of
il t o p d o g s t t 1 n n o st so ci a i for m ations. As such tney possess the
potentlal f o r mo n o p o i i -zi n g secur ity poiici es as weil as ihe
d e v e l o p m en t, p ro d u ctl o n a n o use of the &eeJls of deetr uetion
(rq).
 L7

III i l l L i ta ri sn

t h e c a tch w o rd o r- tb l e bu;iding block of ihe NIM O is the

c h a n gi n g so cl o l o g r o g ar m anentl we shali her e attenpi to
t a k e th e ra th e r p ro b l e r natic step fr on tbe ar &s and th.eir pr o-
d u c t l on d o w n to th e ve qf basic clvil- and militar y etnr ctur es
a n d t h e i r l n te ra ctl o n . W hile the two fom er blocks pr j- oari l y
r e p r e se n t re a so n a b l y visibi- e phenom ena, this one attenpts to
o u t l l n e fe a tu re s o f a rmament whieh ar e m uch less tr anspar e nt
t h e s tru ctu ra l rrro o tsrr.

12. Civil-sl1]1tary is o mo ro h is n

Ihe basic icea behind th is c o n c e p t rla liz a t io n of n illra rr. s in

1s that of isomorphisn b e t we e n c lv il a n d miiit a ry s p h e re e of
Bo cie ty - an ldea expou n < l. e d b y s o o : -f f e re n t writ e rs a s Nj - s b e t ,
G altun6, S enghaas, K ald o r, I iie b k a e e h t , 3 n g e 1 s a n d A b ra h a m e -
so n ( i5 ).
W e shall, in vrhrat f o llo ws , t ry to p e n e t ra t e t h is id e a
in n uch nore details tb a rr t h e a b o v e p o lrrt s . I s o mo rp h is n sug-
g e sts a fund.anentai, co n t in u o u s c o rre s p o n d a r, c e b e t v e e n t ne
two tfspheresfr of soclety. I n p ri. n c ip le , t h e n o t io n a p p i ie s
- o o th to the natlonal and t h e ln t e rn a t io n a l le v e i o f a n a iy s j , s .
Thus r w€ assume a b a s rc c o rre s p o n d a n c e b e t we e n s o c ia l ,
eco n onrc and political s t ru c t u re s on the one hand anc the
wa y i n r*ri-ch the soclety o e f e n d s it s e lf . S o me ib ln g lih e :
fr Te ll & e which kind of s o c ie t y y o u a re , a n d I s a a li t e ll- you
th e general outiine, Bt le a s t , about your n iiila ry a p p a ra tu s
an d the character of tb e s o c la ] f o rc e s wh ic h p ro mo t e y o u r
on g o lng tr
arlnament,l it s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t wo s p h e re s re f le c t
e a ch other, that there is a s t ru c t u ra l e in ila rlt y b e t we e n
socia l f ornation and nilit a ry f o X ma t lo n o r, t o s t a y wit irin
the base, between mo<ies o f p ro d u c t io n a n d mo o e s o f g e s t ru c t l o - n . "
 L8

In th ls way we attempt to a v o ld s p e a k in g o f e i$ e . re
mi litar y a nd civtl rfseetorfi - wh ie h o n ly s ig n if y (o f t e n in
s t atlstLce and. pol1tlcal anal y s is ) the re s u li af the s o c ia i-
f o rces be h inO armame]lt and not t h r. e s o c ia -i f o rc e s t h e n s e l-v e s "
the ter m 'ts ectorrf also gives the f a ls e in rp re s s io n thei it is
p o ssi ble to draw a clear-cut lin e b e t we e n wira t j-s c lv i] a ; rd
w hat is nil1tary. The point a b o u t n g lg f g t ' is t h , a t t h ls iiiu s io n
ls br o ke n d.own lndlcatlng that the s a me in t e re s t s often
e r e a ctl ve in both eivil and mj-iit a ry a c t iv it ie s in . e h a n g in s
a l l ian ce g and with different c a p s o r, s o t o s p e a k .
it also indicates the in t e n t io n h e re t o s p e a k o ji s t ru c :
t u ra] ca u e atj.on lnstead of rn e re ly re iy in g upon a fe.ctor a n a iy s is.
this 1s i n harmony wlth the fact lJ r, a t ib e re is n o c le a r
boundary b etween enplrically d ls t in g u is h a b le s e c t o rs , but ra t h e r
a m u L tl tu d e of systens anci ac t lo n e re la t in g in c o n s t a n t ry
varying ways to each other - in correspondanice w:-th the changes
t a k l ng p la e e 1n the social fo rma t io n oi s o c ie t y at ia rg e .
It na y be arguecl here, h e we v e l, 'that a -t h o lg n t re re ex:st
q ur te a n u mber of sociai forrra t io n s o r n a t io n a l o rc e rs
a nd diffe r e n t socio-polj-t j-ca i s y s t s n s , we f in d a ra ii: e r h rg h
degree of sinilarity a^ nong nillt a ry s y s t e ms a ^ n Ca rn ia , re rir
t r end e a I1 over tbe worid.
Sir st of all, this may b e o n ly s e e n in g l-v s o . A rn e o io rc e s
in a pe r lp h erai, capi tal1st a n d . s t ru e t u ra iiy " in a e rc . e v e l-o p e d
n atio n d o not automatieaij-y re s e mb le ih o s e o i' a n o v e : d e v e -, , ; : p e ii
c en ter n a tl on - nelther co th e y s e rv e the s a & e f i. in c t io n s . ;t
m ay w el- ] be sor oi'r. tne conira ry , thaf t ir€ r€ j-s a t wo -wa y
p r oce ss g o ing on, ieaoing to the ln c re a s i-rrg is o mo rp h is n ma n -
ti oned .
One ttre one hand. there is the case wh.ere the civii sphere
h a ve the upper hand. and i-s 1 n t h e p ro c e s s of t ra n s f o r$ rn g e rid
a da p ti ng the miJ-i-tary €.9. if t h e re is a n e if e c t iv e p a riia -
n en tar y control anci a" Low-po iit ic lz e d miiit a ry s p h e re or
w he r e th e wparty is in cornm a n d . n
 i9

0n the other hand, o n e n a y ima g in e the c & s e wh e re ;,Iie

nilitar y sphere nay hav e a e q u ire d the u p ; ; e r h a n $ a : ra a t t e n pt s
to tr ansforn and aciapt ih e re s t of s o c ie t ; ' . * a s & s . y -b t t h e
e a se i-n some n1-l ltary r e r: a e s , 1 n n a t io n s ' " ra t i? a rn e d f o rc es of
th e new, socalled rrnew p ro f e s s ig n a 1 is s if rr * ri e ; c t , . + n d e rlc iv j, *
actl on progra& s or wher e e x t e rn a l f o . rc e s , ; i, -. " ' i, i; f , ; hro i, rf i c ' ; i a t s
i nter vention or inteiligenc e o p e ra t lo n s , sdcceed 1 . r-rirs t a ii-1n g
a 1 o 3 ra1 reglme beneficial tc s t lc ll e x t e rn a l- : n t e : : " * s t i; ,
In these cases, ra illt a rls m wiri n$i i: n ; l; - ; h e s * i: ro e o c i , r *
m i1 ltary profile; nilitarie ia wi-|i v a r; a rij: o : r: Cin g r? s c i: -ia : -
&rrmatiorr " _gneci-fie circumstanic es. h:s';oFl' anu
"lS-g-gilrt
o ve r a ll devel"opment.
The force at piay - wh ic h s h o u ld . o e : -in it e ly not b e ig -
no r e d . ia, of corrrse, that center n a t i-o n s (c r rn * e re e t s ] oey
ha ve a const& nt i-nterst in in f l' : re n c : . rq g p e rrl. l: e : a r $ o c ' : e t ies
fo r their own purposes. Thus, the t ra n e f e r of t e c h n o io g y -
cj "vj "i as weLl as roilltary - wili h s . ' re s u b s t a n t : a i effects upon
socie il structure. 0n1y 1 n t l: is s e n s e wo u lo it b e & e a n in g f ui
to si:eak of a glohal mliit a ry r& o n o -c u it u re ' .

Depending on the stage of Ce v e L o p me n t a n d ih e o * u r; c il

fa c to rs ment r,oneC, :soiio rp iiis n will- Y a ry - iii s o ile . : ; e-a i
se ttin gs it nay be sirong e r than o t h e rs ei r . p a r: ; : . c l: : a r pc i r . t
cl' tj .ae, this does not in v a il< ia t e the b a s -c ; i: / p o -r, h e s is t h at
isca ir rphis{t l4grease ov e r t in e - a s a r' e f i-e c t , o n e n a y a il d , ,
of n ilitarization of the c iv il s p b e re a rrd c iv liia n iz , a t ir: * , cf,
tne c ivil sphere. The p o in t is ih a t a ir n a t io n " s , a . L i s c c ia i .
fo r m ti ons eelr ns1 have p ro c e e c e q e q u a l. i-y f a r 1 n t h l-s p l' oc e s s ,
Th o se havlng a high aegre e is o n o rp a is m
of a re lik e i3 r ?o
-i
tr y to lnfluence those a t ' a lo we l e v e l.
Finally, it deserve s n e n t io n that the e o n c e p t u a lia a t : -or i
d o e s lg! 1mp1y identlt;r , b u t , a s me n t io n e < i, s in lla rit y , aff 1-
nity, mutual reflection. lh is is the re & s o li t h a t t h e re i-s n o
acih er ence to e. g. a ttg a rris on s t a t e t t n o d . e i n e re (f 0 ; . ? n e
lo e a shouid heip us to u n o e rs t a n d . wt q v B s o c ie t y ru a y b e n : - l i -
tar istlc a]-thougn it is not e x p e rie n c e d t h a i wa ; r h ; ' ; , 3 . -.
ci tize ns. Militarlsm, e s p e c ia iiy j-n l{ e s t e rn d e m* c ra c . L . 3 so c i o e s
no t exhibit itself throu g ir 1 a rg e n ilrt a ry p a ra c ie s , m: il* , a r i e -
 22

e v o l v e d a ro u n d te ch n o i o g y as a maln factor - but not the only

o n e . T h e h l g h e r th e l e ve l of eophlstlcation, the lar ger the
probabillty o f d i vi si o n i n to cLasses and the likelibood that
c e n t e r - p e r i p h e ry stru ctu re s develop and consequently that
t h e n e e d fo r a rma re n t (e sp ecially withln the dominar r t classes)
e m e r g e s a n d sta rts g a i n i n g nom entum , need.ing ever tnor e ar mament
w h i e h a g a l n d e e p e n s so ci a l divisions etc.
I n o th e r w o rd s, n o d e of Br oductlon deter mineg m ode oI
d e s t n r c t l o n - th e fo cu s b e i ng upon tne pr oductlon, distr ibutlon
a n d u s e o f th e me a n s o f d e s tr uction. It ls pr etty obvlous,
h o w e v e r , th a t te e h n o l o g y should not be seen as an independent
varlable. A s te e h n i q u e s d e velop civil as well &s m ilitar y -
so d o e s s oci a l fo rn a tl o n a nd divlsion into classes em er ges or
d e v e l o p s fu rth e r (e o ).
A n o t b e r d i msrsl o n to be noted 1s tbe inter nal,/exter nal
o n e ; a a p ol n te d o u t b y l i e b knecb,t, nilltar ism is at hand as
w e l l w i t h l n e ta te s (tn e cl ass str uggle) as between states ( the
ln p e r i a l i s t p e rsp e cti ve ) lenin has expr essed the f oil- ow-
" n:1ch
ln g w a y l
f r 0 o n te mp o ra ry n l l i ta ri sm is the r esult of eapitalisn....
I n b o th i ts fo ru s i t i s a r vitaL manifestatlonf of
c a p i t a l i sm: a s a n i l i ta ry for ee utiliaed by capitallst
s t a t es i n th e i r e xi e rn al ciashes...a' r r d as a weapon ser -
v l n g l n th e h a n d s o f tir e r uling classes to cr ush ail,
( e c o n o mi c a n d p o l i t i e al ) pr oietar lan Inovemnts.
e . . t' ( 21) .

F o l l ow i n g th e i d e a o f the close lnter action between

nilitaqy an d ci vl l sp h e re s of nil- itar ism being a str uctur ai
p h e n o m e n o n - th e q u e sti o n of cour se occur sc To which degr ee
1 s m i l l t a r i sn p ri n a ri l y a flr nction o:L_[be base and to which
d e g r e e a fu n cti o n o f th e super str uetur e of society? Sngels
h e r e p r o v l d e a n i n si g h tl
ttMliitarlsm domlnates and j-s swallorring Surolr. But this
n l l i t a ri sm a l so b e a rs withln itseif the seed of 1ts owtr
d e s t r u cti o n ...fh e g e cond mor al. e.iB that tb.e whole or ga-
n i z a ti o n a n d n e th o d o f war far e, and a.lov€ with these vic-
t o r y o r d e fe a t, p ro ve to be dependent on nater lal , that
i s e e o n o n i c co n d l tl o n s, r f
and:
 ?3

rrNothing is more cependent on eco:rornic

:[,rereq1]l.l*i.";r*s ;h*r:
prec i sely aruy ana navy . Armanfll t , c oilpo s1.tr" cn, oj:ga.rl) *a*
tlon, taciics ancl st ra t e g y d e p e n a a b * v e a ll { , n " f} ie s t a gc
reached. ai the tine in proouctlon anc :'n comx1u.r1:cs'iioiu, ri
(z z )
At tle aame tlne as Engeis ernphaslze tns i:r:r:i.q' ir,,f -$rr
b a se i n the armament proc e s s , ire a ls o - e ls e wr, e re - $ a r* s s e s
tha t th e miiitary and the wh o ie f ie ic of wa rf a re * . * riv : t j* i:
be lo n g to the sr;perstnrctu re (2 3 ). T h e re is n o e f f rr: ' t rie ; r:
to tr y to rrsolven th.is pro b le m. O u r n a in i* a a iC 1 , . e rh s , ' i ,
;co:nt
one shoutrd not take for granteci ari)'krntl of a:.rtsitrs"t:c*-i. c;tji{r:.€;e.,-
of su p erstructure in cons e q u e n c e of changes i. n t it e nase.
F i re t o f a l l , th e mter ial pr oducilca miLr i::-:"y pur*
p o s e s g u b sta n ti a l l y i n fl u ence the econor nic t a s e a\( :r ,:n:c :" l i r r v v -l . v v f ! , r* . !

i n a n u n b e r o f T h i ro l to rtd countr 3es anci i.i.i1,r i*crinOiCgY i-il-l r

-t
i s o f t e n a h e a d o f ci vi l tecnnoiogy - esi) ectr I rr 1ii -crte
o v e r a r me d su p e r p o w e rs.
$ econdiy, one of the uatn r-s s u e s (1 a t e r to b e t a it e n up)
is pr e cisely 1ng faet tha t tbe s u p e rs t t u c t u re o rg a n iz a t lo n
o r g a n izatl on for war pre p a ra t io n , n a ilit a ry in o o e irin a t l iJ n,
attltud e s, poiitlcs, natio n a l in t e re s t s , a ] lia n c e n wj rh
chu r ch , sehoois etc, - na y g a ln s u c h in f l-u e lic - v : . s . -a -' , : : 5 rj. €
cj ,vr i sphere that one cou ld n a in t a in t . ri8 . * ' "' 1 s u ; e T s . . r: -. -, i' . " -^ . j
fu n cti on s as the b& gerr - to b o rro w
a rje rs p e c t iv e : jr: n --ic
an thr o p ologist Gooe1ler, - s ig rir. t ' ; r: a g t n e : ' n a il-e . i. rt i z J ; . : t; ' r .
She prellnlnarry conc lu s i o n t o b e c ira wn c o n c e jr * : i: . ' irt ; l$
din e n slon 1s ihe forr-owin g : liilrt a ris m c a n rio t :i , i-irf , € i' s i. iioi l .
slm p ly be relying on the c la s s rc s ; ite a rrn c t . -; e a : i: ii: u t e a
e xclu sively to tne supers t ru c t u re a s & ric u rt , i: a l' ; a t ' ; it u rt j-rra " l -
ph e n o m enon - nelther ean 1 t b e a u t o n a t ic a iiy d e r: . re d f ro n
the go cio-economlc base. Ra t h e r, wa rf a re , ih e a il: . t a ri, ' s p irer e s
the e o onomj-csof armament e x e rc is e s u c h 4 e e L in f h lB n q q ji* t ia : E
socia l fornations Lt lars e that milit a ris m a s a s t ru c t ; ; ra l-
phenomenon nust be ascribed bot4 the base anci.[Eg.g.!r-:]L::ql,J$_*;"
t u f e . . A s p o i n te d o u t a g ain and again by .tiisbetr
 24

t t l t w o u l d b e p o ssrb l e to wr ite the histor y of postr ner iie-

v a f w e ste rn E u ro p e i n ter :ns of what happened to the feudal
m i 1 1 t a ry co mn u n i ty e n d then to the whole milltn,r y sect$r
o f W ee te rn so cl e ty. C a pitar leu, natlonnr :!- em, the ter r r to*
r i a l i z a tl o n o f p o w e r a s w*11 as the centr aiization, 3- ar ge -
s c a l e o rg a mi za ti o n , n a r js soc iety, tecanologr ; a- LI of
t h e s e n a ke th e i r fi re t appear ar .ce in th,e r :oden:. \+ est in
c i r c u msta n ce s stro n g S -y cnar acter iaeo by war and ii:e
nilitary. T h i s fa ct h a s r eceived far less attentlon fr om
t h e h lsto ri a n s i h a n i t deser ves. llueh that is said to
h a v e b e e n ca u se <i b y ca pitalism, natlonal- i- sm , tf,r e mr ddl- e
c l a s s , a n d te ch n o l o g y m lght better be thought of in ter ns
o f p r essu re s f o r w a r a nd of a r apidly expar r dlng militar y
f o r c e i n n o d e rn E u ro p d ( 25) .

T h u s , 1 t 1 s n o t su ffi ci e nt to outli- ne the cher iacter istlcs

of mllitarlen s1 n p l y fro m the base althougir the r som or pnisn
e x l s t s a t th i s i e ve l , to o . This klnd of deter ninlsm should
b e a v o l d e d w h e n me e ti n g th e extr em ely br oad concept of r nilita-
rls m . T r y i ng to d o so a n yh o w - ieading to amon€{oiher tir i- ngn
a d e n i a l o f a n y n o n -ca p i ta l l st uilitar ism - cor ild be said to
re p r e e e n t ti ? € n a j o r, cl a ssi -cal m istake of' tir e nor e or less
narxlst-ori e n te ci scn o o l o n nliitar ism theor ie s.
0 n t h e o th e r sl ci e , o f c our se, we find a nunber of
lib e r a l - o r j "e n te d co n ce p tu a l i zatlons wnlch, in gener ai, ter xi to
de t a c h n i l i ia rl sm fro m so cl o- economlc str uctur es and leaves
it e n t l r e I y a s a w a y o f th i n klngr a r eminiscence fr om pr e-
capitarist o r p re -l n d u stri a l per iods etc. much l- 1ke the
wh o l e d i s c ussi o n o f i mp e ri a l isn between these two r sain schools
a r o u n d t h e h rrn o f th i s ce n iur y. Names of r eievanee her e
wo u l d b e V a g ts, P ro u d n o n , F er r er o, Ir ee Ber :inar d, Hi- nze,
S p e n e e r , M1 l l e r, R a d w a y a n d m or e contem por ar ily - Radway,
E c k h a r d t , T h e e , }u msd e n (2 5 ) .
An 1 d ea1 combirration of c la s s lc a l a p p ro a c h e F n a y t h e re -
fore b e t h e fo l l o 'rri n g t T h e basic idea of isonor phlsn between
clvil a n d n i l i ta r:y stn rctu re s is der ived fr om pr iuar ily
rn a r x l s t - o r l e n te d th l n ki n g , but to avoid any kind of deter -
ml n l e n o r se L e cti vi ty a s to soclal for nations whieh cal be
ni l i t a r l s t i e - we sh a -l 1 try to put much r r liber ar fr her itage lnto
t h i s f r a m e w o rk o n th e fo l l o w ing pages.
 2q

It remains to be me n t io n e d that the milit e , riT * c iv i" i is* ' *

m o r p h ism can be traced over t in n e , i. e " that t h e re 1 s a t iil r . t : *
si on ollLjstory not to b e f o rg o t t e n .
The feudai_mllitqly s t ru c t u y g is c . * . e rrrc ie i: : . z e d b 3 " " : :: e
ioce-l ciecent:ailzed actj-visles of the krigrr-rs ai:i lh e:-::. ,;.i;,i-j'*.
r i or s wltl:. large difJleren c e s 1 n t e rms af s ia t i: s i$ irl e r$ ia rl i ] " r t ;
it was a tenpora.l' affair in the sense that, wh e n ih * f : g , iir r n g
w as o\ter, the knlght rod e back t o , h is castLe a n d in q ri, -. i' r i , r . j :
dir p e r sed" It was based o n re la t i-v e ly s imp l-e a in c u ry (\ : ' : - , t , : .
m en fighttng face to fac e . T h e n o b i-i1 t . y h a c t h e mc rn o p c : i . 'j
e o m r n a:d, and scmeililes - a ls o o 1 ' t ! . e we & p c n s i,
The socj-a1 hlerarch y at that t in e re a c h e u f rc s r t i: . * * i j - r . i
w ho was tled to the lan d t over the feudal na*ter o f . ; r€ .
e state - the basic econo mic u riit a b o v e wh ic h a g a : r. we i: : . *
th e c ounts, oukes and, o[ top of lt , t i: e k in g & rri^ t re . , irr r : s . ;
all were vertically rela t e d to each other t h ro u g h e e o iic ii .
an d milltary rlght and d u t ie s .
E ssentialJ.y, t his f o rma t i o n re p re s e n t s a n e x c h z u r; . q eb e i w e + n
cla ssesi the primary ec o n o mlc duty of the v a s s a l ' t o i: . : _ s sl l t e *
r lo r and tlie protectlon h e re c e iv e d j-n re t r: rn "
in the towns, of co u rs e , other v a lu e s
we re o e f e n riu q \ ( , ? J t
i n th e countryside tra o e , n a rc e t s , ro a c rs a n c i c it j. e s ' * i - . l l . e l r -
ha n d lcraft. the burghers f o u n o c u t t ira t t n e rrre s e rv e , ir^ n :r r r
cor n lng into town from th e c c u n t ry s ia e c o u j-d b e € 8 p i1 . . 6 , i ' : . c f
-ghr
f or then as nerc enarle s or solri r-ers ( s o3-idus = a be-r-r ;. i:-:'r.i u
or g a n ized by the war en t re p re n e u rs t h e c o n d c ir, : e : ' i. '.y',
Gerna-
[yr for lnstance, the s y s t e m o f p rin c e s a n i we r j. o rc s h a v i n g
coio n eis to organize reg le e n rs for then of t t la ; is s s e c G T s " w&,$
fu lly ceveroped eround 15oo.
B ut technology ent e rs t n e p ic t u re ; a s K a ic ic : : h a s p t int e r i
ou t rfit to ok the introd u c t lo n of n e rc e n a rJ , r s o id ie r-. s , . f ' - i . n a r i r :j t
b y th€ new bourgeoisie o n b e h a lf of in e e rn e rg in g a b s c iu t a
m on a rchy, before guns the p ro d u c t s of b o u rg e o is t e * i] rt ; ; -, : , , q ; ; l . i
cou lo be accepted. into the a rme d f o rc e s t f (e f ).
 26

Ya g ts in his class:"cai, A Hl, s t o ry of it { rlit a rrs n , ira s t h e

f o llo w"in g to say about the tra n s j-t io n to t h . : f o : a a r: o n of
nerehari.t cqglllgi:L sm I
ttl Jl th the introductlon c, j a rt iile ry r, " t i" le a n iit g o t : ris n o f
b o u r g e ols anci nobie incre a s e d . T n + d e v : -; . : es w* i: * i h c : p ro -
d u cts of urban arts en,r e ra f t s l ' J r; r' y ' rc s ri: - t e c i: : : n r, n e
eco n o mic, social anci irit e l-l-e c t u u . i c h a n g e s t h a t ' lis in ; e *
grated feudalism ai'.rc were na.nufaciured" by t;b foes of
feu d a llsn - tire cit;,r bou rg e o l-s a n c -rn e a rt is & ris . in a
etr i ct sense, €lunpowder" mrrs k e t g a n C c a t : n c ris e iii n * t
'sna sh feudalism' ; piebia n f a o t s c " l-C; € . r; 5* i-r|, * ; . : i f : re -
arns had a-Lread;y heateri chi",rairic bo::e-l i:q:-il.:"'; :;h*j-r i::*
tr od u ction; morecve r, ;n e I , a s t f e u c ia l- : : . rn j-r:-i i--t r. i : , n e a -
se ive s empioyeci guns..,The r. ie a p o n s t i€ Ds r; . v e s w. ? : . ' --ll: i€
fr u lt of a long pe:'ioi o f ' le v e lo p n e n t t rr iv f i; : . - : , : irt i: rt -, ri. -
de p e n oence was grow:-ng z u : . i mo n e y -e c o n o n y s p : ' e a ri -n i r
ch a l- le ngirrg the oLc sc,cia l s ; y s t e m b a s e c o r1 s o ii. A rt rile ry
w as uade and introauca.:., h o we v e r, b y a n t rf e u d . a i c -l-a s s e s ,
i t is tnre, & nd 1t remine d 1 n b o u rg e o ls h a n C. s it e n c e -
f o r th'f ( eS i .

in o ther worcis, technolo g y is in t ro d u c e d e i: -r, L : e s a a e t ln e

as socidr- f ormatj on &.i: l-arge is cha::.glng i'r;jlfia,s+l [a]-i.'y', I'i
1 n p l1 e s a transfer of the ne a r-L s o t - o e s t : t rc t a o r. f ro m one c tass
to an o the r , an eniargene:rt ci a rmie s , a n c in c i' e a s in g n e e c j. f o r
knowl edge and ski)14, an increasi lt g trere enari na,ti on enr :n
generai - a 'riezui towards prsfessionai-Lzg:!-,.ltl"
lio we ver, ln the sane wa y a s t h e wa rt ' a : e s . l" rs t e n $ ir. . : -il. c ic a t e
fundanentaL. future cha-nges irr sociai fo:laat:on-q - noi the
l e ae t thr o u gh the cievel-opmen t o f n e w mj-ii-t a ry t e c r. in iq ili; s -
there are al"so rndlcati-ons of it s a b ij-it li ' . ro s u s t a i. n + i. ;" " a rt : e i
s ocla i g r o ups. In thris pe:'ioc i r t h e b o u rg e c i; i: e n o t b i: : it
to be so ld iers nor to lead th e s o lo ie rs it b o u g h t ^ T h : lt wa s
s ti l l th e task of the now oth e rwis e ra t l: e r re d u n d a n * : ir, b : . 1 : t y ;
tfAi tn o ugir the 'bou.rgeois ie f t t h e d ire c t io n * j- ' d a ; - ; o * o h e
p r ln e e s, the princes dld n o t t h e ms e lv e s c o n t : ro i lh t i: "
&r ur ie B in the beginni,ng: ra t h e r t h . e y c o n t ra e t e c wit h p rl*
va te entrepreneurs for t ire c o lt re c t io n , o : : g a n ix n t : * t1, d is *
c1p l1 ning and feedlng o f f o rc e e . T h u s t h e b o u rg e c ls f in *
a n ce d ars ti:ey dld not s t a rt k i-n g s s t a rie d wa rs t h e y
did not fuiiy eanage" ( 2 9 ).

Th e nobility did not re3 -y o n e d u c a t io n b u . t o n s o c ia -i

s ta tus, bu t gradually they w 6 re f o rc e d to enter the m! : lt a ry
a c ad "e n le s which were set up d u rln g the ia t t e r h a lf of the 18th
cen tu r y.
 )w

Wh a t we shaii iry to do n o w 1 s ' u o g iv e a n u n r; e : : lf e x ir)r*

p i es of iso morphism betwe€n c iv il a n d n iiit a ry s t ru c t u re s as
t n ey pe r tain to prlnarily mo o e rn We s t e rn s o c le t j es. in
o t ir er w or d .s t letrs waix out ir: -; o t h e ia " ri' js c a p t i, , lwe i* e; c $ r-
tain view point s arr d exaralne our eap against :l"e _i"tx.xsc€:p€i,
So n e o f th e se view points - a ll of t h e m * c o u -c a -r-i, o
-5 : ro t
b e ea ]}ed i ,ncj-cators of reljiia g ie n r

( L ) G rowtkr - the niiitarlzed s o c : -e t y re iie g o n lrc wih ,

e c c) no m lc g r owth f or rrcieve-j"ol: me
n t il u h ic h is ile a s ' i: : e c J -' G ifP o r
G NP pe r ca prta and on m:-iitary g ro wt h f or rrs e c UX -. i! ; ir' * : . ] , 1 : . ] i
m ea su r e d by m:-iltary experrdit u re s . Ne it h e r me d . s u re re s a if i: h rn g
to sa y ab cut basic huaan ne ed s a t is f a c t lo n - ra t h e r, t ire
r a ti on a ie is: fhe bigger the b e t t e r.
Th e r e 1s the bu1lt-in ic ie a o f a c c u mu l-a t io n a t c e n t re s , cf
v a iue s r r tr i cklingcownrr 1ea<iin g t o e x p a n s j. o n . A n d t ire t wo
s p he r e s r e late directly to ea c h o t h e r - the rrllj-t a ry rro t o n i; '
e x pa r o s i nto the civil s^r.i"r€ r€ , b u t a L s o d . e L iv e rs the p h y s i. c a -
me&n$ and 1 egi t ini zaai on i- or na tl onal expan si on .
l eve io pment & s wet-l as s e c u rit y is the mo n o p o ly c f { : . : t ' . t ie s
th e y ar e not created frtm the b o t t o e -u p , n e v e r rrp u s h e c . -iip "
fro:n loca^], e1'forts .

{.f;i,$_ent::ariza*,j on - the cveraii Western :;i.r-r: ta:r st

s y ste m te n ds to ii.crease econ o , rlc a s we ll a i p o ii-t : c a . l and
r n ilitar y decrsi-on-naki-*.9 aric p o we r in f e we r n e iris - me k in g f -' o r
l a rge r u n lts . The miirtary s p h e re c o n t rib u t e s rc t n j-s e f f e rr
t h rou g h m l l itary technolory, s p e c ia liz a t i on, e n la rg e me n t of
s y stem s an d the control of e v e r-la rg e r s mie t a l- re s o u rc e s .
Th e ef t'ect of warfare it s e L f ls , n o re o ii, e n t h a n n c t ,
c er r tr a liza ti on and i-t 1s embe d o e ri ln t ile e f f e c t iv e ' u Fs o f
the n o d e r "n means of vioience ih a i c e n t ra liz a t io n is i; ' rc re a s e d
a s ha s b e e n pointed out so we ii b y S h a rp t 1 5 ).
 3L

it seems that in th e s a o e wa y a s o v e rd e v e l-o p ia e n t e a -us e s

un d e r cievelopment somewh e : : e e L s e ,
o v e ra , rma a e n ! _ c re a t e $ : u ild e r *
armarnent sonewhere e] se . Type ca1ly , 'uopeo gs of s oc ie t i es
ln a s well as between s t s le s iia v e mu c h rio re rn e a n s o f rie c u r t . t l /
at their dj-sposal ti:.an harre underoogs. Arrnameni; rrnderthe
pr e se nt eonditions sarl-s f ie s c e rt a ir: . s e c u rit y l: e e is oi ih e
a r m a m ent lntereste the n il-it a ry , in u u $ t ry ' , b u re a u c ra t s an d .
r e se a r chers to name some - u / } rile t ir. . u s e c r. rrit y o f t h e re s t o f
in e p opulatlons 1s rapi" iily d e c re a s in g . n l{ a t io iT a i s e c u r r} J 1 j i q s
b e L o me a euphemj"sel for n a t io n a l e x p a n s io n a s we ll a s rn t e rna l -
vi ole n ee arrd represslon.
?his is trre rnore absurd as it eoul-o be aa.:":rtalnei thai;
to p o o gs ought to he.ve ie s s n iiit a ry n e a rrs a r t i: e ir u ls p c s a r
pr e cisely beeause they a lre a d y ra n k h ig irl, y in t e rms of econc-
m i - c, politlcal, soclal p o we r - or s e c u r' iy . ;f c f v j-i p o we r t _ a
alr e a d y large why shoulo miiit a ry p o we r b e e v e n ia rg e r?
T hus, 1f one speats of a d e v e io p re n t g a p j-t is e q r-ra .l l - y
r ele va .nt to speak of a s e c u rit y g a p a s t h , 3 n re & rs o f n lf iia r l -
se cu r lty are terrlbly un e q u a liy d is t r: -b u t e a in the ia ie : ria t i o r : . a l
syst e n.

{l ) E xce ss o f re a ns - w} r er e the idea is tnat *n.en ia clng

p r o b le m.s the sys tem auto n a t ie a [ y a n s we rs b y p o u rin q no:*
m ee n $ lnto sectors. khe n f a c in g d e e p s t ru c t u ra l i: ic b i. . , ra s , i l . o r e
eco n o mic means are appiie c wh e t h e r f o r c . e v e ilj-lie , L ; , : . ; i.
e ecu r lty purposes. Goais a re not q u e s iio n e o , r: e . : -t iie r a re
d e fi nitlons of focal con c e p t s or the b a s ic cha:acter of ih e
syste tr itself . Where sol-u t io n s n ig h t be to re d u c e e c o n o mlc
gr o wth, save o? d is a rm
eJ€rgy to s o n e e x t e n r, * ' f ! € s J is [ e ll

a iwa ys goes f or an ffinfi e x ib l-e re s p o n $ s * l G iv e u ; t n o re . " .

 52

( 4) Tecirnofogr is a prlne mo v e r in b o t h . s p h e re s . Ihe : -Ce a

h er e ls th at the progresslve d e v e lo p n e n t of t e * h n o io g y in f l-u -
e r l ee s b o th the forces of nrcd u q r: L o l1 a n d t ire f , c re e -q * f _ _ < iq f ! ! rlt q. .
t i -o n . fyp ically it is increas: irg lf c a p rt a i* , e n e rg y - a n o .
resear ch-lntensive , i t is expe rt-based , big a.r:"dexpeiis:- vr: nn d
it a lie n a tes people (altnough, o f c o u rs e , t h e r: e & re e x c e p t io r: s
l i ke n e w types of srnaJ"L-sea1 e we a p o n s s y s t e ms to be ope:ated
b y on e n a n ).
H um a n identificatlon wi t h the p ro d u c t in the o n e s irh e re
a n d w i th the cause for fighting in the o rh e r s p h e re r-s ra p id -
1 y de e r e a slng. Overvlew over e n t lre p ro c e s s e s is
io s t -c e rs o na l -
' , a rg { e
r esp o n slb j.l i ty decreasesl ea c h 1 s o n ly a s ma l. t - n u c j_ i_. :
machine ry.
Ka l- d or has expialne<i how t h e concept of f rll€ a p o n s s ] ' s _ ie ; r. , t
1 s m o st ce ntrai here:
r r Ti te c irarderistic cf the re la t io n s o f f o rc e j-s t it e v e y
the y appear to be built a ro u n d a p a rt ic u la r t e e * * ric u e cf
fo r ce , the weapon syste& , the p ro o . u c t o f a p a : r-iie u ra l
i no u strial era. tne wea p o n s s y s t e m c o n p ris e s t r-e we a p o i^ s
p la tfo rn the ship, eire ra f t , t a n k , e rc " t h e rv e a po n ,
an o . the means of commu n lc a t lo n . \ ry -ire re a sI ' c : a € r; - -r, t n e
w ea p on was the instrumen t o f t h e s o ia ie r, tne sc..,ner nou
appe ars to be r:he lnstructetr't of the weap ons si'sr *1l . the
r e s,r i ting organizati on is h ie ra rc n ic a r, 3 t c n is t ic a rrd
de h u manizing. It reflects t h e ia p o rt a r: . c re a c c o rd " e c i t o
i no u strial .products, pa rt lc u ia rly ma c h in e s , 1 n s o c ie t y a s
a w hoie t' (15).

Thus r w€ are movlng away from the idea of arinir,g nen to

man n tnii w eapons. thls 1e stru c t u ra lly c o mp a ra b ie w: iii wria t
is a- L so h a ppening within fact o rie s and the re s ' . iit af the p ro c e ss
r s also co nparablel There ls l-it t le d lf f e re n c e b e iwe e n the
a utgn ize d . computerized facto n r wit h o p e ra t in g ro b o t s in a
eterlle environnent on the one side and. the aujlgnrateL-oa"r;:,-e:
{ i -el{, m anageo. by a1r kinds o f c o n p u t e r o p e ra t io n s , re it o r, €
c o n tr ol, and a number of new we a p o n s v lt ric h o o rro t re s . u ir3 a n y
c lo s e o p e r ati on by humar:. beln g s e . g . p iro t le s s a irc ra f ' rs ,
e le ctr on ic senslng devices f irin g off d e a d iy a iu n u n lr-o n e ic .
 15

Technology al.so play s a f u n ia n e n t a l : : o ie ri; it ; lt l-ii: e r

sen se that of ftfaciiitat in g rr t h e ln t ro c iu c t : -o * . c i a s p e c : .f : . c
so cr a i structure in perip h e ra i e o u n t rie s . A s p o in t e c cut
e .fl. by the Inclian resea r. ' c h e r A mu ly a lJ re d d y : Wilh _ le c i; ii: io g i
fol- io ws struglu:le; thus, the t ra n s f e r c : ' re c h n $ io g y - c : v r1
as w ell as nliitary - ln t o tne p e rip h e ry ' " ' : ii ira i" s , : u iJ s ia n i ; i a }
co n se quence s f or the cie v e lo p x re n t of these a re a s , , io i: i € t r- e s
w i Ll have to acrapt to this f o re ig n e l-e me n t rf e f -. ' e : i1 1 , , : r' L v u s i n g
1t. The tendency will be t o c re a t e I t e n c ia l" e rt e c o iio n . ; s s ; c : :

the production of ad.vaneeu niiitari"' equ:-pment whlc;, c,i.-r.r.r.: i;3

scg ,r ee resources and hav e lit t ie o r n o s p in * o f f eff,'ec,,s 't7pa:rl
the r est of soclety" Inv e s t me n t f o r a rn a n e n t wij-i ' lh e r. . riira
b e ln vestment lost f or t ru e s o c io -e c o rro * r(; c le v e lo p me n t "
A ctapting the infrast ru c t u re to n llit a ry rt e e a s in iiu e n c i n g
th e e aucatlonal sy$r@, e o mrn u n le a t i o n , t ra n s p o rt ei c - l; n e
so ciq l formatl o4_-Iras "oe e n b ro k e n u p t o a rs o re c e lrre I ' o rc ; : -g n
ci vi i investments, trade , \ , ie s t e rn t e c h n o ic g y
a n c " c c r. li : ' , l, u r x ; t l y ,
acce p t the icieoiog}. ne ed e c t o s e rv e a s a p e r- p h c r; r - I ' il. , : ;a
sub - imperialist towarcis a n o ih e r p e ri. o h e ry iji a t ia ; : rc , : .
-. : ra l
Th e r e is no reason to be s u rp ris e d t h a t n . l: lt a : ; , : u le -. -a rci ' t e n
an e ffective tool in fac i-. t -lt a t in g s u c h t ra n e f e i ri . ic r: -a -::*
m ati on ccmpone nis (=l ) .

(q) Classes - ihe n a l-n iCe a h e re is that t h . e . re la ' ' . . c l : l oi'

o e str uction refiect ihe re ia i: io rrs of p ro a u c t : rr. ' : , -J l-. i, " : , e ti * is
a structurai slnllarlty between the pos!,b j-gn_,1;i* .:::3,_*i:-j;*lqj3
qna ine buslness nav,e.gel vls-a-vis the so_ld;rsl' a-:.j_f3:-Jt:Ag;:
llke other indlcators of n iL rt a ris m t h is a p p il* , s to other
socia l f ormations, and we s h a li h e re la a k e a i: ii. : : ' e is s i c n t o s ,
typica ily feudal- sltuatio n wh ic h b a s b e e n o e s c r: -b e o rio w* 1 ] by
Soteio , E sser anci l{oltnan (1 8 ), n a me ly the ' t a rme d t e c h n o c : at s ' l
in l atin A merica.
During the period. wh e re the rf h a e ie n c a o c lt g g lv ll: l; ' ' ; _ . ' i - r' T
t r., e

upper hanci, a new mi-litary class macie its Epp€;rirr:.ic,r - ":lS-

cau d illo. In order to r a is e re a s o n a b ly la rg e a rml* s , l-h e n a s e
 3+

of pe a sa nts had to be errpg e d at t h e lo c a l le v e l" fhe peopfe

so u g h t p rotection through re la t io n s wI t h lo c a l- o f f ic e ra , c re at *
in g a m ost heterogeneous n il, it a ry s t ru c t u re d i s p la y in g i? : . e f w i *
da n e n tal weakness o-f the ste.te in the feudal s y s t e a il it wa s no t
a b le to f inance regular na t io n a l- a : s ie s or keep :tl l-a w a n d
order. Thus, the leaders of ih e n ilit a ry u n i-i; s ld e re e iih e r
alL ie d with the latifundias or t h e ms e l. re s o wn e rs o f t i. ie s re .
Ab o ut this S otelo et.al . has the f o iro wln g tc s a J ' u rric h
i i l ustr ates our baslc id,ea a b o u t c la s s e s i
r r l i e B eziehung zwischen o . e n 0 f f iz ie re n u n o lru p p e n re . f ie a *
tie r te d.ie zwi-schen Ir a t if u n d ls t e n u n d ih re n A rb e it e rn lr
/ * r' \
\)Y ).

It is preclsely the n e lt in g together of e c o n o mic / p o lit i-

cal a n o military power that c o n s t it u t e d the feudal c a u d ilis m
at var lo u s levets even up t o the n a t io n a l c a ri, l: -iio wn c g u id e d
the l oca l ones ano tneir bands.
Wi th thls dlgression 1 n min o r w€ s h a l1 p rc c e e o * , , o d ls -

cu ss va r lous aspeets of the c la s s / mi-l-it a ris m p ro b ie rn . F::ei

of all there is the idea of c l-a s s a iiia n c e s . It is ; e a lr wir^n
b y L u n scien 1n a recent P ap e r 3
ttM i ) -:,tary forees belong t o ib e e a t e g o ry o f s o c 1 a 1 g ro u p s
w hich 4g not thense-r-v e s p ro d u c e f o r t h e ir o v s i ma t e ria l
r e q ulr ru ie rs , a d n j-n is t ra t o rs ,
p :l ests, artist s and s c ie n t ls t s t h e y a re d e p e n c e rrt u p o n
e xpropriating tle sur p lu s o f o t h e rs . T h i s e rp ro p ria t i c::
nay either take place b y f o rc e - wh ic h n j-ij-t a : n ' f o rc e s
a r e well-equipped to io - o r b y rrJ -e g i-t i. n is in g i' t h e e x *
pr :oprlation 'n y p ro Y lc iin g s e c ' ' ; : : -, , :
either
'by j -n v e n -c i4 j{ a rr a p p ro p riq t -: ^ t h e e v c : : 1 t of
a r ea] attack or p s t y t h o io g y f t
(4 o).
lr u n sden categor:'zes th e s e s o c ia l g ro u p in g s a s c o a l" . j-t : o n s
a n d ter m s then rfmacroparas it e s rr wh ic h c a n n o io n g e r e c t u a ii; i
pr o tect people as they cra im, but ra t h e : ru t rie s s l3 r e x p -t o ' i
th e n f or it,s own P urposes.
l i eb knecht expressed U: e id e a of c la s s a llia n c e t F iis way :
 ti

ttMiiitarism manifes t s it s e if a s b p u re t t : r: , : . ii' l ij, * : ran C s

of the rullng cie. s s e s , d e s lg n e d t o h in c * r t h e rle v e l" s ! - ? r c n i
of class-con,eeiousne n s b y it s a llla n c e Mit h t n e p o lrc e
anci" the systee of ju s t ic e , wit l: ih e s rh o c rl & rid * h . ' ' i* r e h u
and further to sec u " : s f o r a min a rit ; r a i a n y c o s { e € 1, r e t 1
against the consci. . rils wiil" o f t h e ma j o r: t lr o r ' ' , . 1 ri: rr o p i e e
its comina.nt posltj-o rr rn it re s t a t e e r: i& , it s -fi. i: e c ; . , ; i . c
exploir rr ( +f ) .

It is of J-nportanc e to note t ii: -s g g E p lE s -a ll" ia lic d : * c x p , c : -

taEto n-surpius rel-ati-on s h ip re v e a ie o b y " " h e : wi] q i: o ? , a r: io n s . I ' ;
is central to tne
unce rs t a n irir: g of n il rt a rrs n in { € i f , t jt : l. r a n c
the role of ciasses j-n p a rt ic u la r.
in the moce:n W es ie rn s o c ie t y t h e re 1 s n ' " , ls i' ; ; rp * " { , r: r} y
the aiiiance beitueen Uii:larrste. in*ustfial
-_:,t]:g-!+q
and $t_i-e!,!ie-te {SIFF]. Wiiether tnis is & ciass aLieanic* r:.
not o.epend upon the so c ia i f o rma t t o ri & t la rg e ; the ln t e re s t s
m e n tioneo. here often c o mp ris e c i *hat a s c a rie o ih e t rmilit a r y *
in d u stri-ai complex" bu t t n e re r-s lit t le re a s o n wh y t h is si r o u l - r 1
not qlgg be seen 1n rela t io n to tne concepi cf c la s s - a new
bureauc rat ic s trata wi thin 'f fie social f ormatlorr e, g. 'rr: t,i:r:
So vr et Union and the Un it e d . S t a t e s i+ Z ).
S o far we have tak e n up the f u n c t io n ofcJ,';*ses -- . e .
iiie tencency of the nil it a ry to f o rn a llla n c e s . rii: : t l-, r -v ;t v
i op echelons of society - wh e t h e r f e u d a -L c r c a p ii. i-. i Jt.
Wh a t about the origi.n, then? fhe s e * , rn d re a J o : a r: p e o r i: : J cl - a s s
w nich we want to iake u p is thai of : e c ru iln e n t .
In prJ-rrc:-pie it is true that tli.'3I i i; 3.*so a i'.rzl'a-,--i ,r1
he r e ; as poirited out by la n g (4 . : ' 1 , " in ih e Un it e d $ t a : e : : : r i ; i i q : ;
en lj,s ted n11reu represen t s o n e o f ia s t re f u g e s f o r a : ii: i: . ; t . -
ly lower claes culturett wh lc h wrii g ro v e v e ri mo r* ,:b."'t.'',is witit
the c hange towards an a 1 I v o iu n t e e r a rmy " We i\ a t it : . a : r. r , r i r e a C J i
p o in teO out how the ar me < i f o rc e s we re b u iit iil; : : -. ' i, t ; r ra , ri p + w e r
m ad e surpius 1n the rura l a re a s 1n consequence o i' in c ju s t ri a -
1 i z a tl o n .
H o w e ve r, th e o ve rall tr end during th e 2o t]:r cdlntu lTf #.iio
n o t o n i y so i n th e ri ch W ester n wor ld, rathe r g'.ir n:;-i r ;;
but
has been for a broaoen in e of s s oase wit h a a a rk e d . : . n e r e a s e
in
middle -class backgro u n c i .
 t6

Thu sr r& ther than j-rrdrvi d u a l- s o c la l- b a c k g ro u n d , the

s o c r al for m ation in general, the p a rt lc u ia r n iii-t a ry ira ln ir. g
o r 55a n ia a ti on and xhe cheracter of t h e p o lit ic a i-ic ie o io g ic a i
e n vir o n r n e n t seem to lnfiuenee the ro ie wh ic h the a rn e c f o rc e s
are 11 ke 1 y to piay. Furthellnore , the o f f ic e r c o i--, s ' i s F iei c o in
a h o m o g e n e ous socj.al group.
Al on g with increaeing pro f e s s io n a liz e t io n t h e re lra s b e e n
& ch a n g e fr om aseription to ac h rie v e me n t r so to s p e a k (+ + ).
A c co r d in g to Woddis, the conclu s io n d ra u rn b y J a n o wit z t h a t
r f n o p r o fession resists inqulry ln t o 1 t s s o c ia l o rig i. n s e . s
s t ub b o r n lSr as doe s the military rr (+ f ) s h o u ld p e rh e , : s a . h : . : , .br,e
k e pt in m i nc here. in A frica, f or i-n s t a n c e , h e n a in t a - n ;
t n at tr the majority oi offreeris & i: -- ira wrr f ro n in e e iirt c a e C
p e tty- b o u r g e osle and even f ron the edueated s o i. : -qo f wc rk e rs an<i
p e asa n tsr r ( +e ) which does no t nake for a : r1 r a u t o ma t ic con-
c l uslo n tha t the politlca-1 line f o llo we d s h o u ld be 'fpetty-
b o ur g e d ,s. r l
Wo a o is makes the followin g account c o n c e rn in g Latin
A n e r ica :
ftAL: r eg ards L,ari-n A mer:-e a , a n u mb e : c i s e l: : ra is i: irv e n c , ie d
tl:e changed class coxapo s lt lo n o f t h e o ji' * e rj-ls e a . s t c " I n
the se countrl es the trad it j-o n a i ru iin g e -rc ie s i: r ih €
i gth century (ano even in t o t : ie 2 o t h ) we re Da s e , r o r. ; . iic
tr i nity of the aruy, the c h u rc h a n d t h e * a n c wn l: q ; . , i: * a r*
cn1 r . T hese three forces we re la rg e ly in t e : t wiiie a ; a n .c . t lie
o fi i cer s w€re nalnly drawn f ro m t h e la n c o wr. in E c - r" re ic ii; y ' .
[]:e econoralc and socj-al- c ira n g e s o f t h e le s t f e w : e e a ie s ,
r r owe ver, have nod.1r-ied. t n e e la s s s t rric -t u u e o i; J t e s e
co u n tr ies, anu th:s has h a d it s lmp a c t c n iit e c o e p o s it lc n
o f th e armeo f crces, esp e c ia ily o n it -c o f ie r s e c iio n s f i
(+?).
And c once rning the Middle East h e ma in t a in s :
r u lh u s, in a number of A ra b s t a t e s t n e re g in e s e s ir* r; ' ' is r. e i
b y the nj-litary leaoers in c lu d e in t a e l: : o c ia . L b a * ; e b c t j;
tne r i c h vlliagers (or ru ia k s ) a s we l-l- a s t h e u rb a n p e t ry -
b o u r g eosien technocrats, rn t e ll-e c t u a is a n d p a rt s o f : . , n e
Sta te bureaucracy, .facto ry n a n a g e rs a ro s e c t io n s o f ' r, r1 -
va te cap italrst stt ( 4e,1.

N ow, how does all this a p p ly to mo d e rn We s t e rn t t lp e s o f

a r med for ce e today? A brahams s o n h e s investigated this in de-
 37-

tails; he gives three reasons that t iie s o c ie i . a --e c ru it e it ien r h . a s

b e e n consioerablybroaae n e d a n d t h a t , t ire re f o re , e " iie l s iln ul d .
gvoid any kind _o_! ttagg-l:;] "i-ve_-d_g_!S_-e
cererrainisgll as ro rl:c fanct: orr
o f th e mllitary: a) the rn j-d d le c ia s s h a s in c re a s * ri iis . in f l - u . *
e n ce while the arlstocracy h a s d e c J . in e ri, b ) t iie s . h e e i: . ; i-, y* * i "
a ::m e ti forees has @de it j, n c re a s in g ly u n lik e iy t h a t o rre r, : . r a s s -
sh o u id be abi-e 'ic keep a mo n o p o ly of o f f lc e r p o s it io n s R. r : d
c) m ore ano more skiiis a re n e e d e d in ih e n lilt a : * ; ; ila ii u b r
wn lch makes it less iikeiy that o n e c ia s s s h o u lc b s j. : . , r
1 e a <iing posltion - anc e s p e c ia iiy sor a s ma n y o t ' t h , : s k riL s
h a ve at tracted the middle c la s s as tney a re s o in * re i* s i
* . -l- nql*r
use ful in the civil sphe re too (a g ).
W i th inc reas ing te c h n o c ra t i z a t i o n f o ii o v re l, lrr c ; -es . 3i, -: n r . , i. -*
zation ano iire nonopoly of tne ari stoc rat ic crsss wi:s r:.i. j,:,:-n .
Abr a liamsson cones outn h o we v e r, wirh ih e r' o } -lo win g f o ' ru r.raa i n
pa tt€ r ns concerning rec ru it e n e n t of a rn y o f f ic e rs i5 c ):
(a) the elite patt e rn (t t re Un it e d . K in g c . o ml A rg e n t lrra ar:d
S pain ) ,
(U) upper ciass domirs : r, c e wit h a iin it e c . re ! : e ; rrt ri. . i, , cr.r
of iower strata (Cc iie , A u s t ra lia , -i; i* ; . . reil; , r.. ix : : s ,
ire.iano., Fei.era i Re -o u b iic o f S e rn n -l; " . . : : . , , 1 -t ; ;t:l, l
s tat e s *. nc. Fraii ce J r
(c) t:.'r€ :nxeo paire : : n wit h a n a s s i rc:.9 it('prF: c glr-iaa-i o.n
by rne ri:-aoie c la s s a s b y t n e iower $traia ii';orva;.
anci Sweo en ) ar:.ci
(o) the working cl a s s o o mi-n a n c e i Pcranc , Cceciic.;.-' ..'r'ekia )

A e is al-so remarked b y A b ra h a ms g o rr t h * re a r* r* B * rl; { : s t c

b e lr e ve that this trend t o wa ro s o e n o c ra t iz a t i-o r wi-ii r: ilt c o n -
ti nu e . One reason wldch h e CI . o e sn o t me n t lo n is ih e t::end, t**.
wa r d s an aL1 volunteer a rn y .
'Ihe third and finai a s p e c t o f t h e re ia t io n s h ip ; rii, . i-t i a l i l i n
a n d c lass to be taken u p h e re is t h a i o f p ro f e s s io n -4 . L f f : . . jj] i .
Step a rr provide us with a n ln t e re s t in g in v e s t rg a t io n cf tn:L;
con cept 1n Latin A noeric a (5 i).
 '18 -

Fi r st of all, he refu.te s the Hu n t ln g t o n t h e s is 1 ; : irit

p r o fesslo n a lization inplies mo re o r le s s o f a wit h . rc ira wa l f ro m
p o lltl cs by the mllitary. T h e rt n e w p ro f e s e io n a : lie mt r ra r-rre r
i np lie s a nuch & ore fundame n " , . rl s o c ia l p o we r b y t h e n j-iit a ry
as lt is here priroarily occ u p le d wit h . in t e rn a l- a*.fence and not
only na tl onal defence agains t e x t e rn a l ih re a t s . T h u g " u i: e
nliltar y sphere exercizes bo t h a ma jo r n ilit a ry a n a p o i: r-t rc a r
r ole in a type of managerial is n (r2 ).
i{e points out that through the changing roie o;' T,iie nii.l-
t a r y, the social base of its a c t i-v it le s b e c o n e s n u c h b rc a o e r *
beca u se nati onal securi-ty an d n a t i o n a l d . e ' re lo p n e n t ' o e c c n e s
i nextJ:ica b ly lnte.rtwlned (S l).
As an example , Stepan oflers the f oilow ing ief o.ru€,.
rj- on
con ce r n in g the graduatings f ro m the S u p e rio r Wa r Co rie g e (f S e ;
in Br azil: 0f 6oo graduating o f f ic e rs in 1965, 2 2 4 c a n e f ro n
p r j"va te l ndustry, 2oo from n in is t rj-e s , 9 7 f ro m rie c e n t ra l iz e d
go ve r n m e n t agencies,
,9 from t h e f e d e ra l c o n g re s s , 2 ] we re
f e d e r a "l- a nd state judges anc i L o 7 b e lo n g e c . t o v a rio u s o rh e r
occup a ti on al categories p ro f e s s o rs , e e o n o rrs ! s , wrt : e : s .
meo lca i o octrors and carnoiic c le rg y .
P::ofessionai ization oth e rwls e c io es re l-a t e to tne q G €s ri o n
oi 'ie - p o lJ-tization. inat is p a rt ic u la rly s o in tne cese. Jf
Chlna s.nd the $oviet Union.
th e Chi"nese case 1s we li d is c u . s s e d b y Wh lt s o n , , -. a : -. " t t r€ s
a n d o tl :.er s (f +),
The main co n c e rn o f t h e p o s t -re v o lu t lo n a r: ir
perrod h a s been to nave e"n rra rmy o f t h e p e o p le rrt wt ie rc : -Ce ra ily
the r e w ou ld be no eiass diff e re n ii-a ri o n s lrit h rn an,i no
pr o fessio n alizatlon above or is o la t lo n f ro m t i; e p e o p le . A s
J. Jo r cie n has pointed out, t h e re e x is t e d a ls o a n p ro f e s s i o n a . L
visio n r r signlfied by the ad o p t lo n of the S o v ie t a " rmy ia o d c _ ;
or ie n teci towards speciallzatio n , re g u la r p a y a n d t e e h n o ic rg : -c a 1
and e d u ca ti onal modernlzatj- o n (f > ) .
Pa id officers started f ln o in g that they s h o u la not occu;y
th e m se ive s with civilian work o r e n g a g e in p ro d u c t io n wc rx .
Ha the r , it shoulo rely on t h e s u rp lu s p ro d u c e c i b y o t k re r* e .
 79

Th e old idea of ie pe a s a n t s n i; : -t ia wh ic i: ira ; ' 1 "i; e e n f i' iilu*

l ated as early as j-927 by i{ a o T s e -t u n 6 u ' a l n o t re s p e e i; * c i. 6
countermeasure trre rtEver'" lne a $olcl tr
-t.c"f J:r,:rpal5:n :-n .L:jFg
ne ve r r eached 1ts goalsy ? -ri, i io ld a n s t a re s :
tf'r 'he,-youriger schooltra i. l: . e d , o f , -iic e rs b , re : ie -ia : a r: . : " : ' ,
rj-. : r' i;: : g i y
i nfluenced by their S o v re : ; a a v t s e rs a n r ie a " 1 e , ' f . . r. . , ' f t i:r[ A
i i
Sovlet nodel , in whic h t h e p o lit i-c a i a rm ; , -ia y c . ii. ' ! e s s
d o ninant roie day-by -a a y , t s y rg 6 ; , rn e iie t e : -i, : ! 2 -1 ---t t i; of
the influence of the pot-i-t ica-: o:':-icer h.r"c,'br,)ir,:,r:*i, r, .,.r.:1iii*^
ly slgnifl c& nt j-li t n e io we r e c h e l-o : rs o r ie e jL -, A , 1 i" : : : . ; ,
it was reporiec tnat c o n _ : , a n ; € 9 , o r ro u g t i* J ' . -, .-: . .:._--,.
"ooo
o f the FrrA , haci faile d t o e s t a c L is h F a : : t y b : . a n c h r, ; = i: i. - , , *
tees" (56).

th ls cevel-opment aiso v : -c ia t e c tne lie a of a i' s & L , Li1 ir. ; v'

w l th o u t cLasses anci integr a t e c in s o c ie t ; r at -ia rg e . t ' B ig
b o ssisn r r started, physlcal i-a b o r wa s a v o ic e d o ] . r o f f le e rs a u- l
the ar m y did not care abo u t e u L t lv a t in g ] , a a o o r p a rt ic i-p a " r; in
othe r proouctive areas of the Ch in e s e e c o n o rl/ ,
By 195or i.,in P :-ao be c a me i{ ln ls t e r of l, e f e n c e ru : . t 1d e rp - : i o
chie f of the Mii-itary A ff a irs Co mi" n it t e e a n d s t a rt e d re s ' " r: ilii
pa r ty l eadership in the a ru )/ .
G radually, it became t h e rc a in t -n s t ru re n t o f rn e lt a . t -i: ir a n .
se r ve C as the nain examp le t o in e n a t io n -r, h : o u g li t t e r! r. : if . : tr .
f r cr n ti :e P iA " campaign. l { a o u s o ic ia e a a b o u ' u a rn p a $ sr J ' rr. . . : ' t h e
pe ,r pie had won over the p ro f e s s : . o n a iiz e c i. v e : rs i-c n . : i, t ir' r-_ i : i
r r ictor y was conf irmeci aur in g the Cu iru ra i Re v o l-' * : i il. .
H owever, other accoL ln t s oeny that t h is is a -i. : , : F : : . c -ru r e ,
'!he y i ndicate that the C h in e s e a riry ls b y n o _ ' . , -. . r. i L ; ia ; s re s s
ar m y b ut has served to rec r. l. i-t a t f g u n -b a rre r e . . . re , ' (I T )"
i tio roatter how this na y b e , it is o n ly ro o c c rio u s t l: ia t
a ne w examples of isonorphim b e t we e n milit a t y a : -{ . c iv ll l: t ; ' u i " -
tur e is epirearlng now in Ch in a s in c e the o e a in lf if u o . iilir
lin e i ntroduced by the iiu a K u o -f e n g re g ime o lre n t e c j. t c wa riis
g r o wth, incentives, mana g e rj-a 1 is i: 1 , c e n t ra rrz a t io n e t r: . , . 1 , r : ' r e -
sp o n o s well wlth the appare n t c h a n g e s wit h ln the a : rrn e ir r' c i. c e $
towa r d s professionalizati-on, mo d e : ' n iz a t i o n e a n 6 w illi! ; ; ia : : ; is . t t l
 4o

ha r d wa r e ard ci.own o n ld e o lo g y .
a tuning I t e x p re s s e s we l-i t h e
sa .yi ng b y Teng Hslao-P ing ina t rf i{ o d e rn wa rf a re rs f o u g h ; wit h
stee l" ( 5 8).
Co n cerning tne S oviet ,t -i-rio n , it s a t t e n p t t o e x p o rt a
so cia l f ormaiion through ex p o rt o f n ir-irr" : 1 ' e . , t . )e rt j l; . , 0 h a rd " -
wa r e an d ideoiogy has alreac iy b e e n me n t io rie c . It i s wo rin
no ti cl ng that after the 1"9i7 ri. e v o iu t io n , ih e mo o . e rn i; ' p e cf
co n ve n ti on al armJr heacied by f o rme r Z a ris t o f f ie e rs w/ l$ c rio s e n ,
For m eriy jrenln had argu e c s t ro n g ly a g a in s t a s t a ria : . ' , r
ar m y r r D& s siehen<le iieer is t e i-n I { e e r, o a s v o n Y o l-k e g e ' ir, it -i; r
is u n d o a fitr ausgebrJ-det w1 rc i, a u f d a s V o t -k z u s c irle s s e n f r (5 9 )
but w h1 1 e the poiltical- oeba t e p o la rlz e c b e t we e n a re . ro lu t io n a -
ry i Oe o lo g y-orientec. nii:-tia type of on tne o n e s lc ie a n d
"*y
a n o r le r n professlonal, less p o lit iz ls e a o n t . rre o x h e r, the
r niiitar l' progranime introcuced in i9 1 8 a r. d c a r: j-e o o ilt b y T ro t -
er ij sho u l<i have been a two-s t e p e f f o rt : F irs t s e rt ln g u: a
c ap a b le , c onventional f orce a n d s e c o n o ly a f t e r t lie s t n ig r3 ie
ag a ln st counterrevolutionary f o rc e s - j-t s h o u lo t u rn in rc a
re vo lu tr on a ry force, i.e. s t e rit o n a l n ll-it ia under th* i-e a d er -
ship of the B oisnevrk Fartlr. Ho we v e r, L a t e r o n - n o t t h e
ie a st du r ing tire S taiin peno d - c e n t ra liz a ' t J -o n . o p rc f e s s lo n a -
1j - zati on and polit:-cal neutra liz in g took p la c e (O o )" The
con se q u e n ces of this cevelop me n t for t o d a y r s S o v ie i : ' ir' c € s
ar e e xp r e sseo tnis way by Ko lk o wis c z :
r r U ne oi'ti:e most remark a b le a s le c is c f ; ri+ : ' lii-. l: , . : . ' t ; , c n n o -
crai st pos i tion in the Sorri-ei arnec :'or ce s --:j i ri€ rr c on*
si ste nt anci veherrcnt re f u s a l t c b e c o : ie ir. v c l-v e d i-n ih e
no r n al po1:-t ice-i-equcari o n a i a c : -t i v -r t e s in t : ie r' : : u : rit s . . . .
Th e (professional oific e rs ) re s e n t t h e f a c t t h a t , rn e i'
the m selves must submit t o l-a rg e o o s e s o f in d o c t rrn L t : c r.
and political- work, whiie tj'r.e tekhnagg, l,li:o en;o'li l;r'i,,i-;1e r
e a r e er securit).' anc pie f e re n t : -a i- t re a t me n i o a re a * , lc we a
to r ernain atoof frrrm s u c h t ime -wa s t in g a c t iv it ie s ir (0 i1 . . .
'Ih e influence of the te c iin o e ra t s 1 n t h e S o v ie i c f f lc e r
co r p s wili continue to ris e t n o u g h t h e t e n s io n b e t we e n
th e m and the traciitiona^ l-is t s wili le s s e n p a . rt l. v ' b ec a u s e
of the technicai ar:a s c ie n t if ic n e e o s o f t h ; r rr: r, : ; i " f ' ' : rc es
an d partly because the P a rt y e lrt e in e re a s in g iy " f a v o rs
the pragnatic approachr & s s h o wn in 1 t s u s e o f n a n a g e : : j-a i
a n d acimlnistrative tec h n iq u e s f f (6 2 ).
 41"

jus'l '{dve
ffuci: of the wordlng iiere couia as rs'r.,f ,.-"?r;ri
ta ke n from the descrrptio n e a riie r r: f t a e e i -e mp l,e G $ o v : ul
i nfl uence upon the Chin e s e n ilit a ry s p h € re . ' I h e i. n i. ; ): r* , & l l r
tning, Of course , i s t o .rrot1ce tii€lt pl Of es si an,:El- iza ;t ur;:.
the trend from flrednesst r to f re x p e rt n e s $ f t c t o e s t 1 d , , t : : ? , , -. - a l t . l /
real de-polrtizatl orl. llathe r one may see i:,i 1;rlts {i g_l'r-:ig
u p of integratlng the a r& y wit h the re s t o f * o c re t y , a sri,-ir.g
e le m ent of pragmatieisn, a n o p e n in g u p t o wa rd s o lf f ' e ie n 1 ; -la l ii
and cl-ass i.ivisions w:-th:in tae arnec
anc - v.'.n-t forces:
c.. i,.r
sti l 1 imporiani arr ine re a s e d . rc le a c c o rc e c i: , : r t iie . i. r' . " .a i l c e i n e n t
of m llita.rlr tecr,noi-og7 ( b j ) . l. h u s , wit e in e r , * ' e . ; irc ili. : o f ' C h i r i * * q *
Soviet or l.iatin A merlcan p ro f e s s io n a -,
o , ' i: : -' . . ; . . --ec ,
rz a t -c n
for ce s it seems, in ge n e ra l, t c re _ Die s e n i a ilo v e iire r. -, ' . . ) - - i t . : . :
r ig h t, a trend towards mo o e rn iz a t io n , t e c h rro c rs . t ! z t L t : - c j- A: , . i i
ItWe sterrxnegsrr.

hhat has been sald u rrd e r t h e h e a o ln g of c l-a s s e s ire : ^. . ;i : a s

cir cled a:tcuno three as p e c t s c l-a s -* a ilia n c e , re c ri; : . ; . : " : r- - c i J , 0 -
p r o fessional izatl on. T h e o v e ra il ic ie a o f j-s o n o : p h 1 s l r. , ' rw e , ) r 1
th e posltion of the a n i t re b u s l-I le s s ria ria g f ir ' ; _ , ; t * i r -
mi lit a ry
vis the eoldier anc, the wo ik e r y ro u l-d b e t c o s in p i. e : i : r, t* ;
$p e cified by means of t a k : -n g t h e s e t h re e p e rs p ? c t : . ; r' i : , ic
p ,ccount. fhese posit ion s wil-i v a ry a c c o rc i: n r; + ; , f ,iri, . .-ir* f-r iei1-
ti onand -Level of overa li c ie v e io p me n t . in n o s t * i: s € 3 , i: o # ' . - . " i ; L , ,
we wouid take t.tie cias€_g.r1ig-l1pe perspecti.,tt-:. ';,., -5ti 'i'r",: nc:i;
f ruitful f or an uncierstanding of the clp..s,..:,,/::)-*:::,-r- rf,t r::obicni"
Bu t agaln - class allianc e s wil-l d lf f e r a L -c o : : i-riis -, . c s jo o i a -
se tting ano ai-so aecoroln g to f a c t o rs lik e re e : , u it n e n t ?Jtfi
pr o fess1onaLlzati on.

(6) lipace - where the f u n < ia me n t a l d . ime a s : o n is t::;:i cf

ce n ter-perlphery vihichr & s t ire n e x t f e w p o in t s , A l ^p 1.rr.'i n;' ,1r:

Western, belonging to We s t e rn t rc o s mo lo g y . t '

 42

Withrn the nirirary s p h e re we f in d the id . e a s o f c e n rra -

i i zed co mmand, logistics, n a n a g e me n t a n d p la n n in g . fn F t ra t e :
&ic th in kine, likewlse, tne re is a p re o c c iip a t io a wi-t h c e n ie rs i
If yo u can only blow out t h ' : p o L it ic a l-, ln c u s t ria ls c o mmu n ica -
ti on e tc. center of the en e my - wh ic h n a k e s wa : : s e A a i: t e t
na ti on s with strong centralis t ic t e n a e n c le s n u c h t re a s j_ e rrt
th a n th o se a4qainst nati-ons h a v ln g n o s : n g le or a few but
r a the r sa,ny centres extreeery d lf f ic u lt , a s wa s t h e case for
the U niteci S tates in Y ietna n .
C en ter thinking is als o a p p lie d in the d o mj-n o Wp e o i'
r ea so n in g - 1f you c& n only stop the e n e my 1 n o n e e o u n t ry r you
m a y ha ve stopped hiu in alL the re s t . Co n t a ln & e f , ii p o iiv j. e s
a im at the sare philosophy.
Th e fixaiion upon one e n e a y is c o n p a t ib le wit h t h is
r ea so n in g ano appl-ies wiii t o i; h e j" o e a t h . a t t h e n a t io n a l c e t it r e s
a c,l uir e the monopoj-y io d.e f in e s e c u rit y t h re a t s a n c i c e c l. . : e
u p o n see urity measures at n a t lo n a l
the a n d e v e n s u p ra -rra c io n a l
le ve l wn ich is thm suppos e c i t o t rt rlc k le d o wn il t o g u a ra n t e e
i ncllvid u a i hunan security.
The features arouno center t h in k in g h a v e a ls o b e e r. a e a l-t
with in relatior:, to the con c e p t o f rrS Q h we rp u n i. rE
fr e.5. b1.'
* ose r u p ano rfack (54). ?he c o n c e F t , of c o u rs e , j, s ih a t cf
C i au se wl\zt- the centre of g ra v lt y , a eenter of p o we r a t io
m o ve m e n t on whlch everythirg < ie p e n c is . I t ma y b e t h e a rrn v , the
cap ital, & iiiance menbersh ip , u n lt y of in t e re s t s , a c h a ris n a -
ti e n a tl onal- ieacier or - a s in n o n -v io le n t s ' iru g g 1 e rh e
un ity an d soliciarity of the uasses - a g a in s t wn ie h the f j: : a l-
blo w m u st be direeted by th e e n e my .
The lnter"esting aspec t h e re is that it is the defencs
y1fi qn ce termines what is g o in A to be the " S c . lwe rp Un k t lt ; i-t he r e
h a s a s u p e rl o rl ty o ve r th e offence accor o.lng to classicar
strategic th i n kl n g .
A l t h o u g h th l s n a y ru n counter to our 1&neciate intuition,
i t w a s w e l l l i l u stra te d i n tne case of Vj- etnam, in nucn gueri l -
la f i g i r t i ng a l l o ve r th e wor ia and in cases of non- r r iol- ent
s t r u g g l e l rke P ra g u e 1 9 6 8 against the W ar saw Pact i- nvasion.
T h e a t t a cke d p a rt ch o o se s the m ode of defence.
 4.3

rt woulc haraly ne e d & a n y wo rt i. s t o : -liu s rra t e that t. h e

civil" sphere 1n modern We s t e rn s o c ie t y is a ls o d . ire e t e d to w a r d s
ce n tr e thlnking - 1n the ra y s o c ie t y is o rg a n iz e d , c o & if . ia n i e s
a n ci adminlstratlons are c : g a n iz e d , in t h e wa y t n e e c o $ o n li i s
n a d e to grow througir de v e io p me n t c e n t e rs a n d ie c i: n ; io g iic a l.
su p e r i"ority or ln the wa y in wh ic h a f e w re g ; io n a i e € . n t re
po we rs around the world a re p ic k e d t o f u n c t io n a s n e w p r: ] - e s o f
ca p italisrir with:-n a soc a ij-e d Ne w in t e rn a t : o n a l- E c o : . ir. r: r: , c{ - } r d e r .
O ne c ouid ii]<ewise rrotlc e t h e in c re a s in g u s e wit h in ' )u s -i;r e s s
l - i fe of terms iike rrstra t e g ic p ia n n in g t r, ! t e a r3 -y wa rn iil4 i, r,
r r m ar i<et offenslverf etc.

i?) tirae - where t h e re is a p re o c c u p a rio n wit h a s 4 qg ! ,

d r a n a tic settling of con f l-ie t s , s e e ln g the in u a e d ia t e re s ui t s
w h.i ch are possible tiarou g h t h e wlp in g out of one or a few
cen tr es and where the t in e of wa rn ln g h a s d e c re a s e d ra p ic iy
o ve r the laet few years .
rt
reser'lbles the wa y in rd rrc h the c a p lt a iis ' i wa n t s to
se a quick retu:ri frorn h rs -, ll. v e s ' i; s ie n t b l o w^ n g ri, e c o n p e t it or
o u tr rif tne mar-rcet with a s u rp ri-s i. n g n e w p : jc iiu c i - s c n e t j-$ e3
en citng up in buying the c o mp e t it o r l: . k e c n e n a t io n ma y o * e u p y
ir n o therrs territory.
In general, the sh o rt -s lg h i; e d rie s s c f He s t e rn p o ii-c rc a j
a n c economic ciecision-na k in g is re f le c t e c i in t ire s iio r. t , ^ -s: - g n r e o -
n e s$ :-mmanent in raislng the ie v e l of milit a ry e x p e rid i-: ; ; ; es
1 n o r der to acqulre a s h o rt p e rio d t s s u p e rio rit y u n rij. the
o p p o nent catches up and y o u f e e l re la t iv e ly : l-n s * c u re a g a in.
The opposl-te kinc o . f t h in k in g c a n b e f o u : : . a : : -: other nr:crar
for m a tlons, under other iu e o io g ic a i g u ia e iln e s a n c i c lo n c e p t u a -
i i zati ons of time . Thus , lia n T s e -t u n g writ e s I
r rHowever cruei the wa r ma lr b e , we n u s t a b s o J . u t e i. l' a ; : .j
firnry endure until t h e ia s t t ' iv e a ln u re $ o f s lru g g ie"
S his is especlally t ire c a s e wit h o u r p re s e rit € il€ L , rr, w h c
finos his advanrage 1 n a ra p id d e e is io n . i_ nt h e wa r,
whereas our eo^va+ta ge is to be found irr the st rat egy of
prot,rac ted wartr ( 5 5 ) .
 44

( A ) B p i e te ra q i _ o g y - a dimension r tr ich has r o dc with

w ays o f 1 ea::ring and accumuia t in g e x p e rie n c e , wit h the u n d e r-
s ta n d in g of causality. In th e t { e s t e rrr wo rld it is often ex-
pr e sse c ln the idea of f,indi n e g rre b a s ic eausq to e x c la in
t hi ng s even rather complex ones. lh ls is t y p ic a J - f c , r n irira ry
t hin kln g , too.
Eg o never f inds the cau s e o f f ig n t is S ' , y : -t h in h ; -n s e l-i' c r
in the r elationshi-p with A l" t e r, but e x c iu s t v e ly wit h rn A iie r:
I " f he co u ld only stop being a 8 g re s s lv e wi-' r, h f r€ r if h re c c u lc
on iy stop a:mlng againet nel T h e b u iid in g up of e n e my a ma g e s
an ct thr e a t scenarios usualiy s e rv e t h e f r. : n c t jo n p le c e
tl
Alter a s the lnri ependent , 'bh re a t e n in g , d a rrg e ro u s a n d rrb rl. d rt
gu y w he r e as E go appears oep e n d s rt , p e a e e lo v ln g and as tne ngood't
gu y.
It
1 s also I'ound 1n the in d lv id u a iis n irg . : : a S : B r rn e
colle cti ve rrwert (not particul a rly neJ ) ts u s e o io e > : p la i-n
con fl l cts as wei.l as developme n t : T h e re a a e wa rs b e c a u s e \ re
& B h u n a n belngs are born ag g re s s lv e (o r
s i-n f u J -l ) a n o , in
t he civ1 l sphere, everybooy is t h e a rc h it e c t o f h is i)t rlt f c r-
t un e ,l The re is, according to t h is type of Ue s t e rn re a s o n lr: g ,
l i ttl e w e can do about the c o lle c t iv e p ro b le n s f a c rn g us.
C au se s a r e seldon sought for in s t ru c t u re s or 1 ri ih e : r-" le r-
ae ti on of ciifferent levei-s of re a lit y . t h . u s r we a re a ls c
l ess ln ter ested in the rnotiv e s b e h in d c o n f l-ie t benav: cur ( or
be h in d civl1 political or e c o n o mic a c t iv it : . e s ) t ra n ..n the
er ap ir ica lly avai-iabie results : the a rme d s t ru g g ie a n d iis
o u tcon e ( anci xhe polltica-l or e c o n o n a ic ln v e s t n e n t a n d iis
p a y- o ff) . It givee high presrig e is y o u wln a c o n f iic t r. c
m a tte r w hether you are rigbt ; a n d s o it d o e s if y o ie t ro . . --e lr/ €
a Jot of v otes or get a high re t u r: r f ro m y c u r in v e s t me n t rro
ma tte r wh at is your product.
Th e ldea of mono-causaiit y is a ls o a p p a re n t in n u e ri
theor:etlcal thinking as to the driving f orces of_ arglllment -
it 1 s fou nd 1n arms race the o rie s d e a lin g wit h a c ij-c n -re a c t io ri
p a tte r n s where the opponent is t re a t e d e x c iu s lv e ly as the
s tim u lu s, and in marxist thin k irig about the b a s ic causes of
 45

a r m a r n e ntr and of nili-tarism in wh ie h the s o le d riv in f f o rc e is

Lssu m e c 1.o be the proiit c rie n t a t io n of c a p rt a iis m, i_ t s p ro -
b le m of realiz.irqq surpJ-us e . p it a l, and that t h e re f o re -
m i l i ta r isn as weil as arra , rre n t rt c o n p le x e s il c a n r p e r lre f 1 n j t j _ o -
.be
n e m , o nllf fr:und wrthin t h is s o c ia J - f o rrn a t io n .

i1 |_3:i[M wh ic h a re t y p ic a lly v e rt ic p . l in
bo th t- rie ml;itary aFr T,ne c iv il
s p n e re . I n f ro n t o f t le e ma r i a g e r
m 1 - L ira.rj' o:' civj i ]iun a n b e j-n g s a re s u b o rd in a . t e d . , la c k
otr r po r ti r::i-;tas |"y-: trile powe r t o a c t l-v e p a rt ] . c ip a t io n a ; we li a s
tne r i gnt io wirnora\il. 'ii. e , v a re a t o la iz e o . t rn e ir s o c : -a J - b a c k -
gr o u n o a r,d : no ivlrual cap a c : ' t i e s a s n u n a n b e i-n g s a re s t rrp p e d
a wa y. On"i-;rparts of the h u n n a n b e i-n g a re ma o e u s e o f .
iuicst c;'-r ,t;r, ;le ,^sonai ccmrnltme nt i s co unt erpro d uc tlve
do n r t fee, cr:m;;ri,1;"ije$"1 ;t o
he v a lu e s y s t e rn o r a n id e o io g y , don't
c o m m it vr:u:rs ei i r o t he liro o u c t o r t h e c a u s e o f f i g h t i n g : Do
yo u r j ob ancr ;,iou wilt be p a id a c c o rd in g t y l T h e jc b a s a o ld ie r
is j - ncreasingl;i a job like a n y o t h e r - mo n e ra riz e d r p rc f e s s ro -
na - j.t.zi c ., urr: onizei, frdemo c ra t iz e c it r.

As pointed by e . , q . iiis b e t ,
out v a iu e s iik e n o n o u r, c o ur a g e ,
sa e r i f rce , c or.tri.rs*1 or e t rrr 1 it )' , t t a c io ra t r o n a n o id e a i iz a ii on
o f tir e feir-.e-.tl" enr :el iii- ro s l-t y we re imp o rt a n t d u rin g [ne
i {i dd ie A ges and onwards. t * a rs we re f o u g h t wit h s o ; rle , . : : -lri o f
co lle ct-Lve,ly accepted cau s e , mo ra le ma t t e re d .
W hat is more often founc" today is a b ru t a -t iz e c t , o e mo la -
l i . z e c i j ,-n :_ ::t'l r1 j i n l 1 :j . typo of f r ghting - of ten for the sole
p u r p o sp .r: i-i]rti:': .. a. sa-ia r" / o r f c r rf a d v e n t ru re rf - excepi i* li
case s, ijke e.g. na'iiona.l, ij-b e ra t io n mo v e n e n ls e rL d a n t i-c o rc ; n j a i
str ug i;.ie, w.rlere t,nere is a ma s s s u p p o z ' t f o r a c a u s e . T h ls is
m uch nore di.f ircu-ti l,c ra i s e t o c ia y in t -f je We s t e rn , o v e rd e v e -
I ,l *-1 -.*
^*^ ti '. r2J
li-, ai ^
\-/ | rir .
-L L,, l/E

'!' :ro.:ainculrt, afto dept: t of s o c ia f p ro b t e n ; s a . I n o n . gs c , c * e t s

d u r in gand L1l'ter w& rs are ra p rc ily in c re a s in g e s p e c ia il, l: in
th e l Jn:tr,d S tates * aoding t o c rimin a l[ t y , d ru g g a Cc ic t io ri an c i
fa scist iri:l"i't j.cat cr jenta t i ons.
 4a

It ha s aiso i;o cio w1ti, th e c h a ra c t e ris t ic s of t h e n u c le a r

age. In a w ay, the personaL co n u n it me n t t o a v a l-u e s y s t o t wa s
r e i l l ecte d i n the C-lausewitzlan d i s t in c t io n b e t we e n t h e a im a n d
t h e p u r p o se ol:ggq. The first wt , s p u re ry t n ilit a ry t o win
t h e wa r w he :ri f i:::;'i; j-t was starte d t h e o t h e r id e n t if ie c i p o l-i*
t i c a l g o a ls. V li;"rr;couici be rat ro n a l in t h e s e n s e rrt h a t d e -
s t r u ctio n an d vic.'ence are fiIea lt s t o a n e n d a n d n o t e n d s in
t h e m se lve s, excepl :-:l eellia"til c a s e s rf a s Re ; t n g 1 6 u h a s e x p re s s e d
it (5 5 ) . Thr ,3 is no ionge:: tne c a s e wit h t h e s t ra t e g ic n u c le a r
a r s e n a ls r eI) r-eilrlniriri€i trovur-kiirir s in c e n o b o d y c o u ld lrwin rr in
a r ' l y r a ti - ol1 &- r rre.ise.
Wo u ld i-l i:e to go too far to ma in t a in that iri ma . n y c a s e s
i - n th e ci vi l s,,orlere do we find that t h e me a n s wh lc h f o rme rly
w e r e dir e e teo towa.rds an end ha v e b e c o me e n d . s t h e ms e lv e s ?

( l o) lviqn-j.r:j,_::Il*JgJq!-ille ill botn s p h e re s a re b u ilt u p o r,

the fu n cia r n e nt,al i-nea oi' ilarrrs io : n i-n a t i o n o f n a t u re . E c o n o mic
g r o wth is n clv meetr ng its outer l1 mit s a n d s o is n iiiia ry g ro wt h
in ter m s of r*sourc e dep ietion a n ri p o lu t io n r but a f s o in
t e r ns of d r :rect i[eans of enviro n me n t a l wa rf a re e.8. c h e mic a i
w a r :fa r e u ct€i'or-.li;ion, Fo:.sonin S { , b u rn in g , d e lib e ra t e ly p ro v o k e d
e a r th q u a ke s, *--"i'.rr;rings as w r: 1 1 a s t h € s y s t e ma t ic b o mb in g o f
c i a ms, &#icu l tu:r';lr .'acr ' lt ie s 3 J )o 1 a n o . e t c . - not to speak of
n u c l e a r r ad 1at-Lcvr.
The po int, of ccurse, 1s t h a r the p l-a n n e d d e s t ru c t io n of
n a t ur e a o o s io the generai eco lo g ic a l c ris is a is o o u rin g
p e ace tim e . il ws.rtire , rt -; p ro b a b ly c o rre c t to say that
the d e stnicti on .:f ;iour neignb o rirf s e n v iro n me n t ma y v e ry we il,
in the l on ir ranii, impl-y your o wn d e s t ru c t i-o n . Na t u re has a
rrgee ond s tri.:r: er' cac abi-L rt.Y.
 56

alr e a d y been given in reia t lo n to the rrin t e ra c t lo n b u d g e " u t r.

Th e po ln t, among others, is tnat t ire n ilit a ry s p h e re e x p lo irs
th e so cial surplus produced J y o t . b rs . If we t a k e the e x a n p le
of pe rlpherar c ount rle s , tne surplus r s most of t en cr€-\at ec.
b y p e a sants and workers, ano they s e rrre t o f i: ' l" a ric e t |: . e rie f e n c e
i nd u str i es as weli as the miiit a ry a n c i p a ra -milit a ry a p p a ra t u s
altho u g h 1t seems to serre e lit e s e c u ri-iy mo re t it a n the s e c ur i -
ty of th e rnassea.
( b) lenetration where the center c o n t ro is or ln f iu e ric e s
the ce n ter of the ciominateo . " I n a d ire c t rre n n e r, t h e mi-irt a r; .
has taken over gorrernment in roughiy 5o nati ons arouno the
wo r ld ancr in a more lndirect ma n n e r t h e o i-J -it a ry is s t ro n g ly
in fl ue n cing iherrcentresrrcf the re s i of s o c ie t y - the in c u s -
tr i alists, bureaucrats, the State a s s u c h a s ' . t er-l- d s t h e
sci en tj - sts, engineers a:io s e e u r rt y e x p e rt s i t r: . e j a ri h a v e
p r e scr ib e d nrles within th e MI t s S -e o mp ie x f , re n * uo: -n e c i e a rlie r.
it cou-i-o aiso be aod e o t h a t the rn illt a ry
s p h e re h a s t h e
cap a city to hol<i a firn g rip u p o n t h e h u ma n rf c ent€Ttt, the

m i- n d s of people, through t h re a t s c e n a rio s , e n e my iru a g e s " enpioy-

m en t a r gunents, argUnent s a b o u t t h e we lf a re o f ih e i' ia t l a n e r c .
( c) FraA mentaiion whe re t h e . lo min a r. t : -n t e : a c r wlt n each
othe r w hile tne ooninated a re s p iit anc kept a . p a rt . It nay
ta ke tw o ciirections nere: F irs t t ire re is t i: e a t o miz a t io n of
r n r r iviciu ars witnin tne nri: -t a ry sys;'Jts in c ru o . in g t -n e s e ie c -
ti on of young arui abie nen wir. rc h le a v e s wo me n , o l-d e r p e o p le ,
l ess p h rysicaily ab1e, less educated a s we li a s a n rrn -b e r a : '
socla i groupings out of th e s J rs t e m. S e c o n d ly , ' ih e re is t n e

fr ag n e n tati on by the elites v is -a -v is p e o p ie : t h e i-n t e g ra t j .: r -

of the MIB S interests whic h c lo s e t h e lr t e rr: , t o ry f : : o rn : : r. s 1gh t ,
r athe r often from pariranen ia ry c o n t ro i a n d wh ic h $ e c s r, o j. t
th a t contact are kept arld o e v e lo p e d s u p ra n a t io n a lly * d riv ln g
ihe ge,ne of arrnament above our heads.
As part of this gsrne t h e y h a v e e s t a b lis h e d ih e i-r o wn
or g a n iza ti ons nilitary-polit ic a r e x p e rt c o n mit t e e s o b o a rd s
of n illtary-industrial ent e rp ris e s , n ilit a ry s o c ie t ie s , lo b bi e s ,
 57-

i nter - m lnistrlal councils, s u p ra n a t io n a i G a n a g e me n i c o in in ; t t e e s ,

m illtar lr pact organs, var io u s a d h o e b o o ie s - a r} o f v * iic l: .
fu n cti on as & burearrcratic e ; -iy o r6 la n iz e d mls t c io s e c t f re rm
ou tsi ue penetretiorr (evc:r p n y s lc a -l-iy wh e n t h e y
in e e t b e r. i. r: : " d
ba r b e o w:'re ano surrounde c b y s e c u rit y io rc e s ) iii , 3 e , j, n * , ; e l--
Iig e n ce of1-reers, body-gua rd a n d a re t ra ris p o : ie c c a c k a r. c i fo r t h
in sp e cial aircrafts an<l h e ric o p t e rs ) - a ll 1n tbe naIae of
'r na ti o nal securiW .tt
'i o swnaarlze, it is t y p ic a i for t h is e ie n e n t of tne j\ IH g
th a t tn e ni-iitary sphere a n d s e c u ri-t y a p p a la t u s is b u ilt * u . p o : - .
socie ty, with a high cieg re e o f autono&y, w-it ; : s rru . c l, u r: -l
sim ila r ity with clvii s o c ie iy wh iie e x p . L c i t in g rh e rrirlr of
tnis $ a& e soci.ety which 1 s ra p iily g ro wt _ n g ie s s a n d l-* s s
secu r e u iosl-ng j-ts lnner o e f e n s iv e s t re n g t h a n o b e e o min g mor e
m l ne r a b 1e.
The way out of thie, of c o u rs e , is to deny the milit a ry
sph e le ti:e resources by wh ic h it h a s o v e rd e v e io p e c it s e i1 . &no
un d e r ce veioped c:-vii soci e t i es.

l- 4. - $ocia1 vuinerabiii t y

Th e l oe a behlnd this ti:irC Cime n s io n of mj-l: -t a ris n is ea::_ly

un a e r stooC by means of a v e rlr s imp le d . : -c o t a mlz a t i o n g ' * h lrl
r na .K€ sriiieone out with tne t y p o lo g y cf lh re a t s cf T a ' c re 4 c n
tn e ne xt pege. It will lr o rn e d ia t e iy b e e le a r tnat t iie riii, "nr
secu r lty interest is rela t e d to type I. 0f n ilit a ry e x p e n u i-
tur e s in total it is not unusual that 9 5 -9 8 if not io o pct
are p o ureci into purely m 1 1 1 t a r5 r d e f e n c e me a s u re s . le p e n a irr6 ;
on the overair sociai se t t in g these & e a a u re s n a y b e c ire c ie c
p r im a r i"iy towards externa l- t h re a t s o r p n n n a rily t o wa rd s i-n -
ter n a l threats (type II).
 58-

T a b le 4 A typ o i o e y o f thr eats

External Inter nai

I Ii
rInter
"' u- ' national
1' 1 Civ ii
Mi l i ta ry/ | warfare
vi o l e n t I war

IIi
Civ:J.l Economic S o c ia l
non-violent warfare warfare

Type if th re a ts a re exenplified by r evolts, guer illa

w a r f a r e , l i b e ra ti o n mo ve ments whlch ar e obviousiy consider ed
th r e a t n t o ce n tre s b u t n ot necessar ily to the peopie. Ter r or -
is f l m a y a lso b e p i a ce d h e re with specific r efer ence to a
n u m b e r o f o ve rd e ve i o p e c Wester n societies whica have pr oveC
vi r t u a l l y u n a b i e to d .e a l w ith this secur j- ty challenge an a
r n e a n i n g f ul w a y - b u t ra tl re r has tended to move in the dir ec-
t l o n o f a n p o l l ce -sta te rr i n r esponr ling to ter r or ists n a poli.cy
w h i c h o n l y vl o l a te s th e h u tsn secur ity of the m jor ity of
c l t i z e n s w h i 1 e , a t th e sa me, confir ms the ntheor y" of ter uor -
i s n - i . e . th a t mo d e rn d e n ocr acles can easir } r be br ought to the
ve r g e o f a cii c ta t o rsn i p .
T . v p e III th re a ts h a ve io do with pr essur es fr on outslde
wh lch ar e not nilitary or d ire c t ly v io le n t but a irn a t b re a k in g
up str ucturally violent syst e ms . It ma y b e t h e t h . re a t ex-
p e r ie n ce o during an oil cris is , the t h re a t f ro m c e rt a in n a t ro n s
r un n in g an economic war or b o y c o t t of o n e rs p ro d . u c t s , it ma y
be th e th reat experienced. fro m g lo b a i e c o n o mic p ro b le ms o r
tha t pe r ceived thrcugh the denand for a Ne w I n t e ma t j. o n a l-
X con o m lc 0rtier whlcir - if p ro p e rly re a liz e d is l-ik e ly to
c au se r a ther fundanental eha n g e s wlt L rin the c e n t re e c o n o mie s a n d
de m a n d that they beeome more s e lf -re l-la n t in s t e a d of e x p lo it a -
tlve .
 59

Ilere there are no th re a t s a g a in s t t e lrit q iJ i, ra rn e r

ag a in st a iifestytre, again o : a s t ru c t u re , e 4 la in s t a c u lt u re
an d in the final- anaLy s io - a g p . in s t a h : _ s t o ri_ c a l stage *i
a p a r ti -cul-ar social f orn a t io n . It
w: 1 1 h j t c lr: -rit ri-e s wh : re h.
are highiy other-reliant particuJ-ari;,r harc:. ;:a;;ons .,vi::;rn
are especially dependent u p o n t ra d e a n d mo b : -lit J i cf p rc ld u c-
tto n factors in large ec o n o ra ic c y c le s a n d it wrii } : . it t iro s e
na tj - on s whieh are lncreas i-n € ly u n a b le to s a t . rg : ; r ii: t . b rr; ic
h u m a n aeeds of th.e:-r pop u ia t lo n b y n e a n s o f t h e : -r iwn : e i: c i; . r " *
ce s.
it wiil appear th,at a mu c h n e g le c t e d aspecr cf rre
cl on ln a nce-depenoence the o ry 1 s t j: e ia e ry a : llr: g v u l-n ra b il: t . . , '
o n th e pa:t of tire centre wh e n : , t ie l-j-e s o ii e x p i-o it in g , p en e -
tr atj .n g anci fragpnentlng o t h e rs . wh e n d o mi-n a t in g g o t h e rs o yol.
aiso turn other-reilant e x a c t ly as the n 1 1 it a ry s p h e re reL i e s
u p o n t:e civil- sphere to a n e v e r-ia rg e r d e g re e . S t o r n a t io n a l
&s we li as lnrernational p e rip h e rie s (wh e t h e r in E Co n o & i, l
o r m ll- ltary nnatters) the s o lu t io n n a y v e ry we il- b e ro w: ih -
ti r aw frcm tbe interaction and extend c o lle c t iv e s e if -re l-ia n c e.
fhus, to be stmeturaily o v e rie v e lc p e d in p iie s a is c ,
io b e inereaslngly insecu re - t h e n p o v e rt ; , r o f p o we r" e g : rin
a n d w i ren faclng structural - c n a L ie n g e s it wiil b e n c 3 c o ; io
ta se to arms. A gainst this type of t h re a t : , ry T e a le ir 1 r, il i
seci.r r i t"rr (partly becau se t ir e c h a iie n g e 1 s n o r re rrit o ri* -r ).
it j - s on1lr s sign of dee p -ro o t e d mll-lt a ris n + , , 1 r3 t r. asuF,?r
p o we r could ever dream of t a k in g t o a rn s e . , t 1 . i-n t h e F ilrj d ] . e
Sast in order to secur e it s o i1 s u p p l-i e s .
t ire iio we r c , f rne
oll elvi1, econonic an d s t ru c t u ra l a s it is is , i: -r : T inc i p l e
at l - east, s1mp1y stronger (p ro v id . e d the n O p e c iz a t : c r, rt , , r. jio
be car rieo through in colie c iiv e s o l-ic a rit y ),
In other wordso it 1 s e x t re n e ly < i. a n g e ro u s t o t ri' ta
tr a n sform a type III thre a t ln t o a type I t h re a t . Un d e r. a il
i na g in a ble clrcranstances, the c h a lle n g e of the liiE O c o u id
no t b e net by neans of a rms except fon a p e rio d .
 F l9 0 -

T h e o n l y re a so n a b l e d e f ence neasur es for the r .i,cl,

o v e r d e v e l o pe d a n d stru ctu ra l S,y vulner able natj- ons woulct be to
re - s i r u . c t u "r e th e i ,r e co n o mi e s t*r ,wgr ds mor e s ei{ *r e r 1. €.
in t e r m s o f J-e a rn l n g to su rl r i"/e wititout exploir ir r g a per iplier y"
t h l s w o u i u . b e n o th i n g i n th e dir ection of isclu.tion- u$&. a$ is
oft e n p r e s u me d . R a th e r, i t w oul- d inply equally m uch ini:er action
b u t o f a d iffe re n t typ e a n d with oiffer ent ficom m ooitiestr . Gr owth
wo u l d b e mu ch mo re 1 n te rrn s of quality - to which ther e &r e
no liroits and noi in terms of quarr.tity vrhich has *r,obe
1im 1 t e d .
@ a re e xem plified by the j- ncr ease t- n atcigi
n r n o b l e r o swi tn l n so cl e ti e s. tr t may be eentr ailzation ( of
pe o p l e , c a p 1 -ta l -, tra n e p o rt, com niunicati on) wliich j- ncr er ases
v u l n e r a b i l - i ty - a cco rd i n g to tr ad,itional center *or iented
strateglc th i n ki n g . It ma y be tnat ever mor e people ar e passl-
f 1 e d , t h a t co mmi tme n t a n d creativity 1s not needed as much as
b e f o r e o r i t ma y b e si g n s o f soclal d.isintegr ation - like
c r j - m i n a l i t y n co rru p tl o n , d e cr easing health stanCar ds, iack of
v a l u e - o r l e n ta tl o n , d e cre a si ng sociai so11cai,ty, inr llvr iuaiism,
po l i u t l o n , L a ck o f g e n e ra l happLness etc. it na;v be the
s i t u a t j - o n wh e re a n i n cre a si n g num ber of sociai gr oup:.ngs ar e
le f t j , d l e o su p e rfl u o u s 1 n other wor ds, the s oc ie t:r r h ich
f a c e s i ; n e co n se q u e n e e s o f a deep econom ic cr isis wner e system
m a i n t e : i a n c e ca n n o t b e ta ke n for gr anted &tlr r ag1s.
T o s u n ma ri ze th i s p o i n t of m illtar ism r t is pr obably
t r u e t o s ay tn a t th e ma l d e veloped, nilitar istic society keeps
on a e c u n u l ati a g ro i l -i ta ry means to m eet thr eats of type I ano,
t o a c e r t a i.n 1 o w ce g re e , type II. W hile it gr ows incr easing-
1y vul"nerable eoeial-1lr anci ins ecure nl}i tarily, tbreat s are
m i s p e r c e i v e d , th e n i i i ta ry spher e becomes ever r aor € power ful
anci civil so ci e ty i s i e ft tor n apar t, d.efenceiess and
f u n c i a r n e n t a i l y th re a te n e o . l he point is well stated by liuddle:
f r N a t l o n a l se cu ri ty re q u ir es a stabie economy with sssur ed
s u p p l ie s o f ma te r l a 1 s f or r ndus tr y. In this sens e, fr u-
g a l i t y a n d co n se rva ti o n of nater ials ar e essent j.ai to our
n a t l o n a l se cu ri ty. S e c ur ity n€ans &or e than safety fr om
h o s t l l e a tta ck; i t i n cl udes the pr eser vation of a systen
o f c i vi l i za ti o n tt (7 2 ).
 15 . Insecurittr

It wili hardly surprlse anycne that n il" it a ri" s n e mb ra c e s t h e

fe a tur e of lsecurity - a;; a : t f ro m the : -s . e a o f s t ru c t u ra l s im i i a -
r ity, miiitary monopoiy ani s o e ia l v u in e : : e * : 1 iiy . ' lh e )1 , . 1 , : C
as such increases hun'an i-n s e e u rit y a s we h a v e a j-re a c i3 r t o u c h ed
up o n .
Thle point is b)'no me a f ls n e v t - but it c ie s e : : v e s f lp n t io n
a g a in . A lready i-n 1915, t h e h is t o ria n E d wa rd F -re : ib : ie l- wro ' i: e j . n
h is m ost visionary and we ll- c i: me n t e d s t u d y o f ilNa ; ic n a . l is n,
War ar u S ocie tytt:
ff:t is to be notecj. tha t t h e c o s t o : i' in s r-u ' i. n g p e a c e b ; ; r c on -
p e *uitlve armamente h a s 1 n t h e la s t d e c a d e ris e n ? e { r : ap i d -
ly and out of propcir i: o n t o ; h e in e re a s e in p o p u ia iio n ,
we alth or prosperi.ty. I f a rma n s it s ln s u re d p e a c e a ir na t i o r . r s
should be & ore secure t h a n f o rme rl-y . 0 n t h e e o n ira ry nc _
r y.tlon fe_els one whi t ra o re s e c ' ' . rre . liv e n t f a n a t io n o ut -
r:Li:'.s al"L corpeti tcrs i-r g&irrs l.c secrrl ir.'; , es f ear tnpeis
other natj ons to mak e n e w a ii: -a n c e s wn ic h c rlE mg e : h r-.
ba f ance o1' power. . . T h u s u n c e ria llry , s u s p e c io n a : : d f e a r
a r e abroad and erc s u b le c t t o t h e e x p io lt a t lo n o i' i; n t :
un scr:upuious" (?l).

Ancj. a rnodern analy$is b y Re y n o id e s u b s t a n t r-a t e s " ir; rs vi e w

in the iol,iowing way:
I'fh us a1l statesrnen pre p a x e f o r t h e e v e r^ . i' ; a i-t ; : . f u a r, a n d
th*r i:'i.c::nr"1,r
oi the .-ra t : o t 1 -s t a t e h a s a l s c f e i. l ia e ; 1 i s ro r v
o l- warfare. l'{ar thus a . l] ire e rs n o t a s a b n o : n a i but as n*ing
pr e-eminently norn:ii 1 ] : : n t e : g : a t rc / : . ' -i : c 1 : -t rc s . l{ ; : is , 1 v 6 y ,
ti :e parad ox whicn nc a i{ e s t r! : -s a p p a : ' e r. l: ' i : : e il: : ih ie i, , r-:-. c y
create the c orrditj- on wn^ch it nost ira she 3 i: o aa/oai: :;i; ens
!rygi, tjlg-:1glion o-i secur-"i'*. Ser:ur-ty oniy e:r-1sts i,Tffa
s t ra te i )o sse sse s ti i e capaci- ty to f :- gnt succe ssLr l war s
a gainst any potential a € g re s s o r, a n c i o e f e n c e p o . , -. ' . c ; is
coneerned j-n ihe rnain with relative nilrtar;.' :2&gil;:Xg
a nc not tn e ln.rentic. : l c f o t ire r ra t i o n s , C1 e & , ri. ' r, : f a l i
natl ons siiare 'r,lii-s coi';cerii thun 'il:t ::esu i*', ie 3. c o]';diti *n
qf permane+i ins**-ur+t'L ir i:h.e r'"Ifff-*
c en t ral pr o b.t en'r is
th €tt one state I g sec u -r li; , i 1 s e i. n o t n e r s t a t . ' I s t n s e c u rl-' t ; 1 .
The consequence 1s a c o n p e t iid " o n b e t we e il s t a t e s lrih ie n t a k e s
th e forn of arrna rac e s , t re a t le s f o r mu iu a l" d e f e v ic e" e. n c
sociai aru economie 1 : re p a : a rlo n f c r wa r, j4 i! ! . ? a ri_ o r-i. v
be f lna11]r resolrrcd b l, ' wa r it s e lf x . in a rt e mp l: : n 1 i ir,
achleve security the n a t io n -s t a t e s o f t n e wo rlo e u c c e e d .
 =6 2

in stea o ln ereating anarc h lr a n < i v lo le r: c e . Y e t wa r * , e . ri

de cid e the question of na t io n a l s e c u rlt y c t r t c b e s o re
p r e cise , which nation 1s s e c u re r o n l-J if t h a i n a r: o n
succeeds once and for all- :n monopollsi4€_yio1*en.!g_r.].l ti+g
wo r l{. in tne sane wry a F _ -. ; s A c v e rn in e ri i. s s iio rio p , -rl: s e c
'r i ole n ce within the stai* ' i"
In tneory, secrrrity call be ac.t'i:-evecLihloi.gh rt'or-,.r negenon.y
o r em pirer or by creatj-on o f a o n e wc rl' l s t ; rie . iu i: le o f
th e se possibilitie s h:es b e e n re a lis e d . No s t a t e ile . D e lrr-":
wo n & hrar, for vi-ctories a n c i a e f e a t s n a v € n e v e r [ e i* i t o t a l.
fhe e r i.d of every.war has b e e n t h e b e g : rin irrg o a . n , rih e r
p o we r s truggier' (74 *ita i 1 c s a d o e o ).

Re ;u.no ids has been quoted h e re at s o me le n g t h because few

a n al yses e xpress the features o f wn a t c o u la p ru p e riy b e c e rlie c i
the sg cu r ity eris:.s of the worlo s y s ie m s o we li. It r# p = ; h -: -e n
ln w hich all- nations share a p a rt , la rg e or
s n a il (' l> j,
Wh a t ]s not expii,citel-y stated a b o v e is -t , ire f a c t rh a t t n is
s e cu r ity cr isis riaturaliy vio la t e
h . u rn a n s e c ' t irii. . r - a c t rc u n -
s t a nce w h.i cir reflects the faet t h a t [ s e c u rlt y t t 1 s a -r-mo s t e x c iu -
sive"i-y thouglt of in terms of trn4_t1olral_€ggj*X,tt. Tl:.iis, secu-
rit y - i n t hi s fi e l d i s n e ver seen as a basic human neeci.
w i r r cii r n a y very weli be oile re a s o n wlq r t h e re 1s so 11tt1e p c p u ia r
d e ba ie i:tr r d protest agalr.st tn e a rin a in e n t 0 . e v e lo p me n t s r. j^ i g e ri e ra l.
it r oa y b e a daed ihat other me a n s o f c o n t ro liln g t h . e p c ; . u a rL o n s
aie al- so i nfh.lencing Lro& afl l1f e today - a it h o u g h of a no:e
civii or ie n tation they are oft e n ma n a g e d b y n iiit a ry , p 3 ra -
m i iitaly o r j-nteiiigence appara t a a s we l-I rlru -s ira t e c b:r
L e l{o n d an r i F"y, A ehroyd et.a1. a n d . He d ric t S mrt h jA ' i. In o t ire r
w c ::C s, n a ti onal seeuli-ty nay n o lo n g e r b e a b l. e t o d e llv e r the
g o od s, it may no ionger be the p u ri: c s e of 1t; ra t n e r it seeas
tnat a su b stantia^ i part of ai 1 s e c u riiy in v e s t me n t s a re d ire c t e d
a g ain st th e people. The world of L984 oay thus b e c lo s e r than
most o fte n real Lzed.
fhe r e fore, the curve on t h e next p a g e ma y v e ry we ] -i
i l l usn r a te our rnain point con c e rn in g in s e c u rit y . A n y s o c ie t li
o r j,nr iivid u a i in a etate of pe rc e lv e d ln s e c u rit y is lik e iy ro
e r nplo y a ce rtain amount of the re s o iire e s a v a ila b : -e for s e e u r: iy
p u rpo se s. During most of ttre h is t o ry t h is in v e s t me n t has been
 { 63 *

?
$ e cu ri ty

E x p e n d it u re s fo r
n iii' la : ; * , ; iire -
qni '
lni'l
ri Ir r *qar
V aLf--,| , L,{.Ji ]-C et
ln t e l-1 : . g e n c e et c .

prlxaarily m1 l i ta ry o r d i rectly violent. The accumulation of

s e e u r i t y me a n s ma y i n cre a s e up to a cer taln polnt at' :*:.i:ii the
l n v e s t m en t te n d s to co n e unoer the law of dinini- shr ng r eiur ns
a n d . b e y o n c th i s p o l n tr secur ity tur ns r apldly negative iyi. Our
b a s i c a $ su mp ti o n i -s th a t this point has been passed IonE ago
i n m o e t co u n tri e s a n d th a t this is par t of the secur itf cr is- s .
T h e d l m en si o n s a n d e l e me nts of 1' [IM0outlinec tn:oughout this
e s s a y a ll co n tri b u te i n var ious ways - to ol.r r tt- :- mbling liown
o f t h e c u rve b e yo n d (V ). Mor e n.i1itar y secur ity investm ents
a r e o u t r l g h t co u n te rp ro d u ctive 1n ter ms of secur ii;y - but
p r o d "r ictive in terms of the miiit & rX r in d wt ria l, b u re a u c t a ; ic ,
scle n ti ,fi c interests. This r-s wh e re t h e b a s ic s o c ia i c o t ^ -f l-: , c t
is si i Ba ted: The people an o t r. e e llt e s n o lo n g e r s h a r: e a
fr n a ti on a l interestfr in se c u rit y , t h e re 1 s n o c o ilrmo n o b l e c t iv e
wh e n the point (y) is pass e d . a n d t h e rn e o n e s s o f e v e : -: n e re a s ir : . 9
armanent and mllitarisn g a in s mo me n t u m a n d e llt e a u io l; o m)' a t
the e xp ense of human secu rit y (7 7 ).

In view of the i-somo rp h is m t h e s is it shou]o b e n o t ic e d ,

fi na 1 1 y, that this Wpe of c ri-s ls c u rv e a ls o a p p -5 s t o nany othier
areas o f Western soclety - e.8. o n e ma y s u b s t lt rrt e s e c rirlt ; r/
m illtar y expenoiture with h e a lt h / me d ic in e , we rf a r e / e e o n o mic
gr o wth, huroan deveioprent/s c h o o lin g , c u it u ra i g t o wt b / c u lt u ra l
ln sti tu io ns, quality of c o n s u me r g o o d s / e n e rg y a n d c a p it a l j- n -

ve stm en t etc.
 64

A l t e r n a ti ve Seeur tty and

Def e n ce S o me Pr elininar y

C o n 6 i d e ra ti o n s

1 . S e c u ri ty a s a b a e l c hum an need

Ha v t n g o u t l l n e d th e e l e me n ts and dir ensions of the New

Internatlonal i {1 1 1 ta ry Ord e r ( NIEO) , lt is time to thlnk
ab o u t s o m e p o ss1 b l e , co n strtrctlve alter natlves about ways
of leavlng th e co l l i si o n e o ur se.
It hae been pointed out before that fundanental stnrctural
c h a n g e s o f n a tl o n a l a n d i n te r national or der s is a pr eeondl-
t io n f o r r eve rsl n g th e a rmament tr ends as welf as the for ee
o f t h e l r eco n o ml c a n d so ci o l ogical aetor e. But it would
certalnly be too easy to leave the matter at that stage
es p e c i a l l y a s th e re i s a n e ed for alter native thinklng to
pervade socl"al for"matlon at various levels if any kind of
social a c t io n sh a l l co me a b out. Cr iticisn is necessar y - but
not enough. Io make people give up tJre nyth about eecurlty
t h r o u g h a r ma me n t, i t i s te rr ibly lnpor tant to be able to
c o n e u p v r i tl r a l te rn a tl ve vi s ions, to nake better thr eat and
s e c u r l t y e rra l u a ti o n s tb a n those of the ar m ament i- nter ests, to
e h o w t h a t th e re i s n o t o n e but nar iy \{ ay6 - i.e. to leave
people with an open choice to ensure tbat the alternative ways
a r e a L s o mo re d e mo e ra tl ca l l y r ealized than those of the pr e-
sent day.
 65 -

Our point
of departure here ls the indlvj,dual humari being
1,G. $e lrant to thi-rik of gecurity gp_-hrimaneecuritlr. &s g,
haplc human need, Flrorn t&e-'er w€ wouLd notre to a.broadened.
d e f e n e e co n ce p tu a l l za ti c,n inplying stnr ctur al- change* towa r ds
a type of eoclety which has a built-ln etrengtb anr: i::r r,&icn
aecurlty laeaaures can never be overd.even"opeuanC nessr. become
a g g r e e sJ" n e i .€ . th i n kl ng of a wor ld systeo 1r r hhlcb ir e.
oecurity apparatlls of one is not autonatical"ly a threat i:+
the othere. Fluch w111 have to be done to lntegrate ar:d inprove
t b i s pa rt - e sp e ci a l 3 " y ujlr sr it com es to the per tlnent questr c n:
Hov do we g€t ttrere? 3ut hopefully tiej.s Last part rcill ner\re
a i"egitlnate f\rnction - to stlnuiate a dial"oglle.
A t a fi rst g l a n ce it oay seem ter r ibly sinplistie to
argue that security should be about hunan beinge - and much
L e g s ab o u t n a ti o n e . B u t it 1e not; lt shoulci be r ecognlzed
again arrd agaln that hunan beirtgs are extremel;r distant l"n the
e c h e m es o f th e a rma ,o e ur tlnteests and that their nonopolyr &$
lt has developed, has removed. huma. belnge at lar€B from th"e
d e e i s i on -ma ki n g p rcce sses. Ther efor €, actual- hunan eecur ity
is rapidly decreaslng tJrese years - and. it should tJrus be our
mein task to restore hunan beings 1n the eenrre of securiq,'
tl:inking, 1 n d e e i si o n -n aking ano in car r ying ou.t defste* pc Lr -
c l e e (7 e ).
Security has to do, of @uree, rit& the arrq:.4anrs€-_gg
d i r e c t rri o l mce - b o d i l y in;ur y, being killed, tcr tu:ed etr c .
b y a d e l -l b e ra te h u n a n o r machanle actor . fbis defi*,itlon !s C Iur
raain concerr, bere. But it should be recognlzed tnat it 1s
rathe r 1fu01t ed.
Securi-ty nay be Been as the most fundamei-cei- need of ai-i-
tha't of surviygl (79). An individual who has not satisfi-ed his
o r h e r !g -s:-c n g -e d 6 .l 1 ke food, clothes, housi4g, heaSth, ed uc a-
tj.on and enploynent can hardly be caLled secure - nc) matter
how nuch weaponry tbe individual nay otheniliee heve ert l-ts
d l e p o ea l .
 -55-

Furtbermore r &t individual lackl,ng 1n basic humn ri. ehtp

to speak, traveL, rleet and communlcate ls no secure buqxan
b e l n g e l t b e r. Ii ke w l se r 1 t could. be polnted out tr at thoee
d e p r l - v e d of ch o i ce a n d o p p or tunitles to use thelr cr eative
ca p a c i t t e s a n d a re a l i e n a te d in their life situation ln gener a S.
a r e n o t g e cu re .
I n o th e r w o rd s, b e l n g the objeet of dlr ect vlolence and/or
stnrctural vi o l e n ce tb ro u g ! pover tyr r epr ession or allenation
prevente anythlng that couLd reasonably be terned securiW.
C o a e e q u e n tl y, so ci e ti e s 1 a vhich euch featur es ar € eignlfleant
ehouLd not be called aecure either - no uatter how much araa-
m e n t t h e y b a ve sto ckp l l e d .
t h u e , i f se e u rl ty 1 e consjr ler ed a basic hunan need.r it
e h o u l d b e th e se crrrl ty o f people - of the maior ity. the con-
t r a s t t o th e p re e e n t se cu rlQr concepts 1s obvious as thege
have lncreaslngly come to mean securi.ty of the topdogs only -
1n sooe caf,ea evsr dlreeted agalnet the magses. they have
tu r n e d e u p h e n i e ms fo r p o w er politlcs, Iaw and or der and the
status q u o n a i n te n a n e e o f exploitative societiesr as has been
excellently p o i n te d o u t fo r in' stance by Shar p ( 8o) .
Bu t th e e p e ctre i s b roader ; secur ity coulo., to enploy
a c a t e g o r iza ti o n ma d e b y Galtung elsewher e ( gf) , be r elated to
p e o p l g ( ni n d e , b o d l e s, 1 i f e- styles ) , to tJr lnes ( pr oduction) ,
to g,gg.g.Sg (atstriUuu.on) and to gtructures (trar.lsformtion)
a n d Eg g E g (u ti ).i sa ti o n ).
A t p re e e n t, se cu ri $ r r easur es ser ve aLnost excluslvely
to preserve thlnge arid territorT so fundanental to caplta-
I l s n ( a Z ) . Ifr o r th e co n trar y, basle hu- nan secur ity needs
were in focus lt rrpuld be necesgatry to widen the Wres of
s e c u r i t y re a su re s, e mp l o yl ng dlffer ent one6 at differ ent
l e v e l e . It w o u l d b e co n e p ossible to speak about a nor e
and to r ealize eecur lty, lt
would be of rnajor lnportance to involve people mucb nore, ask
then wbat tbey feel and think about securlty and, contribute to
t h e b r e a ki n g o f tb .e e l i te rs m onopoly and ovelar nament. to defi -
 67

ne and operati onalize Fecurity ehould be the task of manir of

n o t t h e fe w .
ehouLd be the .gecur ity fqr
t h u s, e e co n ti l y, e e cur lty
p e o p l e i C o n ce p tsr F ri :rci p1es,
defence policies, str ategie
thinking etc. shoul,d b€ eqnprelpnsible to people at 1arge. Itfirs-
t l f l c a t i o n s, cl o se d n e e s, exper t- or ientation air ouia be aboilshed
a n d d e cl e l o n -n a ki n g p ro oesses be br oug!t back to for a uno.er
ofen, dernocratic control and. insight. foday rnational securltyr
serveg as an argument to have more and. more people kept urn-
infomed about nattere of vital importance for tbeir own
s eeur l t y ( e r ) .
Thirdly, it nay be implied that eecurity sbould be the
eecurtty by peool,e - J"nplying an opening up for a raueh broader
p a r t i c i p a ti o n i n e e cu rl ty and def ence actj.vities. Defence *
n o n a t te r tb e typ e - rn rs t be d.em ocr atie, m ass- bs.sed beeause
it ueually lnvolves tJre use of tJre nogt dangerous toole of
power. Here nore than perbaps anyrhere else is 1t vital to
s e c u r e p u b l 1 c e u p p o rt a nd par ticilntlon.
When security is defined. by people in a br oad social
dlalogrre , tJrere must also be a much wider opportu:rrf for the
d e v e l o B me n t o f l .o ca l stp tegiee based. on l- ccal r esour ces" As
wlth uuch nevrer develolinent thinking, lre have to start our
f r o r o t he sm,l l e st u n i te , fr om t' b,e loeal r eeour ces ano. the 1 oc al
n e e d s o f h u n a n b e l n g s.
It ia quite 1ikely that there sha11 be much innovatj.on from
a c o l L e ctl ve d e fi n i ti o n of eecur lty. Concepts would" differ
a c c o r d ln g to g e o g ra p h j ,cal, soelal, eeoaomic, ecologieai etc.
c o n d i t l on e - a n d n o t, e s at pr eeent, be based. oa the illus1o n
th^at all people, a I1 re gions and all natlone pr ineipa.lLy need
tire sa& a i rcra fts, ta n ks, Bisgiles etc, or tae sa.r r eW pe o f
d e f e n e e a tra te g y.
the far:oer, th€ busj.nesscl&tl, chiS.drea, urban dwel-lers,
the asaenbly line worker, the state bureuerat, the housew'ife
- all nay ver:y hold dlfferent vlews of what secr.rritlr is all
about. And among culturee and soclal fornatlons, securiQr
and defence would rrery conslderably.
 69 _

a a o r e p ro p e r re l a tl o n to civil.ian tne&tl . fhie is an expliel t

end,eavour to 4ake up l{_i$_b_lbe_'ogfy one alternatlveft-rtyth
drlven tb.r"ough a€a1n and again by t&e arnaoent interest s l-ike
e . g . e ith e r p a e t n e n b e rs hlp or we sbslJ- be occupled tomor r o w ,
aLther & new alrcraft aequisitlon or we shal} have no air:force
i n a f ew ye a ro , e i th e r we lncr ease nilitar y expendi.tur es or
l a y o p en to fo re l g n l n va s lon, elther we stoekpile the newes t
n 1 l 1 t a r y te ch n o l o g y o r give up def end.ing our selve$r eitl:er
strong or enbarking upon non-viol-ence, either we arrn or sotne-
b o d y e le e d o e s....
I o d a y w e e xp e ri e n ce that secur ity at the netional" leve1
d o e s n ot, 1 n g a re ra l , l e ad to secur ity at the individual.
level". Rather, we are e.lL threatened. - al.thoug[ en variou,s de-
groes and ways. Armaneuts have become a direct threat to o'dJr
c i v l L t z ati o n a l$ rrvl va l -. But 1n this aitem pt to do aome
aiternatlve thinking, ye are ready to burld upon the hypothe-
s i e t b et a n a ti o n fu I1 of s*ur e buman beinss will also be
s e e c u re n a tl o n , p o ssi b l y a nation vith a deep inner str ength
and one tlrat ts not likely to be a threat to its environment,

2 . A L te rn a tl ve d e fence str etegiee

As o f t en p o i n te d o u t, u l litar y expendj.tur es ar e m ucb too high

i n r e r i y co u n tri e s to se r ye hum an secur ity pur poses. Aetually ,
1 t 1 s an i mp o rta a t i n d i cator of nilitar ien tbst eecur ity
1 s m e a su re d b y n i l i ta ry expendltr .r r ee ( llitex) .
hbat is J.ess often acianowledged le that de*;neg budEpls
are composed in a. counterprodustive aa^nner; in a-lnost alL
n a t i o n s , a b o u t 9 8 p e r cent of tbe def ence budget is cor npos ed
o f t h e n l l i ta ry w h i L e clvliian d,efence inveetnents er e negLi -
g i b 1 e . ttfo ta l d e fe n ce [ (Sf ) is uost often conceptua,llzed a6
9 5 p e r ce n t o r mo re to the nllitar y while politlcaL, peyeh o-
loglcal, e l vi l d e fe n ce r easur es have to shar "e the r est.
 But 1t should be o'i]','l{Jug"by nour that a plura}ity of
d e f e n ce m eanures must be e*iiji' y * d if s o c ie t y J"e to me e t a ll
four types of 'ghreats outi:'"yren .;:,r p. 58 and not only type I
a n d, to a c ertain deg:"x*, '*" . l ; : .
In fa b le ,'*elow* w€ gi&\ r* ' c rie c i to CI l. lt iin e a rt u * b e r af
d e fe $ ce str a,tegies - eaeh o-f t ' riric h wo u ia a c t u a lly d e s e rv e a
r a the r d e ta1led. ctescriptica ait h o u g h we s h a l1 h e re 1 in 1 t o u r-
s e lveg to a generai iiissus.;it::: .

Table F, $ tvpqiqgr qg-Jef,eqqe straleelqe

1. Nuclear 5 , ?olitico- 1o. fitructural

psycho3- ogical
2. i{odern convenrLonai
1 . Gueriller/iui:-it te 6 . Sconom ic
4 " C e v l 1 d e fe n *e V . Jdcolcgieal
S . Soceai
j , jr orl-vi oi ent
strugg3- e

Vj.oi ent/iie s t :ric t i se $*:r*v:-tlentr/ fion-vlolent/

C or istr u*tive Conetr uetive
B u i l t - u ; t o nf o * '\a 1 i o f B::iit-uponr/on top Bullt-into/fron
s o c l a L e trl ctl se * of soei- ai str uctur e be1ow, 1oca:'-

Hliitary i;j'c.vr*:rii i"t ary Son-mii:tary

lggreseive, th re a te s iJo*.-aggressiYe Non- aggr eeeive

othe re
St a t u e q u o -o ri e n te d sra i,as q.uo Trar sform ti on

T h e r e a re th u s th fe e *?- ' i:' &' categor

L les; fir str ther e ie
the predoninantly mLlitar; wh:-eh - itr lm'rious appearalces is
we l l - k n o w n to C a y. $ o me n " e i tr ons i:er e ar e er clusively basing
t h e n s e l v e s o n E o d e n s co n ve n ti- i:;:4' i end have no nuclear capabiii-
ty and no gueri"llarlniirt:-a systea. i{any combine modenr conven-
t lo n a l w i t h ci v1 l d e f e n ce subsuned under the nilltar y budget.
 7L

Se co n d l y, th e re a re the m easur ea which ar e inclucied :,n

tne , i.e. those additional types
of defence whieh are mob1l';zed during crieis or during war
t i n e . T a ki n g tJre e xa n p l e of econom ie defence measur es, they
nay iroply that the country hold.s stocks of strategic luaterials,
i n c r e a s e e fo o d p ro d u cti o n , keepe up its r eeear ch and develop *
ment efforts for irrstanee to substltute products which nay
d i e a p p ea r d u ri n g w a r ti n e. M uch of such fr tefor m sn within
preeent structures are undertaken under the headllne of ttprt:-
p a r a t i o n e n p l o yn e n tn (b er edskapsar bete) 1n Swed.etr r .
It aLeo deservee rnentioning tbat inany foreign pcl"icy
L n l t i a t i ve e co u l d b e i n ter pr eted as belonging to thls type of
c o n s t r ue ti ve p re p a ra ti o n - I1ke e.g. bei:r g open to the der nands
o f a S e w In te rn a tl o n a l Eeononlc Or der , par ticipating acitive -
ly i n i n te rn a ti o n a l d l sar nancr t negotiations, eer vln6 as
brldgebead betwesr vrarlous grouplngs 1n the internatlonal
s y s t e n , o r te ki n g l 1 n l te d r egional cooper atlon inltlatlvee
a b o u t e u ch p o l rcy n a tte rs . HoweYer , tbe basi- c char acter istle
i e t h a t o f re fo rn l sm - i.e. tr ying to r eoftentr the lnplicatl ons
o f t h e p re e e n t d o ru i n sn ce r elationshipe and conflict for r e.tl ons ,
but not &lning at tra.nsfornatlon.
the gtratery of rron-vioient struesle should be nent:oned
p a r t i c ui a rl y a s 1 t i s d ifficult to place. Most of the llter a-
t u r e r ie a i s w i tb n o n -vL o lent !!I{ lgg} 9, i.€. how it 1s enploy ed
L n t l n e s o f co n fl l ctr o ceupatlon and war . Ratb.er 1itt1e is
eaj-ci about the precond.iti one f or this type of Cef ence withi:r
t h e p r e se n t so ci a l
fo rn ationsr about its appllcation in peac e-
tirae. It 1s a means of struggling witirin the conflict fermations
found and only secondarily a way of restrueturing soci ety"
Bu t, o f co u rse , th is dlstinction is not elear - cutl Yie
would not nnlnd pLacing non-vioLent struggle cloeer to that cf
s t r u c t u ra l d e fe n ce a 1n1ng at enphaslzing the close eor r espon-
dance and the d,eslrabillty of carrying out transfornation hy
n o n - v l ol e n t me a n s (4 6 ).
 77

(1) tircular rantsLne order - ti:.ere should. be doubts as to

where actors are ranking, changlng flrn tlne to tlne ,
( 2 ) C ycfl ca l i n te ra ctlon patter n - a} ]- actor s ar e eonn ec ted
and there is not one single rrcorreetrr ehannei of
1 n t e ra ct i o n ,
(a) No correlatiqlr between lank ag$ eentga+rH - hlgh rank
o f a n a cto r i n the systen should not autor natically
i n p l y h i s ce n trality; low r ank not necessar ily perl -
p h e ri za tl o n ,
( 4) D i ffe re n ti a ti o n betueen systms - all syetem s and
dlmensj-ons are not structured in tb.e sa.ne w&yr
- haring hi"gh rank on
o n e d l me n sl o n or in one systen does not automatr ca l l y
inply high rank on otber di.menslons or in other
e yste n g ,
( 6) !o w . ra n k co u p l l ne between levels - Eo that no acto r s
a t l e ve l n -I a r e r epr esented at leve1 n through the
h i g h e st ra n ki n g aetor at level n- I.

Bu t p e a e e sh o u l d n ot only be consider ed tbe negation o f

d l r e c t a n d stru ctu ra l vi olencel it is ffsoneth.ing mor etr , som e-
t h i n g po sl ti ve a n d e o n g tr uctlve. Galtung, again, is of help
l n o u t ll n i n g so me b a sl c featur es. Accor ding to him peace str uc -
t u r e s co u l d b e cb ,a ra cte r ized by the f ollowing ( gZ) :
E q u i ty - n o p a rt should be explolted, classlessnese,
h o ri zo n ta l i ty, nobi11ty,
( 8 ) E n tro p y - a h i g b. degr ee of people- to- people inter ac -
ti o n , d .lso rd e r, r andonness, unpr edictabllity, away
fro n ce n te r-ce n ter lnter action,
( c) S vl n b l o e i s - a hlgh level of i- nter dependenee,
( 1 o ) B J:o a d sco p e - naly types of exchanges and inter actions ,
(11) Iraree Oonain - nany acbrs partlcipating,
g2) Superstnlgtr+]:g - extend.lng tb.e relationship to other
u n l ts sh a rl n g the basic char acter lstlcs.

I b e se th e o re ti ca l polnts of depar tur e or cr iter la of

Eo r e p ea ce fu l stme tu re s r nay be eupplemented with ldeas and
principles pervading so much of present developrnent thinking
in terms of alternatives in the Thlrd World and in sxnaller
experimental ftirelandsn ln tbe overdeveioped world - mucb.
lnaplred by names like Gandhi, Schunacher, Earper and Boyle,
I { e s e , R o sza k, P i .rsl g , Il l1ch GS) . Thusl
 78-

(13\ Snall"nese and conmunitallanism - smalL is not only

e peaeefuL ig+) ;
s o ci e ty co u l d b e n a d.e r r p of a var iety of enaller
unlts conmunes. fhere i-e a need f or general scallng
d ow n , fo r h u mn sca r lng.
( 1 4 ) S e l f-re l i a n ce - co n &unes and societles should. aim at
a c h l e vi n g a s mu ch a s posslble by neaas of 1ocal
r e so u rce s fi rg t. A s self- r elianee will nev€r be
e o rn p l e te - a n d d o e s not mean isol- atlon1sm - hor lzon-
t a L e o o p e ra ti o n 1 s necessar lr also as a collectlve
m ea su l e to re d u ce economic, pol- itical and cultur al
o t h e r-d e p e n d e n ce (9 5 ) .
( 1 c ) Se l f-re a l i za ti o n - whleh is the m otto of the four th
c ate g o ry o f so cl a l etr uctur es &entioned. ear l1er "
Ba si c n e e d sa ti sfa cti on for all cones flr st, and
t h e e co n o n y i s b u i l t to fit people, not capltal.
Mutuallsm, ueanlngfuJ- and creatlve work, opportunlty
f o r i d e n ti fi ca ti o n , conmitnent, nass par ticipation
i n vo l vi n g a l so w o men, ehildr en, the o1d, the handi-
c ap p e d e tc., o p p o rtunity for inwar d splr ituai enga-
genent, rellglousnesa and human right ail are
relevant catehworris here.
( 1 6 \ Pl u ra l i sn - th e mo re unlte, tJr e lar ger scope for
varlety ln Ineans and. goals, the lower the chance of
u o n o cu l tu re s; n o stage theor y of developmentr Bo
d , o g n a ti sn (e .9 . so m e things nay eti13. be pr oduced
c en tra l l y a n d b e 'b lg' , the stale may eti11 have a
r ol e i n n e d l a ti n g between units) , away fr ou specia-
l i za ti o n to w a rd e n i xed systens like agr icultur al-
c l ti e s a n d i n d u stri a l villages; balance between
manual and intellectual work.

many centr es and no per ipher ies,

e o e i e ty i e re ce n tra l ized and nlnlmized to fit people
instead of human beings belng nininized and centra-
l i z e d to fi t ca p i ta l and gr owth; decislon- naking
a t th e L o w e st p o ssi ble level and a nu1tlpliclty of
c o u n ci l s, me e tl n g places, com nlttees for r eal
p a rti e i p a to ry d e mo cr acy.

Ecoloelcal bals!.ce - e mp h a s iz in g t h e n e e d t o liv e

i n eloser contact w it h Na t u re , ln h a rmo n y wit h ln n e r
a e w e l l a s o u te r 1 i n1ts, eway fr on poLlution, de-
p Le ti o n a n d th e u se of capital ener s/.
(lq) Stn p l l ci W - so e l e ty should be gener ally com pr ehen-
s 1b l e to p e o p l e r o p€r for their par ticipation, scope
f o r sl n p l e l i fe -styl e s and legs m ater iallsn, r adieal
m o n o p o l l e s a re b u i l t down, softer technology enpS.oy-
ed b u t n o a sce tl sm or pur itanism.
 "t9

( 2 o i F e *e fq {,:.P :: *' a:uing at aatiefying tRe need of ' bu i " i $*

:-ng r*J"atior"i;,r;1"pswith otlrers, but aiwa;r* ,rta.riing
fra i n ta e e rn a l lesr , unii faniLy or fasily*Iii.:* ua i to,
r rrriil ie o distrlct,
e o:Lril:.rr.--tir r;ation, regi-on aad -
possi'civ * * l1i;l:r-i unit, tire riconaunrt;y ,::i ruinm'unl-
t1-eSt? r.i,.j:.ii:L:"li i:rlClL,ir tO be fri?CeSS,tl3T"'r'e*p*li'..1-J-.'n'in
rei gr*:. ':ll E.-,' 1;*.€ " gr obai pr o bie ;cs ti fil c i"ng iis €1ii( th e
atin:-ni.strati-*n ot' th.e resources *i ss.yikinri"

llany &cT:e i:.:,;,,;a iilrs of the rrgood soe1er"]f" rtlrii* *,e

r n e n ti gned. & l-]- t*'r: b.:;-e a r* e n p t e e i is to o i--f e r $ o ; is * : " : e n * a t lon ,
not ti i e fi:reii g."rnrs. ltr*" r ra o re e h o u ld b e d o n e iS rc u g : : re $ e ar c h
and publlc dialog4'nes *"*i weil- as *uhrou"Sh actual ex.rier:;re,:iatlon,
But tne quNi,st: i,;,r *f *;:urse reaains: Are th"ere €:.{:.,j" -rlroiJB*
tlo n s *hat;iri:1*j.:*s i::i: ic t u re d . a lo lg the 1 1 n e s me riil-o ; -e l
here vc uid fie n;i.ie rjri*c€ i' u i, wo u id h a v e a b u iit -in c a p a c it y fsr
r a ti on a l conl"liict resclu' : : o n a n d b e n o n -a g g re s e t v e t o rra rd s
the i.r environruent? A seup ie of a n rs we rs c o u lc b e g iv e n
although we s!r.s f:ily alrere tnat we do not k*cyu that ouch
too l i ttLe ernpiri*e; e'r:" < ie n c e j-s a v a ila b le about ih is E r" l€ s t i c n
draroe fron the €".i'.p*T.rffen1sgoing on here ana tnere arcunci the
glo b e .
Flrsi of ali, a$ ;ririci: of r+-trat has been outli.r:ed above
represent gjl...rii--,T9.! lt_Igeatl on oi 4 st-'.9-fj(j-*o,gg
fe a tur e g of the pieseiit * ' re rie y e -io B e a a n d . o v e ra rt s s o . e ' o rl. ' t , w €
loay be oi1 'th* rigi:,i; t:rr"c!:, X'lucb of vnet j.s witrl he"ve ti r,c
given up i*. ti:.* .t'utirre, ar;C ti?ere shoul"o be no i-:-:',:3r.ri-; &si
to r e a ching an;r norc stibr)t * . n * , ra l c ira n g e in c g i: : -r. , ' , r. n a s le rs
v1a th e piecemeE .L wai'"
Secondly, it iras te e n a n a jo r p o i: rt ia tne e n t : " re e s sa y
th a t to dl"sarn, th.e woric l wiil n e e d n o re t h e u r a i' t a r; k o n p a rti -
cula r weap ii.3 ;;.-s'iens il; r: t j-c o -rn iilt a ry a ; - : , ; a c : : ), [ o j^ e t : r a n
a r m a productio$ restri-ciao i; . s a n c i t f c o n v e rs ro rrt r (t it e e c o n o rn i c
epproachh it w;li Cenav:d"l; deeper engageaent and sociai ;rans-
fo r m a tion because of tire irrt in a t e e o me c t lo n betveen * i' . . : i
and miiitary sir"dctures" in other wordsr we ni4-S_!tl-B*b_gt*i:-p.!L
the giobaiizati or. at.'l t{ansnationalizatlon of a::maner:-lE re $ S s
a n d " t h e n l l i ta ri sn w h i ch is less actor - or ienied and scr e
e t r u c t ure -o ri e n t eo'
 8o-

lhe point 1s that the problems of alternative seerrrity

a n a d , e f e n ce o n th e o n e si d e and alter native social etr :r r ctur ee
on the other muet be addresaefi sj.nu].taneous3,y.
Ae far as we c&1 aee tais Le where the foree! h'orking for
a truq-l-{In0 and true }'l1f$0eon the one slde and the forces
rrarklne for disarnarnent on the otlrr should reacb. out and.
:ioin {orces. How ehouid. a NIEO e\rer corne about if the security
pmbLene axe not properly dealt witb? lnd horirrshould we
e v e r r e a l l ze d i sa rl sa me n t i f str uciur es with bullt- in violence
continue to exist? In both movenente struetural transfematlons
are needed and tbey point in the sane directi.on. B'at they
goal"s w111 l:ardly ever be reached. if the vislons about Pthe
g o o c i s o c i e tyrr a re n o t b ro u g bt out into an open d.ebate or lf,
for politicai re a so n s, th e for cee fighting for < ievelopment
and dtsarmament pretend that the struggle can galn norrentum
wlthout b e i l g e xp l i citely
v i si o n s sbted. For it is tnr e that
we sba1l have to go thrcugh d,eep changee if a irue 1{130 and
r"r'more peacefuL world slrali be attai:ted before it is too late.
T o d i scu ss o p e n l y e u ch images of the fuhr r e is also an
toportant precond.Ltion for eneuring that chanqeg wlLl come
ebout i"n .4_:lenocrati_c. nass-oriented vaf, and not Lead only
t o c k r a n g e o f e L l te e o n i o p of r cciety. ilkewise, sucb openness
sh o u l d b e l p ch sn g e s b e l n € 4 on- vioient"
tairdiy, it may be argued that the self-re3.iariee aodel
outlaned irere and tae ldea that doninated reti-ons shouid witn-
d r a w f r o n e xp l o l ta ri ve re i a tlonehlpso on the one s1oe, and
rhat civll soci.ety ehould w-ithdraw from the donlnanee of the
ln te re ste a n d re g a ln ite inner d.efencive eapacity on
ro i l i t a r y
the other side are argunents nrnning paraLle1. They both
a i m a t r e du ci n g co n fl i ct p otentials.
flrus, to summarize, we cio not state t.aat surely the above
alternatlve so ci e ty w i l i b e nor e peacef,ul aithough ther e is
some evldence to the lgrpothesis. Rather we argue for tlre
ld e a o f p r e se n ti n g u to p i a s.
 _ 8l-

C o n e tru cti ve u to p i a s lsnf t it aLl unthinka' ule? wa

w o u l d En sw e r l n th e a & m e veln as dld. Roszak concer ning the
t a e k o f th l n ki n g a n d p ract:+ing aLter natlve$ ( 96) 3
rl$;rthlniiabler y€s, &inost ae uritkrj-nkable aa ir wouJ.<lhave
?reen onLy four generatiorrs a$o to ims#-,ne thai w* could
have created the moaster. But j,t was of our xe"1<1n9.
tnd lt is yet oura to unraake and replace. n

Ae a first step 1a a :lecessarJ/ diqloguer w€ ei:a;_i- s::i

t h i e e ssa y b y l l a ti n g tb.e main ehar acter istics of tbe pr eeent
d_e_qlrgg!:ye_g9fgng_e and whrat corild be lmagined as consttuc:
!.iye j gf enc e. Reaciers sre thue invite d to pa rti ::ipate 1n
extendlng ttre 1 i st, e h a llenging the an,$wer s gt"ven aJ' r ' tr
s,r sc us s
w h e t h e r a Jte rn a ti ve s sh ould sr nnply be tae negations of what
i s t o d a y o r th e re i s n sometir ang nor € to itu.[ iiopefull"yn it r s i l L
turn out that there is nuch more to it if human security and
d e v e l o pme n t n e e o s sh a i i be satisfied for the na;or lties lac k -
i n g 1 n su ch sa ti sfa e ti o n . 0r i1y a ncr itical m asstr of, hu.r sn
b e i n g s ca n b ri n g b a e k secur ity of, for and by people.

FEETRUCTIrX pEsE$CE c olls f RUcg,r

.v5. BEltilrcE

1 . t s i l el t u p o n so cl a i structur es Bui-}t in'r;o ai'uernateve

o f i n e q u a l l ty, u p o ri s tr uctu-
r a i vi o l e n e e a n d su p poseo to
trrckLe oova'i frou the top
2 , A i n s a t a n a b e tra ct ftnatio-
n a l se cu ri tyn n e e d in
r e a ll ty d e fe n d i n g to pdogs
a6ainst unde:riogs and legi-
tlnizing e xp a n si " o n
j. G r o w tb -o ri e n te d , c-u antita-
tive (i'liiex ) , secur rty &et
wj"th more armauent leadi:ag
xo overarna&€nt
str uctur es, vhete gtr u.c tur e
i:; itsel- f ls a &easur e c r f
cefer r ce €.g. decer r Tr a l i s a-
'bi on , pa rt ic 1p*"ti on , p3-ura-
li.eir
Sat:sfy basj.c oecr .r r ity needs
of human be ings, br::-id ing-
up fr on beiow
ltlo growth-cri en'i:edr quaiity
of strr:ctures and husan
par tieipatl on - secur ity
r aet with social and non -
violent neans
 82

}3Fh\CE
-}NSTF.UCTTVE C0I{STRUC
t iv:s tsiijJj${
ffi
4. C e n t e r th i n ki n g r ce n te r- Peripheqy thinklng ano -or:.*
o r j - e n t e d, l n te g ra ti on be- entatl ono sr':u+tura1 inia Sra-
tween topdogs o f cl vi l ti on of oevel-cpnen t and
s n d n i l i t a rxl sp h e re s ma rgi- s e c u rit y $ e & $ iir* s f it to
nalizlng p e o p le loca1 c irci-inr:tari'c6-: J
5 . E x c e e s l ve co n su mp ti o n o -f Appropriate consrrmprt.cr:: e.:i a
o n e s e c uri ty si e a n s - variety of ;nearx bara;:cl.:::
ar&s , c ost-inef,f ect ilre t eac:r o tlre r o c os t- e:":,:{,.ct :.1rq
l a r g e o p p o rtu n i ty co e ts nuch is pa:-d. by stta;ciur.:e
5 . C a p i t a l a n d re se a rch Itlan intensj ve r Lc;* *xln uii. i"ie
lntensive armament, hi-gh le v e i t e c h ; rc io g y g e * re ra } . ; y
and hard tecnnology mo re s o f r a n d n o n * v rg ie a t
7 . C L a s s - b ase d a n d cl a ss- Cla s s l, e e e
nixed
8. Centraiized conraand and. Co lle c t iv e c e i: rmf if l-1
, nany
t h e i d e a o f a :e n e n y ce n tre e entres
t o b e d e stro ye d
9. $ h o r t t i ne p e rsp e cti ve , lo n g t rn e p e rs p e c t lv e u s t ru g g S " -
t h e i d e a o f a sh o rt fi e h t 1 n g f o r y e a rs rf , n e c e s s a ry ,
and a final blow nany gnaller sieps r 1"-it-r.i;li-r;{
the peopLe
10. O n e r n a jo r ca u se o f 1 t a -tl: Itlore caus e s , ab ie r o a,rjai ;,',;e
; i r e a c t i vi tre s o f, th e & o re e ie re n ls c r- a c c i: . i-, : ic t ,
e n e m y i n a g e d e ve ro P me nt, little f rxati eti, IrC cc:i-it irito*r.t$
t i r r e a t sce n a ri o s, fi xa ti o n t buj-kiing up of ene:al,' image*
l e g i t i m i zi n g fu n ctl o n s
Li. feriica.l- maF-n&n reiatl on6; Horlzonta-l inii,n-tlan y,el"nti ol'r,$i
p r o f e o s r o n a l i za ti o n r ri g h t- a o re ie f t -o r j. e n t e < i , rc irt ic 1 z e c i ,
w l n g p o ii -ti cl ze d r ro e xp l i- explici t hunan e onnltn:e:1t ,
clt human cornnitr:nent* Lorv poraie, figrting f*r a *&1.r.r.4
morul-er ro f ighting r'or a raonelr not th.* motlv:!"T; in. i-iore
c a u s e - w e rl - p a i e . S tr:,P Pec. often based u,il$]r r,-:i-:.r1-r or"isr
o f r e l l g io u s o r e tb i ca l eth j-egi or :,; **L.t;.:;i:, ','a-Lr.iets
valuee
? -2 . D a n a g e e n a tu re b o th d i re ct- De f e n c e in b a L a n e e wi t n n a i, u re ,
Iy and in<iirectly n o d ire c t e n v iro n me n t a l wa r*
fare
l. 3 . L e l n f , o r ce me n t b e tw e e n Seeurity and tr"Lre l:uit* :1 C;;vr*
military stru ctu re ($ f$ O) iopnent wouic go -tiarr* .i.;:.iie.:re;
a n d t h e P re se n t i n te rn a - no NIEO w:-thcut the h:+*:.klng-
t i o n a l eco n o ro i c o rd e ro j -n- down of the }illl{O arsi no a.l--
c o n a p a t lb i e w i th a tru e t e rn a t iv e d e f e n c e a M s e c l-" : -: -
NTEO ty witaout the brea.r<:-:tf*C*wn
o f t h e p re s e n t 1 n t e . r: r+ ; : o n a i
o rd e r
 8'

]]ESTRUCfIVS }EFENCE CO$SIRUCTIYB }EF,JiICE

( c o n ti n u e d i

14. !'unctl onal appr oaches tr. Structural ap p rroaches, funda-

structural challellges nentaL transfornation, fiexible
I t i n fl e xi b l e re sp o n se rf
15. ltadlcal nonopoly of the ItIo such monopoiy
n i l i t ary sp h e re o ve r
the civi.l, sphere
1 6 . ? e o p l e n e e d p ro te ctl o n No such pr otection n.eeceC fr c n
a g a i n o t th e se cu ri ty the lnter r ,ally designed defen-
apparatuo ce
r - 7 . Er p J -o l ti n g th e ci vi l Non- exploitative
s o c ie ty a n d ma ke s i t
d e f en ce l e ss
L8. Penetrates and controls l{utual reinforcement of deve)-op-
civil elites ment and. securlty lae&sures
1 9 . F r a g 'me n ta ti o n b y to p dogs Integr atlon fr cm the bottom
over perj.pheries upr+ard.o
2 o . Ad d s to e o ci a l - rml n e - Iner eases tne inaer str ength . of
r a b i l l ty a n d mi sp e rceive society and its capaclty for
t h r ea ts fo r 1 ts o w r, sake m eeti4g r ationaly va:r or .e
type s of securi ty chal_.l" €nges
2 L . I n c r e a se s h u rn a n l g e e cur lty Iner eases hur nan eecur lty
? 2 . 0 f th e n a ti o n o r th e el1tes 0f tJr e ur asses
?'5. inc omprehensible to ttr'e Conprebensible to alL
maj ori ty
2 4 . By th e to p d o g s By the people
2 5 . i n d e fe n ce o f te rri to ry in defenee of buman beings,
a n d th l n g s lifestyles, st:r :.ctur es ar ic
tr ue r ieve- iopnent
2 6 . U l "t i n a te l y d e stru cti ve, I.iltimteJ.y consir uctlve, i.ef en-
a g g re ssi ve , d e te rrl rg clve, non- deter r ing
2'/. lJxcluslvely nilitary and 0n1y nilitary if at al-I to
violmt a ver1r 1ow Level" and only for
specific taeks and under eiv i l
controL
 _84_

Note s and re f e r eneeg

I. The flgure f 4oo bn a ye&r is ti:e eetiffite *:i iit,+1i.|l+ir*

I n r e r "n a ti o n a l P e a ce R e se er ch, Insti- tut e ( S;pt;' , : : : i,*
yearbook. World .&rnaanaea-gs arri, 3is&r:manent" $IlF-i li*a::b*ok-
39.3,9, Sayior & Frsncis Trtd..n lonoon i9?8 p. Lli vialih is
b s s e d o n U S i n te l l i ,g e n ce eetj.nate of the doLian- ccs' tr i- :r
t h e U SA o f 1 9 ? 5 S o vi e t d efence aetivities. $IPRIos o- r tr r
e s t l a a t e fo r th .e w o rL d i s f >oo bn.
T h e e s t i ma te o t'ta e n u & b er of peopie ir ilLeil ir war s s' i.:sas
from $ilton leltenberg, R. Kal1sh and t:. .-;onbardi, .A Sr:r-
yev-,gf $tud:ies og PAs! Ccrfiiqt:- ,*^i{i
li{d' is bases.
p a r t l y on E n cye l o p e d l a B ritsenica L972, par iil' on i.stv&r 3
Xendef s egtinate of tb.e post-3-945 casual-ties :rrril., :'ina).iy*
c n t h e e e ti .rn a te 0 f th e a uthor s.
C o n e e r r r l n g tn e n u mb e r o f w&r s in tlr e n' or ia sinee :.i4i, #ee
Ietvan Kende, !Ae_ j_a*":-l*Se
slr rern il t";3n-
$ y m-t}:e
p o s 1 " u m,Mi i i ta rj -sm a d l{ ational Secur ity, Csi.o, 5,iven' ner
r.9?7.
2, : aro particuiar3.y indebted to Joban Galtung with v,ri.ir ::znJ
o f t h e l d e a e i n th l s e ssay have been developed dur ing n;r
partici.pation j"n tbe Worl"d. Indicators Progran at i-rsl-oUni-
versity. I a n oa l so g ra te ful to Dieter Sm .ghaas fo:" ,:.- :j.us-
s : o n a n d n u ch h e l p d u ri n g two r esear ch vielts ta i' r e.]- :ifur t.
"**J"ng; a part of ihe reseerch program of iite be;:ar:ne::t of
Peace and. Oonflict Research at the University of l.ui:;r, I a&
heppy to thank l{&kan Wiberg for mueh good advj"se ti,*ugir
g e v e r a l ye a rs,
j v ; r m yo f ti :e th o u g b ts o f the essalt bave been.- ' r e- s,ir .+ ,erat t
cor:f erences e, g. the above-menti oned h;gxas;i s.:rrr.:-,cs)-ir$:,*
e t ' i . h e De p a rte n t o f P e a ce and ilonfliet Rr scs:cr r ;- ", ippsala
end at the Symposl-urn Aroament, fension ana *a: at .l{anahoirren
i n F i n r an d i n 1 9 ? ? " th e y have a' r .so been pr €$€r r lect ' oefor e
e e v e r a l fo ra o f e o n ce rn e d eitlzens :r nd peace activlste ir :
Derrrnark and Sweden &rring t'h.q last coupie of yeare " I &&
m o s t g r ate fu L fo r a l l th ese contr ibutions tr :eir pubetential
c o a { ; e n t a n d crl ti ci s& a s well as inepir ation a:ld eyic*ul:{ r ge*
I B gt t .
F l n a l j . y , 1 t d e se rve s me n tlon that the essay can be .Liqer asr
an outline of ny doctorai t'hesis - for rr&rich reason nuch of
i t w i l l b e e u b j e e t to ch anges in the year s to come. In
t h i s s e ng e , U 1 e p re se n t essay is pr e]ininar y- " halr a&r ' e
s e r i o u s sh o rtco n i .a g a n d needs fur tber elabor atios" i:opefuj"ly o
sny reader feeli.ng inspi-:red or annoyed - wl1i ccintribute
t o t h e fu rth e r <i e ve l o p ments.
 -8 5

t. J . Ga l tu n g l -975, Peace ; R,esearch on and Action.

Ege avs ln P eaee Reeea r* il e rg , openhegen
p. 14

4 . F o r mo re d e ta i l s co n cer - iing thie type of r easoning, see

C o l l jn , Ii o rb o rd , H a g eiin, lodgaar dr - Rusnen end. il:her 4,
F - 1 5 . F l q h te rs fo r U or ld Ar manner r t( for thcomt- ng 1V7s) .

5 . t s o r mo re l n fo n n a tl o n eoncer ning wor J.d ar m s tr ade, $ee

a n o ng o th e r th e fo L l o wil.g sour ces3
SIPRI 19?i, the Arns,,Siade wlth lhe lh:LiC "ILqCIg, Ahnqvist
W l k se l l , S to ckh o l m; $I?RI, , Ar ss ?mde r iesj"nter s 1 g ? 5 , rthhee
19?5.
m l f F re ss, Ma ssa ch u a etts; a eonta.].n
m a t eri a l s o n a rn s tra c e; A. Sam pson, f&q-Deultar Viking
? r e e s A 9 7 7 ; H e e sl n g Cahn, J . J " K r u z e ll ["Dawktnoo J" ' I{rrnt-
zlnge t L977, ruis fra lv;**r&"{v*H11"1
Book Coropany; eE]-n 0 ea -
i.977 t2 ,, ii:,,tve isi-
t e t u fo ri a g e t, 0 s1 o ; Journ ].975t3, Uni-
v e r s l te tsfo rl a g e t,
6 . F o r mo re i n fo rmtl o n eoncer ntng per ipher al ar tr s pr oduetlon,
s e e a n o n g o th e r th e foil- owr ng sour ees:
T h e S IP R I p ti b l i ca tl o n s m entionea abovel U. Albr echt, D.E r ns t,
Rowohl t,
R e i nb e k b e i i l a n b u rg ; P. cK, ll . st
Ar r se P ro i u ctro n 1 n l e v eloplng Countr ies, ( a aor e

.|
For more infornatlon concerning the gJ-obal spleaa of
n u c ie a r te ch n o l o g y, aee a&ong other the fo1l- awi::g e c rirc es :
pl-8.$_Ieer!oq3g during the last yeers; SIPRI ili'!i,o t*.e
i'iuc1.qar Ase, Alnqvist & W ikse1l, $tockhoin;
''t
SI?I{ j 1 l c r '? A
z;i a ,

l'{r"rc
i ear }ro 1 i l'erat Pr oblenq, Alnqvist & ilj-k s e li, Stoc k -
holn; 975, nsr luciear ltfe
Stockhol"n; S. irodgaard , rn t e rri& t i UClear CClrnrnef
ce.
?rende and ?roliferation Potentiai.e , :.n 3rilie
3rili e t:ji +i' jl,1,.*_c_q
i:, yi ,+i . ac e
ggg3*Sq].e 1977 tL, Unive:site toforlagetn ffifl
litsiirffiATE - et bidrag tl1 giobal oprustnl*+r iluuc-;ar iower -
8J1t-Z& t:-C l r' O r
i v u e i e a r P o w e r i n fo re tl on ( 00A) , Copentr agen; .$. tsa.r nabyIg77t
The Mountlng Proepecto of Nuclear Wer, in: lqlLgrin o.f, the
A t o m i c S cl e n ti stg , $ o. 5

8 . F o r mo re i n fo i :n a ti o n coneer ning the developing Fiest- Sur o pean

m l l i ta ry-i n d u stri a l c ooper ation, see a.sr ongotaer the
f oliow j-ng sources 3
C o 1i .j n , F o rb o rd , Il a g el1n, lodgaar d., Rusnan, fiber g 19?Sr oF .
clt.; e sp e ci a l i y tb e chapter s on standa:Ci,zation and on the
robal perspectlvesl Faeet l-975, {he .&ilian*e qlrr flnrolili
i" i" ii: e s and
h o ices, A deiphi pape rs n r. . fae Inter natloeai ns ti tute
for S tra te g i c $ tu d i e e , Lr ondonl Hagelin 1975, Towar d.s a W es t
 88-

20. F o r f u r t h e r e l a b o ra ti o n on this polnt r see Kaldor , op.ctt. o

i n w h l c h i t 1 s e ta te d th atl
' r 0 n e w a y to d ra w o u t th e poii.tical r ole of the nilitar y
i n s t i t u t io n s i e to d i sti ng":.sh between the teeim iques of
f o r c e an d th e re l a ti o n s olf for ee. As vr e lr ave seen, tb.e
te@ are tbe weapons an<i the wa.y tire]' are
used. ?he @ ar e the or gen- ;si:< ;i.ono.f n@,
the nature of the nilitaty hierarcny, the m*t.L.ods af re*
cruitnmt. fogetherr they eonprise lbe;f,qg'n_ef ]]'ry'<ryi,the
t e c h n i q u e e o f fo re e a re at once tneffiev*i
o f t e c h n o l o g r i n so cl e ty anei the appr opr late tooi f*r a
p a r t i c u la r se t o f mrl i ta r y r elations. the r eiaticnc ;i.
f o r c e a re th o se mo st co nvenient for or ganizing a body of
m e n , l n a g i ve n so ci e ty, and those most 1ike1y to 6ener ei:+:
loyalty to th e so ci a l for nati on.
The forn of force is th]+jl a reflection of the ,.qrglal fff:;-
m g f i o n , o r p re va i l i n g mode of Jr odtr ctr on. But it cav- iaLe.,
a l t e r th e so ci a l f,o rn a fi o& and it is this contention whic::
ie J"nportant for an und.erstanding of the nilitary tn
d e v e l o p re r.t.rr (p . 4 6 7 t italics added)
T h e c h a n g e e ffe cts o f te chniquee of for ce is e x p ra s s e q this
way in the fi ts" rste m und demok t i* e h e G e s e iL s * h a
ver cle lch ende z , Y e r ag fle i'd, e r K\i ,
r g J - n S re i sg a u (i 9 7 1 1 :
r r G er a d e ole curch d:-e wa f f e n t e c h n is c h e u rrd . a iilt 5 . : rs c h e
Entwj.cklung bewiricte Y@zen A'o:is.:ien _ii+eg
unC Frieden und das Yorhanaeasei.n stgndrser aklr-'ver Abwehr-
b e i e i t s ch a ft ve rg r6 e se rn das sacbliche und mater ielie Ge-
w-lcht des nilittirischen Sektors und danit ciessen Elnwirrn;.ng-
n0erli e l te n G e s e l] . " (p" 57,
rtaiics a d o e d ).

2i. irroa Fliiovidov and Kozlov, ?robiems of -Q_qnteaporarygeq,,

i { a s c o w 19 ? 2 , p . 6 r. N o t i c i s the
o n i v u i l :.ta ri e trc so ci a i or der and as a ?r wea,pon'-r ooi as
a s r , r u e ru ra l p h e n o me n a p er taining to var r .ous soc:ai or cier s
throughout bt story. this &atces Leninr s ccrlc ept,ui.liaa,ti er:,
m u c n n o re l i n i te ci th a n tbe other m entionec above.

2 . 2 . r r . 3 n g e 1 s, A n tl D i i h ri n g , op.cit., p" 2o4- 2o5 and p. 2oo.

25. this a c co rd l n g to S i l b e rn er , op.cit. r p. 2r 7.

?4. S e e M . Go d e 1 1 e r, B a q - j g L - ijwr b:r ggnad, $or stedts/Pa.:' l.
St o c x i r oi n 1 9 7 5 , p . \6 -2 1 and 55- 57.

25 . R . N l s b e t, o p ,ci t.r P . 6r - 64
2 6 . P r o u c h o n w a s p ro b a b l y th e fir st to use the wsr i :;r i1;gr ism t
ffi64) to ciescrib-e nlas Heer-wesen eines m$$nrffi*ilff.i*
z e n t r a i i stl sch ..re g i e rte n $taates sowie die dslaii ve r b:.uicienen
F i n a n z l aste n r' (h e re q u o ted fr cn the excellent anthology by
 89

Volker Bergbahn, {11!!ggigngg, Kiepenheuer & Hit*rchrn K6}n

r g T 5 , p . 1 0 ). e e rffi Fr so notes tnat the wor d. was fou r d
i n a Ge rma n d i cti o n a ry in 1B?o, defined aB sdas Vor her r -
s ch e n u n d d l e B e vo rzugung des Soldatenwesensr ( ibid. p. 1o) "
[here is a clearly ll_Lti
o n ml l 1 ta r1 sn ;
I9o2 ( Garl-and N ew York
n i l l ta ri sn i n re l a tl on to war whlch ser ves a.i to pr ovjd e
c l vi l l za tl o n s w i th s ufficient capital and br ins it lnto
c i rcu l a ti o n a n d th u s inpar ting new life to decadent soc i e-
t l e s, b ) to a ccu mu l ate land and. c) to Becur e a supply of
s l a ve s 1 n th e a n ci e nt wor ld.
Bl rfu e 1 n 1 9 o 4 re l a te d r ailitar ien to feudaiism and, wher e
1 t e xi ste d a t h i s tl ne, 1t was consider ed a ilfeudai r emi ni -
B ce n e e ff (se e B e rg h a hnr op.cit., F. 11) . fhis dr aws clos e.!.y
u p o n l l e ttp rt S p e n cer ts distlnctlon between the war far e-
o r le n te d so cl e ty a n d the induetr lal socleiy. These tr r o
could have nothing in corunon. fhis ls also i;he view of
t h e A n e rd ,ca n l 1 b e rd . r loseph Mi11er aecor ding to whom tt the
n 11 i ta ry sp i rl t i s alwalr s on the s j- de of r eaction - alw ay s
a l ll e d w i th th e n o n -pr ogr essive and antl- r iber al uover e nts
o f th e tl me . fr (Qu o te0 by Ber ghab.nr oF. e1t. , p. L2- L3) ,
tree Bernbard in his War and Its-Ionlfonl[972) Causes frcm ]-944 (GarlanA
m6fishing 1ne., New-Yo-rk and defined mili-
t a r i e n a s rrth a t p e rs onat attitud.e and collectiw pr actr c e
wblch develops 1n connecti.on with a higlrLy organtzed and
e el f-co n sci o u s p ro feesion or ar m s, whether it actuaiiy
d on i n a te s so ci e ty or m er ely seeks to d.o so. It looks u pon
t h e mi l l ta ry a s th e r nost inpor tant and essential phase of
the total soclal organri.zation and regards aii governnent
a s i n th e l a st a n a l y sis necessar lly dependent upon niiitar y
s u p p o rt a n d co n tro l , r r ( p. 91 ) .
I n h i s fa mo u s w o rk. A Hlsto of ivliiitar ign ( aottis - t
Carter, I,onrlon 1959 );.E t6 dlstlnguishes betweer r
t n e @w h i e per celves as a specific coneen-
t r ati o n o f n i I1 ta ry str ength to achieve a clear ly defin eo
g o a l l n a n e ffe cti ve m anner , linited in seope and tinxl ,
and - on the other hand - rfmilitarlsmfl ril:.ieh he sees E]s
c u sto ms, l n te re sts, pr estige etc. associated with war s and
n i l i ta ry a ctl o n s w hieh tr anscend any tr ue nllitar y pltrpos e
a n d p e rme a te g a l i cor ner s of eeiety for its own ir r ational
p urp o se (p . 1 r).
0f the more recent conceptualizations shou,td ['fJqg!j.nn
d e scri p tl o n o f clyil- nili be mentloned
1n national Enc c lo p e d la o t v ol .
2, . by David cnillan Company e Free
Press, t95g) together wltb T.,aurence I. Bg{L{LX who defines
n i l l ta ri sm a s tb d o ctr ine or system that values war and
a cco rrl e p ri n a cy i n state and soclety to tbe ar r r nd f or c es "
It eralts a function - the applicatlon o1' vj.oi.ence and an
l n sti tu ti o n a l stn re tur e the nilitar y establlsh.r ent, It
i mp l l e e b o th a p o l i gJr or ientation and a tr ower r eLationsi l i ptr
I n te rn a ti o n a l E n cycfopedia of the Soclai 9Ci.enceg ( Vcl- . l oo
Fr ee
Pre e s, L 9 6 8 , p . 3 o o- 3o4) .
 9o

( ttot e 26 e ont inue d )

W o rl d C o u n ci l o f Churc]:es 1n a recent fl,s'cr:rt of tha

ffiret i on, swit zerl&tlTtffir
wb.ereby n111tar11rvalues, ldeology and pattern* *;- beir:".vj-our
a ch le ve a dominating infiu e n e e o n t h e p o iiii* n . , ; o : in -,
econoaic and exterrral- affairs of the Statefta:rd. siiii,a:--l$n
a s r f o n e o f th e mo re p e r tublng r eaulte of thr s pr o,.essT
(p. t ) .
rd t i n a n ar ticle titled fbe Causea anC. tc:."-
n a ln t a in s t h a t t t miiit a r-s n
a B aea n
E IE ll a tti
aa U r ,tu dlEe , t vgvltt n, f1s., tvhLLVe
lUlt( Jre a d.l lin
- s euJ gt';,e s s o r wil,
W X.l ,.ll"
( J .i . in6tttt''l
" I.Il g $t* E s ti rnl .,!
engage in behavlours ydlicb have been authorised an<i rnr:tr-
t u t i o n a l l ze d b y a g o ve r nment for tbe pur pose or ' ueing or
t h r e a t e n i n g to u se d e str uctive weapons again*t th* people
a n d p r o p e rty o f a n o th e r nation, or even agains i- i,,:.+people
( U u t se l d .o n th e p ro p e rty) of onef s owr 3r u;tion, ipeper
pres€nted at the Pugvash Synposlun on iviilitarr$:E enc
N a t l o n a l S e cu rl ty, 0 e 1 o, Novenber 1977, p, 2) .
I n h i s a rti ci e , Ml l l ta ri em and Flilitar ization :-ri C criii en-
porary International Relations, ln Bulietln of
p o s a l g L 9 7 7 2 4 , S g re E _ $ kg hae the f oLlowing br oad. coliec-
t i o n o f syn p to n s: n U n d er the ter m f militar ismr I suosum e
such symptoms as a rush to arnaments o th.e growi-rrg :ol-e
o f t b e n l l tta ry (u n d .e rstood as the niiitar y estabL:.ohner .t)
in natlonal and lnternationai affalrs, the use ,tI iorce
as arr lnstr:unent of prevalence arrd. politicar coiryer, alC
t h e i n cre a si n g i n fl u e n ce of the niiitar y in cr vir j,an Ef falrs
$ e e n fro m th i s a n g Ie , niiltar isn has lndeec become a
g l o b a l p h e n o me n o n . I u nder stand tfm llltar izationti as being
t h e e xte n sl o n o f ml i i ta ry influence to eivilianl sp*er es,
1 n c l u dl n g e co n o ml c a n d socio- political 11fe"r r ( 8. L)
I'1na11y, it deeervee rention thet HeJ-W_rti_&4sq4_qrl- hae
r e c e n ti y a tte n p te d . to disti- nguisb @ m l;ita-
r l s n an d mi l l ta ri za ti o n " ile oefines nllltar iem lls ' r tl' ].e
nilitary e xp l o i ta ti o n of r mytbologyr in or der i;c ' 1eq:.r r -
n l s e t th e e xp ro p ri a ti o n of sur plus for ille{ ":.tr r a- ce nn.cr o-
p a r a e i tl c p u rp o se g rrr (1n: ttlil' ltar it4 - Qgi_r ' ;.r ai lr aension
of i'lllitarlpgtipAr paper preserrb ed at tl'e & bove*nentione d
hrg;wasb Synposium. Thus, he links nilitarisn ro the 6upor-
e t r u c tu re a n d n l l i ta ri za tion to the socic- econo:r .ic br :.sn"
I{arek Thee is, at t}E moment, preparing a read*::, k"!.,L.Lggg.
of Contemporar:r Militarisn whlcb. wiLl emDr&s* L llr"c's.
v a r l e t y o f a sp e ctsr.d l n ensions and definitlons of "' ,;l"i' ,
n i l i t a r lse co n ce p t (fo rthcor ning) .
I h e s e co n ce p tu a l i za ti o n - no matter how dj- ffer ent the;'
o t h e r *rj .se a re cl o se l y r esem ble the 1ib:a1- or :iented wa],
i n w h i ch th e co n ce p t o f 1nper 1a11sm was for ner ly i::eateC,
i . e . as a o me tkri n g a l i e n to capitalism as su"ch r ,:r :l cir r aan) -y
e e r v l n g a s trre mi n i g ce n eegtr or as r fattlttldesr t cr t' wa;.' s*f
thlnktng" (th e n 1 1 i ta ry nlnd etc. ) Str ey ar e, in tJr is r e-
e p e c t 1 n sh a rp o p p o si ti on to m ost M ar xist- or iented eoncep -
t u a l l z atl o n e w h l ch , o n their si- de, ar e extr em ely lim ited i n
e e e i n g rn l l l ta ri sm a s p e r taining to only one sc ciai f or nnati o4
 91 -

27. K a l d o r, The iiignificance of irlili rar;r teeb.rroiouiy , irr ;

lt L 9 7 7 t 2 , Un iv e rs it e t s f o rla g e t

2 8 . A. Va g te , A H i sto ry o f Hr Litar ism , op.cir . p. 4a-!,,

2 9 . r b 1 d ., p. 47
'5 o . R . Ni e b e t, th e S o cl a l Pbilosopher sr op,cit., p. 65

37-. B . A b ra h a u sso n , Mi l i ta ry Pr ofessionallzatlon anci Po . ii t : c a i

P o w err o p .ci t., p. 2, ( ttalics added)

,2 . I b 1 d ., p . 1 5 -7 5

,5 . I b i d . , p. 56

,4 . Charl es Reynold e , Theorrr anC Xxplanatl on iL rF.te r-;, * ioira;,

F g l i t ics, l {a rti n R o b e rtson and ( Jo.,Ir td., icr r iicn !971, ,:.
21o-11

15. See G. $harp 197r, The ?or:ltipe of Nqnviolent.4g jj:__c,4-:.-_,lljirq

Three: The Dynanlcs of $onviolerlt .4ction, Porter Saigent
Pirbiisher s , Massacbusett e , p. 8oI ff

5 5 . ! [ . K a l d o r L 9 7 5 , T h e ]l i litar 1y 1n Developnent, in: W or Ld

D e v el o p me n t, o p .ci t., p. 467

1 7 . 0 n t h e co n se q u e n ce s o f ttr is developr ent, see e$.pe*j- *.- l.l- :.

D, Senghaas t : lUi11tary Dynareics in tire Contex'i. .i:' Pe:'rfjre:),"
Capi tal- isn rand P. Lack/H. Wulf I s I 'Iransf e r of i{:.1":- ?a:y
f e c h no l o ry a n d th e j i e veiopnent Pr ocess, anci i' r lie; dr ,- ,.,- !:j .r :!s i
I'{ilrtarlr Depencieney vs. }everoi;oent in the Tr:i::a '*rc::l.l
a l . 1 in B u l l e tl n o f P e ace Pr oposals l- 9772?. op. cir . Acd i o
t h i s th e co n tra sti n g view of e.g, n. Benoit j,r i:.i.s } *fe' r ise
.6nq!lcononic Grrowth ilr Developina :Qountli*s, 'c=iexJ-ng"{t?%kso
D.C. Heat 5hs.h.::*r.xn
chubin 1g10, rapliiati dns of ! hF }4i.r:si-rl-*s,=i-":s.a;s-i sli:,
I n c r ustri e -l $ ta te sr 'Ih e Case of fr an wnich s;ates t;1iet ' liranr s
its def*n*e capablir *
t i e e ra p i d L y. T b i s se nse of ur gency r eflected in *h.e *our r -
t r y f s d e ve i o p n e n t p ro gr amm e as a whoie, nas sir aped ff:+
p a t t e rn a n d styl e o f the d.efenee build- up. Under ) yi:x: :t l - s
H l e Ma j e o tyts b e ri e f that the r ,ation needs to co:l:p?',qs e th;:
usual developoent process, and acjvan:.cerapidiy tr::" r,Dr-i';ra:.ert
h e a l 4 y re l i a n ce o n We s ter n tech.nology. The ieacier si:r ;;' s
attempt to dra€ the country into the modem worl-c rapioly
i-s reflected. j-n th.e arms buiid-up. This is besed. ori tire
premiee that the best neans f or acqrralnting lra::iens with
m o d e m te ch n o l o g r i s by its eyster e.tic and nnnssive i:ifusi on
i n t o ttre e co n o my. Ih e m ost efficietr t ager icy fcr tlansfeg....
rlng this technolory and exposing large nurn'oers af urdinery
I r a r i an s to i t i s tJre ar r ned for ces.tf ( paper pr esented to
the Rrgwaeh Synpoeium on Froblens of Mil-j-tary-Oriente<i.
T e c hn o l o g i e s i n D e vel oping, Countr ies, Feldafing, the Xlnfi
l { o v e n b e r 2 2 -? 6 1 9 ? 5 ' p. 57) . The idea expr essed eould ha r d}- y
c o Ye r o u r p o l n t l o C Ireclear ly.
 92

,8. For firrther details t p l e a se see Ignacio Sotelo, Esser ,

B. Iloltmann 1975, Di affneten okrat
t t-Ita, eltr dger - Yer dt-
te r noYe r
'r9 . I b t d .
r P. 25
4o" Malvern lumsd.ea, Militarj.sm: Cultural Dlnensions of
M i l i t a r i s ati o rl r o p .ci t., p. 5 ( italics in the or iginal)

4L. K. L i e b kn e ch t, Ml l i ta ri sn and Anti- Militar isnr oP.cit. t

p . 2 2 i s e e a l so K . In n g L972' @ i the
So c i o l o E r o f .W+,r, $ a g e h rblicatl- ons' london p. or
ffie crags perspectlve

42 . l { e r e f e r a g a i n to S te ve n Rosenr Testing the Theor y of the

M i l i t a r y - In d u e tri a l C o n plex as well as to Feilr eige zur ltlili-
t5rdkononie by the Au_torenkollektiv der Militdrakademie
f f i g e 1 9 , |.Mi 1 i tF i rve r1 a g d e rD eutsehaDeno} aatische
R e p u b l i k, B e r1 1 n L 9 7 6

4'r. K. !ang, I'li1itary Institutlons and the Sociolory of War,

op.cit., p . 5 6 . S e e a l e o P. 91.

44 . K. L a n g h e re q u o te s Ja n o wj- tz, see p. t4 in Ir ang op.eit.

4 5 . J . W o d d l e 1 9 7 7 r @, Iawr en' ce sr r d wishar t

Irondon, P. 8o

4 6 . . f . W o d d l gr o P . ci t. I P. 81

4 '1. I b i d . r P . 8 2

48. fbid. P. 87
'
49 . S e e e s p e ci a l l y ch a p te r 2 in B. Abr abam ssonr oP.eit'

5o . B . Ab r ah a rn sso n r o P . c i t. , p. 72. The stati- stlcs r 1t should

b e n o t e d , d a te b a ck to th.e nid- 5os, on which the patter ns
a r e b a se d .

5 1 . F o r f r r r tb e r d e ta i l e , e e e A1fr ed Stepan ( ea.;r @

Br a z l l . 0 rl p C n s. P o l @, Ya]- e Univer siW Pr ess

-52 . | [ o q u o te S te p a n o n th i e pointa ' ffnstead of lnerto easing

f r r n c t i o n a l e p e ci a l l za tl o n , the nili- tar y began tr ain their
officere to a cq u l re e xp er tise in inter nal secur lty natter s
t h a t w e re d e fi n e d a s e mbr acing all- aspects of socidir eco-
nomlc and polltical l1fe. fnstead of tbe gap between t'be
n 1 1 1 t a r y a m p o l i ti ca l s pher es wid.eningr new pr ofeeslo-
^tbe-
nallsn ied to e belief that there was a fund.amental inter-
r e L a t i o n sh i p b e tw e e n th e two spher es, with- the nilitar y
playing a key role in lnterpreting and dealing with domestic
bolitical problene owing to its greater technieal ard
 94-

63 . I t e h ou l d b e me n ti o n e d that the sltuation per taining to

t h e l i o vi e t U n i o n d o e s n ot necessar ily apply to that of
Hastern Europe, Dale Roy Herspring in hj.e Eaet Ge
ivil- l aet of 'IechnolE { t
raeger Publlsiters, New Y*rk and 5, s h o ws h o v i
a b a i a n ce b e tw e e n 're d a esgr r and |texper tnessr r is attenpted:
' ! T h e r esu l ts su g g e st l t ia possible to develop :.:ts:vi"hue.l.s
c l o s e l y a p p ro xi ma ti n g the nllitar y dual executar ' e. Altr 1or igb.
t h e y d o n o t re p re se n t a per fect comblnation of t' exper tness tr
a n c t r fre d n e g srr, S a st Ger nan officer s do conbine both tnese
c h a r a cte r l sti cs to a consider able d.egr eett ( chapter I ) "

64 . $ee A. Boserup and, A. S?"\ r97 4, Wgl WJllrqut _yeApqng.

i'lon-vioLe4-ce t4 e@, sehoCken SooEsl--SF.wYa:k

6 5 . St u a r t S i e h ra m1 9 ? 1 , l h e Poiitlcat Ihouelxt of ii' r ac Tse- Eur ir q,

Pe i i c a n, i 'l l ci a 1 e se x I

6 6 . 0 . X . e ;rn o l d s, T h e o ry a n d Er planation in Inter natlonai

P o i J . t i cs, o p .ci t., p , 1 81. It is fur ther eLabor ateo by
lleynolds in the f oLlowing mam.er:
r r f h e c o n fu si o n b e tw e e n the notlon of nationai secur ity as
a c a pa ci ty f,o d e fe a t g lu opposition or thr eat to ter r itor lal
l n t e g r l ty, a n a th e p u rsui.t of nor elinited poIltical natlo-
n a i ob j e ctl ve g th rrcu g h tbe use of for ce, weakens tfte r a-
t i o ? a li ty o f w a r a s a n lnetr um ent of for ej- gn policy.tt ( p.
182 )
6 7 . } *u J . p b e rg 's ch a .p te ro Towar dg er $9w inter natj- oga } { llilegg
Q f d g r i i r tfe fo rth co n l n g e d.eta1ls
a n d r e fe re n ce s

6 9 . I. Il 1ich, , Harper and Row &rblishers,

L 9 7 '1 , p. 58-
5 9 . K. La n gr oP .clt., p. 47

7 o. $ e e €.g. B . A brahamssotl o p . c lt . , p. 81-129 for an aeeount

of th e rfmilltary mind.rr

? 1,. K. Ir angr oP ,cit., P. 59

72 . F r a n k l l" n P . H u d d ,l e , d l rector of the II$ Congr eosional stueqy

S c i e n c e , T e ch n o i o g y a n d Amer iean lipJ.oaacy 1s her e quoted
1 n i e s te r R . B ro w n , F .e de$*gin,qNatlonal Secur lW , W or ld-
w a t c h P a p e r_ 1 4 , 0 cto b e t \977 of ihe lior ldwaf,cffinstitute,
w a s h i n g to n (1 ;. 4 i ).

7 3 . l ; d w a r d K re h b i e l 1 9 1 b , Nationalism, W ar ar :.d Soci- ety. the

M a c m i l 1 a n C o mp a n y/Ga rl k a:t?]
p . 4 8 ( i ta l i cs a d ci e d) .
 95

8o . G . Sh a rp r o p .ci t., p . 8 o2

81 . See Johan Oaltung s,nd Anders Wirak, i:unat iri3lg_{gr_;riiual

Fielrts jand the Tlieorv of Dg"*onnitffit and
Pe a c e R ,e se a rch , Osi o U n r ve:si- ty, Uor io Lnoicator e Pr ogr ar ir
r,io. 1o, p. 4

82. i{ere it should be notj-eed. that territorial vu-inerabil-ity i,s

b u i l t i nto n u cl e a r stra tegic thinklng as pointe<i oui o:f
C " R e y no l d sr o p .ci t.I p . L84I
rffhe nuclear stalenate itsel"f arlses out of €a sit'*-:;ti*'r-"'.
i n w h ich tw o o r me re states possess an invul- ner ab- le ::uciea r
c a p a e ity a n d vu l n e ra b l e ter r itor y.'

83 . T h e e x tre me se cre cy h a s been exper lenced by th€ pr esent

author in hls anialysis of tlre Danish purchase oi t,he F-i"b
fighter a j ,re ra ft. th e o ften asser ted !r openne$sr ro: r aester n
d e m o e r a ci e s a s co mp a re d to the |tclosednesstr of tne Haster r i.
s o c t e t y i s o n l y p a rt o f the wider nil- itar y a.vthci- ogy pr e-
vaili"ng on the part of the forrner co'rlr:trles.

8 4 . C i r r : - s t i a n i a i s e rr a j -te rrati' r e society outs:- tle t;r .e centr e of

C o p e n h a g e n w h i ch w a s th reatened by being cioeeq down as it
1 s p a r t o f th e a re a s b e l onging to the lr :,inistr y of Defence ( ,: )
T h e f t 0 h ri sti a n l tst' n a d e up a plar i of def sr ce invclving
s i t - d o w n s i n th e stre e ts of Copenhag&r a telepb.one- gn&:,11
n o b i l i z i ng a b o u t 5 o .o o o people ano bloeking of tb.e m ain
p a s s a g es a n d co n mu n i ca ti on sour ces so that poilce anc.
military fo rce s w o u 1 d .h ave to be withdr awn fr on: t' fr e Chr is-
tlania. fh e re i s n o d o u bt, tbat the fr ee city nas :*r vl- vec
also becawe of a large synpathy a&ong Danes iowa:'es tirls
n o n - v i o le n t stra te g y j -tself. It is also of par ij.cular inier -
e s t t h a t h i g h -ra n kl n g n i lltar y exper ts have expiessed thelr
adniration of the plan.

8 5 . F o r a n e xa mp l e o f th e modem total def ence s+ "r ate#r see

l j 6 i r e r l r etsp o l i ti k o ch fo talfbr svar ( Statens Offentiiga Ut*
m1r ig th* incr easii.g sociaL
rruinerability the !{inistry of lef ence tras lssued the reper:rt
{ society' s Yulner abillty) , Sekr etar ia-
t e t f i j r e 6 ke rh e tsp o l -i ti k och l6,ngsiktsplaner ing inon totai*
f 6 r s r a !e t , S to ckh o i m 1 9 75

8 6 . $ e e e , g. S . S h a rp rs n o n u&enta1 wor k The Polr t:- cs of N*nv:- ,.:-

f e n t A cti o n o p .ci t.; J. fhoft L974, Ikkevofu!- . Jtgateg: i
K l a s s e ka mp e n ,- GM{I, Ira n g ebek, lennar t
Fffina Deiencel Sssi.vs in Peicq_Researe{, Yoiuine rr
C h r i s t i an E j l e rs, C o p e n hagenr especr aliy p, 5o5- 427; end
G e o r g e l a ke y 1 9 7 5 , i {a n l fest fe Non- Yiolm t Egvoluti,eg - to
r s e n t i o n o n l y a fe w .

8 7 . A. Eo s e ru p a n d A . Itl a ck, op. c it . , p. 14o- i48

 98-

lnslghts about inner m€m found 1n buddhist thinking ln the

Ea s t a n d e xi ste n ti a l i st thinking in the W esti ar ar chist
t h i n k i n g o n th e si g n i fi e a nce of local- autonomy; liber al
ttrinking on freedom and out;r nan in general- - ttsn in
e o c i e t y l ma rxi st th i -n ki n g cn social str uctur e; anti-
l n p e r i a l ist th e o ry a n d p r aetice fr om r ecent year s; all of
it tied together in ways that would draw upon noderri visions
o f f e d e ra i i sn w i th stro n g em pbasis on decision- m .hing at
t h e l o w e st p o ssi b l e 1 e \E 1r and tm per ed r ,:tth ecologlcal
c o n s i d e ra ti o n s o f re sp e e t fe the envlr onm ent, in solidar ity
w l t h p r ese n t a n d fu tmre gener atior ?s.tr

96 . T . R o s za kr o p .cl t., P . 4I5