MECHANICS OF SOLIDS-II

(CEN 3200)
Laboratory Manual

Submitted By:

Name: ___________________________

Reg. # ___________________________

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Central Punjab Lahore

0
 University of Central Punjab
(Incorporated by Ordinance No. XXIV of 2002 promulgated by Government of the Punjab)

Table of Contents
Sr. Page
Description
No. No.
To perform the tension test on
• Hot rolled deformed mild steel specimen
1 3
• Tor steel specimen
• Cast iron specimen

2 Forces in Truss 22

To determine Euler critical buckling load for different end conditions using
3 33
ST370 Column Buckling Apparatus

4 Determination of Shear Center of a Cantilever Channel Section 43

5 To Study bending of a Z-section Cantilever Beam 50

To Perform Torsion test on

i. Steel Specimen
6 59
ii. Brass Specimen
iii. Aluminum Specimen

To determine the critical buckling load and initial imperfection of a pin ended
7 64
column using South-well plot Technique

8 To determine stress-strain using Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges 69

7 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria 71

8 Appendix B: Safety Guidelines 72

9 Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports 74

1
 SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS FOR STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
LABORATORY

OUTLINE

This document is intended to ensure safe working laboratory conditions of the Engineering Mechanics
Laboratory. Students are expected to conduct all the jobs in a risk-free manner and thus, respect the
physical welfare of their fellow students and themselves. Students are required to read and comprehend
all the contents of this document and are required to sign the Laboratory Operation Agreement, at the
end of this document. The contents of this document may not be comprehensive; therefore,
supplemental safety procedures may be required as each situation warrants.

LABORATORY SAFETY GUIDELINES

• BE PREPARED. Read and fully comprehend the lab procedure as set forth in the lab manual
before you begin any experiment. If you do not understand the procedure, see your instructor.
• KNOW THE HAZARDS OF ANY MATERIALS OR MACHINERY YOU ARE
WORKING WITH. The laboratory manual and/or instructor will review specific safety issues
on individual experiments before you perform any tests.
• THINK SAFETY. Work safely and carefully. No horseplay.
• Do not use damaged equipment.
• Do not attempt to oil, clean, adjust or repair any machine/equipment while it is running.
• Do not try to stop any machine with your hand or body.
• Do not carry materials and/or equipment between lab and store room by hand. Use appropriate
carriers, trays, racks and carts.
• NEVER WORK ALONE. All laboratory students must be supervised. If a student is required
to make-up a lab due to absence during their regular lab hours, then the student must make
arrangements not to be alone in the lab.
• Perform lab work in the designated lab area, not in other areas (such as storage, hallway,
corridor, etc.)
• Do not store or leave materials on floors or other places where people could trip over them.
• Do not leave equipment unattended when it is operating.
• Keep fingers, hands and arms out of “pinch points” in load assembly, i.e. points where
movement of the heads on the test machine could trap or crush these appendages.

2
 • FAMILIARIZE YOURSELF WITH THE LOCATION OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT
(such as fire extinguishers, eyewash stations and first aid kits), evacuation routes and other
safety practices of the lab.
• Protect any breakable containers with appropriate protection with wrapping to safeguard
against breakage and explosion.
• Store breakable containers in chemically-resistant trays or overwrap containers.
• Clean up spills and broken glass etc. immediately.
• All students must wear appropriate safety equipment based on specific experimental
requirements.
• All students must wear appropriate laboratory attire. No open toed shoes; no loose fitting
clothing; jewelry should be removed; long hair should be tied back.
• No food or beverage must be allowed in the laboratory.
• KNOW EMERGENCY PROCEDURES. Make note of fire escape routes and emergency
phone locations.
• Doorways and walkways within the lab shall not be blocked or used for storage.
• All tools and equipment shall be returned to their proper storage location after use.
• Immediately report any perceived safety hazards including any spills, equipment malfunctions,
and injuries to your instructor or staff member.
• Keep your work area clean.
• FAILURE TO CONFORM TO ANY OF THE ABOVE RULES MAY RESULT IN NOT
BEING ALLOWED TO PARTICIPATE IN THE LABORATORY EXPERIMENT.

FIRE SAFETY

In case of fire:
• EVACUATE IMMEDIATELY, checking your immediate area to ensure everyone leaves the
building. Close doors when leaving.
• USE THE STAIRWAYS, NOT THE ELEVATORS!
• Touch closed doors with your hand before opening to check for heat that may indicate a fire
on the other side. Look through the window for signs of smoke.
• If you need to travel through smoke, stay low and breathe through a wet cloth, if possible.
• Do not enter the building until the safety personnel gives an all-clear sign.

3
• Locate all the fire safety equipment near your laboratory. Memorize your escape routes
including how many flights of stairs are associated with each one.

4
 LABORATORY OPERATION AGREEMENT

I have read and agree to observe all laboratory safety rules. I understand these rules are to ensure my
own safety, and that of my fellow students, instructors, staff members, and visitors. I will cooperate to
the fullest extent to maintain a safe laboratory environment. I will follow all written and oral
instructions provided by my instructor. I am aware that any violation of these rules may result in not
being allowed to participate in the laboratory experiment, receiving a failing grade, and/or dismissal
from the course.

Name: _______________________________

Registration Number: _______________________________

Signature: _______________________________

Date: _______________________________

5
 EVALUATION OF LAB VIVA/PERFORMANCE: SCORING RUBRICS
Rubrics Excellent (9 - 10)
Student can properly set up
the apparatus; fully aware of
Apparatus Setup the factors that could alter the
results
Student is able to obtain
Measurement
accurate measurements in
Accuracy
allotted time
Results and All formulae, calculations and
Analysis conclusions are accurate
Understanding of Student fully understands the
link between performed job
Objectives vis-à-vis and associated theoretical
Theory
concepts
Good (7- 8)
Student can properly set up
apparatus with little
supervision; aware of factors
that could alter results
Student is able to obtain
somewhat accurate
measurements with minor
errors in allotted time
All formulae, calculations and
conclusions are accurate but
some minor steps are missing
Student reasonably
understands the link between
performed job and associated
theoretical concepts
Average (5 - 6)
Student can set up apparatus
with some help but has limited
ability to take care of fcators
affecting results
Student obtains correct
measurements with some
errors; exceeds allotted time
by small amount
Formulae, calculations and
conclusions contain some
inaccuracies
Student has some difficulty in
explaining link between job
and associated theoretical
concepts
Below Average (1 - 4)
Student has difficulty setting
up the apparatus
Student is unable to obtain
accurate measurements;
exceeds allotted time
Formulae, calculations and
conclusions are incorrect.
Student cannot identify the
associated theoretical concepts
Poor (ZERO)
Student cannot set up the
apparatus at all.
Student is unable to take
readings at all
Student is unable to perform
any calculations
Student is unable to answer
any question relating
associated theoretical concepts
6
 EVALUATION OF LAB REPORTS: SCORING RUBRICS
Rubrics Excellent (9 - 10)
Introduction complete and
well-written; provides all
Introduction necessary background
principles for the job
Experimental Well-written; all experimental
Procedure details are covered
All figures, graphs, tables
Data, Figures,
properly drawn, numbered and
Graphs, Tables, etc.
captioned
All-important data
Comments and comparisons are correctly
Conclusions interpreted; conclusions have
been clearly made
Grammar, Spelling, Very well-written; no spelling
Sentence Structure or grammatical errors
Appearance All sections in order
Properly covered; submitted
Submission well in time
Good (7- 8) Average (5 - 6) Below Average (1 - 4) Poor (ZERO)
Introduction is nearly Some introductory Very little background
complete; missing some minor information; still missing information provided or Introduction is missing copied
points some major points information is incorrect
Written in proper format;
Written in prescribed format; Missing several important
important experimental details
still missing some important experimental details; not Procedure missing or copied
are covered; some minor
experimental details written in prescribed format
details missing
All figures, graphs, tables
Most figures, graphs, tables Figures, graphs, tables poorly
properly drawn but still have Figures, graphs, tables missing
okay but still missing some constructed, missing titles,
minor problems and can be or copied
required features units, captions etc.
improved
Data comparisons need only Incomplete or incorrect
Data comparisons almost
minor improvement; interpretation of data; Conclusion and/or comments
accurate; some conclusions
conclusions could be better conclusions missing important missing or copied
are misstated
stated points
Some rough spots in writing; Rough or immature writing
Readable but still room for Writing style not making any
occasional spelling or style; frequent spelling or
improvement sense at all
grammatical errors grammatical errors
All sections in order but still Appearance is rough but
room for improvement readable
Sloppy appearance Very poor appearance
Covered; submitted at the
eleventh hour
Submitted just at the deadline Submitted after the deadline No submission
7
Job#01

To Perform the Tension Test (ASTM A615/ 615-M)

1 Specimen:
➢ Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar
➢ Cold Twisted Deformed Steel Bar
➢ Cast Iron
2 Objectives:-
➢ To study the stress strain behavior of the given samples.
➢ To determine the different mechanical properties of the samples e.g. yield strength,
tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility etc.
➢ To check the adequacy of samples as per standards.
3 Apparatus:-
➢ 1000 KN Universal testing machine
➢ Baty’s extensometer ( L.C. = 0.01 mm)
➢ Spring Divider
➢ Vernier Calipers (L.C. = 0.05 mm )
➢ Steel Ruler
➢ Electronic Weighing Balance

4 Related Theory:-
4.1 Steel:-
Steel is an alloy with major component as iron with carbon content between 0.06% to
2 % by weight.

4.1.1 Types of steel based upon carbon content are as follows:

➢ Low carbon steel: (carbon contents up to 0.25% by weight of steel)

➢ Medium carbon steel: (carbon contents ranges from 0.25% to 0.45% by weight)
➢ High carbon steel: (carbon contents ranges from 0.45% to 1.50% by weight)

4.1.2 Types of steel based on fabrication are as follows

▪ Hot Rolled:
➢ Hot Rolled Plain Steel Bars
➢ Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

8
 Hot Rolled deformed steel bars having ribs / protrusions on the surface are most
commonly used in reinforced cement concrete (RCC).

▪ Cold Twisted / Cold Worked:

By applying pre-calculated twist to the hot rolled deformed steel bars, yielding
portion is eliminated in steel, after twisting at the normal temperature that is why it
is called twisted steel. Commercial name is Torr Steel.

4.2 Advantages:-

We can fully utilize the strength of the material by sacrificing ductility.

4.3 Disadvantages:-

Ductility / Warning before failure is decreased as the yielding zone is eliminated.

4.4 Properties of Steel:-

▪ Tensile Strength:-
It is maximum tensile stress that a material can withstand before failure.

▪ Hardness:-

Resistance to bending, scratching, abrasion or cutting.

➢ Scratch Hardness
➢ Indentation Hardness
➢ Rebound Hardness

▪ Ductility:-
It is a mechanical property defining the extent to which material can be deformed
without fracture. Ductility gives the warning before failure. Two parameters
indicating ductility are

➢ % age elongation
➢ % age reduction in area

4.5 Stress-Strain Curve:-

It is the graph between stress and strain. The data obtained from experiment is load
and elongation. Stress is obtained by dividing load and x-section area. Strain is
obtained by dividing gauge length and elongation.

9
 The stress-strain diagram consists of four stages

• Elastic: The stress range in which a material will recover its original form when
the force (or. loading) is removed
• Yielding: The stress range in which a material like steel deforms without the
increase of stress.
• Strain Hardening: The stress range after yielding in which the particles of the
material like steel rearrange themselves to take stress again.
• Necking: Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the
ultimate strength is called necking.

From yielding stage, some permanent plastic deformation occurs.

Typical Stress Strain Curve of Mild Steel Specimen

4.6 Components of Stress-Strain Curve:-

▪ Proportional Limit:-
Maximum stress that may be developed during a simple tension test such that stress
is linear function of strain. Brittle material has no proportional limit. Up to
proportional limit, the stress strain relationship is linear & elastic.

10
▪ Plastic Range:-

The region extending from plastic limit to the point of fracture or failure is called
as plastic range.
▪ Tensile / Ultimate Strength:-
Maximum or highest ordinate (Stress) on the Stress-Strain diagram is called as
Tensile / Ultimate Strength of the sample. It is commonly considered as the
maximum strength of the material.
▪ Rupture / Fracture / Breaking Strength:-

Rupture or breaking strength is the stress at failure. Rupture strength is always less
than the ultimate strength. For brittle material, the ultimate and rupture strength is
almost same.
▪ Modulus of Elasticity:-

It is the ratio of the unit stress to the unit strain in case of steel. It is determined as
the slope of straight line from zero to proportional limit of the stress-strain diagram.
The stress-strain linear relationship was discovered by Robert Hook in 1676 and is
known as Hook’s Law. It is mathematically represented as
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
Where E is represented as modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus with units of
stress. For mild steel E = 200000𝑀𝑝𝑎 = 200 GPa.

▪ Yield Point & Yielding:-

A point in the stress strain curve after which there is an increase in strain with no
significant increase in stress is called as yield point & the phenomenon is called as
yielding. The stress corresponding to yield point is known as yield strength of the
material, which if represented in ksi gives the grade of steel.
▪ Proof Stress:-

It is the stress corresponding to the point of the material having no clear indication
of the yield point & this yield point is obtained from the graphical solution of stress-
strain curve.
▪ Resilience and modulus of Resilience:

The ability of a material to absorb energy in the elastic range (without permanent
deformation) is called as resilience.

11
 Modulus of resilience is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as a
sample’s tensile force is increased from zero to proportional limit (P.L). It is
calculated as the total area under the stress-strain diagram up to the proportional
limit. Its unit is Psi or MPa.

Mathematically,
2
1 1 𝜎𝑃.𝐿
𝑈𝑟 = 𝜎𝑃.𝐿 . 𝜖𝑃.𝐿 =
2 2 𝐸

▪ Toughness and modulus of toughness:

The ability of the material to absorb the energy up to the plastic range (permanent
deformations) is called as toughness.

The work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile force is gradually
increased from zero to the value causing rupture is defined as the Modulus of
Toughness. This may be calculated as the entire area under the stress-strain curve

12
 from the origin to rupture. Its unit is Psi or MPa. It is denoted by Ut and it can be
measured by integration, plotting graph on auto-cad, counting no. of boxes under
the graph and multiplying with area of one box.

▪ Residual Strain:-

When the material is located beyond the elastic limit then after unloading the
material does not come back to its original position and there is a permanent
deformations/set in the specimen, which is called residual strain. So these are the
strain corresponding to produce permanent set or permanent change in shape.

▪ Specific Strength:-

Ratio of ultimate / tensile strength to the specific weight (weight per unit volume)
is called as specific strength. Its units are of length.

▪ Elasticity:-

The ability of the material to regain its original shape and size after the removal of
the load. The elastic strain is the reversible change in the dimension of the body.

▪ Plasticity:-

The property of the material by which it retains the shape given to it. A plastic strain
is deformation or change in dimension which is irreversible and remains in after the
load has been removed.

4.7 Methods of finding Yield Point:-

Following four methods can be used for finding yield point.

▪ Offset Method:-

This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress strain
diagram at 0.2 % strain.

13
▪ Halting of Machine or Drop of Beam Method:-

To access the yielding of material, when machine halts, it is indication of yielding.

This is valid for machines where there is needle. In other case, when the beam of
the machine drops/dips, it’s the indication of yielding. These methods are valid for
hot rolled mild steel.
▪ Specific Strain Method:-

Yield occurs at a specified strain value and this value is 0.5 % i.e. yielding stress is
the stress corresponding to 0.5 % of strain.

14
 ▪ Luder Line’s Method:-

` This method is named after a British researcher “when the specimen yields a pattern
of fine lines appears on the polished surface, they roughly interact at right angle to
each other and 450 approximately to the longitudinal axis of the bar. If the rod is not
painted, then the metallurgical coating formed over the rod’s surface during
manufacturing and drop down indicating yielding.

4.8 Terminologies regarding Steel Specimen:

▪ Gauge Length:-
It is the length between two marks on the bars. It’s a reference length for the
determination of elongation.

✓ For Mild Steel G.L = 5 x D(Nominal Diameter)

𝑀 (𝑘𝑔)
✓ For Torr Steel G.L = 5.65 √𝑆𝑜 So = 𝑘𝑔
2
0.00785 ( 𝑚𝑚 ). 𝐿 (𝑚)
𝑚

✓ For Cast Iron, G.L = 50 mm

G.L
Marked Gauge Length on the Bars = 2

▪ Percentage Elongation:-

The change in length per unit original length expressed in percentage.

L𝑓 −Lo
% age Elongation = x100
Lo

15
Lo = original Length of sample Lf = final length of the sample

▪ Percentage Reduction in Area:-

Reduction in x-sectional area per unit original area expressed in percentage.

Ao −𝐴f
% age reduction in X-Area = x100
Ao

Ao = original x- sectional area Af = Actual Rupture Area

4.9 Preferred nominal sizes:

4.10 Tolerances:
▪ Tolerance on mass:

16
 ▪ Deviation on Size:
Deviation on size or dimension should not exceed 8% of nominal dimension in any
case. It can be calculated as follows:
(𝐷)𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙−(𝐷)𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Deviation on Size = (𝐷)𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
× 100

▪ Minimum Length of bar for Tension Test:

Length of test specimen should be
larger of either 600mm or 20D where D is the nominal diameter of the specimen. This is
because of following reasons:

✓ So that %age elongation can be checked more easily.

✓ Specimen can be fixed easily in the machine.
✓ So that it can present better visual results.

▪ Tensile Properties:

4.11 Measurement of Ductility:-

Ductility is a qualitative, subjective property of the material.

In general, measurement of ductility is of interest in three ways.

17
 ✓ To indicate the extent to which a metal can be deformed without fracture in metal
working operations such as rolling and extrusions.
✓ To indicate to the designer, in a way, the ability of the metal to follow plastically
before fracture. A high ductility indicates that the metal is forgiving and likely to
deform locally without fracture.
✓ To serve as an indicator of changes in impurity level or processing conditions.

The conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from the tension test are the
strain at fracture (usually called elongation) & the reduction of area at fracture. Both of
these properties are obtained after fracture by putting the specimen back together and
taking measurements of length and cross sectional area.

Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic deformations will be concentrated in the

necked region of the tension specimen. The value of rupture strain (elongation) will
depend upon the gauge length over which the measurements was taken. The smaller the
gauge length, the greater would be the contribution to the overall elongation from the
necked region and the higher will be the value of rupture strain. Therefore, when
reporting values of percentage elongation, the gauge length Lo always should be given.

4.12 Failure Patterns:-

▪ Mild Steel failure in Tension:-
As mild steel is a ductile material which is week in shear as compared to tension so
it should fail in shear. As maximum shearing stress developed at 450 therefore,
failure plane in mild steel occurs roughly at 450 with the longitudinal axis.

18
▪ Cast Iron Failure in tension Test:-
Cast iron is brittle material which is week in tension as compared to shear, so it
should fail in tension. The maximum tensile stress due to tensile loading develops
at 900 hence cast iron fails at 900 with longitudinal axis.

19
5 Procedure:
➢ First of all, we took the 3 samples for testing purpose and measured their physical
properties i.e. length and diameter of the sample etc. The physical properties were
measured by taking the average of 4 readings so that probability of errors can be
reduced.
➢ Then we marked the gauge length on the samples and then punched them with the
help of jib and hammer.
➢ Now the sample was ready for the test. Types of samples to be tested on the basis of
material were
➢ Hot rolled deformed steel bar.
1) Torr steel
2) Cast iron
➢ Now we put the sample in the jaws of 1000KN UTM machine for the testing purpose.
➢ Then we increased the load gradually and measured the readings on extensometer
already present in the machine.
➢ After the failure of sample we again measured the physical properties. Also we
measured the increased length of sample with respect to the reference length.
➢ We repeated the same procedure for each sample.
➢ Then we made calculations and plotted down the graph.

6 Measurements:-
Hot Rolled Steel bar Diameter =

Hot Rolled Steel bar Length =

Hot Rolled Steel bar Nominal Area =

Hot Rolled Torr Steel bar Diameter =

Hot Rolled Torr Steel bar Length =

Hot Rolled Torr Steel bar Nominal Area =

Reduced Diameter of Hot Rolled Steel bar =

Reduced Diameter of Deformed Steel bar =

Cast Iron Diameter =

Cast Iron Effective Length =

20
 6.1 Observation Table of Hot Rolled Steel Bar:-

Sr. Extensio
No Load n meter Spring %age Nominal Remarks
Extension
Reading Divider Strain Stress

kgf N - mm Mm - MPa
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

21
6.3 Observation Table of Cast Iron:-
Sr. Extension Spring %age
Extensio Nomina
No Load meter Divide Strai
n l Stress Remarks
reading r n
Kgf N - mm mm - MPa
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

22
7 Observation Table for %age Elongation vs Gauge Length:-
7.1 Hot Rolled Steel bar

Marked ref. Elongated %age

Sr.No. Elongation
Length Length Elongation

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

G.L VS PERCENTAGE ELONGATION

500

450

400
GAUAGE LENGHT

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
PERCENTAGE ELONGATION

23
7.2 Hot Rolled Deformed Steel bar

Marked ref. Elongated %age

Sr.No. Elongation(mm)
Length(mm) Length(mm) Elongation

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

G.L VS % AGE E L O NG. TO RR S T E E L

500

450

400

350

300
GUAGE LENGTH

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

PERCENTAGE ELONGATION

24
 7.3 Results Table:-

Modulus Modulus Yield Ultimate Failure

%age %age Weight
Specimen of of Strength Strength Strength
Elongation Reduction Grams
Toughness Resilience (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)

Hot
Rolled
Steel Bar

Hot
Rolled
Deformed
Steel Bar

Cast Iron

8 Comments:-

25
Job#2
To determine Euler critical buckling load for different end conditions
using ST370 Column Buckling Apparatus:

Objective:
Main objective of this job is to study the buckling load for columns with different end
conditions

1. General Description:
The equipment is used for studying strut buckling under load. It is to be used with ST300
Universal Structural Frame or ST305 Universal Base Frame.

The top frame has loading screw which pushes a cylindrical strut support sliding in a
bushing. The bottom frame has a load cell and a cylindrical strut support in a socket.
Each strut has end condition for knife-edge or build-in. The load reading is by an indicator.
A small lateral load is applied by means of a pulley and a weight hanger. A dial indicator
measures the lateral deflection.

1.1 Technical Data

26
1.1.1 Top support with a loading screw: 1 ea.
1.1.2 Bottom support with a load cell: 1 ea. 2.5 kN
1.1.3 ST150 Force indicator: 1 ea.
1.1.4 Strut specimens
1.1.4.1 Size: 19 x 3 (approx.) x 400 mm bar with knife edge ends.
1.1.4.2 Material: 1 ea. mild steel, brass, aluminum.
1.1.5 Strut support
1.1.5.1 Built in: 2 ea.
1.1.5.2 Knife - edge: 2 ea.
1.1.6 ST131 Dial indicator: 1 ea.
1.1.7 Horizontal load hanger with pulley: 1 set.
1.1.7.1 Weight: 1 lot, total 4 N
1.1.8 Power supply: 220 V 1Ph 50 Hz

2. RELATED THEORY
2.1 Columns

A column differs from a tension bar in that any non-uniform yielding in the cross section
brings about further yielding. This non-uniform yielding is not serious in short blocks, but
is serious in columns. Columns are divided for analysis into long columns and short
columns, in both of which initial inequalities introduce serious bending. Long columns fail
by buckling at a load less than the elastic limit of the material. Buckling is the sudden
collapse of a long column at or above the critical load at witch equilibrium no longer
obtains. The ratio of length to radius of gyration, or slenderness ratio, at which a long
column begins to fail by buckling, is between 100 and 120. Such columns are computed by
Euler’s formula. Few structural columns fail as long columns.
Short columns with values of (l/k) less than 100 begin to fail when the combination of
direct stress and bending stress reaches the yield point of the material. The actual failure is
dependent upon the homogeneity of the material, the straightness of the column, and the
eccentricity of loading, all of which control bending stresses. Failure of built-up columns
begins with a local crippling at some part of the column. Such elements are not susceptible
of calculation, and short columns of this kind are to be computed by empirical formulas
which are however, modeled on rationally derived forms.

2.2 Long Columns with Central Loading (Euler Theory)

27
We can account for these various end conditions by writing the Euler equation in two
following forms:

The quantity Pcr /A in Eq. (1) is the critical unit load. It is the load per unit area necessary
to place the column in a condition of unstable equilibrium. In this state any small
crookedness of the member, or slight movement of the support or load, will cause the
column to collapse. The unit load has the same units as strength, but this is the strength of
a specific column, not of the column material. Doubling the length of a member, for
example, will have a drastic effect on the value of Pcr /A but no effect at all on, say, the
yield strength Sy of the column material itself.
Example will have a drastic effect on the value of Pcr /A but no effect at all on, say, the
yield strength Sy of the column material itself. Equation (1) shows that the critical unit load
depends only upon the modulus of elasticity and the slenderness ratio. Thus a column
obeying the Euler formula made of high-strength alloy steel is no stronger than one made
of low-carbon steel, since E is the same for both. The factor C is called the end-condition
constant, and it may have any of the theoretical values 1/4, 1, 2 and 4 depending upon the

28
manner in which the load is applied. In practice it is difficult, if not impossible, to fix the
column ends so that the factor C = 2 or C = 4 would apply, Even if the ends are welded,
some deflection will occur. Because of this, some designers never use a value of C greater
than unity. However, if liberal factors of safety are employed, and if the column load is
accurately known, then a value of C not exceeding 1.2 for both ends fixed, or for one end
rounded and one end fixed, is not unreasonable, since it supposes only partial fixation. Of
course, the value C =1/4 must always be used for a column having one end fixed and one
end free. These recommendations are summarized in Table 2-1.

When Eq. (1) is solved for various values of the unit load (Pcr /A) in terms of the
slenderness ratio (l/k), we obtain the curve PQR shown in Fig. 2-2. Since the yield strength
of the material has the same units as the unit load, the horizontal line through Sy and Q has
been added to the figure. This would appear to make the figure cover the entire range of
compression problems from the shortest to the longest compression member. Thus it
manufacture, is likely to contain defects such as initial crookedness of load eccentricities.
The Existence of such defects and the methods of accounting for them will usually involve
a -of-safety approach or a stochastic analysis. These methods work well for long columns
and for simple compression members. However, tests show numerous failures for columns
with slenderness ratios below and in the vicinity of point Q, as shown in the shaded area in
Fig. 2-2. These have been reported as occurring even when near perfect geometric
specimens were used in the testing procedure.

29
A column failure is always sudden, total, and unexpected, and hence dangerous. There is
no advance warning. A beam will bend and give visual warning that it is overloaded; but
not so for a column. For this reason neither simple compression methods nor the Euler
column equation should be used when the slenderness ratio is near (l/k)Q. Then what should
we do? The usual approach is to choose some point T on the Euler curve of Fig. 2-2. If the
slenderness ratio is specified as (l/k)1 corresponding to point T, then use the Euler equation
only when the actual slenderness ratio is greater than (l/k)1.
Most designers select point T such that (Pcr /A) = (Sy /2) Using Eq. (1) with C = 1, we
find the corresponding value of (l/k)1 to be

2.3 Intermediate-Length Columns with Central Loading

(J.B. Johnson formula or parabolic)

Over the years there have been a number of column formulas proposed and used for the
range of (l/k) values for which the Euler formula is not suitable. Many of these are based
on the use of a single material; others, on a so-called safe unit load rather than the critical
value. Most of these formulas are based on the use of a linear relationship between the
slenderness ratio and the unit load. The parabolic or J.B Johnson, formula now seems to be

30
the preferred one among designers in the machine, automotive, aircraft, and structural-steel
construction fields.
The general form of the parabolic formula is

Where a and b are constants that are evaluated by fitting a parabola to the Euler curve of
Fig. 2-2 as shown by the dashed line ending at T. If the parabola is begun at Sy, then a =
Sy. If point T is selected as previously noted, then Eq. (2) gives the value of (l/k)1 and the
constant b is found to be

Upon substituting the known values of a and b into Eq. (3), we obtain, for the parabolic
equation,

3. 3. TEST PROCEDURES
Strut specimens of various materials are supplied. Only two types of support are provided
i.e. knife edge and built – in. The built – in support is attached to the end of the specimen.
Procedures for testing specimen on knife edge support are as follows.
3.1 Set up the test device as per Fig. 3-1.
3.2 Insert the V-notch support in the bottom socket.
3.3 Insert the V-notch support and hold in top socket by hand.
3.4 Insert the specimen onto the support and adjust the loading screw such that no
compression is exerted on the specimen. The load indicator should now read zero. If not
the tare load is recorded.
3.5 Install the dial gauge set to measure the deflection at the mid span and set dial gauge
to zero for the specimen.

31
3.6 Install hanger and small weight (side loading) to hold at the mid span of the specimen
to direct the deflection of specimen to agree with dial gauge.
3.7 Slowly apply the compression load by turning the loading screw and record both load
and deflection on the data sheet.
3.8 Plotted the graph of load and deflection in y-x axis.
3.9 Determine the critical actual load).
𝑃𝑐𝑟′
'(Pcr for each specimen and calculate critical actual unit load ).
𝐴

3.10 Verity the unit loads (Pcr /A) by Euler Theory.

4. 4. Observations and Calculations:

32
5. Graphs:

Test#01

Test#02

33
Test#03

Test#04

6. Comments:

34
Job#04

Determination of Shear Center of a Cantilever Channel Section

1. Introduction:

Thus far, examples of beam bending have involved beams possessing symmetric cross
sectional areas. These geometries include but are not limited to square and rectangular
bars, as well as solid and hollow circular rods. Cases exist where an object does not
contain a symmetric cross-sectional area with respect to the loading axis. The result, is the
beam will exhibit both bending and torsion. This case of combined loading is dangerous
since the beam, designed to resist bending, could potentially fail from torsion prior to
failing from bending. To load an object in pure bending, the load must be placed through
an object’s shear center.

2. Objective:-

The objective of this job is to determine the shear center of the cantilever channel
section theoretically & experimentally.

3. Apparatus:

➢ Cantilever Channel Section.

➢ Deflection Gauges
➢ Meter Rod
➢ Load and load hangers.
➢ Vernier Calipers.

4. Related Theory:-

4.1 Shear Flow:-

If the shearing stress fv is multiplied by the width b, we obtain a quantity q,

known as the shear flow, which represents the longitudinal force per unit length
transmitted across a section at a level y1 from the neutral axis.

𝑄𝑥𝑏
𝑉=
𝐼

4.2 Shear Stresses:-

35
 In addition to the pure bending case, beams are often subjected to transverse loads
which generate both bending moments M(X and shear forces V(X) along the beam.
The bending moments cause bending normal stresses o to arise through the depth of
the beam, and the shear forces cause transverse shear-stress distribution through the
beam cross section as shown.

4.3 Shear Center:-

Pure bending can be defined as bending without torsion. For objects under pure
bending, the Flexural Formula can be used to predict the bending stress in the beam
.To apply this, let’s consider two cantilever beams as depicted in Figure 1.Beam A
has a symmetric cross-section, while beam B possesses a non-symmetric cross-
section with respect to the loading axis (direction of load P). To achieve a state a
pure bending in Beam A, the load is placed through the centroid of the beam's cross-
sectional area. The beam will deflect straight down as predicted. Since the load has
created a state of pure bending, the Flexural Formula combined with Hooke's Law
can be used to predict stress and strain in the bar.

36
If the same load P is applied at a location right of the vertical section of Beam B,
the beam will bend and twist creating a state of combined loading. This type of
loading is exaggeratedly shown in Figure 2. The reason behind this is the object's
cross-sectional area is not symmetric with respect to the axis of loading. Since the
beam is both bending and enduring an angular rotation, the Flexural Formula cannot
be directly used to predict stress in the beam. For design purposes, this type of
loading is very dangerous. If a beam is designed for pure bending but endures a
torsional load, the beam could potentially fail from torsion before bending. So the
question becomes, "Where can we place a load on Beam B to create a state of pure
bending?" The answer is at the beam's shear center.

The shear center of an object is an imaginary point in space. If a load is applied at

a beam's shear center, the beam will endure a state of pure bending. As previously
noted, under conditions of pure bending, both Hooke's Law and the Flexural
Formula can then be used. The purpose of this lab is to apply a load at the presumed
shear center of a c-channel beam, then experimentally and theoretically verify the
authenticity of the tested location.

37
 5. Measurements:-

tf = mm
b= mm
d= mm
Length = mm
𝑏 2 ℎ2 𝑡
𝑒=
4𝐼
Iz = mm4
h= mm
b= mm
e= mm

Deflections

Δ avg Δ the
Load Position Load N G1 Δ1(mm) G2 Δ2(mm) Theta(Deg) 𝑷𝒍𝟑
(Exp) ( )
𝟑𝑬𝑰

Z=0 (mm)

Z=+10 (mm)

Z=+20 (mm)

Z=-10 (mm)

Z=-20 (mm)

6. Graphs:-

1) Z vs 𝜽
a) For 20 N
b) For 40 N
c) For 60 N

38
 2) Load vs Δ avg (Exp)
a) For -10mm
b) For -5mm
c) For 0mm
d) For 5mm
e) For 10mm

7. Results & Comments:-

39
40
JOB#05

To Study bending of a Z-section Cantilever Beam

1. Objective:-
To confirm the theory that a loading a beam along the principal axis always
produces symmetrical bending.

2. Apparatus:-
➢ Cantilever Z-Section Beam
➢ Deflection Gauges
➢ Load Hangers & Weights
➢ Vernier Caliper
➢ Measuring Tape
3. Related Theory:
3.1 Axis of Symmetry:-

A line or which divides section in such a way that one side is mirror image of
other.

3.2 Symmetrical & Unsymmetrical Sections:-

Symmetrical section is the one in which section is symmetric at least around one
axis. Just like Channel Sections, I-Shaped Sections, and T-Shaped Section etc.

Unsymmetrical sections are those, which do not have symmetric cross-section

about any axis. Just like Z-Section, L-Shaped Section etc.

41
Principal Axis:-

The axis about which Moment of inertia is maximum or minimum and product
moment of inertia is zero.

As Shown in the figure that X-Y are centroidal

axis and W-Z are principal axis lying at an angle
“α” from x-axis.

3.3 Neutral Axis:-

The axis about maximum shear stresses and

minimum normal stresses. Or an imaginary line
in the cross section of a beam, shaft, or the like,
along which no stresses occur.

3.4 Principal Plane:-

The plane which contain principal axis is called as principal plane.

3.5 Biaxial Bending:-

If the member is bending along more than one section, then we called that type of
bending as bi-axial bending.

Usually, that type bending occur in the member when applied load is not acting
along or perpendicular to the principal axis.

3.6 Symmetrical Bending:-

If the member is bending along only about one

axis then we called that bending as symmetrical
bending.

42
 Asymmetric Bending

Symmetric Bending

3.7 Flexure/Bending Formulae:-

𝑴𝒚
𝝈=
𝑰
This formula is valid up to the elastic limit only. This formula gives the normal
stresses.

4. Procedure:-
▪ We determine the length of the member.
▪ Measure the geometric properties of the section.
▪ Measure the angle of principal axis using following formula.
1 2𝐼𝑧𝑦
𝛼 = − tan−1 ( )
2 𝐼𝑧 − 𝐼𝑦
▪ Apply the loading in setting 1 then measure the reading from deflection gauges.
▪ Apply the loading in setting 2 then measure the reading from deflection gauges.
▪ Measure the deflection. Least count of deflection gauge is 0.001 inches.
▪ Measure the deflection using empirical formulas.

′
𝑃𝑧′ 𝐿3 ′
𝑃𝑦′ 𝐿3
∆𝑧 = , ∆𝑦 =
3 𝐸 𝐼𝑦′ 3 𝐸 𝐼𝑧′

▪ Theoretical deflection about vertical axis & horizontal axis.

∆𝑉 = ∆ 𝑧 ′ sin(𝛼) + ∆ 𝑦 ′ cos(𝛼)
∆𝐻 = ∆ 𝑧 ′ cos(𝛼) + ∆ 𝑦 ′ sin(𝛼)
Resultant deflection:-
∆𝑅 = √(∆𝑉)2 + (∆ 𝐻)2

Angle of resultant deflection:-

∆𝑉
𝜑 = tan−1 (∆𝐻)

43
 5. Observations & Calculations:-

Length of Cantilever Beam =

tf =

tw =

bf =

h=

Iy =

Iz =

Izy =

𝜃=

Iz’ =

Iy’ =

Practical Deflection: - (Table 1)

Setting 1 Setting 2
load(N) 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
HDGR
On removing
Average Value
∆𝑯
load (N)
VDGR
On removing
Average Value
∆V

Theoretical Deflections: - (Table 2)

load
Py' (N) Pz' (N) ∆ y' ∆ z' ∆V ∆H ∆R 𝜽o
(N)
0
Setting
20
1
40

44
 60
80
100
0
20
Setting 40
2 60
80
100

Comparison Table for Deflections: - (Table 3)

Practical deflection Theoretical deflection %age difference

load (N) vertical horizontal vertical horizontal vertical horizontal
0
20
Setting 1 40
60
80
100
0
20
40
Setting 2
60
80
100

Points A B C D E F G H I J
y mm
z mm
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
20
KyE(mm-1)
N
KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)
My(N-mm)
40 Mz(N-mm)
N KyE(mm-1)
KzE(mm-1)

45
 Stress(MPa)
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
60
KyE(mm-1)
N
KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
80 KyE(mm-1)
N KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)
Stresses Table for Setting 1:- (Table 4)

Stresses Table for Setting 2:- (Table 5)

Points A B C D E F G H I J
y mm
z mm
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
20N KyE(mm-1)
KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
40 N KyE(mm-1)
KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
60 N KyE(mm-1)
KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)
My(N-mm)
Mz(N-mm)
80N KyE(mm-1)
KzE(mm-1)
Stress(MPa)

46
Stress Distribution Diagram:-

Graphs:-

1:- Load & Horizontal Deflection for Setting 1

a) Horizontal Practical Deflection & Load

b) Horizontal Theoretical Deflection & Load

47
2:- Load & Vertical Deflection

a) Vertical Practical Deflection & Load (Setting 1)

b) Vertical Theoretical Deflection & Load (Setting 1)
c) Vertical Practical Deflection & Load (Setting 2)
d) Vertical Theoretical Deflection & Load (Setting 2)

Comments:-

48
Job#06
To Perform Torsion test on

I. Steel Specimen
II. Brass Specimen
III. Aluminum Specimen

1. Objective:

To determine and verify modulus of rigidity of different specimens.

2. Apparatus:

➢ Circular disc (R=100mm& deflection arm=57.3mm).

➢ Specimens (steel, brass and aluminum).
➢ Deflection Gauges.
➢ Load and Load Hangers.

3. Related Theory:

3.1 Torque:
The twisting effect of a force or couple is called as torque. Its units are “Nm”. It is
denoted by double headed arrows.

3.2 Torsion:-

It is the angular deformation about the longitudinal axis.

3.3 Difference b/w Torque & Torsion:-

The major difference is of the plane of application. I.e. Torque is applied along a
plane which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis whereas moment is applied
about any of the cross sectional axis and not about the longitudinal axis.

3.4 Twisting Moment:-

The summation of the torque either left or right of the section is twisting moment.

49
 3.5 Torsion Theory:-

The relationship b/w twisting moment, shear stresses and the resulted angular
deformations is given by torsion theory i.e.

𝜏 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
= =
𝑅 𝐽 𝐿

Where,

𝜏 = shearing stress in MPa

R = Radius of Shaft in mm

T = Twisting Moment

J = Polar Moment of Inertia

G = Modulus of Rigidity

𝜃 = Angle of Twist

𝐿 = Length of the specimen or Shaft

3.6 Assumptions:-

➢ Material is homogeneous
➢ Circular section remain circular and do not warp
➢ A plane section of a material perpendicular to its longitudinal axis remains plane
and do not warp after the torque is applied
➢ Shaft is loaded by a couple or torque in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the plane
➢ Shear stress is proportional to shear strain, it means that Hook’s Law is applicable
➢ In circular shafts subjected to torque, the shearing stress varies linearly

50
3.7 Polar Moment of Inertia:-

The geometric rigidity of the cross section is termed as polar moment of inertia
or polar second moment of area. It is the resistance against twisting or sum of
second moment of area about x-axis

“J” for circular section:-

𝑑4
𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝜋 64 For circular section

𝜋 4 𝜋 4
𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑 + 𝑑
64 64
𝜋 4
𝐽= 𝑑
32
“J” for hollow shaft:-
𝜋
𝐽 = 32 (𝐷𝑜4 − 𝐷𝑖4 )

Expression for shear stress for a circular section-

𝑇𝑑
𝑇𝑅 2 𝑇 𝑥 16
𝜏= = 𝜋 𝑑4
=
𝐽 𝜋𝑑3
32

51
3.8 Torsional Rigidity/ Modulus of rigidity:-

When material is subjected to pure twist loading, the slope of the shear stress verses
shear strain curve is termed as modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear or
torsional rigidity. It is denoted by “G”.

The relationship b/w modulus of elasticity & modulus of rigidity is given below

𝐸 = 2 𝐺 (1 + 𝜐 )

Where 𝜐 is poison ratio

3.9 Torsion Strength:-

It is the angular displacement of specimen caused by specified torque in torsion test. It

is equal to the angle of twist in radius divided by gauge length or effective length.

3.10 Torsional Strain:-

Strain Corresponding to specified torque in torsion test. It is equal to torsional

deformation multiplied by the radius of the shaft. Its units are radians.

𝜃
𝛾 = 𝐺.𝐿 . 𝑟 (𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)

3.11 Torsional Stress:-

Shear stress developed in a material subjected to a specified torque in torsion test. For
a circular shaft it can be calculated using the expression

𝑇 𝑥 16
𝜏= 3
𝜋𝑑

3.12 Angle of Twist:

𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐺𝐽

Where 𝜃= angle of twist,

L= Length of the specimen,

52
 G= Shear Modulus,
J= Polar moment of Inertia

4. Procedure:

• First of all take the samples and measure their physical properties i.e. diameter
and Length of the specimen.
• Fix the steel specimen in the apparatus and measure the test length.
• Attach the deflection gauge to the specimen in order to take deflection readings.
• Apply the load in the increments of 5N and note down the readings of deflection
gauge.
• After this, repeat the procedure for the remaining samples i.e. brass and
aluminum.
• Calculate modulus of rigidity experimentally and compare it with the theoretical
values.

5. Observations and Calculations:

Specimen Gth Gexp % difference

Steel
Brass
Aluminum

Graphs between angle of twist and applied torque:

Steel Rod:

53
Brass Rod:

Aluminum Rod:

6. Comments:

54
 Job#07
To determine the critical buckling load and initial imperfection of a pin
ended column using South-well plot Technique

1. Objective:

To study the effect of initial imperfection on the strength of column and to study how to
determine the initial imperfection using South-Well plot technique.

2. Apparatus:

➢ Model column
➢ Loading arrangement
➢ Deflection Gauge
➢ Vernier Calipers
➢ Steel Tape

3. Related Theory:

3.1 Column:
Column is a line element subjected to axial compressive load.
3.2 Types of Columns:
➢ Eccentric Column
➢ Concentric Column
On the basis of slenderness ratio,
𝐾𝐿
𝑅=
𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛

Short column R≤ 30
Intermediate Column 30< 𝑅 <100
Long Column 𝑅 > 100

3.3 Derivation:
In practice a column cannot be made perfectly straight and Pcr is never reached.
Consideration of small deviation from the straight configuration makes the analysis more
realistic. According to Perry-Robertson Formula, all practical imperfections (e.g.

55
properties of the real columns) could be represented by a hypothetical initial curvature (a0)
of column.

Let consider a columns AB of length L has an initial imperfection y0 prior to the application
of the and y is the additional deformation due to the applied load P. the equation of the
elastic curve for any arbitrary point Q can be represented as following.

Here in figure, bending moment at point Q having co-ordinate (x , y) can be represent as

given in Eqn.(2). The negative sign indicate the negative bending moment.

56
Y0 = initial deviation of the column and is represented by the sinusoidal curve.

57
 For pin ended column the deflection is maximum (ym) at center when x = L/2

4. Procedure:

➢ Measure the dimensions of the column specimens.

➢ Adjust the steel column in the frame.
➢ Set the deflection dial gauge and read the deflections when load is applied.
➢ Apply the load with the increment of 50N.
➢ Measure deflection at each 50N load interval.
➢ Measure the value of initial imperfection using South-Well plot technique.

5. Observations and Calculations:

Load Cycle1 Cycle2 Average ym Ym/P

N DGR Ym(mm) DGR Ym(mm) mm mm/N
0
50
100
150
200
250

58
 Graph between ym and ym/P:

6. Comments:

59
Job#08

To determine the stress-strain using electrical resistance strain gauges.

1. Objective:-

The objective of this job is to compare the Stress & Strain value obtained
experimentally & theoretically.

2. Apparatus:-

➢ Data Logger
➢ Hydraulic jack load
➢ Load cell
➢ I-section cantilever beam

3. Related Theory:-

3.1 Stress:-

Stress is the internal resistive force per unit area and normal stress is
calculated as;

𝑃
𝜎= (𝑀𝑃𝑎)
𝐴

3.2 Strain:-

Strain is the ratio of change in dimension with original dimension and

longitudinal strain is calculated as;

∆𝑙
𝜖= (𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝐿𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝑙

3.3 Types of Stress & Strain:

3.3.1 Normal Stress:-

When the force acting perpendicular to the cross-sectional area then the
resistive force per unit x-sectional area is the normal stress and is given as;

𝑃
𝜎= (𝑀𝑃𝑎)
𝐴

60
3.3.2 Shear Stress:-

When the force acting along the x-sectional area then the resistive force per unit
x-sectional area is the shear stress and is given as;

𝑃
𝜎= (𝑀𝑃𝑎)
𝐴

3.3.3 Normal Strain:

When the force acting perpendicular to x-section then the strain produced
is the normal strain.

3.3.4 Shear Strain:

When the force acing along the x-section then the strain produced is the
shear strain.

3.3.5 Modulus of Elasticity (E):

It is simply the ratio of stress to strain.

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜖

3.4 Measurement of Strains:

➢ Mechanical Strain Gauges (Baty’s deflection dial gauge, extensometer)

➢ Electrical Strain Gauges (Using Wheat Stone Bridge Circuit)

3.5 Advantages:

➢ We can measure surface strains only

➢ We can take remote readings using long wires
➢ We can attach the remote to it and can measure the value of strains.

3.6 Disadvantages:

➢ We cannot measure internal strains with it

➢ We cannot measure strains instantly after pasting
➢ Error due to corrosion

61
4. Procedure:-

➢ Measure the geometrical dimensions of the beam like width, length & thickness
etc.
➢ Calculate the M.O.I about its centroidal axis.
➢ Paste the strain gauges on the surface of the beam with adhesive material as
shown.
➢ Then connect these strain gauges to the electrical device having wheat stone
bridge arrangement in it.
➢ Make the instrument in working condition.
➢ Apply the load using hydraulic jack attached with load cells.
➢ Strains are measured at 0 Psi, 10 Psi, 20 Psi, & 30 Psi.
➢ Calculate the applied moment from which we measured the theoretical strains and
at the end compare the results.

5. Observations & Calculation:-

Length of the beam =

Flange Width =
Flange thickness =
Web Thickness =
Depth of Beam =

Moment of Inertia (MOI) =

62
 5.1 Table of Calculations:-

5.1.1 Experimental Calculations:-

Load Strain Gauge # 1 Strain Gauge # 2 Strain Gauge # 3 Strain Gauge # 4 Strain Gauge # 5

Psi kg N SGR1 𝜇𝜀 SGR2 𝜇𝜀 SGR3 𝜇𝜀 SGR4 𝜇𝜀 SGR5 𝜇𝜀

5.1.2 Theoretical Calculations:

Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5
Bending MOI
Load
Moment mm4 𝜎 𝜀 𝜎 𝜎 𝜀 𝜎 𝜀 𝜎 𝜀
(N) 𝜀
(N-mm) 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) X10-4 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) (𝑀𝑃𝑎) X10-4 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) X10-4 (𝑀𝑃𝑎) X10-4

5.2 Comparison b/w Experimental & theoretical Result:

Position Load (N)

𝜀𝑡ℎ
Y1 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝
% age Diff.
𝜀𝑡ℎ
Y2 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝
% age Diff.
𝜀𝑡ℎ
Y3 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝
% age Diff.
𝜀𝑡ℎ
Y4 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝
% age Diff.
𝜀𝑡ℎ
Y5 𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝
% age Diff.

63
 5.3 Graphs:
Draw graphs between positions of strain gauges and Pressure (10Psi, 20 Psi and
30 Psi).

5.4 Relationship between loads and strain graph:

6. Comments:

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 Appendix A: Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs without projects

1. Experiments and their report 50%
a. Experiment 60%
b. Lab report 40%
2. Quizzes (3-4) 20%
3. Final Evaluation 30%

Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of
copying may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be
reported to DC. This may result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.

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 Appendix B: Safety Guidelines

In all the Civil Engineering (CE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents
during conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall
be adopted:

➢ Know and follow safety rules, procedures and protocols

➢ Be alert to unsafe conditions. It is the responsibility of each individual to assure a safe
working environment for themselves and other workers in the laboratories.
➢ Post suitable warning signs if a specific hazardous situation exists.
➢ Do not operate any of the equipment unless you have been trained and authorized to do
so.
➢ Students must not work alone when using power tools, hazardous substances, or
dangerous equipment.
➢ During operation of tensile or compression test machines, provide a safe radius of at
least 6 feet to protect spectators from any possible unexpected movement or release of
testing material.
➢ Keep hands or loose clothing away from machines at all times during operation
➢ The test procedures cause specimens to rupture and may release and accelerate pieces
of matter. Therefore all personnel that are present in the laboratory must wear safety
glasses at all times when operating the mechanical stress testing equipment.
➢ It is advised to use gloves and wear steel toed shoes when placing or removing test
specimens.
➢ The rupture of specimens can create a loud cracking noise. It is advised to wear earplugs
as hearing protection.
➢ Keep the machine surface clear of material and tools.
➢ Make sure to close all hydraulic valves and turn off power once testing is complete.
➢ Keep fingers, hands and arms out of “pinch points” in load assembly, i.e. points where
movement of the heads on the test machine could trap or crush these appendages.
➢ Doorways and walkways within the lab shall not be blocked or used for storage.
➢ All tools and equipment shall be returned to their proper storage location after use.
➢ Chemical resistant gloves shall be worn whenever the potential for hazardous skin
contact exists.

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➢ Heat resistant gloves shall be used for handling hot objects.
➢ An unlabeled chemical can create substantial problems due to uncertainty about how to
safely handle, store or dispose of it. Therefore, all chemicals, including those stored in
temporary storage or process containers, must be properly labeled. Never use any
chemical or substance that is not clearly labeled or identified!

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 Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports

Each student will maintain a lab notebook for each lab course. He/She will write a report for each
experiment performed in lab. A format has been developed for writing these lab reports.

Lab Report Format

The format of the report will include:

1. Objective: What are the learning goals of the experiment?

2. Introduction/ Related Theory: Introduce area explored in the experiment.
3. Measurements/Procedure: In your own words write how the experiment is performed (Do
not copy/paste the procedure).
a. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the
experiment and how they were resolved?
b. Graphs, if any
4. Conclusions: What conclusions can be drawn from the measurements?
5. Applications: Suggest a real world application where this experiment may apply.
6. Answers to post lab questions (if any).

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