In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate

CASTEISM IN INDIA: CONTEMPORARY READING FROM

ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Submitted by:

NAJA BISMI KM

Student of Usooludheen 3rd

Admission no: 7696

Guide:

T. MOHAMMED VELOM

AL JAMIA AL ISLAMIYA, INDIA

2021

FEBRUARY
 ABSTRACT
Caste system in India is one of the largest oppression system in India very relevant topic,
which needs to be handled with utmost care. It is very important for a liberative religion like
Islam and a dynamic movement like Islamic movements in India to address caste system and
to provide the best practical solution for it. The objective of the study is to discover the
functionalism of the liberation theology of Islam in Indian context.
This study also examines how Islam and Islamic movements in India have addressed
caste system in India. This study explains different theories on caste system. It also finds out
the limitations of present practical remedies of caste system. Even after 74 years of
independence, a large section of the society is still under a oppressive system called caste. In
contemporary India caste system has taken new forms and marginalize people based on birth.
The methodology of the study is through the examination of relevant information based on
books, articles, websites, newspapers, reports of various agencies including the interviews of
selected personalities. This study highlights the importance of introducing the liberation
theology of Islam to the marginalized masses of India.

ii
 APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable
standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Usul al- Din [Principles of religion]

………
……………………

T.MOHAMMED VELOM

Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion, it conforms to acceptable standard of
scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for degree of Usul
al- Din [Principles of religion]

………………………..

Internal examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the department of Usooludheen and is accepted as a fulfilment of
the requirement for the degree of Usul al- Din [Principles of religion]

…………………………

ABDUSSALAM PULAPATTA

Dean, Faculty of Usooludheen

This dissertation was submitted to the department of Centre for Research and Academic Exellence
and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Usul al- Din [Principles of
religion]

…………………………

Dr. MUNEER MUHAMMED

Centre for Research and Academic Exellence

iii
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation in the result of my own investigations, except where
otherwise stated. I also declare that it has been previously or concurrently submitted as a
whole for any other degrees at AL JAMIA or other institution.

NAJA BISMI KM

Signature: …………… Date: ……………

iv
 This study is dedicated to

My beloved parents, teachers, friends, and to my

Guardians and well-wishers in Al Jamia Al Islamiya, Santhapuram

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, the most Merciful and the Compassionate

All praises to be Allah the Lord of the Universe. Let His regards and salutations be
Upon the Holy Prophet Muhammad and his family and companions

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my guide T. Mohammed for his
continuous support in my research, for his patience, motivation enthusiasm and immense
knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this research. I
could not have imagined having a better Guide and mentor for my research study. He
continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard of research.

I take this opportunity to record our sincere thanks to all the member, for their help and
encouragement. I also thank my parents for their unceasing encouragement and support.

And finally, I also place on thesis, my sense of gratitude to one and all who, directly or
indirectly, have lent their helping hand in this venture. May Allah accept this humble attempt
and make it fruitful for this life and the hereafter. Amin.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ii
Approval page iii
Declaration iv
Acknowledgement vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 2
1.3 Research questions 2
1.4 Objectives of the study 2
1.5 Literature review 2
1.6 Significance of the study 4
1.7 Scope and limitations of the study 5
1.8 Methodology of the research 5

CHAPTER 2: JEWS 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 History: Babylon and Rome 8
2.3 Culture 9
2.3.1 Religion 9
2.3.2 Languages 10
2.4 Demographics 11
2.4.1 Ethnic division 11
2.4.2 Genetic studies 13
2.4.3 Population centre 15
1. Israel 15
2.4.4 Assimilation 16
2.4.5 War and persecution 16
2.4.6 Migration 18
2.4.7 Growth 20

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CHAPTER 3: JEWISH HISTORY 21
3.1 Ancient Jewish history (1500 BCE-63 CE) 22
3.1.1 Ancient Israelites (until c. 586 BCE) 22
3.1.2 Babylonian captivity (c. 587-538 BCE) 24
3.1.3 Hellenistic period (c. 332-110 BCE) 25
3.1.4 The Hasmonean kingdom (110-63 BCE) 25
3.2 Roman rule in the land of Israel (63 BCE-324 CE) 26
3.2.1 The diaspora 27
3.2.2 Late Roman period in the land of Israel 27
3.3 Middle ages 28
3.3.1 Jews of Babylonia (219-1250 CE) 28
3.3.2 Byzantine period (324-638 CE) 30
3.3.3 Islamic period (638-1099) 32
3.3.4 Jewish golden age in early Muslim Spain (711-1032) 32
3.3.5 Crusaders period (1099-1260) 33
3.3.6 Spain, North Africa, and the Middle East 35
3.3.7 Europe 36
3.4 Early modern period 37
3.4.1 Court Jew 38
3.4.2 Spain and Portugal 39
3.4.3 Port Jew 39
3.4.4 Ottoman empire 40
3.4.5 Poland – Lithuania 41
3.4.6 The European enlightenment and Haskalah (18th century) 41
3.4.7 Hasidic Judaism 42
3.5 19th Century 43
3.6 20th Century 43
3.6.1 Modern Zionism 43
3.6.2 The Holocaust 44
3.6.3 The establishment of the state of Israel 45

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CHAPTER 4: JEWISH DIASPORA 47
4.1 Origins and uses of the terms 48
4.2 Pre-Roman diaspora 49
4.2.1 Early diaspora populations 51
4.3 Under the Roman empire 52
4.4 Roman destruction of Judea 52
4.5 Post-Roman period Jewish populations 55
4.5.1 Classic period: Jews and Samaritans 55
4.5.2 Middle ages 56
1. Ashkenazi Jews 56
2. Sephardic Jews 59
3. Mizrahi Jews 59
4. Yemenite Jews 60
5. Karaite Jews 60
4.5.3 Modern era 61
1. Israeli Jews 61
2. American Jews 61
3. French Jews 61
4. Mountain Jews 62
5. Bukharan Jews 62
6. Kaifeng Jews 62
7. Cochin Jews 62
8. Paradesi Jews 62
9. Georgian Jews 63
10. Krymchaks 63
11. Anuism 63
12. Modern Samaritans 63

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 65
BIBLIOGRAPHY 67

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Contents
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:..............................................................................................................
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:.........................................................................................
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:.......................................................................................................................
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:.......................................................................................................................
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH:....................................................................................................
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:.........................................................................................................................
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW:...........................................................................................................................
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................................
CASTE SYSTEM HISTORY AND CONTEMPORARY FUNCTIONS....................................................................
2.1 CASTE SYSTEM:....................................................................................................................................
2.2 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA: VARIOUS THEORIES:..................................................................
2.2.1 TRADITIONAL THEORY:.....................................................................................................................
2.2.2. RACIAL THEORY:..............................................................................................................................
2.2.3. POLITICAL THEORY:..........................................................................................................................
2.2.4. OCCUPATIONAL THEORY:................................................................................................................
2.3 PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA:.............................................................................
2.4 CASTE CONFLICT IN INDIAN SOCIETY:..................................................................................................
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF PRACTICAL REMEDIES OF CASTE SYSTEM:................................................................
2.6 DECONSTRUCTIVE THEORY OF CASTE SYSTEM DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD:...............................
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................
THE THEOLOGY OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION.....................................................................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................
3.2 LIBERATION IN THE QURAN:................................................................................................................
3.3 EXAMPLES FROM THE HISTORY OF PROPHET MUHAMMED (PBUH):..................................................
3.4 VERSES OF EQUALITY IN THE QURAN:.................................................................................................
3.5 ISLAMIC HISTORY OF LIBERATION:......................................................................................................
3.6 FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION THEOLOGY:.............................................................................
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................
MUSLIMS IN INDIA ON CASTE SYSTEM......................................................................................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................
4.2 MUSLIM RULERS ON CASTEISM:..........................................................................................................

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4.3 INFLUENCE OF SUFI LEADERS ON LOWER CASTES:..............................................................................
4.4 INFLUENCE OF ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON MARGINALIZED DURING COLONIALISM:...........................
4.5 LACK OF WRITINGS ON MUSLIM INTERACTIONS ON CASTE SYSTEM:.................................................
4.6 ANTICIPATION OF SAYYID MAUDUDI ON CASTE SYSTEM:...................................................................
4.7 LIMITATIONS OF CONTEMPERORY MUSLIM WRITINGS ON HINDUISM:.............................................
4.8 JINNAH ON THE UPPER CASTE DOMINATION:.....................................................................................
4.9 JAMAATH-E-ISLAMI ON CASTE SYSTEM:..............................................................................................
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................................
TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH OF ISLAM AND ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON CASTE IN INDIA.......................
5.1 INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................
5.2 PROPAGATION:....................................................................................................................................
5.3 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS; FRIENDSHIP AND BROTHERHOOD:................................................................
5.4 POLITICS:.............................................................................................................................................
5.5 PRIVILEGE:...........................................................................................................................................
5.6 BRAHMANISM OR HINDUTVA? :..........................................................................................................
5.7 CONCLUSION:......................................................................................................................................

Contents
CHAPTER ONE 8
INTRODUCTION 8
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY: 8
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM: 11
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS: 12
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES: 12
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH: 13
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:13
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW: 14
CHAPTER TWO 18

xi
CASTE SYSTEM HISTORY AND CONTEMPORARY FUNCTIONS 18
2.1 CASTE SYSTEM: 18
2.2 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA: VARIOUS THEORIES: 19
2.2.1 TRADITIONAL THEORY: 19
2.2.2. RACIAL THEORY: 20
2.2.3. POLITICAL THEORY: 21
2.2.4. OCCUPATIONAL THEORY: 21
2.3 PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA: 22
2.4 CASTE CONFLICT IN INDIAN SOCIETY: 26
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF PRACTICAL REMEDIES OF CASTE SYSTEM:
28
2.6 DECONSTRUCTIVE THEORY OF CASTE SYSTEM DURING THE
COLONIAL PERIOD: 29
CHAPTER THREE 31
THE THEOLOGY OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION 31
3.1 INTRODUCTION 31
3.2 LIBERATION IN THE QURAN: 32
3.3 EXAMPLES FROM THE HISTORY OF PROPHET MUHAMMED
(PBUH): 35
3.4 VERSES OF EQUALITY IN THE QURAN: 36
3.5 ISLAMIC HISTORY OF LIBERATION: 37
3.6 FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION THEOLOGY: 39
CHAPTER FOUR 40
MUSLIMS IN INDIA ON CASTE SYSTEM 40
4.1 INTRODUCTION: 40
4.2 MUSLIM RULERS ON CASTEISM: 41
4.3 INFLUENCE OF SUFI LEADERS ON LOWER CASTES: 42
4.4 INFLUENCE OF ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON MARGINALIZED
DURING COLONIALISM: 43
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 4.5 LACK OF WRITINGS ON MUSLIM INTERACTIONS ON CASTE
SYSTEM: 44
4.6 ANTICIPATION OF SAYYID MAUDUDI ON CASTE SYSTEM: 45
4.7 LIMITATIONS OF CONTEMPERORY MUSLIM WRITINGS ON
HINDUISM: 48
4.8 JINNAH ON THE UPPER CASTE DOMINATION: 49
4.9 JAMAATH-E-ISLAMI ON CASTE SYSTEM: 50
CHAPTER FIVE 53
TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH OF ISLAM AND ISLAMIC
MOVEMENTS ON CASTE IN INDIA 53
5.1 INTRODUCTION: 53
5.2 PROPAGATION: 54
5.3 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS; FRIENDSHIP AND BROTHERHOOD:
56
5.4 POLITICS: 56
5.5 PRIVILEGE: 59
5.6 BRAHMANISM OR HINDUTVA? : 60
5.7 CONCLUSION: 60

Contents
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:..............................................................................................................
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:.........................................................................................
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:.......................................................................................................................
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:.......................................................................................................................
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH:....................................................................................................
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:.........................................................................................................................
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW:...........................................................................................................................
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................................
CASTE SYSTEM HISTORY AND CONTEMPORARY FUNCTIONS....................................................................
2.1 CASTE SYSTEM:....................................................................................................................................

xiii
2.2 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA: VARIOUS THEORIES:..................................................................
2.2.1 TRADITIONAL THEORY:.....................................................................................................................
2.2.2. RACIAL THEORY:..............................................................................................................................
2.2.3. POLITICAL THEORY:..........................................................................................................................
2.2.4. OCCUPATIONAL THEORY:................................................................................................................
2.3 PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA:.............................................................................
2.4 CASTE CONFLICT IN INDIAN SOCIETY:..................................................................................................
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF PRACTICAL REMEDIES OF CASTE SYSTEM:................................................................
2.6 DECONSTRUCTIVE THEORY OF CASTE SYSTEM DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD:...............................
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................
THE THEOLOGY OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION.....................................................................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................
3.2 LIBERATION IN THE QURAN:................................................................................................................
3.3 EXAMPLES FROM THE HISTORY OF PROPHET MUHAMMED (PBUH):..................................................
3.4 VERSES OF EQUALITY IN THE QURAN:.................................................................................................
3.5 ISLAMIC HISTORY OF LIBERATION:......................................................................................................
3.6 FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION THEOLOGY:.............................................................................
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................
MUSLIMS IN INDIA ON CASTE SYSTEM......................................................................................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................
4.2 MUSLIM RULERS ON CASTEISM:..........................................................................................................
4.3 INFLUENCE OF SUFI LEADERS ON LOWER CASTES:..............................................................................
4.4 INFLUENCE OF ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON MARGINALIZED DURING COLONIALISM:...........................
4.5 LACK OF WRITINGS ON MUSLIM INTERACTIONS ON CASTE SYSTEM:.................................................
4.6 ANTICIPATION OF SAYYID MAUDUDI ON CASTE SYSTEM:...................................................................
4.7 LIMITATIONS OF CONTEMPERORY MUSLIM WRITINGS ON HINDUISM:.............................................
4.8 JINNAH ON THE UPPER CASTE DOMINATION:.....................................................................................
4.9 JAMAATH-E-ISLAMI ON CASTE SYSTEM:..............................................................................................
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................................
TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH OF ISLAM AND ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON CASTE IN INDIA.......................
5.1 INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................................
5.2 PROPAGATION:....................................................................................................................................
5.3 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS; FRIENDSHIP AND BROTHERHOOD:................................................................
5.4 POLITICS:.............................................................................................................................................
5.5 PRIVILEGE:...........................................................................................................................................
5.6 BRAHMANISM OR HINDUTVA? :..........................................................................................................

xiv
5.7 CONCLUSION:......................................................................................................................................

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH:
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW:
CHAPTER TWO
CASTE SYSTEM HISTORY AND CONTEMPORARY FUNCTIONS
2.1 CASTE SYSTEM:
2.2 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA: VARIOUS THEORIES:
2.2.1 TRADITIONAL THEORY:
2.2.2. RACIAL THEORY:
2.2.3. POLITICAL THEORY:
2.2.4. OCCUPATIONAL THEORY:
2.3 PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA:
2.4 CASTE CONFLICT IN INDIAN SOCIETY:
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF PRACTICAL REMEDIES OF CASTE SYSTEM:
2.6 DECONSTRUCTIVE THEORY OF CASTE SYSTEM DURING THE COLONIAL
PERIOD:

CHAPTER THREE

xv
THE THEOLOGY OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 LIBERATION IN THE QURAN:
3.3 EXAMPLES FROM THE HISTORY OF PROPHET MUHAMMED (PBUH):
3.4 VERSES OF EQUALITY IN THE QURAN:
3.5 ISLAMIC HISTORY OF LIBERATION:
3.6 FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION THEOLOGY:
CHAPTER FOUR
MUSLIMS IN INDIA ON CASTE SYSTEM
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
4.2 MUSLIM RULERS ON CASTEISM:
4.3 INFLUENCE OF SUFI LEADERS ON LOWER CASTES:
4.4 INFLUENCE OF ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON MARGINALIZED DURING
COLONIALISM:
4.5 LACK OF WRITINGS ON MUSLIM INTERACTIONS ON CASTE SYSTEM:
4.6 ANTICIPATION OF SAYYID MAUDUDI ON CASTE SYSTEM:
4.7 LIMITATIONS OF CONTEMPERORY MUSLIM WRITINGS ON HINDUISM:
4.8 JINNAH ON THE UPPER CASTE DOMINATION:
4.9 JAMAATH-E-ISLAMI ON CASTE SYSTEM:
CHAPTER FIVE
TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH OF ISLAM AND ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON CASTE
IN INDIA
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
5.2 PROPAGATION:
5.3 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS; FRIENDSHIP AND BROTHERHOOD:
5.4 POLITICS:
5.5 PRIVILEGE:
5.6 BRAHMANISM OR HINDUTVA? :
5.7 CONCLUSION:

xvi
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:.........................................................................................
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:................................................................
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS:....................................................................................................
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:...................................................................................................
1.5 METHODOLOGY OF THE RESEARCH:............................................................................
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY:.......................................................................................................
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW:.......................................................................................................
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................
CASTE SYSTEM HISTORY AND CONTEMPORARY FUNCTIONS....................................
2.1 CASTE SYSTEM:...................................................................................................................
2.2 ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA: VARIOUS THEORIES:....................................
2.2.1 TRADITIONAL THEORY:.................................................................................................
2.2.2. RACIAL THEORY:............................................................................................................
2.2.3. POLITICAL THEORY:......................................................................................................
2.2.4. OCCUPATIONAL THEORY:............................................................................................
2.3 PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA:................................................
2.4 CASTE CONFLICT IN INDIAN SOCIETY:.........................................................................
2.5 LIMITATIONS OF PRACTICAL REMEDIES OF CASTE SYSTEM:................................
2.6 DECONSTRUCTIVE THEORY OF CASTE SYSTEM DURING THE COLONIAL
PERIOD:........................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................
THE THEOLOGY OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION........................................................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................
3.2 LIBERATION IN THE QURAN:...........................................................................................
3.3 EXAMPLES FROM THE HISTORY OF PROPHET MUHAMMED (PBUH):...................
3.4 VERSES OF EQUALITY IN THE QURAN:.........................................................................
3.5 ISLAMIC HISTORY OF LIBERATION:..............................................................................
3.6 FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAMIC LIBERATION THEOLOGY:...............................................
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................

xvii
MUSLIMS IN INDIA ON CASTE SYSTEM..............................................................................
4.1 INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................
4.2 MUSLIM RULERS ON CASTEISM:....................................................................................
4.3 INFLUENCE OF SUFI LEADERS ON LOWER CASTES:.................................................
4.4 INFLUENCE OF ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON MARGINALIZED DURING
COLONIALISM:...........................................................................................................................
4.5 LACK OF WRITINGS ON MUSLIM INTERACTIONS ON CASTE SYSTEM:................
4.6 ANTICIPATION OF SAYYID MAUDUDI ON CASTE SYSTEM:....................................
4.7 LIMITATIONS OF CONTEMPERORY MUSLIM WRITINGS ON HINDUISM:.............
4.8 JINNAH ON THE UPPER CASTE DOMINATION:............................................................
4.9 JAMAATH-E-ISLAMI ON CASTE SYSTEM:.....................................................................
CHAPTER FIVE...........................................................................................................................
TOWARDS A NEW APPROACH OF ISLAM AND ISLAMIC MOVEMENTS ON CASTE
IN INDIA.......................................................................................................................................
5.1 INTRODUCTION:..................................................................................................................
5.2 PROPAGATION:....................................................................................................................
5.3 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS; FRIENDSHIP AND BROTHERHOOD:..................................
5.4 POLITICS:...............................................................................................................................
5.5 PRIVILEGE:............................................................................................................................
5.6 BRAHMANISM OR HINDUTVA? :.....................................................................................
5.7 CONCLUSION:......................................................................................................................

xviii