THE CONCEPT OF OVERDEVELOPMENT:

Itreories, Causality and Indicators.

Dag PoJ.eszynski
Ckrair in Conflict and Peace Research, University of OsJ-o
and
International Peace Research Institute, OsJ.o

'[IIP Paper No. 16

The auttror is grateful for the comments and

suggestions given by'Johan Gal"tung and Anders
Helge Virak to drafts of this paper. The
World Indicators Program l as been financialJ-y'
supported by the Norwegian Research Council
for S$l,cnco end the Humanitj-es.

J rrn e 1 9 7 7 .
TABL]TO}' CONTEIITTS:
Page
1. In tro d u cti o n 1
2. A sp e cts o f o ve rd -e vclopm ent I

3. Th e co n se q u e n ce .so f over developm ent +

7.1. T h e e co l o g i ca l c onsequences of
o ve rd e ve l o p me n t 5
1 . R e so u rce d e pletion 7
2 . P o l l u ti o n o f the envi- r onm ent 7
3 . L o ss o f va ri ability of natur e 10
+ " Mi cro -e co l o g i cal consequences 11
3.2. T h e so ci a l - co n sequences of
overd.evelopnent 4-
IL
i . In e :'e a si n g i nequallty 1A
, _l'

2 n T b e a sso ci a ti on with exploltation 4A

t+

7. T-,ackof autonomy 1ITA

4 . H i g h l e ve l - o f fr agmentation 16
5 . P e o p l e b e co me m ar ginalized. 16
3.3. l l e a l th p ro b l e ms in over d.eveloped
so ci e ti e s 4- 7
tl
1 . T h e p ro b l e m of too m uch food- 20
2 . T h e p ro b l e m of too m uch hygiene a1
a. l

3 . T o o i n te n si ve health car e 22
4 . T h e l a ck o f ph;- sical exer cise 23
,. T i re p ro b l e m. o- f man- - m ad.e
substances )/

4 . Di scu ssi o n 2i
N O T ES : 1',;,

T a b l es a n d . Gra p h s; e tc.:

Figure 1 Rel-ationship b e t we e n n e e d . s a t is f a c t io n
and. material p ro d . u c t io n (v a lu e re a li-
zation and. s u p p ly o f me a n s ) t
Flgure 2 A typology of e c o lo g ic a l imp a c t J
'Ili
ctrr-ne 7 Health conse o u e n c e s o f n o l" l" u t io n over
iime 8
l,'igure 4 S ynergism be t we e n s mo k in g a n d a s b e s t o s
exposure c)

Figure i A t'lpology fo r p o llu t io n a

Figure 6 Ilel-a-bh effect s re la t e d t o d . e v e lo p me n t 11
'Iahl-e 1 : Taxonomy of he a lt h p ro b le ms lo

lli crrr. a '7 A t.,'nol ogv f o r ma n -ma d _ es u b s t a n Ce s a n d

the effect o n h e a lt h .A

Tab le 2z Cancer and the environmen-f

'Iable ') i iTeed.s and- ma t e ria l goods 2Q

A .
in^L"t
I d, lJ I g ^ + o S ome srjggeste t i. o v e rd e v e lo p n e n t -in d ic a t o rs 30
T i t i c r r : r .a R S chizophrenia re l-a t e d to G l' { P / c a p it a
and tine 71
I In tro d u cti o n .

T h i s p a p e r w i l l d .i scuss theor ies of over d"evelopment, w hat

i s ca u sj -n g o ve rd .e velopment and som e of th.e indicator s w hi c h m ay
b e u se d to e va l u a te when ano r .r her e over d.evelopment occu r s . Som e
o f th i s d .l scu ssi o n has alr eady been intr od"uced in r i' Iil P aper l i o.
2 b y Jo h a n Ga l tu n g et 31.r ' wher e the basic theor etical und.er s tan-
rlinc. nf flro .'oncept of d.evelOpmeni has been forr:nulated.. Conso-
n a n t w i th th i sr w € consider the goal of d"evelopment to be ti r e
d e ve l o p me n t o f h u man beings and. not of things, i. e. per s onal
g r o w th . P e rso n a l g rovr th can on1;r fs assur ed thr ough the pr ogr es -
s i ve sa ti sfa cti o n o f human need.s; both m ater ial and non- m ater i al
n e e d " s. Iri a te ri a l n e ed.s m ay be classified in two gr oups; the
n e e d . fo r se cu ri ty a nd welfar e; while non- m ater ial need.s ar e c on-
s i d" e re d to b e th e n eed. for fr eedor o and id.entity. .i:,\eni f w e r e-
ianr-
r J VV V
*;o
VfrV
nn+j6n
rrv VI of a hierarchy of need.s, tie ad.mit to the fact
that so me n e e d s mu st be satisfied to a minimum for need.- s ati s fac -
t i on to ta ke p l a ce i n other ar eas. For lnstance, one ha s to be
a l ive fo r fe e d " i n g to be meanlngful, conmunication j- s nec es s ar y i n"
o r d .e r to re ra te to other s, etc. But all the four gr oups of need.s
a r e co n si d " e re d .to b e basic f or the d.evelopment of human bei ngs . z

Bu t h a vi n g sa i d . th a t per sonal gr or vth is r elated, to the s ati s fac ti or

o f b a si c n e e d .s, w e also should admj- t to the possibility of s uppj _y -
ing an overabund.ance of means bJ' vrhich these need.s are supposed. to
b e sa ti sf i e d .. rn such a ease r we would say that ' ,..eexper i enc ed a
c a se o f o ve rd -e ve l o p ment, havi::g inplications feour selves, f,eoi her
o r f,q n a tu re (n a tu re in itselfr and futur e gener ations) . 1n thi s
p a p e r w e sh a l i p ri mar ily be conoer ned.r n' itn m ater ial need.s , l m pl - i -
c i tl y a rg u l n g fo r a r eduction in the consunption of mater i al need.s
i n o ve rd " e ve l o p e d .so c ieties as a str ategy to assur e the cov er age of
a l l n e e d s, ma te ri a l and non- mater ial, in all par ts of the w or l - d.
If
overc.-grsumptjon-of rnaterial goods in the overd,eveloped part
o f th e l ro rl d . i s se e n as aL substituie for non- r nater lal need.s l eft
p n sa ti sfi e d -, a n o th e r str ategy would be to focus on such need.s di -
. t4,
rectly aird.+6try&o d.o something about the apparent und-ergrnsumption-
o f g o o d .s/se rvi ce s w hich r elate to non- nater ial need.s. But ev en i f
t h is p a p e r d .o e s n o t d.eal with str ategies, both these appr oac hes v ,r i l
h a l za n { i n mj 1 1 fl , e specially lvhen vr e d.iscuss symptor nsof ov er d.ev e-
r4r rrl!,

lopment, rvhich manlfest themsel-ves in material and noh-uaterial

w a ys.
?. lLsjrecis or' oYer'deve j-oprnqnt..

We have said that ovez'devel.opment may have implications f'or our-

selve-q r .l )r ottrers or f or na.ture, The implications I'or ollrselves

may be trvol 'otcl: t'lrst, there may be too much means relative to the
goal for trhich th't nreant is utilized to reach. Take tire example of'
food: If we eat too much) as a genoral rul-e, we uill gai-rr weii4htt

increase the chances of heart diseases or evell becorre diaLbetic r and

certai1ly feel lass physical well-being ttran if r*e had been eating
only what 1{e n:g-eclell, Second, ttrere might be too rnuc}r nleans f,olatl-
vc to otfuer goals that ue a.re trying to realize. i.)u-r need f'or no-
bi lity could f or in:;tamce, as nany of' us C.o, be soup.ht coyereC. tty

thc irse of private ca.rs. i.tl lt the growing probability- of betng kil-
lorl 'inir rrafl in trafflc accldents will .decreaee our of
^? rJf rJ 4r v sense se-
n rr n;r *. ' ( inn n nnt r l I nonnlg ,Ii S O
vs& uJ . vrlavw ttw u qrr j/vw-l-. C an dfi ve a C af , aU tonobl l eS in-
d .uce in e q u arity,'thus negati n g o n e o f t h e c e n t ra l v a lr-, . e s in o u r
p r og r a m . I This is but one e x a n p ie o f t h e n e g a t j-v e a s p e o -is o f o v e r -
d - e ve lo p m e nt wirich to an increa s iiL g e x t e rrt a l: e b e : n : , ie j. t -. . i1t lie
i ndu str i alize d" part of the w o rld -.

hrt o'rerrrse of resot-r.rces in or-rr pa-rt of'the world also has j.arge
irnplications f or others, a problem whicir has ti;o as;rec'bs ;
.b'irst, we have the pherromenon o1' lmperlallsm or pitl-age of tiee
poor world to secure the material- overa-br.rndamce of the irrciustria-
lized irlest. Second, we have tire bad habJ"t of gggsjin-rg" insrtearl" of
_s4gring,, for instance of iVorth Ameriean Srain supplies. l-n .ihis
paper we shall not try to sort out the exce"sses r.'riric,li ;:la:\r i.rp at:'i-'
buted to imperialist practl-ces or the overuse of one? s own 1:':rsour-
cesr jLrst keep in nind that both approa.ches may be r-:_sefrrl irr a
strategy to reduce gl'obal lnequalities. The point here is to stress
'bhat ovcrdevelonnotrt :tay not only prevent personal gr6vtli to talce
pl ace j-n the overtLeveioped group u ht also trn th.e ur.i.der"rieve-.!,cr.,ect
one.

Overdevelopnent alsc; has consequences for nature, 'I.his rriay be l-oo-

ked at in severa.l \{ays: }'irst, vre h.ave the conscquer}ces for na-ture
itself , excluding
mari rf part of nature is belng wreckecl ni;call se
"
of mant s greecl , this may be seen as being ba.cl for n;itr.rre j-tsr-. lf ,
regardloss uf the effect on ma-n. In this paper, howevero i4re shall
not pursue this discussion any flurtiter, but rather be concerned with
such lmpacts on nature which have conscqGnces f,'or neople" Jurcl in
 to come: 13the present
this connection that aearrs the gonerations
generation uses up. ?11 the fossil energ)' and empties the oceans of
'qene-rations
-/-*uy
fish, ftrttrre*- be unable to cover thelr needs for heat,

atnd nutrition. Dcologicat balance ls seen as a necessity

mobility
for achieving persoreal growth in the long run it is not a goal
to this below under section 3.1' jht
in itself . W€ shall return
let us first repeat this research programf s theoreticaI concep-

tion oi- the relationship between need satisfactlon and the supply

of means.

We have all the time assumed that a mininmm of means are necessary

to reach needs satisf action, ht that after a certain polnt , l,r's

start experiencLag dirninkhing, and eventuallyp negative L'eturns.
The satisfaction of hunan needs requires not too little, ht
not too nnrch either, of materlal production. This condltion may
be visualized as fol-lows in Figure 1:

Fisr-:.re i: Ralationshlp between need satisfactlon and materj,al

productLon (value real-izetlon and supply of me'ans).

Ends
t
( sa ti sfa c iion 'of ireedc f or
se cu r ity, welfare , freedon
and ident ity)

DeveJ-opment

Irlalaevel-
'o p m e n t

llteans

Deficlt Excess (materi.aJ-

productiort)

In WIP 21 it was assumed that at least when lt cornts to basic

material. needs, it is not too difficul-t to say sometlring about
whether there is enough, too little or too much. Talce the case
of food: Too litt1.e leads to malnutrition anrd eventually to star-
vation; too nmch leads to overwelght, obesJ.ty and probably to a.
sho::tened life span, However, it is clearly preferabJ-e to dj.e from
too nnrch than too litble food. In Norway, too umch food could meart
dying at 6O i-nste ad. of J2 ln a poor co$ntry lack of food. may mean
dying at the age of 2 or k. This fact may cxptrain why if is so hard
to nrobilize people against overdevelopment: it is simply not percei-
 so bad as underdcveloprngnt, somethj-ng lrhi-ch stj-ltr na'y
ved. as being
be true. Dr1t j-f the cause of too llttle food anct the conseqrrent

underd,evelopnrent in the poor grart of the r'vorld lles in ttre struc-

ture which at the same time as producing too much food eJ-sewhere,

the problems of underd.evelopment might be attacked equalJ-ir sLlcCess-

fully in .ite overdeveloped world.. The task of' this parper', t):.eref ore t

the empirical evLtlence tha"h the j"ndust::i'alized

is to present sorne of
countr.ies to a large extent are overdevelopeci and to poir:'t nut "rhere
a.n excess of means exittS. 'the irnpliclt d'avolopmen* *tra"tegy is

not. seen as beitig unproblematic, nei-ther a-t the soci*ta-l nor at the

persotial lev'elu however, not in the least because He k-no',* tr-to little

about bcf! hrrman needs are being developed and made consicious over
\te deepen ourseives int* ,rkte symp-
tj.me. Let ihj-s be sald before
toms of collsequences of overdavelopment "

3. The_ c gn"q.9*g*9p9 eg_el-otac{s}:g.Y9] e gntq4-=:"

grrr ultimate interest in this paper is to discuss wirat

'rvei:,ie','e-
lopment does to people; to personal glowth" t\ev'erbh,e-1r-.s, .:,d :nJ-ght
clarlfy the issue if we look at tctraral oomponents ol' cve: ci*,
"1or)--
m ent wtrich, altirough bcLng closel.y interretr.aterl r ina) i..re,-i--i-scus-
sed ur:.d.er se parat e headings " The he arlings c'ef lec t a i.r1{.:; -i" :; s j-on in
the direct ::e Levance to people in the sense th.r.,: the :: r : ra,r,.rr1r- l.ces
are felt as a threat to personal grovfh, F.rr;.tmay alsl :!s se5:I as
the order tn i^ohich thre j-ssueg [31'6 her-.r):r:.:.tr:'.i: ];...,i w.j l:r -.: -, ..::,;.sirrg
intensity ciuri-ng ttre last vears i First e trlc .'co i_,,rgicar-: a.:{€Lr"eness
and the eseal-atlng 1-ntensity in the detrate. . 1.1',': .t-iricLtssion
Sei:..,tLr-l
of the soci al- 1:real<-down of l-ndustrial ,r-.i-i-'e
o arir.i til.{iii i}ie ri i :r:lission
on health prohlems in our parts of the worlrl:

1)
4\
The ecofo&il?l cqnpen.tl1! of overd,evelopment has ,l-ed - c -th.e cl,is-.
cussj-on ol' the euter ti-mits to materia"l- growth. trt reflecis the
c oncel Ii ilc;' clf rrel-l i ro sou.rc e u.!ia€Ie, piayi-ng havorl r"rr-i:
l.r. I)rrl ;serrt and
future gencratioirs; because of the si?rnrltar:Leous poJ-lr-r.b,i-r-:ir., ctepletion
and increase'i vulrlarability which present ar:cl f,'uture j.tnper,t a.l-isrn
ent ail s"
2) The sqii4r. eff qgjFg of overcteveJ-opment are manillesrerl in soc ial
di sorders n itrcreaseci inequali-ties aliena.tion
o towarcls mateyj-a-l- ggood.s
and ;rr.duction c;'cles, increarsing centrar.ization of-. p0wer"n Lru-
reacracy anr:l cal-pi'ta1 . one may here ta-li< ab'ut
inne::, l-i,oi-ts t,r
j ti e a that thes.e is a i jm it
; JX' r l - "1 : : l i ";*',tn " to ,h.< ,ri,.-
,i ' ,r ,.,:L
c' - l r
3) T h e t h i r d e ffe ct ma y h a ve been lncluded in the second., but I hav e
c ho s e n t o d i ffe re n ti a te th e i nd.ivid.ual heglt- h consequeneeq of ove r d.e-
v elo p m e n t , be ca u se th e y se e m to be so nuner ous. ' Ihe sun of these
ef f e c t s w e w o u l d . te rm so ci a l , but we vr ill discuas her e the heal- th
e f f e c t s f r o m e a ch i n d .i va d u a l point of vi- ew, in or d.er to get a better
und.erstand.ing for what he or she night go through because of structu-
ral i n a d . e q u a e l e s a n d try to single out those health effeets which hav e
a n o n - s t n r e t ura l co mp o n e n t, i f any.

f . l. f h e e c o fo e f ca l _ g o n se q uencesof over 4er r q_lopm ent,

Th e e o o l o g i c a l co n se q u e n ce s of m aintaining a high level of r esour ee

u s p . . a r g m u l tj -fa ce te d r b u t i n or der to get a gener al over view, we c an
split them
1n t r ' ; o : s h o rt-te rm a n d l o n g -ter m effects. If we com blne these tw o
effectS of reSOufce use y1tr6 the geographical eltenslon of the ec o1o-

sieal 'imnaet- be it the local orche slohal lprrel wp oet

rrv v the -iol-
o 4vs+ t ( f,"

l o win g typo logy:

4.igure 2.:_- A typqlogy eoolog*:al inpag.t-,

-of
Space climension
o ca l conseeuences Global eonseouence s
Time
Long -te:cm 1) Mtnj"ng prts t) p lu t o n lu m ec\)
"nomy
he
h o r i zon LS d. c a p e
Short-tarn
litte- ^, The petroleum
z r t f 1r l8 4) economv
"

A s J o h a n G a l tu n g h a s p o j -n te d . out, ecologlcal pr oblems have been sev er e

e v e r s i n c e th e b e g i n n i n g o f the ind.ustr ial r evolutior r .5 h.r t becau s e
t h e p r c b l e ms rn o stl yw e re o fTstr ictly local char acher , the powe r el i -
t es c o u l d e a si l y re mo ve th e mselves fr om the polluted ar eas, while
the ind.ustrial workers liveil in the niclst of it all. As the
ec o l o g i c a l p ro n f" H l %ta rte d to becom e a pr oblem also for the niddl e
a n d u p p e r c l a sse s, g re a t co n cer n has been expr essed about ecolog: y .
To d a y , t h e fo cu s i s to a l a rg e extent on the long- tem ecologj- cal
eon s e q u e n c es o f i n d u stri a l society and in a global context, ce1I e I
However, with the inereasing awareness of ecological problems il the
ind.ustrialized part of the world., workers also have startecl to make
den a n c l s f o r a b e tte r n i l i e u i nside the factor ies and at the places they
wor k . A e c o rd i n g l y, i t i s b e coning less and less easy to ,tbuy of fr t
the rorkers so that they nay continue to enclure intolerable work concli-
tionsr a trend which is ll-kely to be relnforced yitb. tbe increasing
material affluence of the working claee peopre.
 6

If we look at the i*ur cells in Fj-gure 2 and relate eaeh eelJ" to the
p ro b l e m o f o ve rd e ve l o p me n tn a fe' r .rcom m ents should be ad.ded" Fir stl y ,
even if much of the current d.ebate is centered around. tl'r€l,ring*tenn
g ] -o b a l p r o b l e :;re o f re so u rce u s e, pr €sent pol- ieies of the "indr "r sl:r i a*
f'developingt' countr:-es use e,s ms.-'de}sfor
lized cou il,,liB s {whieh most
clevelopment,) serve only to aggravate these very problems" Po-Li-ej-es
h a v e n o t c h arrg e cl , l e a st o f a l l in the m ost "i.ndustr iall- ir ed colllbnies ,
whlen foresee a" contj-nuation of past grow-bh .ir: errergy use arreJ.iind.us-
t rial p r o i l u e ti o n w e l l b e yo n d the next d.ecade, - Li r - s tr ue' ci;sr l,, the
pcrcentage growth rate has been somewhat redu.eed in the m* s'u recent
f o re c a s t s , b u t i h i s re d .u e ti o n is not due to enoi- ogi"u\",consel' r ) su b ut
ra t h e r i n a n a p p rb i sa l o f w h a t is possible to aehr ese,' S* ,in"s- bead
of d.oing somethr-ng about cell 2 anl^ 4, power e1-ite$ a;".3 L;r,\rr,.lei.ti:r'ating
on c e l l 1 a n d 3 , a t l e a st i n this countr y, Cell $.- t:r pi a{ - ' !,io.i:s& r e
for instance tha yearly rrKeep the fj.ord eleantr earnpnigl', silri*:'.Fboy
s c o u t s a n d s ch o o l ch i L cl re n , together with ehar i"bable insti,"r ' r lions and
local n:lnieipai.ities, take the ini.tiative to p.iekrf a:.1..,;irr nap,*r arr.rl
plastic litter l.rhieh has accrimulei;ed dun:,ng tire -rv'j.ni*.r, i-:'*il j!.'"type
ac t io n s a r e f# r .'i .rrsta n ce-i -n i ti atives by tl:.e Iioywegie:: il.v,ir r r .' .lji"ec tr j - c
BoarCI to level ci'.i gravel norrnds and seed them. rsitli gt:p.s*.xlt *.':der to
n a k e h y d . r o - ei e *tri c p o w e r p l a nts less elident i:: ' ' ,ir e .i.a:' .i.s*&.r i' - ,l ,t
is much the sam.ephil-osophy nehind industrj-al- 'rJsx'r1?r*r'' d..:r.;i*1;"r,.-
:{r:r a
better work .anvironment: they d.emand,eleane.r air to 'nreali-rrr,
-irir i:r-rt
are less ccnee-r'n.edwith the global end" Long-,terxn ej'f'e'r:"i:se,rr -.il.t lnrlu-"-
s t rla l o p e r a t-i ri n , "

? h e e co lo g r cnl dsba.te up to this d -a t e h a : n r-;r,

m'.:.chof the";nCerlying structure which is thc
e c o- ca tast:o p l.-:'s. t lheref ore, i t is e s s e riii. o , l
i l . i al- c- 'e n ts
toA et-r,.il :rnd. prese n t a c o h e re n t v i
1r f
nal Le .,d - o *,,J b: ":tructurally re la t e d o r )ir)t ,

O v er d "cveIop n ent clces not only g iv e ris e to a d . i s , : u s ; : o . n i, i a . t , irn e

a n d spa ce d irnension,-nut also t o d -i" t ' f e re n t i; y p e s . : i- e r: o . l. c , g : -r: : ; , i
e f f e cts. ,,\;esfra-ii C.iscuss gev e : : a i- o i -b lie s e ' r\ . c e s i: , e l, r-, , n ; ;
 l

1) Overdevelopment leads to rego::.rc.e cleplstion. For some resources,

rssource d.epletion may be a short-term problen if you look at it in
a h i s t o r i c a l - p e rsp e cti .re .{f Take the exam ple of oil: Pr esently, oi l
is an lndLepeneabLo sourco of cncrgy for an industria.J-i-zed countrry.As
oil reserves clwinclle, th.e process of aclapting to alternative sources
of energy no doubt will be painful, Ilowever, in the history of man-
kincl the use of oil wili last only for a short perloal of tine. But
the availability of oi1 tociay uay be cruclal for many d.eveloping coun-
tries if they shall ever be able to correr their populations'
bastcmaterial- needs. 0verilevelopment in the use of oi1 in one part of
the worl<l may therefore hannper clevel-opment in other parts of the worlcl,
even if the oi1 era will be of relatively short duration.

De p l e t i o n o f o th e r re so u rce s may m ean long- tem pr oblem s. A d.ep l eti on

of t h e w o r l c lfs fi sh sto ck o r a lasting er osion of agr icultur al la nd
nay for ever reduce the worldls camyJ'ng capaclty'. For an ov€r-
cleveloped. country coverecl with concrete, and as-
"*fi*t6"Bt""1,glass
phalt there may be no way back in the future/they can buy their
food^ from other countries or, alternatively, if they are able to
secure ample anounts of cheap energy.

2) Overclevelpment involves pqllutiqn of the environnent. To the ex-

tent that the pollution j-n some way or another strikes baek on man,
it is seen as a problen. One may argue that pollution is baal in it-
self or that pollution which affects any living creature in nature
somehow, reprgsents a problem. Horrever, pollution 1g not like1y to
be very nobilidng unless it is a problen for sg1y. and when those
affectecl in the @il, are people. We also would assume that an aesbhe-
t ic p r o b l e m i s l e ss d i stu rbing
than the health effects of poll uti on.
A big sokestack spewing out fumes may not look very pretty, but there
probably woulcl be a clifference of ilegree whether the fune s lrere simply
vapor or if they were noxious gases. Therefore, w€ vrould hypothesize
that the most significant kind of pollution woulcl be a type which in
the long run woulcl cause health effects, ei.ther mental or physical, on
man. Inclicators shoulal reflect this.

The consequences of pollution may be felt today or tomolrow. Smoking

is a typical example of this. To sone, pollution from even one ciga-
rette in a room nay be bothersme, but it is hardly inportant for
onef s long-teru health. Regular exposur€ to cigarette moking, how-
ever, inevitebly leacls to cases of lung eancer etc., the frequency
 B

of which inereaees with increasing exporr,**.1? The sane wi-l-,r-be the

case witlt fcx' instsnee noise pollution. I*frequent expe$utre "flo bother-
etomenoise below the level uhich would, cause the loss of hearing
ability may be ceiped.with, but continuous exposure to noise".rnarybe
a Yery serj-ous problen for mental 4nd pirysical well-being. Ihese
consider&j"*ons l.eacl rs to visualize the following gr"apL,r

gi gure-J-i- sgelt h--qegs.qogences o-!q

J o*r,&r
u!.oa-gy-e{ -.3-}s_g3
,A
A
f'requency clf
some heatrih
deficiency

**-{F'^.
xxBoslrre io po)")-:'-t-rcrn
o rer *i,ms, {\ r..:
f -,"a:.t. ! -.-r'r ti:? n
(J{ r'!
*MeasuratrLe h €#..th.eon seouenceg exD0 a1.l3"e p. rt r''
.-'.._.,..oJ',
,i ;; I,ff. !
_rr-

In Figure 3, ire heve macle a hypothetie*l 'i:j,rj l.ite.-

exex.pie ,-'.f h.ryr,;
queney of one d--i-rlxension of health may he e.ff**tei."lrl"',.'rii:.r--rit,*iiig fittr"-
pOSuXe to & S-i-venpclllutant. BeloW A thr-esl:,:r1*.,:;-',?
liegr,il: {:-,:*.e,1,".h
m{ey
not be msgghl--e-' This does not mean i;h.at ttrere -is no e:{j':l*'r;*
-hut
t ha t w e h a v * n o *r:re t d e ve l o p c d nethed,e fol..f,ai;ee- b:_ei;r r
hei,;1,; ,:i i..jj: 1,.;g,j ,j l
level. Abor"'e {;hrrs 1evel, health eonseqlr-enees*h+rr l.:.;i, *.j.r;r;r.;li,*..i. F.n
inc r e a s i n g fre q rre n cy (a ), a t constant j- ner eaees { - tii o1 - ,,:.i
i,, ...' :,' ;" r '* G- .
sing frequene.'g (C). If frequency of a health effer:'b wc;:,r*gi grrr l.n
per cent, the maximum being 100% of, the popu.latro:r be-',:rg."r.f i;::.i;*r}, thee
three alternative functj-ons would all approael:. tire 10{J?6.-i;:r,il.i.i;
p;r& even.-
tual"Iy flatten out. In this case, one eould vlsualifiF &n u'ppet: h-mit
v:here anlr a66lbieinal :Lncrease in pollutierlr .i-s :nd:-ffere.nr 't.,e"..*.,r#e
we
are a'!. ."i*;ad.arrywa-V,

But m o s t o f th e ti me i t i s ra ther im possible to isotr abe bhe ef' :feet of

one polJ-utant from all others, several pol"i.u'ban"bnua.v ae.L ai; r,L:e saFse
time, giving a synergistic effectl ttru*otalef fe*t of tr,r,,:tr,6ru
iu.tar,rts
nay in such a ease not be ths sulo, br.r.-b
often far more, A s.:j-ssg1cal
example is the combiriatiorr of moking and asbestoe exp$srl:l:r, r-,s illu-
strated ]:1 the .foiLowing grapn3S

* l vfut t t al 1 i' :-:f ' r' € ..'...si l g

- see n e xt page a
 9

Figure:4: . Sgnegelm -Q.e,j!weg+

snoktts and_asbestos expo_suTg.
ra B ,^
l--
^
lung caneer Snoking Asbestos Spoking + Asbeetos
frequrncy

Expo
dver time or asing exposure
in a given tine periocl
In graph A, the frequency of lung cancer j.n a given population is
correlated with the effect of smoking for i.nstance 20 cigarette pex
day o v e r o n e ts l i fe sp a n . F o r sever al year s, [o cancer cases wi]- l be
detectecl, but after that, an increasi4g number of people will get can-
eer. Graph B shows a non-moki-ng group of as'bestos workers, who af-
ter a certain number of years start cleveloping lung cancer with in-
creasi-ng frequency. In graph C, we imagj.ne a group of asbestos wor-
kers who also are smoking. Here the lung cancer cases start showing
up even below the expectecl number of yearswo"""/it was possible to
measure any effect from elther snoking or asbestos alone, and the to-
ta1 effeet is a lot larger than tle sun of the two effects oxer time.
This effect is callecl synergistic and may be a very important effect
for many materials, for instance sith raclioactivity ancl heat
pollution in combination with other pollutants. Therefore, we doulcl
not focus the attention too strongly on gllg pollutant at a time. There
is a need to see the totq_1_piqt3.tg, and j.nclicators should reflect this

As a parallel to rri -g u re 2 (p . 5) we shall- now look at a typology for

pollu t i o n , a s sh o w n b e l o w i n Figur e 5.
Figure Jz A typ o l o g .r fo r p ollution.
Non- toxic
Non-d.esrad.abIe 1) Roclr for m ations, 2) Chlor inated. hy -
l-

\n o e n zJrme -sys- ment rsetal-s dr ocar bons ( - DD t,

Time PCB, etc.) , chl or i -
te ms a va i l a b l e )
dlmension nated. fluoride car-
bons etc .
D e e ra da b l e 1 ) Organi c waste s 4) Sever al petr ol eum
( e n zyme -syste ms from plant/animal fr actions
a va i l a b l e ) or igin
G e o g ra p h ic e x t e n s io n

F' i g ur e 5 is
/
more specific than I ' ig u re 2. In t h is la s t f ig u re , w€ a l s o
-4 b vtrv

m a y l o o k a t th e ti me a n d . sp a ce d.im ensions, but this tim e for the cons e-

q u e n c e s o f a cti vi ti e s b a se d o n r esour ee use. It is typical of m od.er n
ind- u s t r i a l s ta te s th a t th e p o l lution pr oblems have snifted. fr om ce l }s
 10

1 a n d . 7 t o c e l l s 2 a n d " + " N o t only has the waste pr oblem fr ' um ec o-

nomic activitles b e co me a l o n g e:- ter m pr oblem, it has also become a
p ro b l e n o f t o xi ci ty. T h u s, th e r ecyclability of r aw m ater ia- r - l- ;ente-
ring t h e p r o du cti o n cycl e i s becom ing incr easingly difficult, a.ith ough
it n o w s e e m s mo re n e ce ssa ry th an ever befor e j,n histor y. Tile abtem pts
q
a*-
u D U r v'..6
ll^^-1..;--tt
the enrironmental p ro b le ms b y re c y c L in g wa s t e s i. y r a n o v e r -
d . e vlo p e d eco nomy therefore beco me s a c o n t ra d i& io n , such as
in it s e lf
m a y b e d e m o nstrated by the prop o s e d rrp lu t o n iu m e c o n o my iln wiric li. ? u l y
i+
w o u l d r ein f orce and strengthen t h e p ro b le ms o f o v e lt rl" e r. ' e lo p me rrt ,
Q l r nr *v - "1
+r
i * vavuA t non-toxie wastes a re , o n t h e e o n t ra ry , e a s y t r: : : e r: y c l e
wit h b e n e f i c al e ffe cts. S u ch wagtes ar e nolr r ally the p::oducts of ac ti *
v it ie s w h i c i r . a re n e ce ssa ry to car r y out in or der to cor ,/elrpeople' s
b a s i c r o a t e r i al n e e d ,sl 'In o th e r wor d.s, the m or e we tr y to sur :pass ba-
s ic m a t e r i a l n e e d .s p ro d u cti o n with the pr od.r .iction of pr od.ucts r q.il l i " -
c rea s i n g s o p h i sti e a ti o n a n d d ecr easing r elevance for nr :r ua:rneed"s
. jttne
m o re d . i f f i c u l t i .t b e co me s to i ntegr ate and. r ecycl.e tir e waste pr od uets
in t h e e c o n o mi c cycl e . T h u s, the abr lity to ma.:- nta- inecoi- ogieai- ba-
la n c e , a c e ntra l - va l u e i n WIP, d,ecr eases witir :- ncr easir g teeir nolo-.
gic a l s o p h i s ti ca ti o n "

3) Overd"evelopment lead"s to ]osq of Jari_gbili_ll in natur"e. Ttr-is loss

of v a r i a b i l i t y i s i mp o rta n t fi rs t of all r elative to m ankind' s lon g-
t erm a b i l i t y i o ma i n ta i n w o rl d - population at a higir le' uel-" lir otir er
word.s, there i s a p-lurs-i_c?L conPop-ent of varj-ability ; I f pc L.:rrtan Ls
k ill p l a n t s a n d . a n i ma l l i fe , eeosystems become iess sta' b- i"eue:iil .io od
prod u c t i o n p o te n ti a l s ma y d .e crease, But is ' i s not or .r i..,,
pr :- iJr .t.ir .]n-
whic h t h r e a t e n s p l a :rt a n d a n i n al life. Too i- ntenslve na:' :r esti.r r g o f
t he o c e a n s r fi sh , o ve rg ra zi n g of pastur es, monocultur es antl genetic
s e L e c t i o n j n a g ri cu l tu re , p o a ching and tr ophy hunting, intensive us e
of' art:-flcb] fe rti l i ze rs a n d i nseet iler adicationr r pr ogr am s ar e all
n?.r-finnr r.rh'igl1 reduce 1he variability in nature SO Vital t,:l asgure
4n

e e o l o g i c a l b al -a n ce .'' B u t l o ss of var iety may also influence our

Bc rr n h o !rr ' i +v +l
v
e i s kn o w n a b o u t the phychological eff ects on inan c' f
L.3I-Y5l

m a k ing th e p hysical environment mo re mo n o t o n o u s , e s p e c ra ll; v wt ra l; h a p -

p e n s to pe o p le if you remove m o u n t a in -t o p * 1 8 o r re lo c a t e mo u n t a j-n - *
p e o ple to the fiat:land.s. A nd . h o w is ma n ' s c re a t iv it y a n d . me n ' i; a .l
h e a lth in fl ue nced by the degree t o wh ic h h e e x p e rie n c e s the .c':L*"riness
o f na tur e a s contrasted with liv in e in a rrd e a d lr c it v ?
 11

4 ) F i n a l i y - , th e re a re th e rL i cr o- ecoiogical consequences_of over de v e-

lop m e n t . \ , /e a re h e re th i n ki n g of sever al things: Fir st, w€ have the
p ro b l e m o f in e e cts b e co mi n g resistant to ineecticides.Because inse c ts
mul t i p l y s o fa st, th e se l e ctl o n pr ocess pr od.uces new gener ations of
inse c t s w h i ch a re re si sta n t to alm ost any ineecticlde after a pr ol on-
ged p e r i o d " o f l r" " J9 In p ra cti ce, Iter adicatlonfr of par ticular lneec ts
has n o t p r o ve n to b e p o ssi b l e . Ther efcr e, in or d.er to be able to
k ill i n s e c t s i n th e l o n g ru n , ther e must be a continuous d.evelopm ent
o f e v e r m o r e to xi c i n se cti ci d e s. The pr oblem with such an appr oac h,
o f c o u r s e , i s th a t th e i n se cti eldes also becom e toxic to anlm al li fe
a t h i g h e r s ta g e s o f d e ve l o p ment and eventually to m an. Ther efor e,
there now are strong efferts und"er way in many countries to try new
a p p r o a c h e s in p e st ma n a g e me ntby usi- ng natur e' s own contr ols, the s o-
c a l l e d b i o l o gi ca l me th o d .s. Ii owever , due to the power of Big Chem i c al ,
t h is i s a s lo w p " o " " " " .2 1 S econd", not only d.o insects become r es i s -
t a n t , b u t e v e n n e w typ e s o f i nsects due to mutations m ay d.evelop. W e
d o n o t h a v e a n y b a si s fo r j u d ging the ser iousness of this pr oblem ,
whi c h a t t h e, i n se ct l e ve l ma y m ean m or e var iety and not less. Thls
p ro b l e n i s s tro n g l y re l a te d to the next nicr o- leve1 of living thin gs ,
t h a t o f f u n g i s, mo l d .s, b a cte ri a and vir uses. This thlr d. er ea is ev en
les s e x p l o r e d ., b u t i t ma y p ro ve to be of gr eat significance jn th e
future. A s th e l a rg e r ma mmalsand species d.ie out, new str ains m ul ti -
p ly a t t h e mi cro -l e ve l . l n o ver d.eveloped.societles, the tr end. has
bee n t o u s e mo re a n d . mo re e xter i- or contr ols on d.iseases than letting
n a t u r e b u i l d u p i ts o w n re si stance. A r r mod.er nfr
eow, for instance,
g e t s r e g u l a r sh o ts o f g ro w th hor m ones and. antl- biotics in or der to
m a l n t a l n i t s h i g h p ro d .u cti vi tyr22 just as m ar ly people in the indus tr i a-
lized. world are med.icated.ond.aily j-n ord"er to functi on.21 lVhat the
lon g - t e r r n c on se q u e n ce s o f th i s may be, is har d. to tel1. But a lik el y
p re d . i c t i o n js th a t i t w i l l b e com e incr easjngly difficult to cope w l th
inmuni-zation problerns and. that quite new breed"s of bacteria and virus
may d.evelop in the future. Only then may we real-.ize that the modern
ind . u s t r i a l s ta te n o t o n l y tu rr r s people into clienb, but also his i n-
ner m i c r o - l i f e.
 ta

'z o
) . 4. Th e sccial con se q g e n ce s oJ oveJdgv

A n ove r d e ve lo peti. eo,mtry is cirara c t e riz e d b -v a d ra le c ' L ic re J " a t io n -

s f r i p be tw ee n f.actors of, whictr th e re is t o o mu c h , c o e x is -b ir: . g wr[ ir" o th e r
f a c t or s o f "r l.,ch there is too iit t le . I n t h e f ' " b o o n u c h --e a le g u : . ' . ' , . 1r{' e m a y
find su ch i hings as speci-alizatio n , b u re a u c r: a o y , f ia d v a n c e d . ' r' L e u h : ri: l o g y ,
r e s e ar ch a n d d.eveloprnent] and u s e o f c a p it a i. rie d o n ' b d e : ry : lie u s e -
f u l n ess of a eertain d"egree of s p e c ia liz a t t o n , a rid " a mln lmu l Drlre a u -
n y ' A nr / m A1/ ho necessary tO aS S Ure a min . imu m le we r o -' l e q Ua iiiy
**.J f 1 SOCie-
ty. Bu S ab o ve a e ertain level o f s p e c ia lj-z e . t l): : " . i' o r: . i. rts r; 3 . ' 1 i'n' * -bi r e
s p e c i alisu ( Ue r-E a person or a c o u n t ry ) s t a rt s lc s r. irl, ; r ; . ir a . f re a -
lity ou tsl de of the specialty. Let u s ii. lu . s t ra t e t . \ : : s ' . : ' , i. r, .^ x a . rnp l e :
S a y th a t w e irave a very small pic t u re , too s ma l-l- f c r ris ; c i; . : ; r: e rn
the d.etails, and. that we wish to nagniflr it in orde.r: i;''; .l:ir.,i,.r"i"b-lre
p l c f i u r e 's tr ue nature. If we v is u a L iz e p ro g re s s iv e ly l-a . i' g c ' r.1 . r-i
cturesn
w e soo n wili ge"'r to
a @nt where a f u rt h e r e n i: rrg e me ; rt . : r* , . t : : ' , : rv j-d. i n g
u s an y n e w i nformation, and .if we c o n t in u e t o ma k e j. t D" l-g g r). r,{ i: ii€ r l b u a l -
ly we wilL end up with only ,.i'' uo
one smal]- c1ot, maki.ng rb -r-tlr,c:r:ri..1
lnterpret rhat information at all. In th-i..s eese nt-te lo1.giii, :a.y r..ha-U
there wa s too ruuch focus on a d -o t , t o r: iit t -r. e t L o L : -s i, . -, - rig -t -, . i' i: ir an o t -
her c a s e t h e r e mi e h t b e to o l i ttle equttv,
s o l i da r ity cr-' pan:**-cipation. An c v e rc le v e l c p e J . s t a g e , , . ; . t
is ch a r a cte r .-'t,?,) ,r:)' a risirrg lev e l of a lj, e n a t . io n ,

' I h e socia l consequences of :'/ ','o -bhe

overd e v e lo p re n t a . re rl, o i; r: : -. . , , -
eCOIOgiCal COrisequenCeS Of OVefd.eVelOpmerrt,. i.l:. elfd,er ir..' r-,'rr. ::.t-.j 'LO
ma i ntain a h igh.Level of energy a n d . re s o u rc e u s e u : ; l: e lt i, -i: :ri i. L t * d . f o r
a high d .eg r e e rif specialization, for ln s t a rre e ln s c iic c j-il. 6 g , b u , t al s o
a n e fficie n t bu.reaucrzcy, accum u la t io n o f c a p -i-t a l, ii & . lt a n r1 a c lv a nc e d
t e e h no io g y. B ut 'i:rer:o j,s a d.is t in c t d . if f e re n c e , rra me d . y t ila " t i: n e s o c i a L
problems ;.::i.inar"i.i;, a;rply to each socie by i rL*ue
rna]Iy , ar.,{i.i:ir.r{,}.i"8.-1. pl:o-
b l e ms a r e nct .j.;:reversible. In that s e n . e , g i-c ' b a } e o n . t , a n : : ; ' , . rf j. n nSr o m
o n e cou n tr y's saeiai problems m a y b e le s s of a p ro b l. e m t -h a . * . t i. : e *o ' -
l o g i ea l d ,j - sc reaers, and. alienation, for ir: s t a rlc { ' ro d * e s n c ' i: * ird ril i' , r b e
inheritable . The i-mportant betweerl scc.,:a r anr;. $,j,)J ..,gi"oal.
sinilar"rty
c o n se q u e n ce s, howe'ver, remainn t h is : v { it h in . e r. ' e a s jn g le { reI o -i lv er - - c l - e -
De / e o n 5 J ' r. . e t e d .
v e l o p m e n t, mor"e and more pe,.pie p t ' e we r: a n d i' e w1 l' n e o p J e
a fe able + , O e c n z .l ro *ho n e c ' a ti " /e C OnS eqti eneeS and, liV'e a, $;C e-:C i :j fe.
x ii *: i) ar.c l

.bi-st
ln i t*q ,lr.r "'-:, ?': j on anc scope (iri:,teai ,:,1 -1,i'L', t--i' :::llil ci" t!.e jleop-
rl r r tt ; i s e -] " f ,
 A n d t h e o n l y p e o p l e w h o , i n spite of the over developed char acter of
a s o c i e t y , sti 1 l ma y fi rd pur pose and. me&ning in } ife' ar e thos e i n
t h e t t p r o d . ucti ve a g e " w i -th o ut an1/ si- gnificant mental, physical or s oc -
ia l d i s a b i l i ti e s. T h o se w h o ar e too young, too olo, too slow or
t o o d . i f f e r e n t a re p l a ce d o n the sicelines of societal development.
T h e y b e c o m e e l i e n ts, o b j e cts, cases or number s in an expand.ing effor t
a t d . e v i s i n g sp e ci a l i ze d . tre a tm ents for ever ybod' y who do not fi- t the
re q u i r e m e n ts o f o ve rd e ve l o p e d. eonpetition. Ir et us look at some e x an-
p l e s o f h o w a mo d .e rnw e l fa re state copes with the social pr oblem s of
25
o v e r d e v e t o pn e n t :

l, Vh e nc r l m e ra te s a re i n cre a singo we hir e mor e policemen' ivior e hos -

p i t a l b e d s , d o cto rs a n d . n u rses ar e seen as the soluti- on to health

pr o b l e m s . U n e mp l o ye d .a re se nt bacl< ;o the scnools' Pacified' youth

ar e g i v e n " a cti vi ty ce n te rsrt and specialists in how to actlvate them '

O v e r a c t i v e yo u th (" j u ve n i l e delinquentsr r ) ar e sent to pacification
make
c e n t e r s ( p r i so n s, ca mp s). When people ar e too busy to cook,
labor - saving appl i -
c l o t h e s o r me n d th e i r o w n h ouses, they ar e offer ed'
. . an c e s ' m a ss-P ro C u ce d ci o th i n g
'\./ and. Consumer Protection Agencies. 01d. people are surveilled. by
electronics so th a t th e i r co r pses do r ct lie ar ound for weeks after
they have passed. away in solicitude. tr'lourid.e tablets are ad.ministe-
red from infant age as lle solution to d.ental d.ecay. When the scbool
s y s t e m f a i l s to i n te re st th e chil- d.r en, ehild"een r r wlth pr oblemsr f ar e
g i v e n r r s p eci a l e d .u ca ti o n tr. lthen ttd.evelopmenttrcomes to r ur al No ni uay
in t h e f o r r n o f a u to ma ti n g th e telephone centr als, the laying off of
5OO O( r n o s tl y) w o me n o p e ra to rs is not the pr oblen of the State Tel egr aph
)4e
Company---*

Such pr o b le ms as mentj-oned ab o v e , a re f fs o lv e d f r in the f o llo win g manner:

t r+ruvt
f 'i r - st- the nroblem
E is id.entifi -e d . After a s u f f ic e n t p e rio d of st a l l -
in g , a c o r n rn i tte e to l o o k i n to the pr oblen is set up, After seve r al
y e a r s a r e p o rt i s p u b l i ci ze d ., and. eventually the govemement pr o d.uc es
a White Paper. tr'inally, a new governnnntal branb,h is establishedi
at p r e s e n t , th i s i s d " o n e j -n a d.istr ict center in accor dance with the
n e w g u i d . e l i n e s o f stre n g th e n ing the local comm unities. And this i s
how many countries are entering the post-ind.ustrial stage, which wilL
be characterized. by an orientatlon toward.s serviees and less toward.s
in d u s t r l e s , a n e mp h a si -so n schooling, a high level of per sonal m obj - -
I ity , a r e vo l u ti o n i n co mru nication technology and. electr onlcs, and
a h i g h l e v el o f e n e rg y rr" u .2 6 ifhich ar e the pr ospects for such a
societyrwill it p ro vi d e fo r per sonal gr owth for its r nember s, an d d.o
we have any empirical evj-dence whibOhmay lay the f ound.ation for some
 14

reaso n a b l e pre d i ctj -o n s a b o u t how the post- ind.ustr ial states w111 d.e-
velop relative to our value d.imensions? V/e shal-I look at some of the
stud.ies which may shed. light on this below.

qirs _ , b ' w e h ave a r:.h yp o th e si s that a society beconing m or e and m or e

o v e r d e v e i o p e d ., w i -l l e xh i b i t mor e and m or e signs of j,ncr easing ineq l a-
lit y a n o n g i ts me mb e rs. T h i s hypothes is suppor ted. by Ivan I1lich,
who h a s c l a i nre d . th a t a b o ve a cer tain d.egr ee of ener gy use, inequal i ty
in a n y s o e i e ty w i l } te n d . to j -ncr ease.27 The explanation for that - i - s
rela t i v e l y s i mp l e : B e ca u se th er e ar e ecologica- i ancl other constr ai nts
t o h o w m a n y p e o p l e i -n a n y so ciety can use lar ge am ounts of ener gy,
t h e r e m u s t b e co me l a rg e r a n d l ar ger d.iffer ence between the top an d.
t h e b o t t o r n se g me n ts o f th e p o pulation. Illich has taken his exar n pl e
from the transportation and found. that the maximum speed. which can
- . .bt,^
be sa i d t o \ d .e mo cra ti c, i s th e speed.which can be obtained. by bicyc l e.
I n o t h e r w o r d .s, yo u ma y mi x p ed.estr ians and. cyclists, but not pede-
s t ria n s a n d . a u to mo b i l e tra ffi c. Obviously, the d.iffer ence in spe ed.
between a ped.estrian and somebod.ywho travels a Coneord,e is enonm,ousiy
m u c h l a r g e r th a n a p e d .e stri a n and a hor sem an or d.onkey- r ider , who i n
a po o r c o u n t r y w o u l d .C cn frF e,^l i l& the I' capitalistr t in speed.who tr av el s
s u p e r s o n i e a l ly. A n o th e r i n p o rtant pcint in this connection is that
h igh e r s p e e d.sn o t a l so w i l l b e limiting because of ecological con s tr a-
int s ( f u e 1 r e q u i re me n ts, l a ck of ozone) , but also on account of the
t rav e l - e r s t me n ta l a n d . p h ysi ca l health. Automobile d.r ivlng ( self , but
n o t a s a p a ssa n g e r) i n mo st countr ies 1s lim ited. to ar ound 60% of the
pop u l a t i o n th e re st a re e i th er too old., too young, b1ind, har r di c ap-
noi nr
v!
rrsr'i'r-
wltrr u to drive a car in other ways. Ihe requirements for the
_L/vs

c o m i n g s p a c e sh u ttl e p a sse n g e r s, should, be even m or e r estr icting,

es p e c i a l l y i n te rms o f fa re costs, possibly also in ter ms of fitness .

I n c r e a s i n g a va i l a b i l i ty o f schooling also poses a pr oblem of inequa-

I ily . I i : r a co mp l e x so ci e ty, not all will succeed in following the
rat -r a c e t o th e to p . T h o se w ho camnot keep the speed"of the r est of
s o c i e t y , a r e ta ke n rrca re o frr by speclalists and. counted. as ttunpr od.uc -
t iv e r f . Ba e a u se th e re a l w a ys ar e some who can:.notcope with schooling,
t h e m o r e s c ho o l i n g yo u h a ve , the lar ger the inequality between peopl e.
A re c e n t s t u d-y b y Jo h a n Ga l tu l g et aI.2B confir ms this tend.ency of the
s c ho o l s y s t e m to p e rp e tu a te a nd accentuate inequality j- n a society .
T h e r r c l e v e r r f o n e s (n o te : cl e ver at ad.apting to school r equir ements )
aI € f i l t e r e d . o u t, w h i l e o th e rs become the ttd.r op- outs.r r These d.istur -
bin g f a c t s a b o r''t o u rttmo d e rn rr school system have
inspir ed m any peo pl e
 t)

to su g g e st al-tez'naiivefoi'ms of e d u c a t j-o n , 2 9 a n o s o me n ic h e s in rich

c ou n tr i es have actuali-y tried t h e a i-c e rn a t iv e s o*1.50 But on a lar-
s pyr qa r 1 a
(f
--
,,'e haye to adnit t h a t a ls o in t h is f ie ld , we a re b e at r r b y
r h o r l hin o a o who W ara very con s c io u s o f t h e p ro b le ms o f t o o mu c h s c h o -
v 4. 4. r v v v t

21
oIi n g , ' '

S e c o n d . , o v erd e ve l o p me n t i s g fteJr qSsocj- ateo with ,expl.oitation. If lve

71
l o ok a t w orld food. trade, this s e e ms io b e a p re d . o min a n t t T a f t . ' ' 25')6
A f r .r nr ^'l r lnnnrrl_atiOn eatS aroun d _ 5 O ' , 4o f v rO rld - io O d , O f t e n imp O rt e d . f r O m
vrvr! ) v/v
"
a .t

c oun tr i es where people ate sta rv in g to death.'- A ls o , irl s p it e of the

"L ] 'i ^'-ed
" ^1^ -IJu\JII-IZJ
-u4u1f food. aid",to fa min e -s t ric k e n a re a s , net f o o d . t ra d e goes
f ro n t h e p oo r to th e ri ch v/or ld.. But exploitatlon d.oes not auto m ati -
c a l l y h a v e to b e a sso ci a te d . with over developnent. i' /e gan imaglee four
t y p e s o f r e so l r-rce fl o w s: J) i mpor ting r eso' ,nr ces fr om a poor countr y for
ove r d . e v e l o p me n t;9 fro ^ g ro u p s within the counr r y r o an over d.eveloped
Zl
g ro u p ; l f r o m a p o o r co u n try f or another countr y' s d.evelopmentI 9f"o^
t h e o v e r a b un d a n t su p p l i e s w l thin one' s own over developed countr y.
O n l y t h e t wo fi rst o f th e e e cases would involve e:r ploltation, bu t the
t w o l a t t e r w o u l d " , 3 t l e a st i n the pr esent wor d, involve str uctur a l
v lo l e n c e , an d ca se J p ro b a b l y a too low utifization of d.om estlc r es our -
c e s ( l a c k of se l f-re l i a n ce ).

f h i r d , a n o ve rd .e ve l o p e d .co u ntr y will be one in which peopl- e ar e l aq,Lc -

in F a g t o n o m :r. T h i s fo l l o w s as a d- ir ect consequence of over special i -
z a i i o n a n d i h e p ro ce ss o f o ver speciar izeo" peopr e in engaging in pr ac
t ic e s w i r i c h te n d to re stri ct the number of people r yith their spe c i al
knowled.ge. T h i s b u sl n e ss i s usually car r ied out in pr ofessional as s o-
c ia t i o n s , fo r i n sta n ce me d i cal asgociations, d.entists' unions, C PAx
Ciubs or whatevecsS T h ese associations put pr essur e on the l aw
ma k e r s i - n ord .e r to re stri ct rand,omentr y of r r quacksr r , people who ar e
n o t t r a i n e d . i n th e " p ro p e ri l way, As discussed abqe, the school s y s tem
t e n d s t o c on fo rm to su ch d .e m and.s,becom ing incr easlngly specialized- .
A l s o r w € h ave th e te n d e n cy o f the state, often motivated by sani tatl on,
h e a l t h o r sa fe ty co n sl d e ra ti o ns, but may be m or e to gain contr ol of
mo n e y f l o w s 1 n so ci e ty, to p roduce all kinds of laws and r egul- ati ons
on what you can or cannot d.o yourself. Norway ls an example of a coun-
t ry w h e r e s u ch re g u l a ti o n s a re ver y impr essively d.etailed. There ar e
rules for how a garage should" be equipped. in ord,er to fix a car, what
kinds of anlmal-s you may keep where and how, how much you can d.o in
y o u r o w n h o me (o f th e e l e ctri c vr or k one. is al- lovr ed"little beyond . c han-
g'ins a lic'ht-bulb).
- ;e ;;i h i ca ti o n s
ana r equir ements for public sqs- age-v
s y s- r em s ,
e.|.lA'"l P"t{r. f,.""rta^nt -
-
 15

whie h r o o m s i rr yo u -:: o u rn h o u se you may sleep in or not, etc" I' iar r y

of t h e s e r e g ul .a ti o n s a re n o d .oubt useful, but too r nany r u.l.es clr "ii c k l y
b e c o m e c o u n t e rp ro d .u cti ve , l e a <r ing to apathy among people ( nut a,lso
to overt o b stru cti o n o f th e l a ws, eager ly used hrr npnnl
yvv}J!v
c nf the

e x t r em e r j- ,i r t to show how muc h b e t t e r u n re s t r: j. c t e rl c a p it a -L : is m wo u i d "

b e fo r us all) " This trend. towa rd -s mo re d . o in g . * ii* y o u i" s e lf b e c a i-ise o f
the h ig h la b or costs for repair h a s p ro mp t e d " t h e in d u s t ry ro s h o rtc u t
the r e p a ir m a n completely. The t ra n s it io n f ro m the l-o c a . : s e L f -" e n rpl o y e d .
repai-rrnan one may find. in an underd.eveloped. country to the publicly
n o r * 'i fia i
- ],Lmber or electrician ma y rlo t s e e m s o la rg e in s p it e o f
a I 1 , the r e may still be local re p a irrn e n a ro n n d in o v e rd e v e j. o p e d - c o u n -
t r i e s. The next step, however, p e n e r, ra t e s the c o n s ' i: rt e r Cire e t ly : He
smn rnay buy mod.ules fu-rrrished. by a giani corpori,,tion lccated. in a
d.iff erent part of tne world. and. 'rrepair'i! lhre &Fr;-'-iatl{:r: {-)Tw;iatever
h i r o s elf i nstead of using the ex p e n s iv ' e lo c a l re p a irma n . B u t + ; h e pa r t
h e is r ep l- a cing, he may not fix or even open, nff L u ln . e rs f a n d. h o w
f u n ctio n s. r'.iai is for the sup e r-re p a i: ' n a t r. s p e c ia iis t 1 i^ i: L , e ia rge
corporatiott, wi:.:.ch now makes e',/en tle loca.l TV-repairman o:i r..' tch-maker
7A
s up e r f l u o u s . ' * In o th e r w o rd s, ther e wj- li be an incr easi- r E ioss of
s e lf- r e l l a n c e j n d .i vi o u a l l .y, 1 ocally and nationally in ar i:,v:- r ' oe,r el oped
country.

Fo u r t h , s o l i d .a ri ty i n a n o ve rd.eveloped.society wili be - Io"r /, iir .:r e w i Il

be a hieh. ley-gl_-gi;Jm.p9nlgtiSgr when peopie caR be mui'ci.e.r'r:,1 on a
busy street in New York and. the murd.erer ean escape, so-l--:.,i"al'r ty rs at
a v e r y 1 o w i eve l . C o n si d .e ra b le evid.ence shows that r .;,r ,,r - :lL.cial
u n its i n c r e a se , p e rso n a l co n taets begome less possibr e. ..:i aii anony -
mou s s o c i e t y i t b e co me s e a si e r to com m j- ta cr ime, oeca' *se noll,- ld.yknow s
X o u r a n d t h e p e rso n yo u ki l 1 will not be close to you" lll:.is ]m been
shc:.,rt1in for instance A=Pluglcrint for Sr#v*JLAI-54 more recently by
4h "nd
N i is C h ri si i e 'i It is the sar ntstr end. we see in the.i- ncr ea-
c in c r o : - : ' r t u { n o o f p o }i ce b ru ta l i ty
v ! 4*vflv\ on the r lse in t} r e ind.ustr - ialize d"
76.
cowttries,'" a ::.4 i t i s ra th e r obvious thab the m or e detaq..haqa pol i c e-
m a n b e c o m e s iro n n th e l o ca 1 co mm unity, the l- ess tikely it w.ill, be t H
he wiil f eef any empathy for peopJ-e wlo engage j-n soc-ial p::r:tes-[ move.-
m e rd ,s c r i m i n a l t o r o th e r l a w b r.eaku" ) /
",

Fif t h r &I I o v e r c 1 e ve 1 o p e d .co u n tryi sonei.nwhichmor e@

b.ecomernglg:Lng},Uted. The conplexity of an overd.eveloped, cotrntry,
the existg::-ce of, various !texpertsrf who Iceow best, 'uhe fragrir.enta'cion of
peop l e u t h e r , g i r e ,-r'o j J_ i ty, a l l ar lC nll t O A . g e f l . e f : A - i f o o l i r r c r r l i "yfta * thr+
 1_l

ever littte I couid do, l-t l,"orl''L heip

&lij,,^,,.?!,r"i$ Sueh attitudes are
re tl ected . 1R
not onry in e ve::y ic w ir-lt e re s : ; jr, ; : l_ , : c r: _ o n s n ro u s u a lr y a
b ie n n ia l event in our par+, rf t h e wo ric i, b r, t , a . , s n a 1 o w re v e l of
par ti ci pa ti on in the dar''-ic- d a )' p o li t r c a l- ; i , r-r>.

Sum m in g up: A u overd.evalopeo c c u n iry is c lri: . ' t ! ) wh ic h p e o p le b e co m e

no r e an d r oore alienated. towa rd s t h in g s , r: t i: , 1 : r-. 3 ,jo b s , p ro s e s s es
an d towa r d s themselves. P ers o n a i g ro wt h b : r. i: ; r: , ; i. ;s o ru e t h in g re s e r v e d .
for th e fe w, not necessariJ-y those thai a & . e e c o i; ; rn ic a lly best off,
but for those who are able to d e f in e t h e rr c r, rii. ii-c h e s in s o c ie t y , where
t he y fjxd purpose and meanin g , f rle n d s h ip , wa i: mih a n d c o mf o rt . In an
eve r cha n gi:rg world., however, t iris
b e c o mes -rrrc r, :i. s . :n g i. , v d if f ic u l t .
An d tha t, of course, is why s o ma n y p e o p ie n c t . / * : r[ a rt e d . t o e n g a g e t h e n -
se lve s in a search for a bett e r a lt e rn a t rv e .

J . J. i i ea lth problrems in ove rd . e v e lo p e d . s o c j-e t ie s ,

P e o p l e s ' s p h ysi ca l a n d me n tal health ar e j.nfluenced. by a host ofdi f-

f e r e n t f a c to rs. l l e re r,vesh all not be eoncer neo v,r ith health effec ts
w h i c h a r e to ta l l y ri n re l a te d " to the degr ee of development, that i s ,
e f f e c t s t h a t h a ve o ccu rre d . and will- occur simply because natur e i s
U
n o t p e r f e c tl - In o th e r w o rd "sr w€ will imagine a r eiationship betw een
d'ifferent kinds of health urlgg]9lsgjgp1gtec on irrgure 6 below:
G"a tr.e ter",
4-,rn@
-F i g u r e , 6 : i {e a l th e ffe q :L s re } aiea to deveiopr ngn!,
-
End's ( tre^td";
r
Frequency
of d.efect iVal- /i
o ccurri-ng
de,teloyl

hwlogd

eans
Und.er- ' De v e lo p me n i' O v e r- t,lalviclF".ir. -
developmen-u CI-el'elopment trf)r

H e r e w e h a ve i ma g i n e d . fo u r theor etical possibiiiiies: For health

eff e c t A, th e fre q u e n cy o f occur &r ee is ver - v iovr and not influenc ed.
b y h o w "d . e ve l o p e d 'i co u n try i s. r n case B, ver y m any people ar e affec -
t e d , i n a s ta g e o f r:n d .e rd " e velopment,but almost none other wise. C as e
C i s t h e o p p o si te o f th i s, few people ar e affected in an wr d.er d.ev el oped.
a rea , bu t many in an overd-ev e lo p e d one. irinaliye tve have lnagined
 18

a l t e r n a ti ve D, where the incj-d. e n c e is h ig h both in the u r. : c i+ id e v e l o p e d

a s we ll as i n the overd.eveloped- s t a g e , A n e x a mp le o f thai 6 . o ' u ld b e
the occu r a n e e of lung cancer -ro m s mo k ilg : c a n c e r s t rik e s r: ic h . a s w e l l
a s po o r , p r o viCed that the prob le m o f ; y n e rg is t J " c e x i)o s lrre i s e l-im i n a -
t e d or tie r t constu*-rt.40
In our caser w€ are mainly interested in cases C and. Il f,'ronLa s,i.tr-ra*
tion of ove r d.evelopment. B ut in a d d it io n to t h rs r w€ a i' e in t e re s ie d
in h e a lth e ffects that have st ru c t u ra l re la t io n s h ip s and not iiiri-j v i -
dual on e sn especially where the s t ru c t u re c a u s in g b a d h e a l-il: o f on e
type in an overdeveloped country a ls o is c a ' -' . s j: ig b a d . h d r" n " " c v e ll. o f
a d.ifferent character, in an und-erdevelope d. country" Orni.ii.ning the
v a r i ou s type s of ailments ov e r/ u n o e rd e v e io p e d r s rru c t -ilra l/ i n 4 rv id u a l
- v tith w he ih erth.ey are of phy s ic a l o r me n t ; rl o rri. { . , , n " ! rr? * o -i : ; js u a} - r z e
a c ub icle co nsistine of' B cel-1s :

Ta b l e 1z ? axonom.y of health p ro b le ms .
e+^-^
LJ Ud,e-c ^') aL Type of Ca u s e o f
C e l - l no . d.eveiopment problem p ro b le rn
-"..is*qiLig*s,iaqpi.Q.
1 Unde r d gyg;o Physr cai Structr-rra-1. Sta .;'r'a'ij- rr, rtEt.i on
':'-'rit,:.
+v vv$

z il It Ind"ivldual Smok-itlg, ar:cid'ents

s'-1;ri.Fr
tl
Mental Structu::al- Apathy
+
A il ft Ind ividual ttithdrawa.'l
5 O v eri e ve l o p e d P h ysi cal Str uctur al fiSncgr s:,
, . 4- l- ]- pr .gr tr af -
-LruaC C l -(i e(r:S "
6 rr fr Ind.ivid.ual Obesity s scs,i': rLci:j-Cents
I t' Mental S t ru c t u ra l. S t r' e s s , i: : i. 7i i r: riri, r e rr " i a
11 rr Ind.ividuai intrcr.'er'F; (,i..

This cla ssifi cation is probably v e ry i: a : " ' d -t o c a rry t ilrn r' : 8 , r. . . r. i i: e a l
life w i th h a rd" facts, because we le n o w t o o -riit i. e a b o u ' t ri. irs l; ii. i. s * as e s
a n d . ailm e n ts are caused. by what , wh i-c h in it s e lf , of e o u rs e u is a sign
o f @!'e ve n in a n overdeve1oped'wor]c"3 u t in t irj-s
clapterrr€ at leas-i sirall try to iook lnto some of' the 1re
e.ij.rr,e:r:rce
h a v e w h.:- ch may shed light on Ce lls 5 -8 a n d . 5 a n d 7 in p a r" b ic u l. a r,
l aa r - l f h
It is i n n o way easy i,c find. th e o rlg in o f * ' * ' -" " ' p i' c b le ra s , A . n t ' l v e ry
t{eq
- y m a y',jiie
s e l dom l- be attributed. s o le ly to s t ru c t u ra f g g jn d . rv j. . d t : a l f a c *
t o r s. Bu t we may be able to po in t out t h e q ils l ca.use of a c e : i' t ai n
a i l me n t or point to structural c h a n g e s wh ic h c o u ld . rs me d ; ; p : : r; b le m s
w h i ch se e m to be caused by indiv ld u a l ra t h e r t h a n b ; , ' a le rt a i n
a c t io n
s t r uc&tr e. In such a case we wo u ld . d . e f in e t h e p ro b le m a s s b ru . c t ur a l :
I f an o tl r .e r strr,;crure could have ma d . e a s ig n if ic a t lt c o n iriL , u t " : c n ' t o w a r d s
e l i m i na ti ns a c:rtair:. heal-th n ro b l e m, wh e t h . e r t h e t . )rs S e i: ' i s * ; : " u . e t ur e i s
i n tend er i c ) ?' !{e exnerience s t ru c iu r-a l, u io ie it c e , , B . r, ' i;, ? t t h , e s a m e
 tv

-t ' i m o r l r o r o a l mo st a l w a ys w i ll be an j- nd- ivldual element, since it i s .

t h e s u m o f i n d i vi d u a l a cti o n s which make up the str uctur e. Fur ther -
m o r e r i l o s t h e a l th p ro b l e ms will not only be either physical or
rn e n t a l , t h ey w i l l co n ta i n e l ements of both, even if the r oot of the
p r o b l e m m ay l i e i n o n l y o n e par ticular type of pr oblem.

We shall not try to develop a new theory of the ori6Jin of diseases,

but try to distinguish dj-seases that definiteLy have structural ele-
mants in them from other types of explanations, such as for instalce:
TrarrgC0ndental explanations (diseases seen as Godf s pu:rishment),
vl-rus theories, deprived childhood, inherltance, or astrological ex-
planatlons (coirstellation of the planets), etc. None of tlese theo-
ries will be exclucled, and nelther will we reject that some haalttr
problems may be found 1n the frpul1-yourself-togetherrr-category.
But
ln this paper we are mainly lnterested j.n health problems which are
rel atedto overdeveropod socletles, health problems whl.chnight have
been a lot easier to tackle ln another structural setting.

If w e l o o k a t h e a l th p ro b l e m s in over doveloped. countr ies ( accor d.i ng to

o u r d . e f i n i t io n r rrl o st w e ste rn ind.ustr ial states) , we find sever al c om -
mon health problems which are practically non-existent in r:nderd.eve-
lo p e d . p a r t s o f th e w o rl d : l iany, for m s of car r cer , hear t d.iseases, d.i a-
be t e s , o b e si ty, a n d " se ve ra tf;ff6fta ailments. M any of these heal th
p r o b l e m s w ere p ra cti ca l l y n o n- existent some decades ago in the j - nd.u-
striallzed co u n tri e s o f to d a y , but at the same tim e, other health
p r o b l e m s w hi ch th e n w e re fr equent, have now mor e or l es s
A.l
d.i s a p p e a r e d .'t' T h i s ma y b e attr lbuted. to thr ee factor s; 1) Bett er
nutritj-on, 2 ) i mp ro ve d . h yg i e ne, and.r 3) m or e intensive health car e ( m or e
efficient me d .i ci n e s, mo re frequent checkups, m or e ad.vanced.techn ol ogy ,
higher-skilled. p e rso n n e l ). It j- s now clear that ther e may be too m uc h
nutrltion, too much hygiene and too intensive health care and that
this is exactly what has happened. or is about to happen in many ind.u-
strialized. countrj-es today. In addition, new ln4rl*na,d.€substances in-
trod.uced i-n -.the envirdnment have caused. a number of health problems
that today but are tikely to be found" responsible for many
"r]frffi:H,
more problens (or contrj.bute to problems) when we gain further icnow-
led.ge of how they work in biological systems. On top <if al:- thisr r.
have the problem of too littlc physical exercise for large groups of
people. We shall discuss these five factors that we nolr know are
responsible for rnany health problems in the overdeveloped wor}d, and
where possible, tie them to the structural component.
 2!-)

1)
tt Th e n;'cbl em oi 'ror much fo o i. Thi$ probi,em halr lr:er't.rcinscus-
sed. in generai ter::rs above (pa.,ge 5), -ir-rr:,1;r:, i"r.}x,ce
i{ele nre shail- cf
t h e e m p ir ica l. evid.ence that a la rg e n u mb e r e f p e < ; p 1 e , r-r, , 1 1 r: ' , r. . iilr ' . s t r j - a -
1ized. part oj' -ih.e world. realiy are overnouL"j.shed, ernd-C-:!.::r.r,.r:,i 'iLe .impli*

c a t io n s t'c' pecpiers health. F rrs t , t h e l{ c ' r: d " i* : c ro r; : r' h Ta' :. :; : r; , r; . : } -- L n a t e s

by med.ical exper"ts are that approxima'te1y e',re
50-6Ai/" cif lft:-'tl--i(;t^.r.'l.t€ri
o v e r w eig h t and about 3Oi/"of wh i-le 3 C' . . 7 5 Y n f n -l. i' ri, ; ri: ; i" ' e t .wt e l g h
th e n e n ,
The trend pe ir: ts f cr,*ar:rl rl lrJ ppo of
more than is ::ecomraendable " li rlr:',r. -!t ti
this kind. in the future.42 US, eln.e esfj.rn;r"ie na-l r''rr..i;:i.'t;eij
In the li;j-th"
" i). ' j
5 n lllio n adcieseents and 30'4 O i/ , o f a l-I a d : . : . i" t ii i: iri 1 r. . ,' - . ' ! . -1 . r-,
' vt1'-
w e i g h t o r o beselr4lwhile in We s t G e r: n a n y h ii. " e s t irr: . -1 , r. . r: . t , ' r' , ' + f ' r, i e i g h t
ad.ults is apprcximately 5O% and 2Ao/ofar :hrl-d.::rrl.'ii !fi,:: c!-r.,*,'onoer--
ting thing about overweight child-ren is that r''lti'ai -f itr,r::: rnalr hr: expec-.
ted. to remain ovel:weight during thei-r adult ij'ves, *s ,,r-,t;,';,,1r.;'e.'c1
)p
about 42r5ot!,af Ehe remaining B0')/owith norma,l. 03: too l..nu",,rq,i-gl:r'i;
.*-' But
overwe j-ght prob] ems are not resiricted. to 'bh.e Wes'b; i;ier i;o
4,.i,:r:r-r.'ri
o f f i c i ai sta brslics, a-i-most ha lf of wo n e n u * ; lr ri: . L lr
a ll i , rL i ll i f f r
and 15% of al-i *hi.l.d.ren in East Gsrmany are 1":oohea'!''i.- -
T h e m a in pr0blem of overe a t in g is v t " o I u n e ' : i. ' . , , , 1 :' .' ,I , ' , r, i, ' , , ' m. u ' . ' J h
of th in g s tneu '.ii,: bcdy need"s f o r it s g rc -r, + t h a -. r. d . / o in a -r. i.-ri. : : i' . T : it ;8b,u t
r a t her of g eb'-...r)g too mac:r o^ f _ t h irt g s t . ra t a re n o + , ir-o ' ' a -, . ' .; i: , : i-. i. ; r e t i -
n e d . sug a r ',
f,..,1:;:a.::d arccrrro#'+% u = ii" s , o v € r* h r€ ig h t o . r: , ; i. : i' , -" , . . : r e f f e c t s
of too m u ch cf'these high-cdloric rrf o o d s t e a re n o w ] n e f ' , rt . ,i:. , ' : . ? rr. e* r i *
me ntal to h.ealhl: ia many d.iffer e n t wa y s " ! ' irs t of s:1.1, .i , : . : ; iri.g h
intake of fats erd" sugar lead.s to an inereased" lnc-i **i', : -r. tr;{-: c * 1, d,J. I'-

nentq. L n l { *rw a y" ca rd i o va scular d.iseases?"te$lI- e-- r ' :.,, ,,,'ir-,,r"ffi

A '7
of d.eath thr.origi: .,-llness, account.:ng for o.j:'. (1 j:i r.i ? ij .,
"t,".,ir-E;'"
A too irigh infake ,sf fats and sugar now also seeirl$ TLr r,'' -.-,r:.rre,.l, uri'th
s e vr r al fom s ef @g, for i n s t a n c e s t o ma c a n . 1 b re a . s ' r r-: rL lre e r-' .{ 8
C a : r ce r i s now in Norway the sec o n d . c a u s e o f d . e a t l: i t h rlr--g l: iL l, : : e s s , but
t , l c m or .t i m portarit c,:if,se in ot h e r c o wrt rie * " 4 9 I n t i-i: -C. p -l-i: r: * :rif b h , e
r fw e lfaL e
'r C iseases +omes d-iabe t e s , n o w a li. l. : c f : n g a . a ;r' . (i. I s ; ; , t J 7 1 tt f t h e
population :-n. ,-{es-;ern truropa and around 1zc of, T.lSc:-tizeir*113 ilhe -Lncl-
dence of diabetes -is highly correl.ated with. t-lie a"verage ir,.1,i,,.lt'u
cf
sugar, the use of which has exploded in most :-r.LC.r:.s-i;ria,lizeri .i::itn-'bries
t h r ou g h o u t this century, from a f e w k ilo e s b y t h e in e g . in : rjt g r' : i 1 9 0 0 t o
the pr e se n t ieriel ctf 40 kilos or *o"".50 At the s a f f e u imr: u d r-a , ir e t e s
frequencies have gone up more than ten-f r:1o, from a leve j.. oJ i,l , ?:r; t16
y e ar s ag o i n for instance 'vr/e s t G e rn a my " q : ]
 21

S o f a r , o n e h a s b e e n a b l e to connect over weight pr oblem s with up to

1 5 o . i f f e r e n t d .i se a se s, th e most im por tant of which ar e i- ncr eased . fat
accumulation in the blood. and" high bl-ood. p""""',r"".49 Dj-abetes has
been linked. with blind-ness, and. this is only one of many probi-ems with
wh i c h a h i g h su $ a r i n ta ke i s connected. with.50 But eating too muc h
s u g a r a n d f ats i s n o t o n l y b ad in itself, thesefr food.s' r often supr es s
t h e i n t a k e o f e sh e u ti a l n u tri 6nts, and it is ther efor e not ur com m on
t o s e e o v e r w e i g h t g md vi ta mi n e d.eficienc5t occur r jxg together . A l s o,
j-n d . u s t r i a l fo o d . i s d .e fi ci e n t J.n fiber s, lead.ing to constipation, c an-
cer of the colon and. many other problemsr5Saairrg to the problem of
d e n t a l d e c ay ca u se d b y to o much sweets and r efined- food.s.

Ev e n i f o n e ma y ca l l o ve re a i i ng a r r self- inflieted.r r pr oUfen?7i- t a l s o

c le a r l y h a s a stru ctu ra l e l e ment: Ind"ustr ial- food pr omotes over e ati ng,
an d a s t r e s si n g }i fe -styl e g i ves people litt1e tim e in r eflecting ov er
wh a t J - s g o od . o r b a d to e a t. AIso, ther e is clear ly a class pr obl en54
lnvolved" in d.iet composj-tion - the hlgher ed.ucated are more prone to
consid.ering ad.vice from d.drctors and. nutritionist and also have better
eco n o m i c p ossi b i l i ti e s i n se cur ing good" food. and having it pr epar ed
an d s t o r e d . p ro p e rl y.

2 ) T h e p r o bl e m o f to o mu ch nyglene. This m ay not be a ver y lar g e

glo b a l p r o b l e m X e t, i n fa ct, d.eficinnt hyglene is one of the m aj- r i '
he a l t h p r o b l e ms i n ma n y p o o r eountr ies tod.ay. I{ owever , ther e may ev en
b e to o m u ch washing and steriliz a t io n of hlanan beings at least,
giv i n g r i s e to p h ysi ca l a s w ell as mental pr obler as. Physically, too
m u c h w a s h i n g ma y 1 e a d "to a re m oval of the bacter ial flor a of the s k i n,
t hu s m a k i n g j -t mo re se n si ti ve towar d.s aller gies or m or e r eceptive to-
ward"s inf ecti-ons. Also, a too metlcrirlous attitud.e toward.s all kind.s
of possible rrcontageousrr things in our environment may actually red.uce
t he b o d . y r s a b i l i ty to p ro d .u ce antl- bod.j- es, it nnaymake us less abl e
to resist infections and. contagrions wiren they d.o show up. The over-
ophasis on cleanliness hlas lead industrlal- man to abhorr any kind of
human smel1, thus excluding anybod.y fron social j-nteraction who d.oes
c a r r y b o d i l y sme l l s, h o w e ve r slight. This factor has been utilized.
by the ind,ustry, which promotes humarr uncertaj-nty by pushing tooth-
p a s t e s , d e o d " o ra n ts a n d . a n ti -p er spir ants, vaginal spr ays etc. with
in c r e a s i l g f "" ,ro ,r" .5 F In fa ct, our over d.eveloped society has com e s o
far that non-humart smells, even if proven to be d.angerous to health,
s uc h a s s m oke fro m ci g a re b s, ar e accepted., while hr ulan smells are not.
 (. ("

, I iea l t L c - a r g to o ,integsige.
l 4 i l y E g o _ o me this j- s the ar gum e,- r ipir t for tl :
by Ivan Illich i n l l e d .i ca l N e m is:Le:) ) The health system ir i r ndustri a-
liz e d c o u n t r i e s i s ca u si n g mo re dj- seases than it cur es, j- L cG,,els ap
t h e p o J - i t i c a l re a so n s fo r th e lncr easi- r r g sichr ess of soci- et1r n ;.ir .r .d.
1 t d "e s t r c y pe o p l e 's a b l l i ty h e a lin g t h e ms e lv e s " A f ie r: l, . l: ; i. sl-. r : o k
the d,iscussj-on anC awareness concerning heal.th problems iravr: -ba"]crln
n,ew
d . l m en sio n s, ald" at least in the f io rd ic c o u n t ri, e s , ma n y o f I l. J . j-rt h' s
arguments have been pa rt ly s u b s t a rr-b ia t , e d . . l' * lo p le i' a i, e ] . . r e -
ii i.
c o m e m o r e aware of the sid.e eff e c t s of the use of c ] , ru g s j, ' " a y id lh e
p r o bl em of l arge hospj-tals in t e rms of s p re a (, i: g j. n f e r-: i. jn 3 ' , s . i1 r-; 1
lt 1*e r r
--
d e b ated ".'' A very serious cas e o f o v e r-u s e of in je c t . ' ^ r. r lL is ilp e n
repo r t e d . f r o m Ja p a n : B e ca u se d.octor s
g i v i ng i nje cti ons and are given la rg e q u a n t it ie s of fyee s a ru r. l-e s f: : o n i
t h e l nd .ustr y, an average Japane s e re c 0 iv e s 20 to 4 C t j-me r. 1 . i: , r. rrl. rn yi n - "
j e c t i on s in his life-tine as a n a v e ra g e A me ric a n " S L ii i. ir i. ri: it u a s e
a m ed lca l d .octor iras gone so fa r a s t o g i' v e c h ild -re n j-i, . , e , . : ' . . : -, ' , lc
for
a l most eve r ything from a comno n c o ld . t o mo re s e rio u s [ li. : r] A c ; . , -, ; . 'lhus
cuttilng thei:: 'reins, muscles and skln so badly that ma..::,., :, ii: q,ill n01i
h a v e p r o b le m s in walking or sitt in g r o r t h e ir g ro wt h -ir:..it.ibi-
h a s ' ! . : : iir
ted. In totalr & s many as 14.00 0 c h ild -re n h a v e b e e n r. ' , r, : - , , , ' . , ma.i]_y
of whom have heen crippleil for tife.58 The same sclur,ri-;.i r.'*,.nl:e.
' i: e g t i o n s
pP.-,|
the man,d.atoryva,ccination in Japan agalnst dipldfoerra" ic x eTc."\,.
hav l n g l e a c l r:.o t o n l y to th e p revention of these d"r seai .e:. . ;;,1so io
^- c
2 5 0 0 i n v a i . i . u i ,e j rscn s a n d 5 0 d eaths, cases of ir i:€- .' S€:: ,. .i..i-.ne:lsl.,

It is qu ite clear that the overs p e c ia liz e d . v re s t e rn n e ' --: ; : i- . , . ; , jl; e n h a s

n e g le cted . a big bulk of available me d " ic a L v ; j-s d . o n rri
i u iir. r). t ' p . i--. ' L sc r f
the worid., such as acapuncture, sone ther'ap,l' and herba-i r"rrec.ic-i-;"re,AI-
t h o ugh a d.i sc ussion has started. o n t h is t o p iJ f s t ru c t u ra l- f . a . c ro : : s w i l - l
m a k e th e r o a d towarcls a dgvel-o p e { me d . ic a l s y s t e m, wh ic h ii: ilu d . ' : s p e o -
n ] o r a r h'i I i * t- to curt "bhemselve s , lo n g , s t e e p a n d . f u li o l' iri, , s t . ac l e s "
And f: e s,r obstacles are mainl y d u e t o t lie s t ru c t u re o -i' c : a i)f ; a i: . . s t
e c o no m ic p::o ciuction, wnich in no wa y e x c lu d e s p h a rma c e * i1 1 ' : ; - s : iit o n t l i e
c r r i v e fo r j - ncreasrng profits. on the c o jrt ra r, F , if b r6 c a " r, ,-:
i ai shail
b e ab r e tc b eiiefj-t from people's need for i: e a lih , j-u j s o n l; 7 lrli s u p -
p r e s s i ng se l- r-healing practices, h c lb a l. mc d ic in e a n d rh c ' I -1 . L , ' , e n d o y
li nrru
*r n A
rvr r ^uur
-i / r r r . bn .- tt . j -nstead-,
a d v a n c e o " tf n e d i c i ;re s so bi rat monopol r' r)o.ri ' i a:,J1- na}.
o e r e tr aln e o ".
 23

D T h e , l a ck o f p h trsi cg l . e -Ier cise. It 1s quite obvious that someone

wh o w o r k s i n th e ri ce p a .d cy 10 hour s a d.ay d.oes not wor r y too muc h
a b o u t g e t t i n g e n o u g h e xe rci se. 0n the contr ar y, people with ver y
s t r e n u o u s wo rk n a ve ve ry g o o d"r easor ls for wor r ying about too m uch
nhrrci ncl tni I r r r t la ni nf r r r a
yJrJUrvur uvtrr' rtrrL
-Lrrue*:;.rci
We haVe Of SlaVe labOf , We f e peOple d .i e d .
nal
by the nillions b e ca u se o fl '€ Xh5fiStion combined with deficient nutr i -
t io n , i s b y n o me a n s a ro sl r' one. Hor ,vever ,industr ial man has go ne
t o o f a r o n th j -s p o i n t, b u i l d i ng str uctur es that alm ost com pletely
el, i b m i n a t e t he n e e d . fo r mo ti o n: Dr ive- in shopping center s, banks,
c h u r c h e s ( : ) a n d . h o u si n g (mo tels, apar tments, villas) , elevator s,
mo v i n g s i d . e w a l ks a n d e sca l a to r s al1 eontr ibute towar d.s thig end..
I n f a c t , t h e p ro b l e n o f to o much nutr ltion is closely connected. wi th
t h e a m o i r n t o f e xe rci se o n e g ets. People tod"ay d.o not eat m or e than
t h e i r a n c e r to rs d .i d ., o n th e contr ar y. But the mass- pr oduction of
au t o m o b i l e s , l a b o r-sa vi n g d " evices for ind.ustr y and for the home i s
AA
lJ r e f a c t o r b e h i n d o ve rw e l g h t."" This does not mean that ind.ustr ial
f o o d . i s g o od . fo o d , b u t th a t the p- r oblem of too lar ge calor ic intak es
le a d . i n g t o o ve rw e i g h t a n d o b esr t;l#fd. not have existed., had peopl e
lived. in a structure where exercise was inevi-table. The manner in
r"1r'inh *ho vII v
h?^blem v of lack of exercise is attemptedrrsolved"rtalso is
- L, /!

s y m p t o m a t i c o f o ve rd .e ve l o p ment. Next to cam paigr sfor speclal ' td.i et

f oo d . s i l w h i ch h a rd .l y d -e se rve their nam e but ear n a pr oflt,o' over d .ev e-
Irvn ny
mou v r * r . . . - *d e s a l a rg e a ssor tement of
n * 'i n n l r r , r fr epaj- r shopsr l also for ov er -
we l g h t p e o p l e , th e so -ca }l e d . heaith center s. Iler e one may engag e i n
" s c i e n t i f i c a l ly stu d .j -e d .r'w e i ght tr aining pr ogr a.ms monitor ed by ex per ts
in t h e f i e r d i f o n e ca n a ffor d. it. It is unfor tunately a fact that
it i s t h e b e st e d " u ca te d -,mo st hlghly salar j- ed. per sons j- n the over d.ev e-
I op e d w o r l d w h o b e st a re a b l e to avoid the consequences of over d. ev el op-
m e n t , a n d t hi s i s p a rti cu l a rl y tr ue of when it comes io per sonal heal th
l'ih e n i t c o me s to th e fi e l d . o f exer cise, the tr end. has been to r emov e
those structures whj-ch includ.ed" exerci-se for all bnt the very few, and
t oi l f o r t h e ma n y, a n d i n cl u d "e str uctur es which d,epr ive the mass es of
t he n a t u r a l a n d ch e a p w a ys o f exer cisj- ng. Instead, the elltes engage
in s p o r t s a n d l e i su re a ctl vi ti es that not only r equir e good. r evenues ,
bu t a l s o t i me a n d . a cce ss: Golfing, tennis, downhill skiing, water
skiing, saillng, e tc. i n o ther wor d"s, activities one would.n' t e x pec t
to be able to carry through in a d.owntown slum.
In the overdeveloped world, the popul-ation has a bad m:ix of physical
exercise: some d.o too nruch (tfre top athletes), whlle others do too
little (the spectators). Probably, there is only one group of people
left where many stil1 are able to get enough exercire on a regulQr
bases: the housewives, But also this group is rapldly becoming smal-
ler and tt is n_o! being replaced by househusbands.
 F
T h e p r ob l e m o f ma n -ma d e s ubstances. Tlir s ar ea is clos' ;} ..r r da*
ted
to the problems encountered. r^rhenwe pollute tire envj::rlr:.cent.
Th e d . i f f e r e n ce i s, h o se ve r, that pd- uiants ar e by- pr od,.lci:s cf so l c €-
thing e1se, for lnstance of :n-d-ustrj-al prod.uctj-on, wl:"rie a rir.;ur.:ber
o f m a n - m a d.ep ro 'l .,-.cts a re p ro d.uced.because we want then ( ar ab :- eas t
somebori.v,'aiits then) to be prod.uced. An example may i:J-ar'.r.f_v fhe
d iff e r e n c e : T h e ra d i o a cti ve by- pr oduets of t"he f issr cn pr .ocess r n
a n a t o m i c r e a cto r a re n o t_ d .6sir ed", neither i,s tjr e extr a heaI m ee d.ed.
t o c o o l t h e re a cto r W hat j- s wanted., is eiectr i.c- ii- r g, the
"o""?)
iB e v i t a b l e p ro d " u cti o n o f ra d ioactive wastes and the exes*csi:ea' tr ar e
pollution, u n i n te n d e d , b u t j- nextr j- cab1y l- inkeC wi";Lr ;.i' - n:ien,rfiss
: i on.
As a c o n t r a st to th l s, a fo o c l ad- d- itive is not pr oclur :*ii.:;i; a "by*
p ro d u c t o f so me th i n g e l se , i t is a pr od- uct in its owir r igr l;, Tl .r e
p ro b l e m , h o w e ve ro i s th a t many man- m ad.esubstante- q ilr .?i F' l- ' c;r ::oduc ed"
for s o m e s pe ci fi c p u rp o se h a ve pr oved. to gir r e r m .intend- er i.r ;i.l*"eff eets
To c l a r i f y th e d .l sti n cti o n between the differ en' L typ,es ;..,i"r il:t- m ad.e
s u b s t a n e e s a n d . th e i r e ffe ct on health. we sh.all - l.ooii r - r i' i:,,.r i,' ' i
be l o v r :

Fi&ure J i .A_lyporoev fog roan-mglg_ggFii!_esg_e_g*..es*- '!l,a !t<-: /:,

q-.11,
l- , oa l th

Effe ct on

1) l) i rrrl
A o r !:Js+ ttqr Lr':'J-
rrl :J
Ne g a t i v e L /
^6L

chelrl- cal-s r lob<tc" a id- j- t:i i,'c 3 .., ':. ': ' r '
.r ?\OLe.
twlukl-lts /r,JL Irnoh^t) {- ( l e: ..e,i
tr \A'llJ-"lln]-h
rrrhi -,r- r-,
Neutral- 4) ) ) ujil. -LI'Olll 6 )'ij ta..ari-rt sL'rpp'r-r:-Ytf-1*
p b s /packaging,
Toxic sub- so m e plastics, fr e
Posltive ? )sta n e e s o r Q.) [r.nt-r
v / 'L
fr^nrn se'r:i,'n ' inn'i.::ol
9 ) S onre ;o^rre
carc1noE ens i -ror : r ots UI Y\;D ra ll'O }a

- l - n* an
i i, troi*
N.gI" ingested. Unintentionally lvi J-
nnal
v.{ u..L
'!'
I rr
.:.J
i
by humans l n gested by ingested. by
humans r:
hr"r.man
- g e sti o n

It sho u iC be said at once tha t we d " o n o t h a v e * n o u g h " -, -n f o lrn a t io n t o

fill in ali the I ceils one may visualize i,n lj-gur:e 'i., Ancnr-'d-i-n-Bly,
the exampl-e*s sho',frn should not be coRceived. :^of &s do6y,na.,bL:,1.rather
s om e sug g e stions. Cell 1 and 4 a re h a rd . t o e o n c e j-v e r: f e v e : r" l' b h. e o r e -
t i ca lly, b ut cell 7 may be a p o s s ib ilit y , if we ima g in e [ ira i some
s ubstan ce s the.t used to he in g e s t e d b y h u ma n s u n in t e n t i. o n a l. . i-y , no w
h ave be e o n e controllab1e, for in s t a n c e in c lo s e d . c j--r: e t it s , t -h e reb y
i mp r o v:ng l *eople's health" B u t h . e re ' rv e s h a ll e r: p * c i a lJ -y o n
focus
celi A a1*" /: ass',rmj-ng that these ce.l-l-s wil-1 coR.ta'Ln 3;i j-rr*::easing
. r- / r . i! - - + . n^Ar -:n /1rrt "iifcf ef"rrii.fsnment
KTi,"l,^;.le(Lpe nf
 z)

is i ncr e a srng.o+ Theref ore. a g o o d . in d . ic a t o r of o v e rd . e v e lo p me n t

night be the nurnber of man-mad,esubstances in use and the parallel
i n d i c a t o r o f u n d e rd e ve l o p ment the lack of iqi,owledge of the lnpor tan-
c e o f s u c h su b sta n ce s fo r our health. But let us look at some ev l -
d e n c e , b a se d . o n ce l l ? a n d.3, indicating that in the over d- eve l oped.
p a r t o f t he w o rl d , th e se cells ar e lar ge and gr owing.

T h e r e a r e tw o ci a sse s o f a d,d.itj- ves in food, those that occur unl nten.

tl o n a l l y o r i n d .i re ctl y, a n d those tir at ar e ad,ded for a par ticula r
purpose. i n th e fi rst g ro up ( cell 2) we find such substances as
p e s t i c i d . e s , so l ve n ts, e n vi ronmental chem icalsr etc., with which the
fo o d " b e c ome s co n ta n i n a te d " dur ing cultivation, pr ocessing and. s tor age.
T h e i n t e n ti o n a l a d d i ti ve s i nclude such things as nutr ients, flav or s ,
f l a v o r e nh a n ce rs, p re se rva tives, anti- oxidants, emulsifier s, stabi -
lizers, t hi cke n e rs, co l o ri n g agents, bleaching agenb and. othes.b)
T h e d i s t u r b i n g fa ct a b o u t celI 3- type pr oblem s is that as m ethod.s to
d , e t e c t p ossi b l e ca n ce r h a zar ds or other health pr oblems im pr ov e,
m o r e a n d mo re o f th e fo o d . ad.d,itives ar e d"iscover ed. to be a thr e at to
health. In o th e r w o rd .s, w hat we thought eould be put in cell 9 as
r r p o s i - t i v e rr to o u r h e a l th or 1n cel,I 6 asfr neutr alr f have a long - r un
n e g a t i v e e ffe e t th a t w e w e re unable to for esee. Vir ginia 1,. Z ar at-
a-
ha
z L e n "' e m p h a si ze s h o w 1 1 ttl e we ir now about possible health pr obl em s
i n d u c e d . by e n vi ro n me n ta l chemicals in food., both because ad.equate
te s t i n g m e th o d .s a re l a cki n g and because it is impossible to
t e s t a l l ch e mi ca l s a l o n e o r in combination wl[]oother s for their
c a r c i n o g e ni c (ca u si ng genetic dAmage) f tneir ter atogenlc
e f f e c t ( ca u si n g a b n o rma i i ti 4s in the offspr ing, f. inst. as in the
t h a l l d . o m i de -ca se ). B u t a s an exam ple of how ser ious the pr obl em
o f c h e m i c a l s i n fo o d , ma y b e she r efer s to a study conducted. a fes
y e a r s a g o o n o ve r 1 0 0 p e sti c id.es, wher e it pr oved. that only 3 of
t h o s e t h a t h a d b e e n a d " e q u ately tested wer e not car cinogenic. 13
o t h e r c h e rn i ca l s w e re fo u n d to be car cinogenic, 28 other s wer e k now n
t o i n c r e a s e tu mo r i n ci -d .e n ce, 37 wer e tested. on only one species w i th
n e g a t l v e re su l ts, a n d th e r emaind.er had not been tested. with a ppr o-
p r i a t e p r oce d " u re s a t a l l . It ther efor e sound.s likely that mos t
man-made substances put io use in agriculture or ad,d.ed.
to food. may
be d.etrlmental to healtir in the long run, and that between 50 and
9 0 % o f cfr a n ce r ma y b e p re ve nted by avoiding the offend.ing eheni c al
a g e n t s . "' 0 n th rs p o i n t ther e of cour se is disagr eem ent. fhere ar e
those that sta te th a t ch e mj- cals in food. ar e not too pr oblemiilti c ,
b e c a u s e t he y h e l p p re ve n ti n g natur ally occur r ing car cinogens o r
b a c t e r i a s w h j -ch o th e rw i se would" be danger ous to health, and as l ong
 ^l \)
a

the evid - e n ce of carcinogenisis is s o we a k , the i: e n e f i1 . s c u t we L g h

r /'
t h e r isks."" I-iowever-, ii; is o u r v ie w t lia t t h e reis . g . o ; q g . in ix o f
rnan-mad"e substances and. naturally occurring subgtanees f'.i;}ra,'trray
c au se he d lth lroblems) whicil is I ' id e a l. r' in the s e n s e ' b ila , i h e a . lt n
p r ob le n s are minimized., anrl t h a t rn ix is no_l the rre s e n t o n e . o i li h i s
l u r^ 1,r - L,ucrrJr.y
n'i.' n-^1-.,,-
exclud.es a numbe r o f
I-'
the c ire n ic a l, s rlo v , ' irl g 3 ; { ' ' ? iri. iil:o u l d .
a l so m e a Jr a stop in the d,evelo p me n . t o f n . e w c h e mj-e a -l. s : rr. -t i. l |h e
I onr r - t er m pf f pn*e nf J -h o \ OneS me bettC f r:nC C t" qt,:C ,rj ..
--e
.tlr
Se nt

It i s i m p o rta n t tD stre ss th at the occur r en,ce of cancer ,is r r ot ran.-

d o m a m o n g th e p o p u l a ti o n . Accor ding to Ba.r r y 0omr noner ' ,' "'
A r e c e n i i 'i a ti o n a l C a n cer Institute sur vey of e?r oel o"ee,tlis
i n a l I th e co u n ti e s o f the United" State" *6sur t:d.ihat lj"*ath.
r a t e s fro m l u n g , l i ve r and blad.d.er ce.licer nr e ni,gliest :.n"a: :eas
ihat have a heavy concentration cf chem,ical ll-ant.'--;a,nr-ir'+fi-'
neries.
10
A table shown by Newsweek'" gives Lr_5ai1 i)v.e.rrytei/ cl , 5 'f 1 . 'L i . :L { I . : 1 . . 1. }.- V

r e a lted . ca ncer:

Lable 2: Cqlrc_e-rand- !4e,__env:igg;Lrgn3_:-

Su b s t a n c e s
.F-:--_.
!^lhere found l l arr l o r. t : : . e -i n a " i c a -rs e
A7aA].l1 n I'lining, smelting incl-" i-ung, l-i-'i'er' .a i
vr- !r r !
n
t

A s b e s t os Brake lini-ngs, con-*

stru cti o n sites, insu*
l a ti o n s, power houses
Be n z e n e S o l ve n ts, oi1 r ef' r ner ' - i- es,
i n ce c'ti ci d"es Bo"ne .ner'-'i.'r,'.,,r
Be n z i d . i n e f,ubber mak in g , d y e 3 ' f 1 r. f f ' s ' 3lacl rl r.:r
Co a l - c o m b usti o n S teel-rniIls, p e t ro e lie - ittCl. . ; '; . r . i , i ; 3 , j C T OU L U 4
products mical i-ndu s t ry , a s p $ ra -il.
coal tar
Ivletal indu s t ry . ' ; , 1 . " r, q -: -' 1 , : , I l|^r.il ::: " i s,i l l .l .rS e S
Ra d i a t i o n Ul'traviole-i , ra y s f rc rr 1 I'cirf
i (> t:a , r,;ii,.i-n,
the sun, me c -i-c a ] t l: e r: : p v t i'r,ri,..f
atomic powe r u s e x
S y n t h e t i c e stro g e n s Drugs -ia,rir^
Y<lXl..lr-ri
frsrrriv
ug-Lv,l .\r rr*artrc
4usruL-
''i.-*-
To b a c c o s mo l e e Cigarettes, p ip e s , c ig a " rs IJL,{JI6 9
,.-l^.i-:!
-t -!:i1, -'-{.,1
^--
5I ,
*^a!+L
.rllL/u. trll I

(;r.ctive an d p a s s lv e 1 ; t e SOpld$r.1 li; P i ': r . r . 'i l '1 . 1 t.

_'l,7'r ,n y

\ r i nvl- cnr o r id.e P lastics ind u s t rv l. . rle r " 0 i, ' -u . 7

x A d d iti on s
+ F r-.r9....'-.4..i

ti: tire ta.bie nade b y the a r: t h o r'

'!*'.tej'aq-ffi

Besid e s the fact that industr: -a l a re n o i: e ' e x p ; s r-. d .1 , ' r c a , t ' c j . ' -
wo rl(e rs
nogeni.e suostarlces in their envirorrmer.rt, .'tlLei:e ;,',-'i-srse(ir:Ii,i'i-',ihe a
g e- ]er sl d .i ff erence in cancer ra t e s b e b we e n c it j. e s a " n d c r. : it ri, r: v s id . e ,
not o n ly due to industr:-ai po llu t io r. but a -' l. s o t o i: -i-r"i; rrl-r-t . t ' ij. o n
e tc. car - ised by automohile traf f ic , f ro " r o il. -f j-r' e d h e a t irL g s y s t e m s
o*n 7'l
-in otirer vrord"s, a1l s o c ia l c la s s e s a re b o i: rx .in c : . " e a s in g
e xl en t b c:c * -,:',,'r .xpr:sed to su b s t a n c e s v rh j-c h a r: t b a . d f o i: r1 1 .it: i? a lt h,
 27

4. Discu ssion.

In the fo llorving we vriii try to d . ig e s t a n d s u mma riz e s o me o f th e

e m p ir ica l evid,e:i:: ano- theo rie s p re s e n t e d s o f a r. F irs t o f a ll ,
l ve h a ve been concerned" r,vith t h re e d if f e re n t aspeets of o v e rd e v e-
lo p m e n t, those with
corrsequ e n c e s f o r t h e e c o lo g . v , t h e
-F i_ c . is } __ g J - s t e m
an d " pe o p le's heal-th. '.'hes e a s p e c t s a re a l_ I in t e rre la t e d . , and it
m ay n o t always be posslble t o d if f e re n t ia t e b e t we e n t h e m. A I so ,
sig ;r s of overdevelopnent do e s n o t e x c lu d e the s imu l. t a n e o u s o c cr l r e n c e
of un d .er development. In fac t , the e x is t e n e e of o v e rd . e v e lo p me nt
in itself may even be a sig n o f u n d . e rd e ld o p rn e n t o f the a b ilit y to
m ake a good. society for all.

l 'i e h a ve d.efineo overoevelopme n t t o me a n t h a t o u r c e n t ra l v a lu e s ,

th e en d goal being personatr g ro wt h , a re n o t f u lf ille d . beeause of
th e existence of too much ma a rls , t h e wro n g k in d o f me a n s r 0 1 " th e
r ig h t ki nd. of means in the wro n g p 1 a c e . i' / e b a s ic a rly h a v e b e en
co n ce r n e d with matelj-ai goo d s : F o o d . , d ru g s , ra ! / ma t e rla ls u s ed t o
produce clothes and housing, m'rr'.ns of transportation and" commlmlca-
* in r a* r,
noes that mean t h a t o v e rd . e v e lo p me n t h a s f o llo we d " a p e r -
v uL

i o d . o f d eve l -o p me n t, th a t the countr ies whlch tod.ay m ay be ccns i de-

r e d t o b e o ve rd e ve l o p a d . h a v e gone thr ough the phases of being uno.er -
d e v e l o p e d- a t fi rst, th e n m or e and m or e developed, to finally e nd
u p a s b e in g o ve rd .e vd to p e o ? 0r could. it be that a society star ted"
o u t b e i n g d e ve l o p e d ., b u t then went thr ough a per iod" of und.er d.ev el -
o p e d . n e s s (a d -a r]<a g e ), fo r then to pr oceed. to over d.evelopment? Or
i s o v e r d . e ve l o p me n t a n i n h e r ent tr ait j- n liester n Civilization, a
t r a i t r v h i ch h a s ma n i fe ste d . itself in d.iffer ent wavs thr ouehout
na
] r i s t o r v ? I'

i i f r t h o u t b e i n g h i sto r:-a n s, we would speculate that an id.eally dev e-

lnno.l ennia*rr never has existed" d.uring the last few ihousand years,
b u i t h e t e n va l u e d .i -me n si onschosen as basic concer ns for thls
n r o s r a m2- -Lma v h a ve b e e n u n fulfilled. in d.iffer ent ways than at pr es ent
I o r i n s t a n ce , th e re ma y n a ve been over deveioped classes r elative to
m o s t p e o p l e w i th i n e a ch co untr y, just like at pr esent, but exp l oi -
t a t i o n w as n o t a n i n te rn a ti onal pr oblem, but r ather an lnter nal one.
Al s o , e c ol o g i ca l p ro b l e ms may have oceur r ed because of laek of
lm.owled.geof hovi nature works, but the consequences would- be more
l i m l t e d . i n e xte n si o n .
 ti )
a. \*/

ilnA crr t
rr'6 lm nr"' rlore
t Yv about the consequences of explo j.t i::,6, i.he eco-
^ - - ^* ^*
DJD\rg l l rt
rUL^"+
/.U ^ince
iJ.. exploitarj.on of the e c o -s y s t e rn is in e x t r. ic a b ly
l inke d . w i th our present-forrn o f in d u s t ria l-iz a t ic n ris t e of
a . n Crih e
rrad"vanceirt -1;echnology, '' regard.Iess of whreti:el_ i t i s ..ris*:,-4, -v,r-l-"thrn
a ca p itall- st or a 'rsocialistrt f ra me wo rk , , r8 f li* wra b l-e ' h { , r. , v o i. d
ecolo g ica l iE halance. This is wh y we iv o t " t l-cs a y t h a t r, e a re u s in g
t oo m uch erergy, w€ are prod -u c in g t o o m. a n ; ' n f , + u e rie l- 5 : o o d s , c ' f t en o J l
t he wr o n g k:nd, or even tie rig h t k in d s o f t h rn g s r; r; t jr l; h e v / r o n . . r
pla ce , a n d that this j-s a sig n o f o v e rc le v e l. l: rr: r^ . t a q , , ie l-' l a s c f
und.erdeveJ-opment. A {Wg}.opS{ society wouio 'lr:
S-qg h.,-'r0,, p::oriline
t h e go o d .s thai were needed w it h _ o t ll p o llu t in g t n e e i" rv . r. -r. ] riin e noi;r
d- e p le ti ng -i,ts resources, it wo u ld . la n o v r h n v ; t o : r, a , : rel. . i: ] rt ' i. . r: " i-e san d -
t e e h n o l- o g ie s that fit the so c ia l s y s t e m, a . 1 1 .f c l ii' e r)r! rr. / . (: \ c of
d.eveioping peqplg and not thi-irgc.

UrrJerstanding the d"eep and. wrderl-ying cau.ses of ove-l'i.i.. ,lir,i-1rlient

is not the uasl< cf tnis paper - ire r€ ii' e wiil o n iy s e : r: . r, , : : -, : : e
s ur face l- ]1 t,:raf respect.
In othe r worcie, if rve ide;itily o v e rCe u ' d c : rn e n ' t w-it n ' : (' -, ' '_r_sm -ln
our p a r tof.tr tetvorld,wedonoinearr;i; S . i. . ' ira . 1 , ' ? -. :,:
".:.L -l-',r
pla n n e d . economies can avo j-d. t h e p lif a lis o j- , : v c i' ii* v e l i. r f .. (.lvef."

d.eve lo p m e nt may be an inevita b le state c -f a f f lrr: s ,, l ,- - - i

L( !. ; ^+
-L> U

eco n o m y b ecause the capital- system d.oes not ] ra v e ; u iJ 1 t . , u : i. it -i m e c h a -

nism pr e ve nt-i-ng material growt h f ro rn g o rrrg t c o f a r. lri' i-, * a pL"a*rned.
economy could avoid. this pitfall, given tire pil.t.l-osph-r r:i ,,rhat
thai
d .eve lo p m e nt means is a d.iffere n t o n e t h a n . , rrh a t is ' 7 r--, i. , 1 , : iu 4 c a p i *
t alist system, c.r'verdevelopme n t c o u ld . b e a v o -ri-e c i. , ln ilt * ;as.b -!lu::o*
pe a n sta tes, however, the oe n t n g t p la n n in g is p . r: : s r: rr-lt g ; ; lJ : : s D r
l e ss the same goals as the c a p it a lls t s j-n i. lie , ' / e s i in t lra t i, , rh a. t
r eally co unts, is to fulfill p 4 g ju c jF g q p lg g g : In o rd e r to c1o this,
t he e a r o e means are put to use a s in t ire , le s t : I n d . u s ' irj-a i S r: o wth ,
r apii:: - l ;* cixrolog1cal change, re s e a rc h a n d " d , e v e i-o p me n t j. r; t e rir-=oi ' e i r r -
d .ustr y, in creasing speciali zatLon, etc . > u f ' f ic e t n e re : ' o l-. e ii) s a ; , i .
lf rr
that it is modern'ind.ustrial g ro wih rv it h an ever j-rrc re n s i-rrE b e c h n i -
ca r ccm p r exitj' lvhj_ch lies at the ro o t c a u s e o f ' o ' v e : t d _ e v e . 1 . o p ; l* i i t b
,e
it in a " ealri;airst or a certr a l
v vf4 v r e r !t./ I rr n l a rrn c ' d r. / rn n n rn r/
vr sr u r u u ! -
u vtl vl r t,y ,

u Kr / r-l y^+- u Lr r E ,*t dov,rr to rndic;' lo rs ;

Dri+
: l' : re rv e wo u ld b e p a r' L ir: ' r. l-a rl y
l nter e stcs :-n ind.ica.tors whi c h rn a y e x p re s s a re l-a . t jn n s b i. ia ire iv , ' e e n
ove r - aa c unric--:',l.eveIopment . l' h i-s re la t ro n s irrlr r-i:?; t i ] ro i, rre , ' --s S at ' i l y
,fla-./'eto r l.l' L-v ! -,tr :ntentio^t , b:r j; rather: tlta"t tlte i:;-^, i.'r.t.i.r
i,.r.i e I-s Sucn
 /Y

that s o m e g ro u p s o f p e o p l e get too much, while other s get too l i ttl e.

I n s u c h a ca se th e re l vo u l d . have to be a tr ansfeq of r esour ces fr on
o n e g r o u p o f p e o p l e (o r e or r ntr ios) to another . But we also woul d.
b e i n t e r e s te d . i n a n o ve ru se of r esour ces which could. have been us ed.
t o c o v e r o th e r p e o p l e 's u n d.er use, even if the r esour ces ar e no i
i a k e n f r o m th e u n d .e r-u se rs by the over - user s. In other wor d.s , not
sharing your abund.ance if .you can and. 1f those less fortwrate d.o not
h a v e t h e i r o w n me a n s fo r o ver com ing their d.eficient needs cover age,
w i l - I b e se e n a s j u st a s o b jectionable as taking away fr om someone
w h o h a d e n o u g h to p ro d u ce too nuch one place and too } ittle wher e
it i s t ake n fro m. L e t u s cal] these two cases of over develop m ent
f o r T y p e 1 a n d . T yp e 2 a n c pr oceeo to our } ist of need- s and mat er i al
g o o d . s p r e se n te d i n T a b l e J below.

Table J: l i l e e d .qa n d ma te ri al good.s.

l {ee d : M ater ial Eood./ser viee :

Nutrition Food.
i { e l l b e i n g /h e a l th Balanced. d.iet, hyglene, med.icines , etc .
Pr d v a c y / ptro !e ctl o n Clothing, housing
lftrowl ed.ge/ ed.ucat i on Hum an contact, school system
I . l e a n i n g f u l o ccu p a ti o n /w o rk I4r m s, household.s, f actor ies, etc.
i'lobi Ii tyl tran sportati on tsikes, buses, tr am s, car s n aj- r plar l es I . .
Communicati onlhuman contact Telephones, r ad.ios, televisions, d.r um s ,
sm oke signals, Iight signals, ete .

If w e go dovm the list of g o o d , s / s e rv ic e s a n d re la t e the o v e rc o ns u r a p -

ti on on each of these to Ty p e 1 a n d 2 p ro b le ms , we s h o u ld . b e a b l e
to d e ve lo p soille ind.icators of o v e rd . e v e lo p me n . ie t us take some ex-
a m p le s, starting out wlth fo o d . :
If a co u ntry is importing f o o d - f ro m a c o u n t ry wh e re p e o p le a re g e t -
ti ng to o little food", w€ ar e f a c in g a T y p e 1 p ro b le m. A n in d ic a t o r
of the extent of overdeveJ-op me n t c o u l. d f o r in s t a n c e be the per
^a - 'i4u^d ,
u @y.L a \,J- ^-e which
s<151 an ove rd . e v e lo p e d c o u n t ry ' s a v e ra g e c it iz e n
o ccu p ie d - in poor countries a n d wh ic h c o u ld have been used. to cover
I f nar l
th og
vrl n ^^ T
}/vu l - uu4r uILy
^n1tn+ e- ,
^
D r vvuThis would be a very
r ^v
- o€d .S,

c o m p l i c a t e d i n d .i ca to r to d evelop on a per countr y basis, becaus e

m a n y a g r i cu l tu ra l p ro d u cts tr e sent fr om one countr y to another , and
i t j - s o f t e n ve ry d " i ffi cu l t to assign tbe or igin of each pr oduc t
c o n s u m e d to. p a rtl cu l a r p ro d,ucer s. A fur ther com plj- cation would. be
\Ccilc*l(lt-
i nvo lve d . if we shoulNthe b c re a g e o c c u p ie d . b y d if f e re n t c la s s e s of
no n n 'lo i n r.-jnh countries.
} /vvl/4 ' I ire re f e e , in d . ic a t o rs re f le c t in g an over-
nnnarrmnr-inr
\-\,rrrDw rrP u rv l! ^f
v food. would. be a lot sinpler to develop 1f they igno-
 io

red th e d"ifferentiation be t we e n l' y p e 1 a n d ly p e 2 a n d ju s t in c o r p o *

r a ted . overd.evelopment per sc. I . h ls a rg u me n t ma y a ls o be used, when
w e go do wn the l1st of bas ic ma t e rla l- need.s" S o me s u g g e s t io rrs of
in d .i cator s are presented" in t h e T a b le b e lo w.

jlable 4 : - Qglle qsselested-g_v_er4e-y_e.tqg_n-9gil:!t<\Lg.a:F-_oJg

"
)s
!treed.,/good.s: In d .i ca to r: Possi- ble examples :
Iood. Primary calories consumed" riS:\ 4-5
per person per clay o.-i-vrded Norway
by average c a lo ric need. O E CI a re a 7
(fodd.er fit f c r h u ma n c c n -" iJ , -: u ro p e crJ ./
sumption inc lu d e C-) { ih irc l ; io rl-d o R - 1)
Caloric inpu t / o r-rt p u t r. a 1 r-o , r US e (c q r-) ( ..1
"/ .
I

(Ch in a (we t -
rjc e ) t: l o )
Chemical fe rt il6 z e r as e O ; Cl 9Or5
percentage o f t o t a i f e : -ii- (J h : rra 1O.-2O;5)
llzer US e
Food. wasted. |.1 Jrous€hold.s
Iood stocks d e lib e ra t e lv
wreckei rel a t iv e t o t o t a . -l
food. produc t io n
Cosmetic fo o d a d d it iv e s in
use (nr.rmb e r, p e rc e n t a g e o f
consir.ned.fo o d " wit h a d -d it iv e s )
l- a ' n nani - lr rr^y1 erl mnf i rr',r r,f
lr+

refined" food " s a n d n o n -' f a o ris

(white flou r, s u g a r)

C l othin g P ercentage o f c lo t h s ma t le f rc n
synthetic f ib e rs
Sh e lter t'ercentage of b u llo in g space un -
o ccupi ed"
lnergy use per housing r"rnit
iIe&1th ldunl'rer of d ru g s ln u s e (d . u p lic a t e s o etc")
.teported" siC. e -e f f e c t s f rc m d . ru g
use in numb e r o f c a s e s p e r . y e a r p e r 1000
illr n.r
!( ttennr / WJ
.:lhvlr nf
vi U gr r Vg:, hpanf
l ti 'o!J _ A i c aac n^
U \fID gd,D gD ,
^2?'tnF - r r
jiabetes, o b e s it y / o v e n v e ig h t , s c h iz o -
nhr pn er lr s i: ri r rn tho nn nrU
U \J i ,J r lIC l , a+'i
t/fl! vli(; U _1_\J
^- II

I r a n s p o r t a ti o n )'i' of passenger-kj-lometers blf car. ,

a n C a i rp l a ne ilior way 125
usA 2o o
N r:n b e r o f peopie killed in tr affi
a cci d -e i rts per year ;:er m il1. inhabitants
r:n e rg y u se in tr anspor tation
per pas iient:,3::-:ciL.ornet eL:

* /lu tho r s ,ri,r.ess.:s:Jean-t as il iu s b ra t ir: n s

The tab le is noi meant to b e e x h a u s t iv e , b u t ra t h re r t o in d . ic a t e a
wa y o f th inking about indicat o rs . Such j-n d lc a t o rs s h o u ld a lwa ys
be oe ve io ;'-o -eor a proionged " p e rio d . o f t ls c for d if f e re n t s o ci o -
eco n o m ic classes and for dj-f f e re n t c o u n t rie s . lis s u c h , they do not
ne e d to be numerical, but n a y b e p re s e n t e d in f o rms of g ra p h s or
othe r i l l ustrations which m a y b e u n d , e rs t a n d " a b le t o a n a v e ra g e p e r s o n
r 'r 'i * h n n mnFo than elementary s c h o o lin g , f o llo v lin g a b rie f e x p la n a -
"' ""1 X"
tio n . An example of this wo u ld . b e t h e t wo g ra p h s p re s e n t e d . b el o w ,
<r h n r .r i ncri ho ostimated. relatio n S h ip b e t we e n t h e f re q u e A Cy O f s C h i z o -
p h r e n ia and material produc t io n (CiV p / c a p it a u s e d h e re ) anO the
tim e ser ios of schizophrenia in d . if f e re n t c o u n t rie = 1 7 5

!'i gu r e 8: S ehizophrerLia rel-a t e d " t o G N? / c a p it a a n d t ira e .

B it
A
r0 4)
P er r n ille
+^+^"1
^f
tJI ULJ UdI
*^-.,-l
^+.ii J - L^-
Utr
PUPu.rd, s
with schlzo-
nhz.on i a
( estimate )
I

190

Tn cr y'q n h'1 r^ ro COuld_ imagine that We h a d t h re e CO u n t rie S , A, B and.

C, the two former two typica l cases of o v e rd e v e lo p me n t , and the
la tte r a n und-erd"eveloped. cou n t ry f o r$ a t e of c o mp a ris o n . In this
ca se r w€ see that the occ'dr re n c e o f s c h iz o p h re n i-a in the p o p u la ti o n
w en t fa ster in A than in 3, but that B at the end. of the p e rio d is
clo sin g the gap very fast. I n g ra p h 2 rv e s e e t h a t c o u n t rie s with
a lo w l evel of material- pro d . rrc t io n have few cases of s c h iz o p h re n i a ,
w hile tho se with a high GN P / c a p iia a ls o h a v e a c o rre s p o n d in g inc r e a -
co i n on l-r'iznnfurenia rates.
uv r a+ av y r +v r r r q I t is imp o rt a n t h e re t o in d . lc a t e
J.svvp. !v rD fr r r yv!, the
a4/
,cAr.)p-'^'l tronrls and tenOenOeS u and nOt
uilq .fv v let
Iv u USTCOnfUSd bv
4D vvr l l 4Dr w .y ti.re f eet
vr l v Iq v v

'76
t h a t t h e r e a re so xxee >a q tti ons to all gener al pictur es.r " Ther efor e,
l e t u s s umma ri ze o u r g e n e ral pictur e of an over oeveloped count r y
w i t h t h e fo l l o w i n E ch a ra cter istics:

An overd"eveloped counl,j?y 1s orj-ented toward.s $aterial growth.

T h e u s e o f n a tu ra l re so u rces is incr easing or has been stabilize d
a t a v e r y h i g h l e ve l i n sp ite of the fact that r esour ces ar e p oor l y
u s e d , t h u s ma ki n g i t n e ce ssar y not only to explolt other cowr tr i es ,
b u t a l s o th e i r o vm fu tu re gener ations.
 12

T h e er n p h asis on nraterial- gro r, ; t h in o v e rc le v e lo p e d " c o u n t rie s has lead"

to a n l ncr easing disintegration of the s o c ia l s t ru c t u re s . People
c l uster in overcrowd-ed. citj-es , f a mily lif e t e n d . s t o b re a l, , a p a rt ,
an d . tho s- who are nor prod"uc t iv e (t ire o ld , young, h a n d ic a p p e d , eic. )
ar e p la ce d " ouiside the mains t re a m of s o c ia l a n d rn a t e ria l iif e .
Co n se q u e n tly, the mentai healt h of the total p o p r, rla t io n tends to
beco m e in creasingly poor and t h e g ro wt h ra t e o f me n t a l rlis e a s e s
al ar m in g iy high. B ut the in d . iv id u a l Cis e a s e p a t t e r' n a ls o beeomes
c ha r a cter isti c: fuberculosis a n d t y p iro id n ilv e g iv e n wa y t o cancer,
d.i ab e tes and heart ailments, d -is e a s e s wn ic n in o v e rCe r, e lo p e d socie- '
t i es a fflict an increasj-ng nu mb e r c f p e o p l- 2 . t a ll s o c j-o -e c o n o m i c
l evels. Overd,eveloped socie t ie s h a v e rid . d -e d - t h e n s e lv e s rv i t t r p h y s i -
^^ -r +^ i-r ^*^ n^. \ y i hr r r r bnio nn n d i t i n i nUIvIID
c hUur r f ,
9eI U\./-L-L CtlILr Pvvr tLJ tiplLL v UvtiU! t afe inStead- faCgd" Wj t h

t oo l i ttl e bu.llt-ln exercise a n d . a n o v e r-c o n c e rn wit h h y g ie n e an C

I'go o d l ot- rks". These socleties h a v e b e c o me s o s p e c ia liz e d . that each
i n d ivid .ua l no longer can see t h e t o t a lit y of the systen. i e o p le
beco m e a lienated froro their t h e p ro d u c t s t i: L e ; ' p ro c ir, : -c r a , ' . id .c a f -
" io b ,
su m e , an d tire/ becone depend e n t o n a h : g h lv c e n t ra l: z e d , : rro f e s s i o -
na1 nl ann' i n rt s rrc i o m
ul r v v v .!
2q th p
v :r v
ma i ni .
.r. q v4
npnre- j Of S OC i e;al c' r' 3.' " IOl -. PeO -
d

ple be e o m e passive clients in the hands oi p ia n n e rs , } : u re a L ; c ra t s ,

te ch n o cr a ts, specialisb in ev e r: , / ima g in a b le f ie 1 d , a n d c a p rt a . l-o w -
ne r s, tr ho in an overd.evelope d . s o c ie t y h a v e ma n a g e d . t o re c irr. c e c l" a l s s
c on fl i cts by pushing the explo it e d p e rip h e ry o u t s ic re o -l' f . 1 1 i-1 . row n
s ocle ty but the inequalitles re ma in " A n o v e rd e ' ' rd -o p e d ,c o iu : t : : y is
a ha r d . case for forces of so c ie t a l change, a n d . : rL : i, . rr: rrr.a s u c ie t y
c ha n g e i s only lrkely to com e a b o u t r, y ire na t le a s t t wo . ia c t o rs oc c u r :
- h'ir st, the exploited periphery re f u s e s to l-e t . it s e li' b e e x p lo it e d ,
se co n d - , the synptoms of overd e v e lo p n e n t s t a rt a f ' f lic t i-n g a ls o th o s e
vr h o sti l l are able to make th e b e s t of o v e rd e v e lo p rn e n t , t h e s o ci a l ,
ecor ilm ic and inte.i-ectual el it e s r at the s a ro e t ime a s t h e p ro b le m s
of o v"e r d "evelopment become vi s ib le to t ire o v e rd e . re lo p e d . wo rld . " l\ r r d .
it is exa cft;r t]ris iatter poi n t v rh ic h h a s b e e n t h e p u rp o s e of this
pap e r : to contribute toward " s a h o lis t ic v ie lu o f o v e rd e v e lo p e d .
qnn i ol- ioc +lllqD
Lr t a e '*n r r r A f nv{r th e i f
nr enar ing
IrrVye!4Ut)
tVrrv
' ," o tj!vl4rs f thOSe V;hO Wa n - b tO See

l eve l- of developrnent in a neh r a n d mo re c riiic a l lig h i.

i iTO TES:
' i') Jo ia .n Galtung et al .: "iie a s u rrn g ilo rid De v e lo p me n t . rt ilI ? la pe r
i 'io . 2, au tunn 1't7). 0nair ln O o n rlic t a n d . |e a c e Re s e a rc h , iJ n iv e r -
s i t.y of 0s1o. S ee paae ?-1-'2i io r t n e t lis c u s s . i o n o f c o n c e p t s u s ed
i n - r 'ig u r e 1 .

2) Joh a n Galtuing anrl r,nders , rira l; : rrHu ma ni' ie e d " s , liu ma n Rig h t s a n d "
the l he o r ,l ' o j- ue veJ_opment. rt , , lrP P a p e r irro. 1 0 , j a n u a ry Z A , 1 y 7 6 .

)) lva n .Iiicn: ,,jner;:lr and: q u it l, ' -. id e : . rs in iro g re s s , OaIder &

3o ;r ar s, lo ndcn i t-lT'

4) ?h e in ner and ou't,er limits t o rn a t e ria l g ro wt h a re c lo s e iy re l a -

t ed to so cial ano culturai fa c t o rs , re f le c t e d in rh e le v e l o f te c h -
no lo ;i ca- deveiopment and ou r in s ig h t in t o t h e b io lo g ic a l systems
r v hich sur r ou:id us. a c o n t j-n u a t j. o n o i' p a s t g ro wt h ra t e s , v/e
r ^ r n r r 'lr lcno n':rrrls that 'iitii
these lln it s will b e re a c h e d in t h e n e a r fu t u r e
i n m a .r r y :- noustrialized countrie s . I o r a f u rt h e r d " is c u s s lo n o f t h e s e
i ssue s, see lil-r'10, p. r.

5) Se e Johan Galtlng: n'The L imit s t o G ro r, rt h ' a n d Cla s s P o lit ic s t t ,

J ou r n a l- of P eace Research, No , 1 / 2 , 1977

6 ) F o r a d i scu ssi o n o f th e geogr aphical- extension of d.lffer ent

e n v i r o n m n n ta l - p ro b l e ms, se e Dag Poleszynski: I' r cology, fr ner gy a nd
R e s o u r e e s : S o me trro b l e ms o f Indicator For mation.r r IVIP Paper - Ir lo. 8,
C h a i r i n C o n fl i ct a n d . P e a ce Resear ch ( p. 4) .

7 ) s e e r r l {o rl d . & re rg y o u tl o ok" by OECD,Par is, Januar y j977. T hi s

is a t y p i c al e xa mp l e o f th e non- nor mative appr oach that industr i a-
li z e d c o u n tri e s u se w h e n th ey estimate futur e r r nn,edstrfor ener g y .

B) An example of this in Norway would be the aluminum ind.ustry,

where th€re is an incregsing pressure from the workers and. the
L a b o r U n i on fo r h a vl n g th e wor k- cond"itions im pooved insld"e the fac -
to r l e s , &t th e sa n e ti me a s envjr onmentalists malnly have conplai ned.
a b o u t t h e e xte ri o r p o l l u ti o n and the lar ge power - consw.r ptir r r of the
smelters. A t th e sa r,te;i me as the wor ker sr d.emand-ar s e about t o
b e m e t t o a co n si d " e ra b l e e x tent, the ltior wegian alumlnum industr y
m o v e s i n t o B ra zL L 1 n a n i n ter national consor tium in or d.er to se c ur e
c h e a p b a u xj -te . On e re a so n whi' toe ecological and numan r r aged.ies
w h i , c h i n e vi ta b l y f'o l l o vr i n the footsteps of lar ge m infr r g pr o-
i o n # o i n + ? ^ h i ca l a re a s d o not cause m uch debat6 instrl(ip-
dvv v u frr vlvu
or way is*tir at
wo r ke r s a re not familiar wit h . t ire t o t a l n rn d rrn t in n
?oresz;znski
:',liorsk nyimperiarisme ^\l
"inli:
i B""5fiiHt3tfitt5{f1";",'!
il Be s i d es ti re fa cto r o f too lar ge pr oduction cycles, ther e als o i s
t h e f a c t o r o f th e e l i te s ta king initiative on har mless issues, s uc h
a s t h e y e arl y a n ti -l i tte ri n g cam paignr e&d the Nor weglan Cr own
Prince becomi.rnl:'tho oha)-om?.yy
of the ldorwegian branch of viorld il'il-d"-
lif e .lrund.,
10) Ai so see the discussion in rirP No . B & b y Da g p o le s z y n s k i:
r r Jco io g y, :hergy and R.esourc e s : S o rn e P ro b le ms9
o i in d ic a t o r F o rm a -
t i on , r r an d rrtr{aste P rod"uction a n d O v e rd , e v e l o p me n t . A n A p p ro a c h t o
- tl colo g ica l lndicators, rt
11 ) /^G i j sta Ehrensr,'drd": -lgr lg-tltJer._ .i:,'nbok om menneskehetens f.rem-
-8r0" (.del ore ancl A f ter.
7:--
ua p p e-le n , u I'T C '

12) -R.esearch has shov,yl that s mo k in g is a d . e c is iv e f a c t o r in 8 0 t o

9 O ';ioof ail oeaths from lun,_. c a n c e r. I n id o rr, v a y in 1 9 7 1 , a b o u t 7 0 0
n 6:re n z.
l,vr
a ri i or l
uv f r u
ir nm I rrn
u. ! v u.
-
cancer, rv h ile 1 n c o mp a ris o n a b o u t 5 0 0 p e o p l e
a!vrA !qrf)

wer e kille d . in traffic ar : r ' iden t s - lnnnrriin:r

evvv!u1116 tvv
n : \ - 6v!f
4.!I o i d o rLag;I
hl a A a * u,
vJ-aa,L.lE
Octob e r 2Q, 1r76.
 ') t,

Ae co r d .i ng -bo A aerj-can stati-st ic s , if o n e s t a rt s s rn o k ln -g 2 0 c ig a r e t -

te s d e L ly lrorn the age of z U, t h e lif e -s p a n will, o f t + ; h e a v e ra g e ,
be sh o r teneC by 5 years. S mo k in g 4 0 c ig a le t t s s a o a . , ' v rj. i-, . ]s-ilor t e n
the life- sjtan some 8.J year s . A I s o , t ire e a rlie t : o rle s ia r. t s , the
m o r e s€ i rous : I-lomeonewho s t a rt s s mo kj-ng 2 0 c j 4 a re t ie s p c r , : a- t r a t
the ag e of onl.i' 1j, mal Ioo k f o rwa rd t o a , 5 ; : . / € . a rs : , . e . _ i, :)r) . ; ' t i:: r
the life- s.nan. 'lhe stud-y is s u mma riz e c i. in A rb e rd e rn ia C, : t , : : e h: : r - r a . r y
/\ | q / h
^r t | ) I ).
-/

13 ) i n Norwa]' the probiem o f n o is e a s a f a c io : r i-n lwe rp l. e ' s we l l -

luigg has noiru'caught oublic recogniticn. Tne i{or:weglan ::ilrLoqi:-glll:
d e p a r tem e nt has recentry pu b lis h e d a v riiit e : ra p e jr c t -i ' ii: e ; i: ; rrrJ e G * o T - -
n o ise an d the impiicaiion f o r h e a lt h , b u t a ls o a n a . c ' L i' )u " " p L a : :,t o
a lleVia te [ - f ie nr nh]
vv!vru' om J nnn r d
{ruvvaurar5 i no *n
uv
rvlar-
-i. i o rannrt .lr..,li-i;tp.S:neld.ing
}-EPU-L ut

nrr_ 5 1 . - ,-
:'L
- - Es Y'.:*.-"----*-'.-..-.--"-*
- ^
0 ( i j _{j
--,
;-._ Jl , a p p ro xi ma tely 1O;" o1' the ,{ or v,r eg:ai,ir oJ; :- ;:' :' cr :
e x p o s e d i o,a n ci se l -e ve l w hich is thoug?r t to br : defr ,i*menl;::ri:o
ireatttr. rt:L so se e e cl i to ri a l in Dagbladet, luiari:ir 1), i' r ' i j'.

14) Journal of,. the A mereric a n I ' le dic a l ris s o c ia i j c r: . .

Se e ;i---_. ' rl .){
"
,;i._
19 6 8 , p . 106-112 - .for a -d.isc u s s io n o f iire s y n e ig ' : i . . : e ' ' j" i
cig a r e tte smci;ing and asbes t o s r, S lme rg -1 s r: i. - s : r. ' iJ ' . 1 : - .
'w\ ^iIl h v .A| 'rlt. r.n q m n k' i
U UrInI IhUi nin
I.( 1r:I;.
: no anrl el l nhnl r:i '.' i
o-. " - l l ', : - 91 l rr '.'... t.
franrron^1' n i' d i - L i !fv l v l fo r-ont fru .r/ i rJ .r o s Ol ' . i ,t, -nr..r,:- :. .:):-.-.)
r ! v v r 4v r aeJ
"-.
\1 ru C anee: Cf
See [e w Sc-lenrt-st, ,-Ianuar.y 2 5 , i9 ] 5 , c --: , . rr; r'.-, . r: ' _ )', . . :
" i' , : , , c1l,
now --
is reg?,rCed. to be even inoue srE1:.:-fican-l i:l 'r€:.':rfr .:: r_r _' -
g'i st j n j-n j
oruv+v
e [ -' - r , 1 a o
v-:vvvL, :n n n r r i i nc i ho on]\-4\--
--*t-:..
nJi.- '.i :,: '-
-r-s
sm o kin s an'f :ricrel inhalation , a . p r. o -b le n a -' r' j. i-c i i rt :, i: e wor'
kers at tire }'aiconbridee l{iclcel workul::br., ii:r':is*i i'lniit:l*

15 ) In the 'rplutonium econ o my t ' t h e P u . * 2 1 9 t h a t n o r, . , . ' r, , , ;'t ce d" in

tir e r m a l r eactors would" be r e c y c le d " a n d 1 ^ / o u . 1 dc"re a t e i. i. , i - r , : : i fC f
a n e w generation of nuclea r re a c t c rs , t h e s o : c a l-i e l' 1 , : c. re o e r
r e a ctor s" wlijcL:'rbreedrrnew P u -? -3 9 f : . o m L l* ? 1 8 h l, , i. t : , . i ,- rl -if 'a
neu tr on s lltcdu-ced 1n the P u-2 5 9 f is s : o n ' J l: o c rs s , ' : , r' , , r j ' : -tlnli
o f p lu ton ir"r-rTrtn 1)1, was est in a t e d . a t a jlp rc x in ; - t : l: . i :,:,r. *nO Ugh
for m o r e than 10.000 bonbs irr t h e . d a g a s a v , : c i. a : : : - ',)A
ton s b y'1 9E 0, 870 tons by 1 ' )t t a n d 1 ' lrJ O t o r; i r-: . "'t I i l,f ; 1 ; o
{.}rra:1,
I 'r, : a)'/ i f"

15 ) Io r a. drscussion of how n i: c h o f t h e ro L a . l. f ro d e c t ic r: l. n -i i r d u s *
tr i al states relates to basic ma t e ria l n e e d s , s b e a g f r, ' :c s a , y l s k i :
r r i r aste ProCuction and 0verCe v e lo p me n t : ; il - ! F r. ). r. r-ri. --\ rt , t li. li: , ; 1 _, - . : a l -
.Jatcrs rr ."iLi' -,
In.di , ,lper lvo . !) .

17 ) - Ln r rlc U,:", which we wo u ld . c o n s iC. e : t o b e t h e , , , , , -. 1 , 1 . au' Jic s t

o ve r d e ve l"orre d cor-lni;t'y, gove rn me n t e x p e rt n c lv , 'h a v e a iir: " : . : f i'i Q
on d r n o 'a Farr czrB g!gs On their lis t f o r t h e lj " g " Cil t h e s 3 , t afe mam-
"1,
na l- s, in clric,::rg ihe prairr-e c lo g a n d a l-1 t ire i: ig wh a J . * s ; " )^ . . -lr€
bir d s, sucjl as the California c o n d o r, a h a wk , i-: .p : : : a : -r-" iec ij. ii. : i<. c na n d
the big l ,rl-rooping crane; 30 s p e c r. e s o f f is h , 2 2 o f c . ia rrr: ; , rt 2 . e ep t i l e s
r nd f r nc ' c
!r
c ' n ,rr I i n S e C tS .
vr ) L! S ee U .S . N eW S and. ,,,i Ofl d Fei
-/
l l f,r r v :Cl'
* lir. l: l .,1:i rem bef
;:1.
8, 19 1 c. rir:otirer major tlrre a t T c f i-v e a n f t n t l-s ^ e . n C -ri, r ro t e r -
nati on a l irade: In one oas e , 2 ' < . 7 rr-)l()
b ird s we re llllc t . : , " ; . 1 i, r i' J ew
Yor E fr o ll; Co:onbia, and it is e s t in a t e d - t h a . b t c n t jirL e ! t h a t n ' u n i b e r
d ie d . jn cati j.'r'ii-:;i bef ore ship me n t " l" o r a . v , -i-ris r t ru c t ; irrc Clc i. r: re nt a t i o n
o f ilr is r .i'oblern, see !!ir!5:.9 9 3 . , \ o L , ? -, iil. 2 , -i, ' teri, . , , ' i' , . . ,' , , ; , 7 ' i, pl l b -
i-----
li- s heC ).y' ii ,' ' ..:i fe d . -
i i a tj -o ti s i i n' ,:tron::t.e,:t' t i ' f i ;a1::111;1a* ,i :r:r' .,,ri - ,i en- , 'a,
 Zq
,)/

1 E) ftl e 0nlnese clo nct seen t o h a v e a n y s c ru p le s a b o u t re mo v in g

m o wr tain - r ops, if tiiey feel t h is is n e c e s s a ry in o rd , e r t o in c re a s e
fo o d - pr o cuction" in sp:te o f t h e ir v e rt / h ig h a wa re n e s s o f wh at
th e so cla i cn-.zironrncni may me a n r' o r p e o p l-e ' s p s y c h e , t h e y d " o n o t
se e m to hal'e deveJ-opcii any u n d e rs t a n d in g f o r ] ro w t h e n a t u ra l slrri-
r o n m e n t r na;r affect them. lio r a d is c u s s io n o f t t re f lh in e s e v la y o f
th in kin g , see io;raii Gaitung a n d F u mik o l{ is h imu ra : Kan vi lere
av ki ne se rne? G;,'ld.endal, O s lo 1 9 1 5 .

1 9 ) l n e rj -rst ma Jo r b l o w to I' er adicationr r pr ogr ams and to che r ni c al

i n e e c t i c i d .e s i n g e n e ra l ca rnewith the book by ilachel Car son: Si - l egt
S l q l 4 g , A l a ru ce ti C ::e st tsook, r ' awcett Publicbtions, Inc., Conf fi
U SA , 1 9 6 2 . A l so se e I'ra n k Gr aham , Jr .; Slnce Silent !.pli4g, A
I a w c e t t C re st B o o k, U S A , 1 970.

2 0 ) l l l l T , a n o r€ l a n o ch l o ri n e compound, is an exanple of this. As

tiny planis and organisms are eaten in turn by higher nuiabers:)on
t h e ( S h r i ti o n ch a i n , co n ce ntr ation levels of DDT up to 10,000 ti m es
t h e b a c k gro u n d co n ce n tra ti o n can be r eached.. See Lucy T. Pr yd " e:
i:viror'mental Chemistry. An Introd.uctiog, Cummings Publishing
1, p. 247.
2 1 ) T h e ma j o r o i l . co mp a n ies ar e heavily involved j- n the pr od.uc tl on
o f a g r i c u l tu ra l ch e mi ca l s, dir ectl- v thr ough subsid.iar ies or ind- i -
r e c t l l r t h ro u g h th e sa l e s o f petr oleum fr actions to the chOmicaI
companies. tror an overview of the international- agro-busj-ness and.
t h e c h d m i ca l co mp a n i -e sa n d . an assessment of their econom ic and
poli.tical p o vre rr s€ € r'\. ',i i . Kr ebs : r r i) ir ector y of major US Cor por ati -
o n s i n v o l ve d , i n A g ri -B u si n ees, tr ligr i- Btlsiness Accor r ntability Pr o-
j e c t , , J e s t C o a st Offi ce , S a n I' r ansisco Stud";rCenter , USA, 1976.
2e) See iioss I{ume iiall: i,o_q{_Lot NqUght, The Decline in Nutritj-
t i o n , t ' i nta 6 e tso o ks, R a n d .o
C h a p t e r 5 : " rl n i ma l a s ma chine.r r
22,\ Annnz.d.inr- to
! / / 4 . v v v 4 g *r ^ . U.;j. -iervs e ,.iorld RepOI!, Jnne 16, 197j, AmericanS
s p e n t a n e strn a te a r ugs of all kind.s that
year. Al so se e Iva n tr}ti ch: lvledical } ienesis The Expr opr iation
o f h e a i t n , C a i d e r d S o ya rs, I

2q Se e ,,'i P i ,T o . 2 fo r th e d"iscussion of the pr ogr ants ten valu e-

d i m e n s i o ns r.ri th a n to n j rms, listed on page 31 .

2 5 ) l J o t a l l th e se e xa mp tes ar e pr oducts of over d.evelopment. It

t h e r e f o r e mi g h t b e ri to re co rr ect to say that such pr oblems oecu r i n
a n y n a l d e ve l o p e d . so ci e t;r. However , at is our viev,r that the manner
i n w h i c h o n e co p e s l vi th su c h social pr oblem s r eflects the state of
c n n i a *r r T n a n o ve rd e ve i oped. cor ur tr y, health pr oblems may hav e i ts
+J

r oo ts fou -nd.ed"in too much m o d -e rn me d , ic in e r ? s a rg u e d . b y lllic h , but

this i s not perceived-. ln a n wrd e rc le v e lo p e d . c o u n t ry , ma ln o u ris h -
m e n t an d inadequate hygiene a re o b v io u s a re a s f o r a t t a c k in g p oo r
he a ith, but ir can hardiy b e wro n g t o in c re a s e t h e n u mb e r o f ho B p i -
tal b e d - s, doctors and nurses .

2) a ) th e r ecenr d"ebaie on tj.re p o lic ie s o f t h e l{ o n v e g ia n f e le g ra p h

a n d Teie p h one Oo:n*:an.yano the c u rre n t a u t o ma t lo n o f ru ra l t e le ^ , h o n e
ce n tr al s is captureo in iiA ko n G u n o " e rs e n ' s ' I e le v e rk e t - me d )c ru t e p A
t rAr l e n - 'i ax iioiiag A /S , Lrsio 1 v 7 6
 ':i:'

26) ;n ord-e: l-o -rGu.tce ernd 3 irme n t in t ire p rJ -ma ry a n d t rl. , ' ? l: r-' , r,, , 3 a t ' ; v
sector s o f ihc economlr' for ih e b e n e f i' t : ' o f in c re a s g d e n p -L ; rme rr-Li n
tn e ter tar y secif,r, large c' . c iia l in v e s t mc n t s v : : ih r, r. Li r ( i 1 r: rp ' a ' . : y i n g
incr e a se -ln enor'gJ/ use will in e v it a b lli h a v e io ia . r, e lla i: , r. : r. i, - L e a s t
in the sho-':i;-r'!i-rl. In the long-tern perspecti-ve , i r -i s arrj"r r:.-,i-riable
tha t el.oc-i:.'o.nics, ilicro-co mp o n e n t s a n d a u t o n l. : t i r . n r' : rl: : s : , . , : t rr i i I 1
ena b le us to utrl-j-ze energy v a s t ly mo re e f irc ie n ' t i" ii. : . rri. 1 - ' " ,

27) r,lr.gEs,v qnjl .iqrIitvT

28) Joh a n Ga,ltruig, Christian Beck ano !?ii,..'i-uc'3'-

tional Gror,"th and- ed"ucational dlsparr;..- s a riC
rese a r c.h ii; .la:istics, CIR-i-S , Un e s c o

29) Se e frr: instance Ivan ll-lic h a : De s c h o o iin g c 6^-

. :-:' , :-
,--i .l
,L l ir,t ' n e r . t
--. :
iiow , USjl\., ';":17
1^

'tC) l: lle
i i ke :l:-,r instance the f a mo u s S u mme r: h j. } i
fi l oso p h - y 'ccrind S ummerhilI, s e e A . S . f ie j. il- A Ra d i c a i
r.h^'^-^L +^ , (l--l I i)^^-iu-
l{ad't
LJ^++
?t-lbl-i
rlrrh ii
shi
aL
ng r 1;=T960;*
^r, ',r::"i,,-_v:*yrgl^19. ^ &*qi4g r

j1) ,Jkr a t --,he.- ':resently g_e . , i s lia . : d t c s a J . 0 , , -- 'f.trat the

post-l,Iao ,r.;c.i -iocj ,..ri1i rlean a ch::rge j-l ihe ernr,ii;r.,.-:. :r l.''-i1g alld"
sp e cia lb t- r -on" A t present, h o v e v e l: , t c L ) -' : 1 , -: , 1 i' . -r- j j r.i , We
rnav
ru s J
qi vY ev n 1 r,' r-::l ta i u d o c mp ri tr On h3; ti )C .i c= .;' .' .t:" .--r-: i -l h e
cr

Chin e se lvav +I -l-i.fe.

32) See r!l,i::tprod"uksjon og ernaering i u-*ia:r:.:.'rlt-"' :-" -\ r.rro

)ag rfll L'sz-.E ': ',i?
0f stad , S , ;,n athakbi shnarr, Sord" Halvik,
!- -
S to r e n g , ;'110 P ublicatj-on No . 3 -2 6 i7 6 , f o r a ' J " i. ^ ' -: = ' ^ ^-
r"(,11..1"r"1
fnnr ] nr ni:
y r lp'
v : L"'
r .:' ,rj
\ / r . . nuo s s ' i h l p re me d i e s a rn i tt st.:' r.| .i .:'

3,;) In Ca tj @,Mi1ton.i-i'reedma,:];- : r. ; l. 1 . 1 . . : . . , : |. . > l-lh . : $ B

pr o fess'icr .a1:;.:..:anizationsvery e f f e c t iv e J ; . : 1 : t lA
or no n * ce:'::,i;. cC persons from e n t e rin g iria li' L -r(. r.., . ; . , , ii' ' . , ', l. in g t c l
r aise the mem|-'e::'s) incomes a n d c re a t e a d . e f i, r-, e rra , - : -. -r-t lrc ' : , , ill: rt : €r o f
n r . ' r n*iv r ur v lrf! ,i.
!
i n^ i re " L ' PU b l i Sh e d . by The U ni V erl ;i _11. ..;: ' -j t_l C ;,:.1::;r
-' fi :' " t,..ro
Chica g o , 1?62.

31) Ior a discussion of the e v id e n c e o f t iris t a l< in g p la , -: t : i. n . l{ ' : r r v a y

an d th e r ireore.r;ica.i backgroun d f o r t h e in e v iia b il-i1 , y r; f ; , ' . L is f o c o m e
ab o u t "i n the cap;talist world . , s e e Da g P o le e z : ; rrs k i: i! T e rld , e u s ? ' ' , ' i
pr o G * ;;r u tvikil-ngen. E l forst u d e . rr P RI C L : iih l . S ' . 2 ? , i-i6 , j. ri-irr! : i.,i;n
dr aft for m.

3 5 ) , / r i t t e n b J; Go l d " smi th et aI", special edj- tion r r f - !1.1;,' :1,J. ,o131a!,

l i a d , e b r i d g e , :*re l i a n d, 1 9 7 2"

1 & 2 , Ult iv l: r: r te'bsfor-

\

t6 ) Nils Cirristie ; Hvor te t t et sanfunn?

-Z

lag e t, usl-c', 1')7J.

37) l 'olice brutal-ity become a n is s * e a f t e r t h e s t u d e n is rle mo n s t r a -

tio n s l- n i96ll in. mos-c of the n a jo r in d " u s t ria -i-iz e c 1 c o ix : I t r-ic , s in t t r e
lfest" Af;c:r t}e end of the V ie t Na rn wa r, t h e re wa s a . q . u id p h a s e t
now ab o u - ; i,,) ::t;:] because of ih -e e rv ' € T -' in c : : e a s in g : ' e : 1 j-rji: t r, ' n a g a i n s t
tlre eo.rj..:.j:,"- t.l o:f e;t'rtironmentaliy cff ensiv'e -iecltnr.;, 1,1rfl,.r:: .]speeially
r:i^1 ip ' iia So o fnr i l i c:i ::i 1t(1 .'tr ,-ta7, '.,'i . 1977
-'-"'- i -l r$4tcr".'l ",1:).':',:j t "
 \' 7

38) Ii og t presid.ents iii the U. : j. h a v e b e e n e le c t e d . b y a s ma l-l

m i no r it.y of 1ts population, a s a ru le b y le s s t h a n 1 / 1 e f t j1 e _
voti ng.1- a g e popr-rlation, l,rlil c ri c o n s t it u t e s s o me 7 0 )" o f t h e t o t a l
P \JP L .{,rd , - +i^n
U ru r r o 1,'or an over'.iew o i' t h e v o t in g t e n c le n c ie s d u rin g t h e
l a s t 4 US e l e cti o n s, se e U.S. News & ' r /or ld. Repor t, I' iay 16, 19 77,
rp . 6 5 , s ho w i n g a ste a d y d ecline in the per centage of per sons voti ng.
fT) U l t r a vi o l e t ra fl i a ti o n fr cn outer space is causing skln canc er ,
and naturally o ccu ri n g ra d .iation fr om r ad"ioactive m etals on ear tn,
such as uranj-um or thorj-um, also contribute to cancer arrd-geneti-c
c h a n ; . : e s . A t p re se n t, th e re does noi seem to be much we can d.o to
prevent this fron happeriri,ng.

4 0 ) I ' I a n y d " i se a se s a re cl a ss- r elated in ind.ustr ial socleties, ev en

smoking, because people in ind.ustrral jobs are exposed- to all kind.s
of flumes or particles w$ich may aet s;mergistically in corulection
w l t h c l g are tte smo ki n g .'- - A.J=so,maily mor e people in the loiver
s o c i o - e c o n o n ri c cl a sse E smot{ 6;tfr an in"the hiahei, and thg r ecent
public d.ebate concerrring ';\e bazard.s of cigarette smoking has had.
t h e m o s t a ffe ct o n th e b e s t ed.ucated"and highest saJar ied.. The
r e l . & t i - o nsh i p b e tw e e n d i ffe rent sr ir cial classes and the chances of
dying of d.ifferent specified causes has been -d.ocr.uaerited 'i,n New'
InlqrriAtfo4alt-s'r[, No. 50, A..rrl 1977, which is entirely d.ev6Tdd to
h-ea-llEFprob-1-e-ms in und.er- and overd.eveloped. so ci etle s .

4 1 ) Ac c o rd, 1+ p g to P e te r S talker : , "Doctor illg: lvidendefr in New Inter -

.i\J-
n a t l o n a l i stl 'o ve r th e l a st centur y or so death r ates in the UK
Ef f i e d u c e d b ya b o u t7 5 ,)5 ,th " e cr ed' j.";..or whichm aybeascr i-
b e d t o t h e re d u cti o n o i C eitt, fr om dlseases such as tuber culos i - s ,
b r o n c h i t i s , p n e u mo n i a , ch oler a, typhoid., typhus , d.iphter ia and.
s c a r l e t fe ve r. ,i \e n l e p rosy, which tod.ay affllcts about 20 mi l -
l i o n p e o p l e i n A si a a n d A fr lca, used to be end.emic in Notr r ay, but
d i s a p p e a re d v,ri th th e ri si n g l- evels of affluence sever al d,ecad.esago.

4 2 ) T h e e sti ma te re fe rs to Finland., but is assumed"to be vaIid as

a rough approaination of the nagnitud.e of the overweight problem in
a l I i { o r d - i c co u :rtri e s. A l ar ge statistical sam ple fr om Sweden s hor v s
that o v e rw e i g h t i n cre a se s with ageln the f ollowlng manner :
9 6d i stri b u ti o n of wom en i6 d.istr ibutlon of men
A oo crrl\'r'i7'\ i,rith minumumoverweight with minimum overweight
6fi,,1}'/o of 2O'io of loib of 2O')/o

10-40 10-54 I v-cu 20 5- 10

40-50 50 20- 70 7A
10
m nr o f lr ln /v 5O 30 70 15
^.
ho ich r i. nonf,ipsf,res, d"ed u c t 1 0 0 c m a n d s u b t ra c t 1 o , i' oo f t h e r e m a i -
n in g fo r men and 15lo for we me t (a n d . y o u g e t t h e B ro c a -I n d e x n or m a l -
we ig h t) . $ource: Nord"isic Ue a iS f g , v o l. 9 0 , 5 / 7 5 , t rRu n d a b o rd s s a m t a l
om f e tm a. It

41) "i {eari-ng before the Se le c t Co mn lt t e e o n Nu t rit io n a n d " Hu m a n

Ne e d .s of the U.S . S enate, 9 7 rd . Co n g re s s . P a rt 2 z S u g a r in Die t ,
Dia b e tes and" ,i{eart D-i-sease s . f r l/ a s h in g t o n , D. c . , a p ril 30 and i{ay
'1 an o 2, 1973.

44 ) D er S plegel, Nr. 41/19 7 6 : ' ri' e t t v e rlie b t a u s t ie f e r S e e le . r r

45) C alculated on basis of f ig u re s q u o t e d " in De r S p ie g e l1 4

 i.

4b ) Arbei d eri;l-ad.et , i 'l a rch 2, 1977

47) Af t e n,p o € te q , A u g u st 2 2 , .,975.

48) See rr.:rb.?f"*e-ry-€.9_q!_, Juiy 30, and Ausust t,, 197r, wh,e'.e :t i - s
re f e r r e d to a :o e s'b i ma te ma Ce by ,' iHCsir owing that 250,0O{ ) r ,;c, rricI1
d i e o f i - i ,:,:.;(-'a n ce r e ve ry y ealr " Al- so see Ar beiO.er lJ:r
'rY do+
J,:_. , I d n be r
29, 1976.

49 ) L e f:- p:_qgg_:, lrir. 14/ 191 5 . rrDia b e t e s : G ro s s ' t e

-' )p id e n -e -ie r
I i en sch h e i t, '' '- ,'*,s cancer f irs t , h e a rt Cis o a s e : s s e c o rli it . " : . 1c l. ie r. c e t e s
t n ir d ".

,0 ) In 1 ')'l') 'che E ast German s e a e h a t e a b o u t 7 7 : -: " lo s c i mi' a . b , 3 8 ^

kiio s oil s uga;: and 268 eggs" t u ic e a s n u c il" : i. s o rrly 2 0 1 ' : . : L . i' s . a go " - "
The i ntake of $pgab,.in the lis v ra s a i: o u t 1 2 5 l" . b s p e r p e i' s r-rn { f A
ki 1o s ) in 1')'70"1-2 '

, 1) In a ni"rra-l-cxper-i-ments, on e lh a s b e e n a b le f c c c mp ? . { : R. i. ir. ee -f- fe c t

of substitu*,:-ng, sugar for starch in the d.re-i; vrit,h. a.r-r.:riie'i q :ri irqfl a
na tur a l j
C ie.b " , Qorne of the c o n & rs io n s f ro rn [ h { is e e , . p e r. ' irlrir l $ a r e
th e f o llo win g:'' '
....sug a i' r::3uces the grolr-b h ra t e o f a n ima . l n -' irr ; : rr' € c -l ' lh e rn t a k *
i n g th e sane nunber of calorie s . lt s h o rt e n s -' . : -" ie L : rc r, it a l s o
acce le r a tes the production of p ro t e in d " e frc re n c": lr?
v , s * ' c e -.r, . : rr , e rf e r " e s
with p r o tein ut-i-lization. I t c h a n g e s b h . * b r: c ' , ' c c : iirc s i; . . 1 ' . j. n -
c r ea se s the cleposiiion of fa t " , , " in c re a s e s ' , iie c o t c e r. : , i' 3 . : , ; : " ir c f c h o -
le ster o l antr ,"f rglycerid"e in t ire b lo o d . . " re d u c e s q i. ' ; c c , s ; , c )-le ran c e
a n d " so pr ocluces the diabetic c o n d . it io n , . , s o iiie t in e * t -i. c i' c i. r-, e s a n C
s om e ti m es Cecre:tses the b-to o d . c o n c e n t ; : a . t io n c i . liis -r. l. - . ir c rea s e s
th e blo o d concentlation of an o t h e r p o t e n t iic rmo ire c i ar..t-:'gilraf
c or tex- co ::t*costeroid. . . "inc re a s e s t h e s iz e c i . t it c : \'-'- lrrr
UJ
ma kin g th e l-rvcr cells divid.e . . . in c re a s e -e t h c li: i-' . e '
In p ig sr we narre found that it re d . u c e s t h e s iz e o l -; . r, .ar.a2s ! !,
hrr
''-
\/.J v vL'

abo u t l0 pejrcenr; and., of cou rs e , s u € ia r in d " r-' , c e sd e : : a ,f _ :,t.lr .

( See p. 19-2C j]cr the full te x t ) "

52) A r b e i d e rb & & d e t, F e b ru ar y 21 , 1977"

-- \ 'ln e ljan*sir i,l" D. Tage .r)gsmoseh a s c s t in a ' 1 ; e ll i rr:i -r. a ''. I ea s'b SO|L
)t)
of a}l d.:aths :n Denmark are caused. b y p e o p -l e ' s ij f ' e * v l e l, -r; ira t i S ,
fr o m acciC"er,i;s ( i 2 ,r'/'u ), b l o d" clots in the hriar",, i, Z i, , t , a n r. l J -rr: ' : g
1 . A r'beid.erbia d e t .
di<rr.acor i".; '-'\ .( or ,f onr i \..f ' t'i !) .
,,- t) r .

i x) In thc st':-d;y::eferred. t o o b o u " r4 2 it v ra s q u rt e c le a rl. -r' f o u rr d -

tha t wo m e.n.in :oc-L{r-eeonomi. c g ro u p f rre re riu ' : l' i le a n e r' it i. r. i. i -t } ; . os e i n
gr olln ? ) . Ir: nar,; courrtri-es, f o r in s t a n c e ir: p c o r L a iil -! r, -' € -r' i . c a p
ob e s- "1 1 ' nai r,:,icn be a status s y mb o l f o r t lL e / e ry p f lr' * t J ilL , j. , r, g e n . e r a l
ar e un a b .' r +..: lver€B t.
rr't
> 5) - l i n the liord.ic countries, ry iie re t h e g e rre ra l le r, e 1 rf i. d " r-. ca t i o n
is r a the ::,,rgit and food. budg e t s in g e rrr; ra 1 . a , re la rg e e : r()rrE irt l, a, t
n u tr i tio u s food very easily ma y b e o b -b a in e ' L b y p r: a c t ic a i_ i1 ' e v e r y o n e ,
die t- s str L-L Ieave much to be c le s ire d , A c c o rd , -rn g t , c la q e n s . lr' lv h e t e r ,
Octo b e r ?1., 19'16, the averagc S we d e u s e s a b o u t f l: t * f t -l; ; i5 ? f r-ff i -
ge t {or 4 50(} k:lone:: per l/ear ) f o r r: . o n -f o c c i-s , s rl, : h a : i c a : rii' : , : , ro l . I s ,
s w ee t s, strgar, cof f'ee , bea , e t c "

i e rrR.inq of sel f -conf --i.11enee

\
-)D
r' ) !'-r'1i) r,:i: Ltri) !i cornrnereial- i $ a:l exarnple
+1 ^ i -
^ fr --
-Lr)-\.;.'
i:sess:-ve focuss in g
Ul v.i . l S :- o n t n e r, rh it e n . e s s c , il $ ij^ s r: -lsa n o t h e r .
;\ o:\.t, . ' "TicT'-'dIE-i
r: I'O i ,; rlrJlrrfacturers ia-nent -tire r'.rcrwesians tis€
 ))

5 1 ) l n 1 9 7 5 th e re w a s recor died 114 d.eaths and" 4380 sid.e- effec ts

from th.e use of d.rugs in Norway, Finland., Denmark and. Swed.en.
A r b e i d e rb b & C ,.e t, t,cto b e r E, 1976..

5 8 ) Se e a se ri e s o f a rti cler : on infections in hospitals i- n.{or w ay ,

e s t i m a t e d " to co st tC 0 mi l - lion kr oner ( t9 miff. US,it)per year , i r
A r b e i o e rb l a d .e -b , D e ce mb e r 10, 11 , 12 and- 16 , 1915.

59) D a g b l a d e t, T e ^e mb e r 11, 1976.

6 0 ) i ' i o re th a n C .i scu ssi o ns ar e actually taklng place: Recentl y ,

r e s e a r c hr te a ms fro m a l l over the wor ld. have star ted" stud.ies of her -
b a l r n e d .i ci n e i n A fri ca a nd latin Amer ica. A team fr om a U"S . U ni -
versity founo that 7Oi(,of the rned.icj-nesused. by the Alteks actually
w o r k e d . . In 1 9 7 6 , a R .u ssian institute for her bal m ed.icine r ep or ted
thatthey had d.j-scovered.400 plants with until then unlq:.ownpharma-
c h o l o g i ca l p ro p e rti e s. See Ar beid.er bl- ad.et, Septem ber 30, 1976.

61) See S[ tlews _&-\.Iqil-q.Rgpor,lr August 9, 1976, inter view w i th

D r . J e an utiitionit: ' r llow to eat right and
l i v e l o ng e r.rr

6 2 ) T he fa ct tl -a t ma n y so- cal} ed. d.iet food.s dontajn at least as

m a n y c a l o ri e s a s re g u l a r food. on a weight basis m ay have been a
f a c t o r b e h i n d th e i n d .u str - ,r ' s lateS ' tgim m icl< r: r the pr od.uction of
i n d . i g e sti b A A f o o d s. S e eIr yter n4tional Her ald" Tr ibune, i{ ovem ber 29 ,
1 9 7 5 ; f arci a srn a l l a rti ct ight- watcher s :
Intentionally In d .i g e sti b l e lood- . r l

6 3 ) O nl y a b o u t 1i 1 o f the ener gy r eleased by fission is conv er ted.

t o e l e c tri ci ty i n a th e rmal r eactor - the r em aining 2/3 of the
e n e r g y re p re se n ts w a ste heat. Ior a qualified. study of the env i r on-
r n e n t a l p ro b l e ms a sso ci a te d. with nucleai poi/cr , see D. P. for d., H .
i ' i . I ( e n a i l l e i a I.: T l fe l tuc@ A' sur vey of the puOti c
H e a l t h , D :vi ro n me n t r y Effects of I' Iue1ear
P o w e r . U n i o n o f C o n ce rn ed-Scientists, Canbr idge; Fr iend.s of the
l i a r t h , S a n f'ra n sj -sco , L o ndon, Par is, Stockholm. 1974,

6 4 ) [ s a g ro w i n g n u mb e r of dubious add.itives and synthetics a]r e

b a n n e d .fro m u se , i n d .u stry will d.evelop sub$titutes which eventual l y
m a y p r o ve to b e ca rci n o g enie or bad to our health in other way s . T he
ultinate so l u tj -o n to th i s pr oblen, ther efor e, is not to expand. the
r r b l a c k - l i sti n g -b u re a u cra cX ' r , but to change the und.er lying struc tur e
prod.ucing an ever-increasj-ng number of such materlals without ever
analyzLng what we really need..
Ah
w )/ r \ri roi
v l r 6r r r r a n i c L. zaratztaxt: ItCgn6er }lazards in Food., rt published in
Ihe r l cologist, V ol. l, No. 1 , 1977. T h is a rt ic le is h ig h ly recom-
m e n d .ab le.

66) See for instance the a rt ic le t t Ch e mic a ls in f o o d is n d so

d isa str ous, nutritional ex p
- e rt s c la imrr, in T h e G e rma n T ri-b u ne ,
Ja r r u a r y +, 1977, No . 716.

mee t in g in } ia n illa , a g ro u p o f e x p e rt s o n t h e
57 ) '\t a;,{-sponsored
cau se s of cancer estimated t h a t a p p ro x ima t e ly 7 5 ' 7 , o f a ll c a n c e r c a -
ses co u io be prevented. by a v o id . in g t h e u s e o f ma n -ma d e c a rc in og e n s
an d . b y avoid.ing the use of c a rc in o g e n s n a t u ra lly o c c u rrin g in t h e
en vir o n ment. A rbeiderllad.et , A p ril 1976. A c c o rd " in g t o Ne wsw e e k ,
January 25, l,/iimese- effects to be responslblEffi5i6
of all cancer cases.
6B) Chenir:::,1rL1:1i, very easi.ly could be or-i.tlawed.uj."-l:,.'' ,, ,:::L'r n.ega-
t ive he a l+ r :,i-f'ecis inciui.c : u c h t h in g s a . s c o io rin g ir. rlr: ,.t,l, .l.Lon*
nutrit j-rrrr ,
! i1 ;::'.:rLcrs r many agriculturai chemicals anct ,r:li:, i .,::,i .' -1€Sr
f eed ad d - - . i i:: chemicals mig ra t in g f ro m f o o d p a c rc a , g : . I ,. : ,.:r.i a1 - S 1
" -r: le a c h i-. 1 ' L g
r: : i: ; : l, ' . * t c .
t extu::i'r e : , 'r,,:.-TOrsanC i. lav o r e n h . a n e e rs ,
This wo',--; ':ti'i-.D.\ oa"nuing all chemicals 'o'ri:j-clt eitlter coi' ,, ) .U b t / J -- -
lL
^+
i

r',.:l?'-10J.ess, -L h a t ri; s , . :r, ,t..,.,,:O m p] . e, -

t uted - l ti+- ii natural substances or o re
I t;.r ^
t e lg wj- ti r * -,.r. i roslnetic ad-dit iv e s ) . -u ' o r a c lg i; s if i-e a i -i-. ' '.
'.... i - i ' i ' -
r e n t kin cle t,)i. ilocd ad"d.itiv'es , s e e Z a ra . t z irL , ' ; l

69) Bar::1' (-.;innoner : ?hsjjovert[__o!-_qwgi.:__.__fn--e.rfi): . a: d i;:.:t ].-':'cnonr

i-c
ciisis, 1.-.i:-r'.ii,, ihopffi n':-'m--"

70) &:{.*ggSL, ,-:ariuary25, i976, p" 43,.

71 )
'
72) Ftl ,i- -i{r.:::'el:discussion o f t h e u . n r, ir-' rl, ' , ' rt i. : .:.
:"1'.
!r'1 i
.r .:, r .r Dilj.
-,.,

a Jr d .m a * ;e j.'i-', q-rcwth, see cur re n . t c u b l-ie a " . : r-' -, ; . :)'

rr Tr e n d _ Si _rr r,,rFS tern Civiii zat io n t t , e S C, : c : -,ll: v i .'i ,
:., ] ^. : . " r - ^1+ r . - ^ r ' i] ^- . a ' ic a - a-
+ ^ L ac:f\11
*- inr
tJ-LUlJ.
h..
UJ t : t '/:5--.1"_1.{-r,16 l-\JJ- V H e : e s . i a dUd,u a::C
c-.-'- .f : u )\.)\,)
,u t _IIs!=D --,,../: it
ye a r So:l l ]:T +Il.ristorya]1dS omI.?n 1 a ' . ] ' ] iS . ' . 1 :1 1 I. r).

!'orihcorniri. i:: llhe i{ew l,'iode:4__ti:!gtgI.ti,, vr:"1 i ., '11' iin i

verslt"j l',"d,,c, :Effirffi,e, 'H'ffi*-

" 13) It r r irgr':i, i'e more correct ' " . : c a " ll a t e c l: t n n i-rii-v iir: T ' L lile " -, i. i'j. " h 1 s
not eo&Ii€ti:: h.l-,t ',vitli the socj-al- attd- eclrl,,rgi eai q:nr;'-i-11sl .i!rfrr f, ':r.L
",ril-ich
w e a ll- b Pi ,'rq

7t+) Acccrrlil:i trt !'Jii-r 2, page 29, rt. ". hJre Oll'i,nl;r- f:-s'i1; : ,-: .,.,.df ,-:a-
tors pro€ira,ilir. tjre data, their presentat-t irr.r a.n.:l i:1r, :i.i- , . , ..i,r:..'.* be
ma d. e in s ' i.l..r:; a l ;i :-r.j ytl' fa t it i S S C C erqS t C r * ,(-, :-tri .,(,i i e ri i ,: .:i .-.1" y'
' -,, ,.r' ,;,, ji
e d. UC: t t iO n ti j ti v r:1 r' r-l ,StO k n O W . Fnf thi _f tl ' y:;,_1,c' ' , i -. I i -' ..+ .
b es ijJ iE - . 1' t l. t r .r.l i i ..' ].d .b i :p o s Si b ].3 L c ;x l -..-.' ' " :' ' .' i .i rs' ,-
O ! . ,l i .li ' ,L ..ir'i S IC SOme b Ody !^Ji tC Ir' .1}Ot.' f ;,i ,' ,, ,:, ttl t.j .
CO Uple ::i , .' , I
, i t. lr i , - .
p ly and i. j i ' j i i ' : { i ;-i r' -ts 1 ' tl l i n g oLl t p,l l l rror: .-.,'
:-..ri .j '' { r ." .i ,* r
1.; ,: .
,. :: t i: 3 - "
t ics) .r '

75) Ao*r,.:'Llr.,*S ir; the Oxfoq-q ecll:zcphr:eni;-r is 'i, !'r.".:entaf

-!.I-c.t-l-onalliu
d.isease n;.: .,.*i1i',;r d.rsc6ffiI3TT"ffi;ffiil-'.i;ircu3;htsl f ee-ir u-r.1rr. &
acti on s.'r i.i'i'i
t.i, d"j.sease seems t c a f f lic r a p lrc x ima t e -i, i" 1 )4 { } ! i [ h e
p o p u la 'b ir - r c'-'e::d-evel-opedc. o u n t rie s , wh r-l-e t h e ' , i-n d . e . r: eri' ; l l-o p e d
world. n$::r .'inir.i,-.1t,,'have schizophren.ia rabe-e of, 't %*" it'; :ri.i.1..0*ru
t h e f i g* r ,: lc: ;;r:.:1, 1 1f,4'/o, b u t wit h t h e in c : e a s e i: : : . y e a : r. 1, ; : l? r-+ e s
n ow i,",- ..., -i',:1:iti;.ri1:t:d, estlnat e s a f e t h a . t f i( o lf t h " q . . iir; l; i:r; : " ;i, _ : i. ir r , L l . I
d.eve lo p srhl.z:)i-] irr?n:a durj.ng t l-e ir' lj. f e t ime . lje e ja , : : . 1 -, ja : r; i; l+ a n d
pd .r e L g e i..,'.., {.,crtofp)i P q re " -1 o g p . f . e , ! y , _f a ] ] lll-i} y . , ' i; 1.1, . , " i, : p ?i r c - l t ,
Un lve f si tr -",:l :'f;;'. ?.f;e" 1 ).Jt'

7 6) Acco:r c ing tr, ,Ioha' Galtung , f o r i' s t a n c e , s u l. c i. d e is r. , i r s e ly

r el ated tc ri6pression, on tire -a v e ra g e i" gre
iJ 1 ' a l-; ii r: , , s r: * 1',tt
are, howeve"r:, s ;:r:-king excepti-ons i; thi,.s gen*ra-L
.rd.iu , i , , ., ! i l E 'b a n * .
ce in sou.t]: trrri-',a a.no Afghaii-sa:,l.J., wirere su"ic_i.de :. .. ,,,:ri"..f,emg;'
r.;3.r;,rr-ir
] Y h ig h b ut tlep:'essions no m o re f i, . c : 1 1 L ; e nti:t ra n . i-rLc h i: e . , : rlil , ir:11:i.e-'
l op e d . ar € iJij r.:f the world.