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Friction Theories
4.1 INTRODUCTION

Friction is the resistance to motion which is experienced whenever one solid

body slides over another. The resistive force, which is parallel to the direction
of motion is called the 'friction force'. If the solid bodies are loaded together
and a tangential force is applied, then the value of the tangential force which
is required to initiate sliding is the 'static friction force'. The tangential force
required to maintain sliding is the 'kinetic (or dynamic) friction force'.
Kinetic friction is generally lower than static friction.

4.1.1 The Laws of Friction

It has been found experimentally that there are two basic 'laws' of friction,
which are obeyed over a wide range of conditions. There are, however,
a number of notable exceptions, examples of which will be included later. It
should be stressed at this point that the two laws of friction are empirical in
nature and, of course, no basic physical principles are violated in those cases
where the laws of friction are not obeyed.
The first law states that the friction is independent of the apparent area of
contact between the contacting bodies, and the second, that the friction force
is proportional to the normal load between the bodies. Thus a brick can be
slid as easily on its side as on its end and if the load between two sliding
bodies is doubled then the friction force is doubled. These laws are often
referred to as 'Amontons laws' after the French engineer Amontons who
presented them in 1699 1 • Coulomb (1785) introduced a third law, that the

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kinetic friction is nearly independent of the speed of sliding, but this law has
a smaller range of applicability than the first two.

4.1.2 Coefficient of Friction

The second law of friction enables us to define a coefficient of friction. The

law states that the friction force F is proportional to the normal load W.
That is
F ex W
therefore
F = f.LW (4.1)

where ll is a constant known as the 'coefficient of friction'. It must be stressed

that f.L is a constant only for a given pair of sliding materials under a given set
of ambient conditions and varies for different materials and conditions. For
example, a hard steel surface rubbing against a similar surface under normal
atmospheric conditions would typically have a value of ll equal to about 0.6.
The same combination rubbing under very high vacuum conditions would
have a much higher value of fl. A graphite-on-graphite combination in
normal atmosphere has a value of ll equal to about 0.1 but this rises to over
0.5 if the atmosphere is very dry.
It is the object of this chapter to develop theories of friction which can
explain the variations in friction coefficient between different materials and
under different conditions. Now let us examine the first law a little more
closely and attempt to explain why the friction is independent of the apparent
area of contact.
In chapter 2 it has been shown that nearly all surfaces are rough on a micro-
scopic scale and true contact is obtained over a small fraction of the apparent
contact area. Furthermore the real area of contact is independent of the
apparent area of contact. Thus the first law of friction is explained since
friction is related to the real area of contact.

4.1.3 Surface Roughness and Real Area of Contact

When two bodies are rubbed together, some form of interaction takes place
at the contacting surfaces resulting in a resistance to relative motion. Most
friction theories assume that the resistive force per unit area of contact is a
constant. Thus
F = As
where F is the friction force
A is the real area of contact
sis the constant force per unit area, resisting relative motion, that is,
the specific friction force
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If the assumption that s is a constant can be justified, then we can see the
importance of A. Let us now summarise some of the more important findings
of chapter 3 with respect to the real area of contact.
(a) For a single spherical contact or an array of similar spheres all at the
same height under loading conditions which produce elastic deformation
only

(b) When the contact is wholly plastic

A cc W
(c) For a surface whose asperity height distribution can be represented by
an exponential function
A cc W
whatever the mode of deformation, that is, either elastic or plastic.
(d) For a surface whose asperity height distribution is gaussian, we can
again write with sufficient accuracy
A cc W for all modes of deformation
(e) Many practical surfaces have an asperity height distribution that is
close to gaussian.
Results (a) and (b) above, combined with experimental findings confirming
the second law of friction, led in the past to the conclusion that asperity
contacts must be plastic. However, various physical arguments and experi-
mental results indicated that under certain conditions, for example, well
run-in surfaces, where it was found F cc W, elastic conditions must exist.
This apparent anomaly is now explained by (d) and (e) above. The analysis of
the deformation of model and real surfaces has now made possible the formu-
lation of reasonably realistic friction theories, and it is certain that any future
improvements on current theories must be based on such analysis.

4.2 FRICTION MEASUREMENT

It is not the object of this chapter to present a comprehensive survey of

friction measurement but a brief account of some of the available methods
will now be given.
Any apparatus for measuring friction must be capable of supplying relative
motion between two specimens, of applying a measurable normal load and of
measuring the tangential resistance to motion. There are a large number of
methods available and the final choice will depend largely on the exact
conditions of rubbing contact under investigation. For example, probably the
simplest arrangement is the tilting plane where a specimen is placed on a

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flat surface which is gradually tilted until sliding starts, figure 4.1. The
coefficient of friction is then tan e. This method is obviously unsuitable in
those cases where a study of the variation of friction with continued rubbing
is required but its simplicity makes it attractive in many cases.

Figure 4.1 Measurement

of friction using tilting
plane, Jl. = tan (}

Where continuous friction measurement is required over a period of time

then an alternative approach must be used. Here one specimen, usually a
disc or a cylinder, is driven continuously, while a second specimen, nominally
stationary, is loaded against it. Commonly used combinations are crossed
cylinders, pin-on-cylinder or -disc, and disc-on-disc. The loading of the
stationary specimen can be by simple deadweight or, if the experimental
conditions demand it, by some more complicated method such as hydro-
static or magnetic loading. The measurement of the friction force is usually
accomplished by mounting the nominally stationary specimen so that a
very small tangential movement, proportional to the frictional force, occurs.
This small movement is measured and recorded. Two typical arrangements, a
crossed cylinder and a pin-on-disc are illustrated in figures 4.2 and 4.3.
In each case the specimen is mounted on leaf springs which allow a small
movement in the direction of the friction force. The movement can be

Load

Rotalong
cylinder

Figure 4.2 Simple crossed cylinder arrangement for the

measurement offriction and wear

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 tload

Rotating
diSC

Figure 4.3a Arrangement

of pin-and-disc machine
Loading moror

Disc To leaf
spring for
friction
force
measurement

Triode 10n pump

Figure 4.3b Schematic diagram of ultra-high vacuum pin-and-

disc machine

calibrated to give the friction force and measured by a capacitance or in-

ductance method and continuously recorded.
The apparatus shown in figure 4.2 is a very simple and convenient method
of measuring friction. That shown in figure 4.3b has been used for ultra high
vacuum and controlled atmosphere friction tests. The motion is provided

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by a magnetic drive through the walls of the chamber and the load applied
and friction are measured outside the chamber wall, each force being trans-
mitted through a bellows. ·
Just as is the case in wear testing, great care must be taken in ensuring
cleanliness during these tests, since small amounts of contamination can
significantly affect the measured friction, and this is why so much emphasis
is placed on controlled atmosphere tests.

4.3 POSSIBLE CAUSES OF FRICTION

In section 4.1.3, we stated that friction must be due to some interaction

between the opposing surfaces and that this results in resistance to relative
motion. As the surfaces move relative to one another, work is done by
the forces causing the motion, that is, there is an energy loss at ihe contacting
surfaces. In considering the possible causes of friction it is convenient to
consider separately the surface interaction and the mechanism of the energy
loss.

4.3.1 Surface Interactions

When two surfaces are loaded together they can adhere over some part of
the contact and this adhesion is therefore one form of surface interaction
causing friction.
If no adhesion takes place then the only alternative interaction which
results in a resistance to motion is one in which material must be deformed
and displaced to accommodate the relative motion. We need consider only
two interactions of this type. The first is asperity interlocking. Considering the
situation illustrated in figure 4.4, it is obvious that relative motion cannot
Otrect1on of mot1on
A

Figure 4.4 Asperity interlocking-motion cannot

take place without deformation of the asperities

take place between surfaces A and B without displacement of the material of

the asperities.
A second example of the displacement type of interaction is illustrated in
figure 4.5. Here a hard sphere A is loaded against a relatively soft flat surface,
B. In order for relative motion to take place some of the material B must be
displaced. Although the surfaces of both sphere A and flat B will be rough on

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 Figure 4.5 Macro-displacement-a
hard sphere A, loaded against a softer
surface B, causes displacement of
material B during motion

a microscopic scale the material displacement at the individual asperities

will, in this case, be small compared to the 'macro-displacement'. Thus we
have only two types of interaction, Adhesion and Material Displacement,
although we will find it convenient to think of the material displacement as
either, Asperity Interlocking or Macro-Displacement.

4.3.2 Types of Energy Loss

There are only three mechanisms which can cause appreciable loss of energy
at the interacting surfaces. As relative motion takes place, material must be
deformed. The deformation can be either elastic or plastic; additionally the
material may be fractured. Plastic deformation will always be accompanied
by a loss in energy and it is this energy loss which accounts for the major
part of the friction of metals under most practical circumstances. Fracture
must occur when the surface interactions are adhesive and can also take place
due to relative motion of interlocking asperities. The formation of wear
debris is of course evidence that fracture has taken place. However, the energy
losses associated with fracture will, in most cases of sliding metals, be small
in comparison with those due to plastic deformation. One reason for this is
given in chapter 6 where it is shown that a wear particle is not formed at
each asperity contact but that for most metals in normal atmospheric con-
ditions, an asperity makes more than 1000 contacts before the formation of a
wear particle.
Although energy is required to deform a metal elastically, most of this
energy is recoverable and elastic energy losses are negligible compared with
the energy losses associated with plastic deformation. However, some rubbers
exhibit large irreversible energy losses due to their elastic deformation
(elastic hysteresis) and in certain cases this is the major source of friction,
(see section 4.8).
Summarising the above considerations shows that there are two sources
of surface interaction, that is, adhesion and material displacement, and these
can cause energy losses due to both elastic and plastic deformation and to
fracture.
We will now consider various proposed mechanisms of friction in the light
of the above considerations.

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