01 Introduction PS Electrical Plant

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM ENGINEER
TRAINING
GENERATION
POWER STATION PLANT
MODULE 1
POWER STATION INTRODUCTION
STUDENTS MANUAL
ESKOM - GENERATION GROUP
TITLE PAGE
TITLE: Power station introduction
DOCUMENT NUMBER: Module 1
REVISION: 0
ISSUE DATE: 30 April 2004
MSWORD FILE: 01_Power station introduction_Rev0
SYNOPSIS: This document contains the training material needed to

train a power station electrical system engineer in Eskom
on the layout and the electrical equipment used in a
power station.
AUTHOR:
--------------------------------------- ---------------
Pierre M Smit (PrEng, M.Eng.) DATE
ELECTRICAL CONSULTANT
APPROVAL:
--------------------------------------- ---------------
GJ Coetzee DATE
ESKOM GENERATION CONSULTANT
AMENDMENT HISTORY:
Doc. rev. Date Amendment details Author
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page i

CONTENTS
PAGE
MODULE FOCUS ........................................................................................................................................ VIII
MODULE OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................................... IX
REQUIREMENTS ...........................................................................................................................................X
MODULE OVERVIEW.................................................................................................................................... XI
SAFETY ........................................................................................................................................................ XII
PART 1. POWER STATION BASICS AND APPLICATION .............................................................................1
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Course layout.................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Plant information files ....................................................................................................................2
1.3 Eskom plant ...................................................................................................................................2
1.4 Eskom power stations....................................................................................................................3
1.5 Basic power generation cycle ........................................................................................................4
2 AUXILIARY POWER SYSTEM...............................................................................................................5
2.1 Philosophy .....................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Power supply conditions ................................................................................................................5
2.3 System layout ................................................................................................................................6
2.4 Unit reticulation layout and operation ............................................................................................7
2.5 Common plant reticulation layout and operation ...........................................................................8
3 GENERATOR...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Synchronous machines basic operation..................................................................................... 10
3.2 Generator and auxiliaries............................................................................................................ 12
4 GENERATOR EXCITATION CONTROL............................................................................................. 15
4.1 General control of generators (operating in parallel) .................................................................. 15
4.2 The power factor meter............................................................................................................... 15
4.3 The effect of a change in excitation............................................................................................ 16
4.4 Generator stability....................................................................................................................... 16
4.5 Dangers of pole slipping ............................................................................................................. 17
4.6 Reactive power control ............................................................................................................... 17
5 GENERATOR PROTECTION ............................................................................................................. 18
5.1 Electrical faults............................................................................................................................ 18
5.2 Protection schemes .................................................................................................................... 18
5.3 Protection scheme equipment .................................................................................................... 18
5.4 Basic requirements for protection schemes ............................................................................... 18
5.5 Generator protection application................................................................................................. 18
6 GENERATOR SYNCHRONISING ...................................................................................................... 18
6.1 Synchronising theory .................................................................................................................. 18
6.2 Synchronising equipment ........................................................................................................... 18
6.3 Commissioning and maintenance .............................................................................................. 18
7 GENERATOR BUSBAR SYSTEM ...................................................................................................... 18
7.1 Generator busbar main components .......................................................................................... 18
7.2 Generator busbar auxiliaries....................................................................................................... 18
8 GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER AND EARTH SWITCH................................................................ 18
8.1 Generator Circuit Breaker description ........................................................................................ 18
8.2 Generator earthing switch........................................................................................................... 18
9 TRANSFORMERS .............................................................................................................................. 18
9.1 Basic principles ........................................................................................................................... 18
9.2 Oil type transformers .................................................................................................................. 18
9.3 Dry type transformers ................................................................................................................. 18
9.4 Transformer application in the power station.............................................................................. 18
10 ELECTRICAL MACHINES................................................................................................................... 18
10.1 Induction machines..................................................................................................................... 18
10.2 DC machines .............................................................................................................................. 18
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page ii

CONTENTS (continued)
PAGE
11 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES................................................................................................................ 18
11.1 Advantages of VSDs................................................................................................................... 18
11.2 VSD basic operation ................................................................................................................... 18
11.3 Design considerations for VSD’s ................................................................................................ 18
11.4 Different types of drives .............................................................................................................. 18
11.5 Special operating conditions....................................................................................................... 18
11.6 Control of operation .................................................................................................................... 18
11.7 Alarms......................................................................................................................................... 18
12 SWITCHGEAR .................................................................................................................................... 18
12.1 Voltage levels.............................................................................................................................. 18
12.2 LV switchgear ............................................................................................................................. 18
12.3 MV switchgear ............................................................................................................................ 18
12.4 Substations ................................................................................................................................. 18
12.5 Power supply abnormal conditions ............................................................................................. 18
13 PROTECTION ..................................................................................................................................... 18
13.1 Low voltage switchgear protection.............................................................................................. 18
13.2 Medium voltage switchgear protection ....................................................................................... 18
14 AC ESSENTIAL SYSTEMS................................................................................................................. 18
14.1 AC interruptible power (diesel generator system) ...................................................................... 18
14.2 AC uninterruptible power ............................................................................................................ 18
15 DC SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................................... 18
15.1 220 V DC Station and Unit supply .............................................................................................. 18
15.2 24 V DC Unit supply ................................................................................................................... 18
15.3 Battery chargers ......................................................................................................................... 18
15.4 Batteries...................................................................................................................................... 18
15.5 Battery rooms.............................................................................................................................. 18
16 CABLING............................................................................................................................................. 18
16.1 Cable design ............................................................................................................................... 18
16.2 Power station cabling installation................................................................................................ 18
17 EARTHING AND LIGHTING PROTECTION ....................................................................................... 18
17.1 Types of interference .................................................................................................................. 18
17.2 Zoning concept [12] .................................................................................................................... 18
17.3 Power station application............................................................................................................ 18
17.4 Installation and materials ............................................................................................................ 18
18 LIGHTING AND SMALL POWER ........................................................................................................ 18
18.1 Lighting design principles ........................................................................................................... 18
18.2 Lamp types ................................................................................................................................. 18
18.3 Luminaire types........................................................................................................................... 18
18.4 Lighting application ..................................................................................................................... 18
18.5 Modifications ............................................................................................................................... 18
19 ELECTRICAL FENCE ......................................................................................................................... 18
19.1 Legal requirements ..................................................................................................................... 18
19.2 Fence construction ..................................................................................................................... 18
19.3 Central control system ................................................................................................................ 18
19.4 Lighting ....................................................................................................................................... 18
19.5 Gate interlock system ................................................................................................................. 18
20 HV YARD............................................................................................................................................. 18
20.1 Station importance ranking ......................................................................................................... 18
20.2 Busbar arrangements and security criteria................................................................................. 18
20.3 Feeder circuit selection and bypass facilities ............................................................................. 18
20.4 Planning criteria .......................................................................................................................... 18
20.5 Technologies............................................................................................................................... 18
21 MEASUREMENTS AND METERING.................................................................................................. 18
21.1 Inadequacy of the older systems ................................................................................................ 18
21.2 Power station application............................................................................................................ 18
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page iii

PAGE
22 STATION ELECTRICAL CONTROL ................................................................................................... 18
22.1 Electrical operating desk (EOD) ................................................................................................. 18
22.2 Permit to work (PTW) system ..................................................................................................... 18
22.3 Emergency operation.................................................................................................................. 18
PART 2. HEALTH CARE ................................................................................................................................ 18
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 18
2 CARE PROGRAMME.......................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 Risk assessment and action plan ............................................................................................... 18
2.2 Outstanding items list ................................................................................................................. 18
2.3 Technical plan............................................................................................................................. 18
2.4 Life of plant plan (LOPP) ............................................................................................................ 18
2.5 Corporate health care policies, standards and specifications .................................................... 18
2.6 Power Station specific health care procedures and works instructions...................................... 18
2.7 Audits .......................................................................................................................................... 18
2.8 Technical problems/issues correspondence .............................................................................. 18
2.9 Reports ....................................................................................................................................... 18
2.10 Work Group meetings................................................................................................................. 18
2.11 Care training courses.................................................................................................................. 18
PART 3. MAINTENANCE ............................................................................................................................... 18
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 18
2 SE MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITY .............................................................................................. 18
2.1 Maintenance philosophy ............................................................................................................. 18
2.2 Maintenance plan ....................................................................................................................... 18
2.3 Maintenance procedures (PM’s)................................................................................................. 18
2.4 Tests ........................................................................................................................................... 18
2.5 Inspections.................................................................................................................................. 18
2.6 Condition monitoring................................................................................................................... 18
2.7 Quality control plans ................................................................................................................... 18
2.8 Commissioning ........................................................................................................................... 18
2.9 Standard outage scope of work .................................................................................................. 18
2.10 Outage report.............................................................................................................................. 18
2.11 Refurbishment, repair and replacement ..................................................................................... 18
2.12 Long term storage....................................................................................................................... 18
PART 4. OPERATING .................................................................................................................................... 18
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 18
2 SYSTEM ENGINEER OPERATING RESPONSIBILITY ..................................................................... 18
2.1 Operating training ....................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Operating procedures ................................................................................................................. 18
2.3 Alarm response cards................................................................................................................. 18
2.4 Special operating instructions..................................................................................................... 18
2.5 Operating technical specifications .............................................................................................. 18
PART 5. INCIDENTS ...................................................................................................................................... 18
1 NOTIFICATION OF EVENT ................................................................................................................ 18
2 INVESTIGATION................................................................................................................................. 18
3 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS .................................................................................................................... 18
4 HUMAN RELATED INCIDENTS.......................................................................................................... 18
5 SYSTEM ENGINEER RESPONSIBILITIES ........................................................................................ 18
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page iv

PAGE
PART 6. MODIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 18
1 MODIFICATION PROCEDURE .......................................................................................................... 18
1.1 Modification proposal.................................................................................................................. 18
1.2 Project manager appointment..................................................................................................... 18
1.3 Feasibility study and conceptual design ..................................................................................... 18
1.4 Approval for design (power station/MIT)..................................................................................... 18
1.5 Design package .......................................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Compile modification package and review ................................................................................. 18
1.7 Design package review............................................................................................................... 18
1.8 Design package approval (power station and MIT) .................................................................... 18
1.9 Procurement process.................................................................................................................. 18
1.10 Implementation ........................................................................................................................... 18
1.11 Final close out of modification .................................................................................................... 18
2 DOCUMENTATION CHANGE MANAGEMENT.................................................................................. 18
2.1 Drawings ..................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Setting documents ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.3 Procedures and instructions ....................................................................................................... 18
2.4 Manuals (Training, maintenance and operating) ........................................................................ 18
PART 7. TECHNICAL REPORTS .................................................................................................................. 18
PART 8. RESEARCH...................................................................................................................................... 18
PART 9. TRAINING ........................................................................................................................................ 18
PART 10. LITERATURE ................................................................................................................................. 18
PART 11. BROCHURES................................................................................................................................. 18
PART 12. BASE LINE INFORMATION .......................................................................................................... 18
PART 13. OEM INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................... 18

QUESTIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 18
ASSIGNMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... 18
GLOSSARY.................................................................................................................................................. 18
ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 18
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................. 18
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................ 18
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page v

LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1. Block diagram of a typical power station reticulation system....................6
Figure 2. Single line drawing of a unit reticulation layout.........................................7
Figure 3. Single line drawing of a common plant reticulation layout ........................8
Figure 4. Synchronous machine cylindrical rotor .....................................................10
Figure 5. Cut through view of a high speed generator.............................................11
Figure 6. Generator and ECS system main components ........................................12
Figure 7. The power factor meter ............................................................................16
Figure 8. Operating chart for a large turbine-generator ...........................................18
Figure 9. Schematic of a protection scheme ...........................................................18
Figure 10. Example of generator protection system panels.......................................18
Figure 11. Standard phase sequence........................................................................18
Figure 12. Phase sequence of two systems ..............................................................18
Figure 13. Synchroniser interface to external equipment ..........................................18
Figure 14. Generator circuit breaker synchronising ...................................................18
Figure 15. HV breaker synchronising ........................................................................18
Figure 16. Single line layout of generator busbar system..........................................18
Figure 17. Cut through view of generator busbar system ..........................................18
Figure 18. Internal view of busbar enclosure, main busbar and insulator..................18
Figure 19. Generator resistive earthing arrangement ................................................18
Figure 20. Cut through view of generator circuit breaker...........................................18
Figure 21. General views of busbar earthing switch ..................................................18
Figure 22. Single phase transformer representation..................................................18
Figure 23. Sectional view of an oil type transformer ..................................................18
Figure 24. Sectional view of a dry type transformer...................................................18
Figure 25. Diagrammatic representation of construction of a machine......................18
Figure 26. Requirement for the same number of stator and rotor poles ....................18
Figure 27. Squirrel-cage induction motor rotor ..........................................................18
Figure 28. Squirrel-cage induction motor stator.........................................................18
Figure 29. Stator and rotor of a DC machine .............................................................18
Figure 30. Motor drive system logic control diagram .................................................18
Figure 31. Typical AC and DC converter line diagrams.............................................18
Figure 32. LV switchboard .........................................................................................18
Figure 33. Metal clad MV switchboard.......................................................................18
Figure 34. Typical MV and LV power reticulation system ..........................................18
Figure 35. Typical 6.6 kV switchboard panel front view.............................................18
Figure 36. Overlapping of protection zones ...............................................................18
Figure 37. Diesel generator set (1250 kVA) ..............................................................18
Figure 38. Typical UPS system layout diagram .........................................................18
Figure 39. Typical 220 V DC supply system layout ...................................................18
Figure 40. Unit 24 V DC supply layout diagram.........................................................18
Figure 41. Charger system layout diagram................................................................18
Figure 42. Power station typical zone definition.........................................................18
Figure 43. PLC cable entering from LPZ0 to the highly protected zone LPZ3 ...........18
Figure 44. Minimising of surface current by single entry point of cables....................18
Figure 45. Illumination levels (extract from SANS 10114-1 and the OHS Act) ..........18
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page vi

LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

PAGE
Figure 46. Electrical fence in the centre with two barrier fences................................18
Figure 47. Symbol legend for figures 48, 49 and 50 ..................................................18
Figure 48. Example of a level three, unfirm busbar layout.........................................18
Figure 49. Example of a level 2, firm busbar layout...................................................18
Figure 50. Example of a level 1, firm with maintenance busbar layout ......................18
Figure 51. Double busbar with bus coupler arrangement ..........................................18
Figure 52. Normal double busbar selection with no bypass ......................................18
Figure 53. Single busbar selection with bypass onto busbar 2..................................18
Figure 54. Double busbar selection with bypass onto busbar 2 ................................18
Figure 55. Typical energy management system configuration ..................................18
Figure 56. EOD interface and areas of responsibility ................................................18
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page vii

MODULE FOCUS
Key outputs
• System Engineer training course layout.

• Power station general introduction.
• Power station electrical equipment basics, application, function and operating
parameters.
• System engineer function and responsibilities.
• Relevant Eskom guidelines, standards and procedures.
Key competencies
• Knowledge of basic electrical engineering principles.

• Theoretical and application knowledge of all the power station electrical equipment e.g.
switchgear, transformers, electrical machines etc.
• Knowledge of equipment function and operating parameters.
• Knowledge of the plant health care requirements.
• Knowledge of the system engineer responsibilities with regard to plant operating and
maintenance.
Prerequisites
• Electrical technician/engineer qualification.
Bridging training
The instructor and the mentor should discuss the test results of the student in order to
identify any specific section that the student did not pass or problems the student may have
experienced. This should then be conveyed to the student.
The student should concentrate his/her bridging training on the problem areas and can
then repeat the entire module or be re-tested with the same examination paper.
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page viii

MODULE OBJECTIVE
The first objective of this introductory module is to provide the system engineer with
information of the course contents (22 modules) and the module layout (13 parts).
The second objective is to provide technical information of the electrical equipment used in
the Eskom power stations. The electrical equipment basics, function, layout and the
application thereof will be briefly discussed. The equipment will be discussed in detail in
the respective plant specific modules of the system engineer power station course.
The third objective is to provide the system engineer with information of his/her function
and responsibilities regarding plant health care, operating, maintenance, incidents,
modifications and information storage/management.
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page ix

REQUIREMENTS
Equipment
• Classroom with electronic overhead projection facility
Materials and stationery
• Pens
• Pencils
• Rulers
• Relevant course module
Assistance
• Authorised Instructor/Mentor
• Field visits
Additional resources
• Manufacturer’s Training, Operating and Maintenance Manuals

• Eskom documentation
Statutory requirements
• Nil
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page x

MODULE OVERVIEW
This module provides the System Engineer with the knowledge of his/her function and
responsibilities with respect to the plant and the operating and maintenance disciplines.
By completing this module, the System Engineer will have the basic knowledge required to
start with the following plant specific modules of the electrical system engineer power
station course.
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page xi

SAFETY
Safety at the power station must always be the first priority. Always remember that each
person is responsible for his/her own safety, that of others and the safekeeping of the
plant.
Safety should be seen as a way of doing things and attitude, which includes:
• awareness of potential dangers,

• knowledge of the necessary precautions and
• the willingness to make the effort to apply the necessary precautions.
A summary of the potential dangers of electricity and the precautions to take are listed in
the table here below:
Dangers Precautions
1. Any moving plant or parts thereof e.g. • Protection covers and barricades should always be
electrical motors, conveyors etc. can be installed and honoured.
started without warning and cause injuries. • Ensure that the plant is isolated before performing
inspection or maintenance work.
• Ensure that the plant auxiliary systems are also
isolated.
• Always perform your own isolation checks and if it is
not satisfactory ask for additional safety precautions.
2. Electricity is invisible and cannot be • Regard conductors as alive until proven dead.
detected with the human senses. • Safety test to prove dead and earth isolated
apparatus to keep them dead.
• Barricade live apparatus or position them so that they
cannot be touched.
• Spike cables before they are cut.
3. The human body conduct electricity. • Avoid contact with live apparatus or live bare
conductors.
• Keep doors and gates of prohibited areas locked.
• Exercise the correct degree of supervision over
unskilled persons.
• Barricade the workplace from adjacent live
conductors.
4. Current flowing through the human body • Avoid bodily contact with live conductors or live parts.
could cause: • Earth apparatus to keep them at zero potential.
• Involuntary contraction of muscles. • Always assume circuits as alive until proven dead.
• Burns which heal very slowly.
• Breathing stoppage.
• Heart stoppage.
• Mental shock.
• Death.
5. Electrical charge can jump across gaps. • Don’t approach too closely to live high voltage
You don’t have to touch a live conductor to conductors by leaving ground level.
be injured; by merely approaching too • Safety test only with clean, dry approved testing
close can result in fatal consequences. equipment.
6. Some devices can retain a dangerous • Earth apparatus to be worked on to drain static
charge. charge.
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page xii

Safe operating and maintenance practices in Eskom are enforced by means of the
following:
• Eskom's Plant Safety Regulations for mechanical plant and low voltage electrical plant.
• Eskom’s High Voltage Regulations for medium and high voltage electrical plant.
The System Engineer will receive general training on both regulations to ensure that
he/she knows the regulations and procedures when investigations/inspections are
performed on low voltage and high voltage electrical plant.
Note that the photos, drawings, guidelines, specifications and procedures in this document
are for training purposes only. The latest revisions of the documentation and where
applicable, the power station specific documentation, must be used by the System
Engineer to perform his/her function at a specific power station.
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page xiii

ESKOM – GENERATION GROUP
PART 1. POWER STATION BASICS AND APPLICATION
1 INTRODUCTION
This power station plant course consists of 22 modules and starts with this first one
“Module 1: Power station introduction”. It is then followed by the respective plant modules
for the entire power station electrical equipment. The last module, discusses the power
station electrical plant control and operation.
Note that the layout of this module follows that of the course layout e.g. “Module 3:
Generator”, corresponds with Chapter 3 of this module.
1.1 Course layout
The module layout for the System Engineer Power Station course is as follows:
1. Power station introduction

2. Auxiliary power system
3. Generator
4. Generator AVR
5. Generator protection
6. Generator synchronising
7. Generator busbar system
8. Generator circuit breaker and earth switch
9. Transformers
10. Electrical machines
11. Variable speed drives
12. Switchgear
13. Protection
14. AC essential systems
15. DC systems
16. Cabling
17. Earthing and lightning protection
18. Lighting and small power
19. Electrical Fence
20. HV yard
21. Measurements and metering
22. Station electrical control
Each of the modules consist of 13 parts, the first 5 being mainly discussed in the module,
the others, parts 6 to 13, are used as an index or list of relevant documents. The power
plant modules have the first section, “PART 1: Basics and application” that is the focal
point of the module.
The contents of each plant module are as follows (Part 1 to 13):
1. Basics and application

2. Health care
3. Maintenance
01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 1

4. Operating
5. Incidents and problems
6. Modifications
7. Technical reports
8. Research reports
9. Training
10. Literature
11. Brochures
12. Base line documentation
13. Original equipment manufacturer (OEM) information
Hyperlinks are provided from the module to the documents that are available in software
format. The data that is already provided as part of the course is of a general nature. The
engineer can use this layout to store the data for a specific power station in the respective
directories (thirteen of them as per the above list). It can also be linked (but not
necessarily) to the System Engineer Manual module and used as a reference index.
1.2 Plant information files
The information of the electrical plant is a very important health care item. This information
is firstly used on a daily basis by the power station electrical system engineers to make
decisions relating to the plant, and secondly it is stored for future decisions that should be
based on the plant history. The decisions may be related to engineering, maintenance or
operating respectively, but it all relates to the plant current and future health.
The continuity of the information is very important, all engineers have experienced the loss
of information when plant responsibilities change or personnel move to other departments
or leave Eskom employment altogether. The missing or misplaced information can in
some instances never be recovered and the new engineer must start from scratch to build
up plant information history. This is both costly and detrimental to the plant health.
The Plant Information File System provides a standard plant list exactly the same as per
the module layout to be used by all the power stations (GGPP 1191, Generation Policy,
Electrical engineering plant information files). This means that e.g. the “Generator”
information can always be found in the same location i.e. File 3 in the filing system at any
power station.
The file contents for each plant is furthermore standardised e.g. the information regarding
maintenance, operating, research etc. are in the same subsection for each plant file. This
contents list is also as per the module contents as provided in the previous paragraph.
1.3 Eskom plant
The Eskom plant includes the power stations, the transmission line network (220 kV and
higher) and the distribution line network (below 220 kV). There are three groups within
Eskom that take ownership for this plant, each run as a separate business entity. They are
the Generation Group, the Transmission Group and the Distribution Group.

The Eskom Transmission System (TS) includes the power stations, their associated HV
Yards and the complete transmission system (220 kV and higher). It also includes lower
voltage level lines that are connected to a power generating facility e.g. Port Rex (132 kV).
There are different types of power stations within Eskom i.e. coal fired power stations,
hydro-electric power stations, pumped storage facilities and one nuclear power station, all
falling within the Generation Group ownership.
The transmission lines with a voltage level of 220 kV and higher, the associated
substations and HV Yards are the responsibility of the Transmission Group.
The distribution lines with a voltage level below 220 kV and the associated substations are
the responsibility of the Distribution Group.
The main function of the HV Yard is to efficiently transfer the power generated by the
power station to the transmission network. The HV Yards at the power stations fall within
the Transmission Group ownership, but because it is situated at the power station and
being the main artery for power transfer from the generators to the transmission line
network, it is given a high priority by the Generation Group with regards to the plant
interfaces, operation, maintenance and plant health.
1.4 Eskom power stations
The Eskom Power Stations that provide the bulk of the electricity to the suppliers consist of
coal fired multiple unit power stations as listed here below:
• Arnot (6X350 MW),

• Duvha (6X600 MW),
• Kendal (6X686 MW),
• Kriel (6X500 MW),
• Lethabo (6X618 MW),
• Matimba (6X665 MW),
• Matla (6X600 MW),
• Tutuka (6X609 MW),
• Majuba (6X657 MW) and
• Hendrina (10X200 MW), a ten unit station.
The construction of the various “six packs” by Eskom have many advantages e.g. the
strategic utilisation of coal reserves, lower capital cost and the subsequent reduced running
costs of the power station by sharing services.
Then there are a few hydro-electric power stations of which the two largest are Gariep
(4X90 MW) and Vanderkloof (2X120 MW).

There are also two pumped storage facilities namely Drakensberg (4X250 MW) and
Palmiet (2X200 MW). They are used for peaking demand. The water is pumped during
off-peak periods to generate electricity during peak periods.
There is one nuclear power station namely Koeberg (2X965 MW).
A power station is complex and incorporates all the electrical equipment that can be
imagined, with an infinite number of hardwired and software interfaces between them. It is
controlled mainly by unit and station control software driven systems and secondly by a
large number of smaller control systems installed in the plant. The control systems have
many man machine interfaces to enable operator monitoring and control.
1.5 Basic power generation cycle
The basic coal fired power generation cycle consists of the boiler, turbine, generator, unit
coal supply plant and the unit ash removal plant. This is called a unit.
The steam that is produced in the boiler by burning the coal drives the turbine. The turbine
is directly coupled with a shaft to the generator rotor. The steam driven turbine drives the
generator rotor that generates the power in the stator winding. From the stator terminals
the power is “exported” to the transmission network via the HV Yard. The voltage is
stepped up (typically from 20 kV to 400 kV) via a generator transformer to the transmission
voltage.
There are several other services that the power station units require to generate electricity
namely:
• The coal stock yard (CSY) where coal is stored (enough for 20 days of power station
operation) to provide for periods when no coal can be transported to the power
station. The coal is reclaimed at the CSY and transported with conveyors to the
common coal silos and from there to the coal bunkers on each unit.
• The ash dump where the ash is discarded in an organised manner. The ash is
transported with ash conveyors from the ash bunkers on each unit to the ash dump.
The top soil that is removed before the ash is dumped is again placed on top of the
ash and normal vegetation is reinstated.
• The condensate water (CW) cooling plant that cools the water to the required
temperature before returning it to the steam cycle. One CW plant for three units of a
six unit power station is normally provided.
• The auxiliary cooling water plant that supplies demineralised water for the cooling of
equipment e.g. turbine bearing oil cooling.
• The water treatment plant (WTP) that produces the demineralised water needed for
the cooling water.
• The hydrogen plant that supplies hydrogen to the generators for cooling of the rotor.
• The fuel oil plant that provides the fuel for the start up of the boilers.
• The electrical reticulation system that supplies power to the equipment in a unit and
the common plant of multiple units is called the auxiliary power system.

2 AUXILIARY POWER SYSTEM
The function of the power station reticulation network or auxiliary power system is to supply
electrical power to the equipment and auxiliaries needed to generate electrical power. The
auxiliary power system by definition includes the complete power station electrical
distribution system, from the Transmission Yard connection point (at the high voltage
bushings of each of the Generator Transformers) and the Distribution Yard connection
point (at the Station Transformer) to the power distribution panels or switchgear.
The auxiliary power system is controlled from the station control room rather than the unit
control room. The switchgear outgoing supply circuits to the electrical equipment is
normally considered as the boundary for the reticulation system as these are part of the
process and controlled by the process control computers. However, the surrounding
equipment e.g. high voltage yard, generator power export system, etc. are generally
included when the term “auxiliary power system” is used.
2.1 Philosophy
Throughout the power station continuity of operation is of prime importance to ensure Unit
reliability and availability. In general the power supplies are arranged on the dual
redundancy principle with bus-coupled electrical boards. Failure of a transformer, cable or
breaker of one supply to the respective board can be overcome by closing the bus coupler
and supplying both boards from one transformer, therefore, enabling plant operation whilst
repair work is carried out.
The layout is also designed to accommodate routine and breakdown maintenance of the
electrical reticulation equipment. Routine maintenance of the unit electrical equipment is
only performed when it is not running. The redundancy principle, as mentioned in the
above paragraph, is primarily applied in the common plant to enable maintenance of the
electrical equipment, while the common plant services to the units are not interrupted.
2.2 Power supply conditions
A very important factor, to ensure the long term health, reliability and availability of the
electrical plant at the power station, is that all the electrical equipment shall tolerate the
specified electrical power supply normal and abnormal conditions. These conditions
include e.g. voltage fluctuation, frequency fluctuation, voltage imbalance, harmonic content,
and are defined for each power supply from the low voltage 24 V DC battery supply to the
400 kV AC transmission supply. The supply abnormal conditions may originate from an
internal source such as a short circuit fault or a common external source, e.g. lightning
interference that can cause the tripping of units and multiple units when connected to the
same transmission busbar system.
The power supply conditions are normally included in the power station general electrical
specification.

2.3 System layout
A power station electrical reticulation layout mainly consists of four systems namely the
Transmission Yard, the Distribution Yard, the Unit reticulation system and the Common
Plant reticulation system as shown in figure 1. The power is distributed by these systems
on various voltage levels. These systems are interconnected and each of them has a
specific function. The connections and interconnections of the different systems are as
follows:
• The 400 kV HV Yard is the connection to the Eskom integrated power system.
• Each generator is connected to the 400 kV HV Yard via the generator transformer with
the requisite voltage ratio i.e. 22 kV/400 kV and size i.e. 800 MVA.
• The units are interconnected with the same loop supply that connects each unit to the
station supply. One unit can also feed power to another unit.
• The 400 kV HV Yard is connected to the Distribution HV Yard (88 kV or 132 kV via
coupling transformers.
• The Distribution Yard is connected to the power station Common Plant via a station
transformer(s).
• The 400 kV HV Yard is connected to the Eskom 400 kV Transmission network and the
Distribution Yard is connected to the Eskom Distribution Network.
Distribution network Transmission network
Distribution Yard 400 kV HV Yard
Unit Boards
Station Boards
Figure 1. Block diagram of a typical power station reticulation system
The switchgear rooms and substations are provided at locations that are selected on the
basis of cost, environment, distance from source, nature of the plant and area to be served.
The origin of the supplies to the substations may be from the Unit supplies or the Common
Plant (or Station) supplies depending on the specific application thereof.

Typical Unit and Common Plant reticulation layouts and operation are shortly discussed in
the following paragraphs.
2.4 Unit reticulation layout and operation
The layout of a typical unit distribution system is as shown in the single line drawing of
figure 2. The generator (e.g. 22 kV output voltage) is connected via the generator phase
isolated busbars to the generator transformer (e.g. with a voltage ratio of 22/420 kV and
rated at 800 MVA) to transfer the generated power to the 400 kV HV Yard.
During normal operation, each unit supplies its own auxiliary power (approximately 55 MW
for a 657 MW generator) from the two unit transformers (e.g. voltage level of 22/11.5 kV
and size of 63 MVA) that are connected to the generator output terminals and the
generator transformer. When the unit is not running, power is supplied to the unit
auxiliaries from the back-energised (supply from the 400 kV HV Yard) generator
transformer via the generator busbars (see figure 2).
The power is distributed from the Unit Boards (e.g.11 kV) to 6.6 kV Unit Boards and 380 V
Unit Boards. Some plant equipment is supplied from DC (e.g. 24 V and 220 V DC) and
380 V UPS supplies at all times. The battery chargers related to the DC and UPS
equipment are supplied from the 380 V Unit Essential Boards (or Diesel Generator Boards)
that is provided with diesel generator back up.
Figure 2. Single line drawing of a unit reticulation layout

The emergency power supply system in each unit consists of an Essential Board (e.g.
380 V) backed up by a diesel generator and a DC Essential Board (e.g. 220 V DC). These
supplies are used to provide power to the unit equipment that is primarily used for safety,
protection and safeguarding of major primary plant i.e. oil supply to the turbine and
generator bearings.
Power to the unit can also be supplied from the common plant via the loop supply between
the common plant (11 kV station board) supply and the units (11 kV unit board). This
supply is used during construction when the normal supply (from 400 kV Yard) is not yet
available, during the initial commissioning of the Unit Generator Protection System and
during outages when maintenance is performed on the main supply equipment (export
system). The maximum quantity of power that can be supplied from the station to the unit
is limited by the current rating of the loop supply cable, the size of the station transformer
(e.g. 45 MVA) and the common plant load at the time.
2.5 Common plant reticulation layout and operation
The layout of a typical common plant distribution system is as shown in the single line
drawing of figure 3. The common plant power system provides power to production
services common to all the units i.e. control air, service air, cooling water and materials
handling. It also provides power to the non-production services i.e. workshops,
administration offices and contractor yards.
Figure 3. Single line drawing of a common plant reticulation layout

The common plant power system is configured in a dual redundant layout. The main
power source is two 11 kV station boards that is connected to the rural supply i.e. 88 kV (or
132 kV) HV yard via the station transformer (e.g. voltage ratio of 88/11 kV or 132/11 kV
and size of 45 MVA) and to the unit 11 kV boards via the loop supplies. The distribution
yard is supplied from the 400 kV HV yard via coupling transformers (e.g.400/88 kV or
400/132 kV). Both distribution and the transmission yards have a double busbar layout
that allows the supply system to be switched in several supply arrangements.
The power is distributed from the 11 kV station boards (A and B in figure 3) to the 6.6 kV
boards, MV motors (e.g. compressors) and the station LV boards.
In normal operation the units supply the station with auxiliary power (i.e. Units 1&2 supply
the two station boards respectively). This supply philosophy is used, firstly because the
unit supply is considered more reliable than the distribution yard supply, and secondly to
ensure that no power is imported from the distribution network because this power is
normally more expensive than the internally generated power.
In situations that depend on the power bidding prices, it may be advantageous to rather
import power from the distribution yard via the station transformer for the common plant,
and thereby increasing the unit power export capability.

3 GENERATOR
The generators used for power generation are large synchronous machines. These
generators were supplied by several manufacturers over many years in a large variety of
sizes, voltage levels and subsequent different designs. The basic theory, operation and
application are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
3.1 Synchronous machines basic operation
The stator winding of a synchronous machine is in principle identical to that of the induction
machine. However, the fact that synchronous generators are frequently built in much
larger sizes (up to 1200 MVA for synchronous generators and only up to about 20 MW for
induction motors) requires a lot more ingenuity in dissipating the losses generated inside
the machine to the ambient. The stator is always connected to a power system with its
fixed frequency and a voltage that suits the design of the machine best. This voltage can
be as high as 22 kV in the larger units. Synchronous generators can operate on their own
in which case the voltage is controlled by controlling the field current and the frequency by
regulating the speed.
The rotor winding of a synchronous machine must generate a more or less sinusoidal
distributed magnetic field, and this field must be fixed relative to the rotor. In other words,
this field must move with the rotor structure. This is achieved by passing a direct current
through the rotor winding. The sinusoidal distribution of the field is created by either using
a suitably distributed winding (round or cylindrical rotor construction) or by suitably shaping
the pole surfaces to modify the magnetic field strength generated by the concentrated coils
on the rotor (salient-pole construction). A cylindrical rotor of a large 660 MW generator is
as shown in figure 4 clearly indicating what the iron core and magnetising coils look like.
Figure 4. Synchronous machine cylindrical rotor

The salient-pole rotor and stator of a synchronous generator to be driven at a relatively low
speed by a water-wheel turbine has a large number of poles with the diameter of the air-
gap being considerably larger than the axial length of the stator and rotor core. A
generator driven by a steam turbine as shown in figure 5 runs at the highest possible
speed which is 3000 rpm when the supply frequency is 50 Hz. The length of the high-
speed machine is a lot longer than the diameter. At these high speeds the centrifugal
forces get too large when the diameter becomes too large, therefore forcing the machine
designer to use a long machine when he has to design for the larger output power.
Figure 5. Cut through view of a high speed generator
As in the induction motor the currents in the stator winding generate a sinusoidal
distributed magnetic field that rotates at a constant speed around the air-gap of the
machine. This speed of rotation is called the synchronous speed and is directly
proportional to the number of poles of the machine and the frequency of the supply to
which the machine is connected. In addition, the direct current in the rotor winding makes
sure that the rotor field is at rest with respect to the rotor body.
The synchronous machine can rotate at only one speed, the synchronous speed, when
operating in the steady state. If the prime mover (e.g. steam driven turbine), driving the
synchronous machine, tries to rotate at a speed faster than the synchronous speed, the
machine will develop a torque to retard rotation and keep the speed at the synchronous
value. This mechanical power supplied to the generator will be delivered as electric power
at the electric terminals. If, on the other hand, the mechanical unit connected to the shaft
of the machine tries to rotate at a lower than synchronous speed, the machine will now
operate as a synchronous motor and develop just enough torque to keep the speed once
again constant. There is of course a limit to the torque the machine can develop before it

will pull out of step and subsequently run at either a higher or lower than synchronous
speed.
A synchronous machine can, therefore, work equally well as motor or generator, depending
only on whether the mechanical unit to which it is coupled tries to rotate slower or faster
than the synchronous speed. It should now also be evident that a synchronous motor will
not be able to start from standstill and run up to full speed operating as a synchronous
motor. The solution to this problem is to put a squirrel-cage winding on the rotor in addition
to the DC field winding and to short-circuit the field winding terminals. The machine will,
therefore, start and run up to close to synchronous speed as an induction motor. The field
is then magnetised, and the machine pulls into synchronism.
Where the induction machine draws its (inductive) magnetising power under all conditions
form the AC supply, the synchronous machine gets its magnetising power from the DC field
winding. By regulating the magnitude of the field direct current the “quantity of
magnetising” of the machine can be controlled. If more is injected than the machine needs
for a given load condition (motor is overexcited), the surplus quantity is pumped out via the
stator terminals causing the machine to operate with a lagging power factor. When the
direct current is smaller than required, the machine will automatically draw the deficit from
the supply, causing the machine to operate with a leading power factor.
3.2 Generator and auxiliaries
The turbine generator units at a typical multi-unit coal fired power station are set axially in
line in the turbine hall. The generator (with steam driven turbine) is a two pole, three-phase
hydrogen and water cooled machine driven directly from the steam turbine. The rotating
rectifier of the main exciter is solidly coupled to the rear end of the main generator. Note
that some of the generators (e.g. at Matimba) have brushless exciters situated directly on
the end of the generator shaft.
The different components of the generator, excitation and excitation control system (ECS)
are as shown in figure 6 (surrounded by the block).
Figure 6. Generator and ECS system main components

The excitation power for the main generator is generated in the brushless main exciter.
The output from this exciter is rectified by the rotating silicon diodes and then fed to the
main generator rotor. The power supply for the field of the main exciter is obtained from a
permanent magnet high frequency alternator (the pilot exciter or PMG), whose output is
rectified and controlled by the excitation control system (ECS).
Each generator has its own independent hydrogen gas, seal oil and stator winding cooling
water system. Hydrogen is used to cool the generator rotor windings and the stator core.
The stator winding is direct water-cooled. The seal oil system provides a sealed enclosure
for the hydrogen gas.
3.2.1 Excitation system
The brushless excitation line comprises the main exciter, rotating rectifier and pilot exciter.
The exciter line is directly coupled to the turbine generator shaft and is, therefore, driven at
main generator speed.
The pilot exciter (PMG) is a high frequency alternator of the salient pole permanent magnet
type, located to the rear of the main exciter/rotating rectifier unit and is supported towards
the rear end by pedestal mounted bearing.
Power from the main AC exciter is rectified by the rotating silicon diodes and then fed to
the main generator rotor winding. The power supply for the main AC exciter field is
provided by the pilot exciter. The output of the pilot exciter is rectified and controlled by the
excitation control system (ECS).
Instrument slip-rings, brush-gear and an associated generator field measurement cubicle

are provided for monitoring the rotor voltage, rotor current and for earth fault indication.
3.2.2 Excitation control system (ECS)
The function of the excitation control system (ECS) is to establish a required level of
excitation, and to provide rapid and accurate control of this excitation automatically in order
to maintain the generator terminal voltage essentially constant when changes due to load
disturbances tend to occur.
The ECS normally is of a dual channel type and either channel is capable of controlling the
machine continuously. The protection of the equipment is such that if one channel
becomes faulty it is automatically switched off and the equipment continues operating
satisfactorily on the other channel. Should both channels fail the ECS would trip to manual
control. Manual control is provided on both channels for use mainly during commissioning
and maintenance periods.

3.2.3 Auxiliary systems
A water system is provided to circulate water that is cooled, filtered and demineralised
through the generator stator winding. Provision is made to monitor water flow,
temperature, conductivity and gas or air in the water.
A gas system is provided to ensure the safe operation of the generator with pressurised
hydrogen in the casing. The hydrogen is circulated through the machine by centrifugal
fans, the hydrogen being cooled by four vertical coolers mounted in the outer casing.
Carbon dioxide is used as a purging gas so that an explosive mixture of hydrogen and air
is never formed when filling or emptying hydrogen from the casing. Instrumentation is
provided to monitor the temperature, pressure, purity and humidity of the gas in the casing.
A seal oil system provides cooled and filtered oil to the radial face thrust type shaft seals.
Seal oil is supplied by a shaft-driven main oil pump or from an AC or DC motor-driven
pump when the main oil pump is not available. The seal oil pressure is automatically
controlled when the seal oil supply is from the main oil pump or AC motor-driven pump so
that it is always at a predetermined value above the generator gas pressure.
Instrumentation is provided to monitor the condition of the seal oil at all times.

4 GENERATOR EXCITATION CONTROL
As discussed in the previous paragraph, each generator in a power station has an

Excitation Control System (ECS). The ECS of the power generating unit can be described
as the total system that provides field current to the generator rotor winding. The ECS
provides excitation current in order to develop stator voltage on the generator busbars.
Most personnel are familiar with the term AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) which is the
electronic control system that forms the heart of the ECS. The AVR is responsible for
controlling the process of field current provision, and in such a way keep the generator
busbar voltage constant at all load conditions.
The principles of generator control are briefly discussed in this introductory paragraph.
4.1 General control of generators (operating in parallel)
After synchronising, the generator is loaded by adjusting the turbine governor setting to
feed more steam to the turbine. This tends to advance the rotor and a synchronising or
load current flows from the machine to the busbars, corresponding to an exact balance of
driving and resisting torques, keeping the machine in step.
In a generating station, the loads are shifted from one machine to another by manipulating
the governor settings. The governor setting is altered by remote control. Alteration of the
excitation does not alter the power output, but changes the reactive load. An increased
excitation to one machine causes it to take an increased share of the lagging reactive
power. At the same time there is a tendency to raise the busbar voltage since the
machines are relieved of some of their lagging current components.
4.2 The power factor meter
The power factor meter as shown in figure 7 is divided into four quadrants and marked
Lag/Lead in the top half and Lag/Lead in the bottom half. The top half indicates that the
generator is generating or exporting power to the system. The bottom half indicates that
the generator is motoring on the system or importing power from the system. The two top
quadrants corresponding to the generating mode of the power factor meter are briefly
discussed.
• The top ‘lag’ area:

In this area the generator is over excited and it is exporting real and reactive power to the
system. Running at a lagging power factor means that the generator is exporting reactive
power to maintain system voltage. Generating at a lagging power factor means that the
machine will be very stable.

• The top ‘lead’ area:

In this area the generator is under excited and is exporting real power (MW) but importing
reactive power (MVAr). Running at leading power factors means that there is a surplus
MVArs in the system and that the generator is absorbing some of these to reduce the
system voltage. When operating in the leading area the generator is liable to get unstable.
Figure 7. The power factor meter
4.3 The effect of a change in excitation
The great size of the Eskom interconnected transmission and distribution systems with the
generating plant capacity connected to the system being several GW (winter time peak
load of 35 GW is possible), has as a result that the behaviour of one single machine
connected to this large network is not likely to disturb the voltage and frequency. The
rating of one machine being only a fraction of the total connected generating plant.
The characteristics of a single synchronous generator connected to a large system are

quite different from those that operate on its own local load. When working on a large
system, no alteration of the excitation can change the terminal voltage that is fixed by the
network, the power factor, however, is affected.
4.4 Generator stability
When a generator is connected to the system the speed of the turbine corresponds to the
system frequency, because the rotating electrical and magnetic fields of the stator is locked
magnetically with the generator rotor. The magnetic field locking may be explained by
comparing it to many rubber bands linking the stator rotating field and the rotor magnetic

field. The strength of this locking depends on the interaction of the strength of the
magnetic fields from the stator and the rotor electromagnets.
The strength of the electromagnets depends on the current through the stator and rotor
coils. Likewise, the value of the generator voltage depends on the excitation or the current
through the rotor coils. Increasing the rotor current (excitation) is similar to strengthening
the rubber bands.
When a machine becomes unstable, the generator output goes from maximum to zero to
maximum again, the generator current, power and voltage will swing; the severity thereof
will depend on the level of instability.
4.5 Dangers of pole slipping
The stability of a generator or a group of generators is judged on the capability to maintain

synchronism during or after a fault on the system. Loss of synchronism of generators is
not permitted because of the dangers associated with pole slipping. The most important
dangers are:
• The auxiliaries may stall due to the low voltage.

• The boilers are subjected to large fluctuations in steam demand that causes boiler
control instability that can lead to a trip.
• Prolonged pole slipping may cause damage to generators through overheating.
• Even on the first pole slip, it can cause transmission line distance protection to operate if
system and generator impedances are such to cause a point of zero voltage to occur on
one or more transmission lines.
• It causes large voltage and frequency variations on the system.
4.6 Reactive power control
Generators can be used not only to provide active power (MW), but also to export reactive
power (lagging MVAr’s) and when required, to import reactive power (leading MVAr’s).
When the active or real power supplied is in excess of system requirements the system will
speed up and the frequency will increase. Therefore, a low frequency indicates that the
real power supplied by the station is less than the demand of the system. When the
reactive power generation is in excess of system requirements, the voltage will increase.
Therefore, insufficient reactive power generation will cause a lower than normal voltage.
To maintain system frequency and voltage, the generation of active power (MW) and the
generation or absorption of reactive power (MVAr) must be carefully controlled in a power
station. Power charts or stability diagrams as shown in figure 8 clearly indicate the safe
working area of each individual generator. The four most important conditions for efficient
and safe generator operation are now discussed.

(a) Rated stator current limit
Under normal conditions the rated stator current must not be exceeded, as it will cause
overheating and damage to the stator. The curve NQ represents the stator current or MVA
loading limit.
The loading point Q on the chart represents a satisfactory load condition of l00% MW
generating 50% MVar at a power factor of 0.9 lagging.
(b) Rotor current limit
Under normal conditions, the rotor current must not be exceeded, as it will cause
overheating of the rotor windings and damage to the insulation. The main exciter will also
be overloaded. Curve MN represents the rotor current (excitation) limit.
[MW]
U
S Q
N
T O M [MVA]
LEADING LAGGING
Figure 8. Operating chart for a large turbine-generator
(c) Generator output limit
The loading of the turbine and hence generator output must not exceed the full load rated
value. The line SQ represents the turbine or full load MW limit.
(d) Practical stability limit
The rotor must be kept within its operating stability limits e.g. at all times there must be
sufficient excitation to prevent pole slipping or hunting. Curve ST represents the practical
stability limit. The theoretical stability limit TU shown, represents the limit at which the
generator will definitely become unstable and start pole slipping. Any generator will
become unstable and start pole slipping if the excitation is too low.

All generators must only be operated in the area to the right of this line. In practice, when
the generator operating near this line suddenly accepts additional load, the operating point
may cross this line and the generator will become unstable. For this reason it is customary
to allow a margin of load to the right of the theoretical stability limit to cater for sudden load
increases. This margin is usually taken as 10% of the rating of the generator and is known
as the practical stability limit (represented by curve ST in the diagram).

5 GENERATOR PROTECTION
The basic principles of protection and the equipment utilised to implement the generator
protection system are shortly discussed. The details of each protection function will be
discussed in the generator protection module.
5.1 Electrical faults
When equipment fails in service, it usually results in an electrical fault known as a short
circuit. This means that instead of the current being fed to the load, it takes the shorter path
provided by the fault. When a fault occur it usually has one or more of the following effects:
• An increase in the current flowing in the circuit, often to a level many times higher than
the normal load current.
• A reduction in voltage, the voltage is usually lowest at the point of fault and increases
progressively towards the source.
• A large arc is formed which may, in addition to damaging the equipment immediately
affected, spread to other items of equipment and cause secondary damage.
• The possibility of an explosion which could cause widespread damage.
• A fire risk arising from the use of flammable materials in the electrical equipment.
An electrical fault can occur due to the following circumstances:
• When the equipment insulation deteriorates to such an extent that it fails at normal
voltages.
• When there are faults due to external causes, such as a sugar cane fire under the
transmission line causing a flash over between the conductor(s) and/or the conductors
and earth.
• During switching to clear faults, failure may also be expected. The rapid rate at which
the voltage rises after interruption of heavy fault currents is one of the major problems of
circuit breaking.
Electrical faults of conductors and equipment are categorised as follows:
• phase to phase,
• phase to earth and
• three-phase to earth fault.
Three types of faults are experienced namely:
• Transient fault
Transient (non-persistent) faults are caused by phenomena such as lightning, sugar cane
fires and insulator pollution. These faults cause no or very little damage to the equipment
as they are automatically detected and disconnected from the power system before they
can cause major damages or a power failure. The affected plant, usually a transmission
line, can be restored to service almost immediately (seconds) by automatic switching.

• Permanent fault
Permanent faults require that the affected or damaged equipment be taken out of service
and repaired before it can be restored to service.
• Persistent fault
Persistent faults are faults that would cause a breaker to lockout, but on re-closing of the
breaker the supply is restored. A typical example of such a fault is a cracked insulator that
would cause the breaker to trip to lockout and at the same time temporarily clear the fault.
It is very difficult to find this type of fault.
5.2 Protection schemes
The main purpose of protection is to protect the system against the adverse effects of a
fault by selectively disconnecting the affected apparatus so that the system can continue to
function with a minimum disturbance to the supply. An electrical protection system is a
scheme that is designed to monitor the behaviour of a power system. Signals representing
the currents and voltages are fed into the protection scheme that consists of a number of
relays. These relays must then decide:
• whether an abnormal condition exists or not,

• whether the system is being endangered,
• which element of the system is faulty,
• how quickly the fault can be removed and
• whether the system can safely be re-energised or whether it must remain disconnected
until visual inspection reveals the fault and its severity.
Another important purpose of protection is to prevent other healthy equipment from being
damaged, by through fault currents that they must conduct.
The third purpose of protection is to reduce the damage to the equipment at the point of the
fault. It would then be quicker to repair the fault and the subsequent non-productive time of
the system is therefore shorter.
5.3 Protection scheme equipment
A protection scheme may consist of the following equipment (see figure 9):
• current transformers,
• voltage transformers,
• circuit breakers (trip coils),
• batteries and
• one or more relays.

FAULT
AC replica input
from CT and / or VT
BATTERY DC RELAY DC BREAKER

TRIP / CLOSE
Figure 9. Schematic of a protection scheme
5.4 Basic requirements for protection schemes
The basic requirements for a protection scheme are listed and shortly discussed here
below:
• Selection
The most important quality of protection is to pinpoint the fault and disconnect only that
faulty section, leaving the rest of the system intact. Correct fault selection keeps the system
stable and does not interrupt supply.
• Speed
Where possible, protection must operate as fast as possible to limit damage following a
fault. The damage results naturally from the heat (I2Rt) released at the fault point.
Sometimes, however, it is necessary to delay the tripping of a relay via a timer to obtain
selection or discrimination.
• Sensitivity
This is a quality that protection should have to enable it to detect small faults as well as
large ones. This sensitivity limits damage by disconnecting the circuit while the fault is in its
initial stages.
• Reliability
It is very important that protection operates every time when required. It is equally
important that it does NOT operate when there is nothing wrong on the circuit.
• Stability
This is the ability of the protection to remain inoperative when faults occur outside the
protected zone (external loads), or for load conditions. Strictly speaking this is a
characteristic of unit systems, since zones are not clearly defined in non-unit schemes.

5.5 Generator protection application
There are several different types of generator protection systems installed at the power
stations but the protection application on each generator unit is in accordance with the
"ESKOM GENERATOR PROTECTION PHILOSOPHY FOR LARGE FOSSIL FUEL
POWER STATIONS WITH GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKERS, GGS 0770".
Note that the term ‘’generating unit’’ includes the generator, generator transformer, unit
transformers and the bus connection between the generator and the HV yard.
The philosophy and design of the generator protection systems at the respective power
stations are reflected in the specific philosophy and documentation for each power station.
There may be deviances from the protection functions as prescribed by the standard,
because of special plant requirements or shortcomings of the protection equipment used.
The standard prescribes the protection functions for the generator unit. If a power station
does not comply with this philosophy, then the deviation and the reasons are stated in the
power station’s specific philosophy document. Typical settings for the protection functions
and the tripping logic are also provided by the standard. The settings at each power
station are documented in a protection setting document and is used to track any changes
to the settings and the reason for the changes (refer to GGPP 0764).
5.5.1 Generator protection panels
The protection functions are split into a main protection panel and a separate back-up
protection panel (see figure 10, two panels on the left hand side). Each panel is completely
independent from the other (also separate power supplies) and includes the relays to
realise the required functions. The splitting of the protection functions into main protection
and back-up protection is flexible. Generally, main protection is of the unit type consisting
of the fast protection functions, back-up protection includes the slower type protection
functions. Where possible, redundancy for functions in the main panel is provided for in
the back-up panel.
In some power stations the main and back-up protection panels are known as the Main 1
and Main 2 protection functions respectively. The reason for this is that with the availability
of numeric phase three relays, it is possible to duplicate all the functions from the main
panel (Main 1) in the second panel (Main 2) and thereby providing a redundant protection
function system.
5.5.2 Auxiliary relay panel
The Auxiliary Relay Panel is a separate panel (see figure 10, third panel from the left) that
houses the generator transformer tap changer control circuitry and the synchronising
equipment. This panel also provides a manual control function with indications of the most
important measurements of the system parameters and an active display of the system
single line.

Figure 10. Example of generator protection system panels
5.5.3 Generator fault recorder
A generator fault recorder is also provided in an additional panel (see figure 10, right hand
side panel) that monitors specific protection function triggers and records various analogue
parameters of the system when a fault occurs. The fault recorder is a very important
diagnostic tool when complicated faults and/or unit trips are investigated.

6 GENERATOR SYNCHRONISING
The conditions required to produce a state of stable synchronism are:
• The voltage of the machine must be the same as the busbar voltage.
• The frequency of the machine must be the same as the busbar frequency.
• The phase of the generator voltage must be identical with the phase of the busbar
voltage relative to the feeders.
• The phase rotation must also be the same.
If these conditions are not fulfilled and the generator circuit breaker is closed, the
consequence will be considerable damage to the generator, the rotor and most probably to
other power plant of the export system. On 20 November 1985 the Unit 1 generator at
Kriel was synchronised 180o out of phase, due to errors in the secondary wiring circuits of
both the 400 kV voltage transformers. There was a crossed connection in each of the two
VT systems that was not found during the wiring checks or the VT polarity checks. The
fault was cleared after only 70 ms but the generator and generator transformer were
damaged extensively.
6.1 Synchronising theory
If the switch contacts can be closed when all the abovementioned conditions are satisfied,
no disturbance will be produced. Although the ideal condition may be closely achieved, it
is evident that in practice it cannot be attained, and the fact that alternating current
machines can be synchronised satisfactorily and maintained in stable parallel operation, is
due entirely to synchronising torques exerted when differences of frequency and phase
angle occur. When the incoming generator has been paralleled the following parameters
will influence and determine the extent of the disturbance which will take place.
6.1.1 Phase sequence
In a three-phase generator, the disposition of the windings on the stator as well as the
direction of rotation of the field system, determines the order in which the induced voltages
attain their maximum values. The system then has an inherent phase sequence in which
the phase voltages attain their maximum, and if the phase windings are distinguished by
letters or colours, the phase sequence may be given an arbitrary representation. The
standard method is to colour the phase terminals so that their corresponding voltages
reaches their maximum in the order red, white, blue, red, etc.
This method of representation can then be applied to the convention of showing the
maximum of the phase voltages by three vectors 120 degrees apart. The instantaneous
value of each voltage is given by the projection of each vector on the vertical line ‘ab’ in
figure 11. If the maximum values are attained in the order “R”, “W”, “B”, “R”, the three
vectors can be considered as revolving in space in a counter-clockwise direction, which is
the standard conventional direction of phase sequence. “B” is called the leading phase

and “R” the lagging phase. Note that in the phase sequence, the colour code “Y” (yellow)
is interchangeable with “W” (white). Therefore, whenever “W” is used in the text, it refers to
“Y” which is used in the illustrations.
Figure 11. Standard phase sequence
Before a new machine is operated in parallel with existing plant, it is necessary to prove
that the phase sequence is similar. The phase sequence of two systems is represented by
their respective voltage vectors indicated on one diagram as shown in figure 12. An
incorrect phase sequence is shown in figure (a) and a correct phase sequence is shown in
(b). A phase-sequence indicator or phase rotation meter is used to check the rotation of
the system. The instrument must first be checked on a three-phase system having a
standard phase sequence, and the leads coloured correctly and the direction of rotation of
the disc noted. In using such an indicator on a high-voltage system where potential
transformers are used, great care must be taken in seeing that secondary connections are
not crossed.
(a) Incorrect phase sequence (b) Correct phase sequence

Figure 12. Phase sequence of two systems

It should be pointed out that three voltmeters will give a much more accurate indication of
the phase relation of the two sets of voltages.
6.1.2 The capacity of the running plant
If the capacity of the system is large, the impedance it will offer to the flow of synchronising
currents will be small, and consequently the tendency for the incoming machine to be
pulled into phase will be large. There may, however, be a corresponding tendency for
phase swinging and hunting, although with modern machines this is seldom experienced
as the damping action of the eddy currents induced in the rotor will quickly cause the
oscillation to die out. In the case where unlimited plant is connected to the busbars, the
incoming machine may be considered as being pulled into step with the running supply
without any phase displacement of the latter relative to its original setting.
In the case, however, where only one machine constitutes the running plant, and an
incoming machine of similar capacity is paralleled, the effects of the synchronising currents
will be similar in both machines, and the value of the synchronising currents will be
determined by the impedance of the two stators in series. In this case, too, should there be
a considerable difference between the characteristics of the prime mover governors; the
tendency to hunt may be accentuated.
6.1.3 Moment of inertia
The inertia of the rotor will affect the speed with which the machine is finally pulled into
step, and it should also be remembered that the whole of the rotating parts, including the
turbine rotor, must be included in this. It is also obvious that the momentum of the rotor will
cause the rotor to swing past the synchronous position, and the machine will therefore
oscillate about the mean position, the period of oscillation being determined by the moment
of inertia and the synchronising torques available. Neglecting the resistance of the stator
circuits, the synchronising torque may be taken as proportional to the angle of
displacement.
6.1.4 Voltage difference
Differences of voltage between the running and incoming machines at the moment of
paralleling will cause currents to flow in a similar manner to a short circuit effect, but a
small difference in voltage up to 5 % is allowed.
6.1.5 Frequency difference
A difference in frequency indicates that the stored energy in the rotor of the incoming
machine is either greater or lesser than if it were running in parallel at synchronous speed.
Therefore, if paralleling is carried out when a frequency difference exists, independent of
whether the other conditions are correct or not, a surge will take place, the synchronising

torque developed being sufficient to correct the difference in momentum. The condition is
one which will give rise to oscillation, which will normally be damped out by the rotor
losses.
It is usual to synchronise with the incoming machine running faster than the synchronising
speed because with this setting the generator will automatically pick up a small load. In the
case of sets, which are being run up from a limited supply of low pressure steam, it is
advisable to synchronise with the generator running slower, allowing it to “trail in”.
6.1.6 Phase difference
A difference in phase between the running and incoming machines at the moment of
paralleling will produce a synchronising current, and for a given phase angle will limit the
allowable frequency difference. If the generator is paralleled with a phase angle difference,
the initial synchronising torque will be determined by the instantaneous impedance of the
machine.
For a given percentage error, less danger of a disturbance will exist if synchronising is
performed later rather than earlier. The reason is that when the incoming machine is
paralleled early, the synchronising current will contain a component lagging with respect to
the machine voltage which will tend to demagnetise the field and, therefore, produce a
reduction in synchronising torque. When paralleling is carried out late, in which case the
synchronising current will be nearly in phase with the machine voltage and may even have
a leading component which will increase the field strength corresponding torque.
In carrying out the paralleling operation, the time required for the closing of the switch
contacts after operation from the control point is an important factor and should be checked
before the first attempt at paralleling is made. In general, the phase angle error on the
synchroniser should not exceed 3 degrees.
6.2 Synchronising equipment
To obtain the required conditions for connecting a generator onto the transmission
busbars, a synchronising relay is utilised. If the conditions are not correct the relay initiates
the necessary corrective actions to the AVR and turbine micro-governor, for adjusting the
voltage and frequency respectively.
6.2.1 Automatic synchroniser system
A typical layout of the synchroniser and associated equipment is as shown in figure 13 for
a system with a generator circuit breaker. The auxiliary relay panel is a separate panel
from the generator protection panels that house the generator transformer tap changer
control circuitry and the synchronising equipment.

The automatic synchroniser can be selected for synchronising the generator circuit breaker
or the HV breaker by utilising the respective VT selection relays. A function in the auxiliary
control panel PLC can also be utilised for the selection.
The synchroniser measure the incoming and running voltage quantities and send pulses to
adjust the generator speed and voltage from potential free contacts. The synchroniser
determines the length of output pulses required to satisfy these conditions. For example, a
long pulse to the micro-governor is issued if the frequency deviation between the two
systems is very large, and shorter pulses as the frequencies get closer together. It will also
ensure that the generator is always synchronised from slightly above the system frequency
and never from below.
Figure 13. Synchroniser interface to external equipment

Once the two voltages meet the phase angle and magnitude conditions, a closing signal is
given via the auxiliary control panel PLC to the selected breaker. The synchroniser sends
a signal via potential free contacts to indicate that it is in operation.

If the generator fails to synchronise within five minutes of the synchroniser being armed,
the device is automatically switched off and the process has to be repeated. However, if
the synchronisation takes place successfully then the synchroniser also switches off
automatically when the breaker close pulse is initiated.
There are sometimes two synchronising devices per unit, thereby enabling synchronising
to be performed by selecting the second one if one should fail. These two devices do not
function simultaneously and although they do not trip the unit, they prevent production
delays that could occur if a synchroniser fails (with only one installed). This is particularly
important for two-shifting units.
Whether synchronising across the generator or HV breaker, the synchroniser also selects
and advances the sending out of the close pulse according to the time delay caused by the
relays incorporated in the closing circuit (i.e. slightly before ideal synchronising conditions).
These advance times are determined from the breaker speed check results and those
times obtained when testing the auxiliary relays involved. The combination of these two
results is then implemented in the synchroniser software to determine exactly when the
pulse is to be sent.
To be able to synchronise the generator onto the system via the generator breaker, hence
implying that the Generator Transformer is back energised, the two voltages required are
obtained from the voltage transformers on both sides of this breaker (see figure 14). The
voltage used is red-to-white phase on both sides of the breaker and these voltages are
automatically selected once synchronising over the generator circuit breaker has been
selected via the unit control desk. This selection simultaneously ensures that the setting
parameters for the generator breaker synchronisation is utilised.
Generator
22kV Breaker
Voltage Transformers
Synchroniser
Figure 14. Generator circuit breaker synchronising
When the generator is in an islanded condition it becomes necessary to be able to

synchronise the generator to the system via the HV (400 kV) breaker. The voltages
required for the synchroniser is obtained from voltage transformers on both sides of the HV
breaker (see figure 15). The voltage used is red phase-to-neutral on both sides of the
breaker and these voltages are automatically selected once synchronising over the HV

breaker has been selected from the unit control desk. This selection simultaneously
ensures that the setting parameters for the HV breaker synchronisation is utilised.
400kV HV YARD
Generator
22kV Breaker 400kV Breaker
Generator Tranformer
Generator VT
Busbar VT
Synchroniser Relay
Figure 15. HV breaker synchronising
6.2.2 Automatic synchronisers
A synchroniser has two separate channels (dual channels) and both are required to
operate to close the breaker (two-out-of-two system). It has a frequency matching function
with adjustment for maximum slip (0.1-0.5 Hz), breaker operating time compensation (0.05-
0.5 seconds) and speed control pulse length (0.1-0.5 s). A voltage matching function is
also provided with adjustment for voltage (0-10 % VN), voltage difference and voltage
control pulse length (0.1-0.5 s). The nominal voltage is typically 63.5 V or 110 V.
The settings on both synchronisers are identical.
6.3 Commissioning and maintenance
The initial commissioning, re-commissioning and maintenance of synchronising systems

require special attention (similar to protection systems), because a small mistake can have
catastrophic results and, therefore, special procedures are required.
Commissioning or re-commissioning of the synchronising system is required under the

following circumstances:
• First commissioning of main generator synchronisers.

• After generator protection system and/or excitation system refurbishment.
• After primary and/or secondary synchronising equipment was disconnected or
replaced.
After the installation of a new system, the erection check is performed, then the pre-
commission checks and then the final commissioning are performed before the generator
is synchronised to the IPS for the first time.

The re-commissioning requirements, after generator protection system and/or excitation

system refurbishment or after primary and/or secondary synchronising equipment was
disconnected or replaced, differ. The plant checks and testing requirements are adjusted
to suite the situation.
The routine maintenance requirements of the synchronising system depend on the type of
equipment installed e.g. where new micro-processor based synchronising relays are
installed, the routine maintenance intervals are longer.
The personnel that perform maintenance work, erection checks, pre-commissioning

checks, commissioning, re-commissioning or witness such activities, needs to be specially
authorised to do so. This is another part of the management process quality system.

7 GENERATOR BUSBAR SYSTEM
The generator phase isolated busbars interconnect the generator output terminals with the
primary terminals of the Generator and Unit Transformers. The single line layout as shown
in figure 16 is basically the same at all the power stations, but with variations of the voltage
levels and the exclusion of the generator circuit breaker at some of the power stations.
The phase isolated busbars are presented with the thick black line.
Figure 16. Single line layout of generator busbar system
The busbars are an assembly of rigid isolated aluminium conductors, with connections,
joints and insulating supports, contained in electrical continuous aluminium enclosures.
The busbar and auxiliary equipment layout is different in each power station because of the
different turbine house layouts. A typical layout is as shown in the cut through view of
figure 17.

Figure 17. Cut through view of generator busbar system
7.1 Generator busbar main components
The main components of the phase isolated busbar system are shortly discussed in this
paragraph.
7.1.1 Conductors
The busbars are separated in two categories based on the current carrying capability
namely the main and secondary busbars. The main conductors connect the generator
terminals to the generator transformer LV terminals and the secondary busbars connects
the auxiliary equipment (e.g. VT cubicles) and unit transformers to the main busbars.
The conductor consists of an aluminium circular alloy tube in a circular electrically

continuous aluminium enclosure (see figure 18). The main busbar conductor is capable of
carrying the rated generator output current (e.g. 21 kA for a 657 MW generator) and
withstand a phase to phase short circuit (e.g. 150 kA). Laminated copper flexibles are
used for the busbar-to-equipment connections.
The conductors have flexible joints which allows for expansion and contraction. The
conductor expansion joint consists of aluminium laminated flexible connectors welded
between two sections of the conductor. Each laminated flexible connector is made from
layers of aluminium foil.
The busbar conductor insulators (see figure 18) support the conductor at the centre of the
enclosure and insulate the conductor electrically from the enclosure. The insulators are
made of symmetrical shed porcelain or epoxy resin. For the main busbars a three insulator

arrangement is used. It consists of one lower insulator carrying the weight of the conductor
and two side insulators to withstand phase to phase short circuit forces.
Figure 18. Internal view of busbar enclosure, main busbar and insulator
At certain positions in the busbar connection, it is necessary to provide fixed points (near
direction changes, elbows or tap-offs). The tap connections are especially designed for the
short circuit stress. The insulator arrangement is fitted to the conductor in such a way that
it guarantees the connection performance for the maximum short circuit current value. The
insulators are mounted to permit longitudinal movement between conductor and enclosure
due to thermal expansion. For inspection and maintenance each insulator is easily
accessible through a sealed inspection door in the enclosure.
On the generator side, a bushing is positioned at the end of the busbar enclosure to form a
seal for the pressurisation air system. The generator busbar terminal connections consist
of two adapter plates and flexible connections between the two adapter plates. The one
adapter plate is welded to the busbar bushing and the other adapter is connected to the
generator terminals by means of a bolted connection.
The generator circuit breaker, unit transformers, VT’s and generator transformers end
connections are made of aluminium and shaped to interface with the equipment it is
connected to.
7.1.2 Enclosure
Each phase conductor is enclosed by an individual aluminium enclosure separated from

adjacent conductor enclosure by an air space. The purpose of the phase isolated busbar
enclosure is to ensure personnel safety and reduce the possibility of phase to phase faults
in the busbar system.

The enclosure housing of the conductor is a circular aluminium duct. Each end of the three
enclosures is short circuited with each other by means of aluminium shorting plates. The
enclosures are earthed to the station earth at the short circuit plate under the generator.
Only one earthing point is allowed to prevent circulating currents and consequent
overheating of the busbar enclosure.
As the enclosures are conductive, the current induced in them is basically equal to and in
the opposite direction from the current in the conductors. The magnetic field outside the
enclosure is therefore practically zero. This limits the temperature rises in structures and
electromagnetic stresses during short circuits.
The busbars are naturally cooled. The heat generated by the current in the conductor and
the enclosure is dissipated in the surrounding ambient air by means of radiation and
natural convection. The busbars on the outside of the turbine house are sometimes fitted
with canopies that reflect the sunlight from the enclosure to reduce the busbar temperature
rise. In order to improve radiation, the outer surface of the conductor and the inner surface
of the enclosure is painted mat black.
The enclosures are anchored at certain points and are allowed to slide on insulating pads
to allow for expansion and contraction of the enclosure. These insulating feet are made of
porcelain or epoxy resin. The insulating feet support the busbar enclosures and ensure
electrical insulation between the enclosures and supporting steel. Insulation between the
enclosure and supporting steel is necessary to ensure the single enclosure earth. The
support structures are sized to maintain the enclosure position under normal and fault
current conditions and are normally made of hot dip-galvanized steel.
The enclosures are fitted with ethylene-propylene flexible bellows at all the plant interfaces.
The bellows form an effective dust and air seal and rated at the required minimum
creepage distance for the electrical installation voltage. The bellows are retained with
tensioned stainless steel bands.
Where the busbars exit the turbine house a wall seal is normally used. The wall seal
consists of a sectional aluminium frame bolted to the turbine house wall (normally A-line).
Neoprene bellows are fitted between the frame and busbar enclosure to give a weather
tight seal. The wall seal is earthed at one end to prevent circulating currents and
consequential over heating of the wall seal plate.
7.1.3 Flexible connections
The flexible connections are made of compacted copper foil. The functions of the flexible
connections are:
• to allow free expansion of the busbars,

• to damp the turbine generator set vibrations and

• to act as conductor between the connection terminals of the busbar conductors and the
main and secondary equipment terminals.
The technology used for the connections are not similar at all the power stations. The
latest development use transition washers. The washer is inserted between the equipment
terminals and flexible connections in the bolted joint to establish a low resistance electrical
connection. The contact surface is therefore made by the transition washer.
Transition washers are sharply profiled copper alloy washers encapsulated in protective
grease. The sharp profile penetrates surface oxide films and the grease forms a seal
against corrosion. The washers can be re-used but it is recommended that the profiles of
the washer is checked in a laboratory (magnified photo) before it is used again.
7.2 Generator busbar auxiliaries
The auxiliaries that are normally associated with the generator busbar system are shortly
discussed in this paragraph.
7.2.1 Busbar pressurisation system
The busbar interior is pressurised with dried controlled air above atmospheric pressure to
prevent the ingress of dust. Air from the common plant or station control air system (can
be at a pressure of 700 kPa) is used and the pressure is reduced to about 6 mBar via
pressure regulating valves. It is then split to go to each of the three phases of the busbar
enclosure. Over pressurisation protection is provided.
7.2.2 Generator main and neutral terminal enclosures
The main and neutral terminal connections of the generator are enclosed by aluminium
enclosures to prevent human contact with the live parts and to act as a screen to reduce
the external electromagnetic fields.
The neutral side enclosure is situated above the generator and is of rectangular
construction. The phase side enclosure is situated under the generator and is equipped
with phase segregated barriers. Removable panels are provided to allow access for
mounting and dismantling of the laminated flexible connections, CT’s and the generator
neutral star connection bar.
7.2.3 Generator current transformers
The generator CT’s are installed around the generator neutral and phase terminals. These
CT’s are used for protection, metering and AVR control purposes. Each main CT is
connected to an interposing CT. The interposing CT’s are installed in the auxiliary CT
cubicle. Interposing CT’s are necessary to reduce the current value of the main CT’s (e.g.

0 to 23 kA) to a lower value (e.g. 0 to 1 A) that is used as inputs to the protection relays,
metering equipment and AVR.
7.2.4 Auxiliary current transformer cubicle
The auxiliary current transformer (CT) cubicle is normally situated on the level under the
generator in close vicinity of the generator CT cubicle. The auxiliary CT cubicle contains
the interposing CT’s for the phase and neutral main CT’s.
7.2.5 Generator voltage transformers
The voltage transformers are installed for protection, synchronising, metering and control
purposes. The VT’s reduce the generator busbar voltage to a lower voltage (e.g. 63 V) for
the protection, metering and control equipment voltage inputs. The cubicles are normally
situated on the level just below that of the main busbars. Segregated VT cubicles are
provided for each phase to ensure a phase isolated busbar system.
7.2.6 Surge arresters and capacitors
Surge arresters are installed in segregated cubicles to ensure that the maximum surge
voltage does not exceed the generator transformer winding impulse level. The inter
connections for the surge arresters and capacitors are done with small copper busbars
(approximately 40 X 5 mm). These copper busbars are connected to the main generator
busbar conductor by means of flexible connections.
7.2.7 Generator CT cooling fans
The CT forced air cooling system is used to prevent overheating of the generator main
CT’s and to assist with the cooling of the generator main terminals. It is normally located in
the turbine house on the level under the generator. The system normally consist of two
100% fan units capable of delivering 10 000 m3/hour of air. Each fan unit transfers filtered
air to a common duct which distributes the air flow to the generator terminals through three
distribution ducts fitted to the busbar enclosure. Each of these distribution ducts is
equipped with a damper to adjust the air flow distribution.
The input filter box with removable air filters is fitted with pressure measurement devices
that measure the differential pressure across the filters and if it exceeds the specified value
(e.g. 3 bar), an alarm is initiated in the UCR indicating a dirty CT cooling fan filter. A
thermometer is also installed on the phase side CT cubicle in order to measure the
temperature of the circulating air inside the enclosure. The thermometer initiates a CT
cubicle over temperature alarm in the Unit Control Room (UCR) at 50oC.

7.2.8 Generator earthing transformers and resistors
Generators are grounded via some sort of external impedance so as to facilitate protection
of the stator winding and associated power transfer system. This protection limits the
mechanical stresses and the transient voltages developed during faults. The high
impedance method also provides a means for detecting ground faults within the machine.
The three single phase earthing transformers with the primary side connected to the
generator busbars and the secondary side connected in an open delta configuration across
a resistor (as shown in figure 19) limit the phase to earth fault current to about 10 A.
Generator
22kV Breaker
Earthing
Transformers
Resistor
Figure 19. Generator resistive earthing arrangement

8 GENERATOR CIRCUIT BREAKER AND EARTH SWITCH
The function of the generator circuit breaker is to connect the generator to the Eskom grid
during unit start-ups and disconnect the unit from the Eskom grid during unit shut downs or
electrical faults in the generator, export system or in the case of a boiler or turbine trip.
The generator earthing switch is installed between the generator and generator circuit
breaker just in front of the circuit breaker. The earthing switch acts as an earth when work
needs to be done on the generator or generator export system.
8.1 Generator Circuit Breaker description
The breaker is designed for installation with the phase isolated generator busbars between
the generator and generator transformer. The type of generator circuit breakers mostly
used at the power stations are the air blast GEC Alstom type PKG2V (see figure 20) and
the ABB type breakers.
Figure 20. Cut through view of generator circuit breaker

The function of the breaker is to:
• protect the generator in case of an electrical fault,

• connect and disconnect the generator from the Eskom power system during unit start-
ups and unit shut-downs and
• conduct the normal load current without exceeding the temperature rise values
permitted by the standards.
The circuit breakers used are air blast circuit breakers. The three poles are actuated by a
pneumatic control mechanism. The air pressure is regulated by pressure switches and an
electro-valve, located in the pneumatic cubicle.
A cooling circuit, composed of six fans per pole, is necessary to ensure the thermal
capacity of the circuit breaker. All relays and devices necessary for operation of the circuit
breaker are located in the Electrical Cubicle.
The capabilities of the generator circuit breakers are:
• the nominal current rating of the generator (e.g. 23 kA for a 657 MW generator),
• interruption of phase to phase faults (the breaker’s short circuit withstand capability is
150 kA for a 657 MW generator),
• closing on phase to phase or phase to earth faults,
• the breaker rated nominal voltage is that of the generator (e.g. 20 kV),
• withstand to ground and across gap of impulse and power frequency voltages as
defined by standard specifications.
The circuit breaker is a very small but technically complicated component and comprises of
the following main components:
• three poles with a cooling system,

• a pneumatic cubicle,
• a pneumatic relay and air connection pipes,
• an electrical cubicle to control the circuit breaker and
• the compressed air plant.
These main components are shortly discussed in the following paragraphs.
8.1.1 Poles with cooling system
The air-blast circuit breaker has three segregated poles enclosed in a conducting housing,
ground insulated through shims, and connected to the generator busbars by means of
connecting pads. The breaker is also included in the busbar ventilation system. The two
viewing windows on each pole allow the open position of the main chamber and auxiliary
chamber moving contacts to be verified. These moving contacts can be locked in open
position by introducing the locking rods in the channels.

Each pole includes the following equipment:
• the main interrupting chamber provided with a muffler at both ends, to which the
connecting pads are secured,
• an auxiliary interrupting chamber,
• two control valves and an opening control valve, and
• a cooling system.
The whole assembly is permanently filled with compressed air and stands on two insulating
supports.
(a) Main chamber
Current flow between the stationary part and the moving contact part, through rings of
sliding contacts made of corrugated strips of metal. Interruption takes place between a
stationary contact made of a cluster of flexible fingers and a tubular moving contact, both
enclosed in an insulated housing. The axial blast is produced by the opening of two
blasting valves.
(b) Auxiliary chamber
The purpose of the auxiliary chamber is to damp switching voltages during opening
operations. During a circuit breaker opening operation the main contact opens first and
then after a few milliseconds the auxiliary contact opens. The resistor has a damping
effect on the voltage switching surges. A time-delay device controls resistor insertion time.
Interruption of residual current is achieved using double axial blasting between the fixed
contact, made of a cluster of flexible fingers and the tubular moving contact, both are
placed in an insulating envelope.
(c) Valves and mufflers
The blasting air of two control valves is directed to mufflers on either side of the interrupting
chamber. Both control valves are vented to atmosphere through a muffler. The muffler is
vented to atmosphere through a filter.
(d) Cooling system
A cooling system, installed above the enclosure, consists of two radiators, cooled by
independent fans. The cooling system cools the high pressure air (3.3 MPA) inside the
circuit breaker auxiliary and main chamber used for blasting and circuit breaker operation
purposes. The air is heated by the main and auxiliary contacts when the circuit breaker
conducts current.

Each radiator is made up of a bundle of finned-tubes, in contact with the inside of the
interrupting chamber through two pipes and two insulating supports. Thermostats indicate
any possible abnormal temperature rise of the compressed air.
8.1.2 Pneumatic control cubicle
The poles are pneumatically controlled from a three-pole control cubicle by a pneumatic
relay and linkage pipes.
8.1.3 Electrical cubicle
This cubicle has two compartments. The first includes all the electrical equipment namely:
• local/remote switch,
• manual/auto operation switch that controls the fans,
• closing push-button,
• tripping push-button,
• circuit breaker operation counter and
• the position switches normal/filling for the first air filling.
The contactors and circuit breakers for the fans control are located in the other
compartment.
8.1.4 Compressed air plant
The compressed air supply is normally provided by a compressed air plant installed for
three units in a six unit power station. The compressed air plant supplies compressed air
at 255 Bar and is stored in a receiver. After reducing the pressure to 150 Bar, a piping ring
main supplies air to three circuit breakers. Air is stored in one receiver per circuit breaker
and then reduced further to 33 Bar to supply the circuit breaker.
The compressed air plant consists of two compressors fitted on a compressor skid, a
pressure reducing panel and an electrical control cubicle. In normal operation, both the
compressors are in service, one of them is considered as the lead compressor, the other
as the lag compressor.
8.2 Generator earthing switch
The generator earthing switch is installed between the generator and circuit breaker. The
earthing switch acts as an earth when work needs to be done on the generator or
generator export system (figure 21).

(a) (b)
Figure 21. General views of busbar earthing switch
The earthing switch is a single pole unit of which one is fitted to each phase of the
generator busbars. The active part is an isolator driven by an electric motor. The poles of
the switch are bolted to the conductor of the busbar and the short circuit links between the
poles and to ground is made outside of the busbar enclosure. The earthing switch
electrical cubicle contains the control equipment for electrical opening and closing of the
switch.
To operate any of the phases on the earth switch, a set of keys is needed to make the key
push buttons active. A mechanical indication is provided as well as a facility to visually
check the position of the telescopic contact. This is a requirement of the permit to work
system to ensure that a visual inspection to confirm the isolation is performed.

9 TRANSFORMERS
The power in a three-phase system is given by the well known circuit theory equation
S = 3 VL IL VA
where
VL = line voltage (rms)

and IL = line current (rms).
For a 380 V system with a power flow of 300 kVA the line current is approximately 500 A,
but with a power flow of 10 MVA the current is about 15 kA. This current is clearly
unmanageable, especially if the distance becomes longer. The solution to this problem is
to use power transformers. They are electromagnetic power converters with the ability to
convert power at a given voltage level to a higher or lower level.
9.1 Basic principles
The coupling between the two sides of the transformer is through the medium of the
magnetic flux in the iron core. According to the induction law, it is only the change in flux
that induces voltages in the two windings. A transformer can therefore operate at almost
any frequency but not DC. However, the design and construction of a transformer is
strongly influenced by the operating frequency.
The basic purpose of a transformer is to convert alternating current and voltage, and hence
impedance, from the values at the secondary terminals to values that are compatible with
the circuit connected to the primary terminals. The conversion is regulated by the
transformer turns-ratio that is suitably selected. As mentioned transformers are incapable
of converting DC components from one winding to the other and it is normally avoided to
circulate such currents through the windings because of the undesirable effect it has on the
transformer.
A transformer basically consists of two windings, with different number of turns, wound
around the iron core, as shown in figure 22. The primary winding is usually designated as
winding number one and carries the magnetising current drawn from the supply system.
The output of the transformer is connected to the secondary windings and is designated as
winding number two. The high voltage winding is the one with the highest number of turns
and the low voltage winding is the one with the smaller number of turns. The windings are
wound around the “leg” (or limb) portions of the core and the core sections that connect the
legs are called the yokes.
The losses during the conversion process are very low, the inductive power required to
magnetise the core is comparatively small and, therefore, efficiencies of 98% can be
achieved. As a consequence the values of the real and apparent power flow through the
transformer are independent of the side of the transformer at which the calculation is done.

Figure 22. Single phase transformer representation
Under normal steady state operating conditions a transformer exhibits a series impedance
that causes a voltage drop. This has to be taken into consideration when the transformer
is designed and applied, but this can be accommodated by the use of winding tapping
points. By changing the tap setting on one of the windings of the transformer, the voltage
ratio of the transformer is changed and therefore offsetting the voltage drop.
There are several types of transformers utilised in the power network system, but for the
purpose of this module, two categories will be discussed namely dry type and oil type
transformers.
9.2 Oil type transformers
Most of the transformers used in a power station are oil cooled with oil-to-air heat
exchangers mounted on the side of the transformer. An example of a 20/400 kV generator
transformer is shown in figure 23.
The magnetic core is made of stacked laminated transformer steel sheets to limit the iron
losses due to eddy currents. The laminations are about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick and are
tightened very firmly to avoid movement due to the alternating flux causing higher losses,
vibration and noise.
The low voltage winding is wound in layers and form a drum shape. It is normally placed
closest to the core. The high voltage winding is placed around the low voltage winding.
The connections of the taps are on this winding, connected to the tap changer mounted
externally to the main tank.
The mechanical forces developed inside a transformer between sections of the windings
and between the coils and the core are enormous under short circuit conditions.
Appropriate measures are taken during the design to avoid mechanical damage to the
active part of the transformer under these conditions.

Figure 23. Sectional view of an oil type transformer
9.2.1 Transformer oil and paper insulation
The transformer oil is as a dielectric medium and also acts as a cooling medium.
Transformer oil is used in conjunction with oil-impregnated paper, which is wrapped around
the windings to provide the insulation between parts of windings, between windings, and
from windings to ground.
Transformer oil samples are taken periodically (normally every six months on the generator
transformers, unit transformers and boiler feed pump transformers and yearly on the other
oil type transformers). Several laboratory tests are performed on the oil sample e.g. a
dissolved gas analysis (DGA), water content and dielectric strength.
Appropriate action is then taken based on the test results e.g. the presence of high
concentrations of combustible gasses such as methane, ethane, ethylene, and acetylene
indicate hot connections, overheating or internal arcing inside the transformer.

9.2.2 Transformer auxiliary components
The transformer auxiliary components are listed and shortly discussed in this paragraph.
(a) Oil conservator
The transformer conservator is connected to the main tank through the Buchholz relay
piping. The air above the oil in the conservator of a transformer is “breathed” in and out as
the oil body of the transformer contracts or expands. This contraction and expansion
results from the changing ambient air temperature conditions as well as the transformer
load. Large transformers (unit and generator) are fitted with oil conservator bags. The
transformer oil is separated from surrounding air by a rubber air cell. Expansion and
contraction of the oil is accommodated by the collapse of this rubber air cell. The
conservator is fitted with a breather and a drain valve.
(b) Tap changer
The generator transformers are equipped with on load tap changers. The tap changer
windings are connected to the 400 kV transformer windings at the neutral side of the
windings. The on load tap changer is used for voltage regulation when the transformer is
back energised. During exporting of power, the tap changer is selected to manual mode.
All the small oil type transformers are equipped with de-energised (off-load) tap switches.
The tap switches normally provide a total tap range of 10% at the secondary terminals.
The tap switches are installed in the transformers main tank.
(c) Transformer oil coolers
The generator transformer is oil forced and air forced (OFAF) cooled. Six cooling banks
consisting of two coolers each are used to cool the oil by blowing the cool air through the
oil radiators. Five banks are operational with the 400 kV breaker closed and one bank is
on standby. The standby bank will automatically be put into service if one of the duty
banks fails. Each cooler is equipped with a fan and motor, and each vertically positioned
pair of coolers is connected in series and served by a single oil pump with integral motor. If
the transformer is shut down, the cooling system will keep on operating until the oil
temperature drops below 55ºC.
The unit transformers are oil natural and air forced (ONAF) cooled. One cooler bank,
consisting of six radiator fans, is used to cool the oil by blowing cool air over the oil
radiators. The cooler bank is equipped with fans and motors (e.g. two). Both the cooler
fans are operational at a winding temperature above 65ºC and stop at a winding
temperature of 60ºC.
The 20 MVA and smaller oil type transformers are oil natural and air natural (ONAN)
cooled. The transformer core and winding heat are transferred to the transformer oil. The

transformer oil flows through the transformer radiators by means of natural convention and
transfers its heat to the radiators. The transformer oil transfers its heat to the radiators and
the radiators’ heat is transferred to the surrounding air, which flow over the radiators by
means of natural air flow.
(d) De-hydraulic breather
Whenever “breathing” takes place, it is essential to ensure that the incoming air is
completely dry so that no condensation can subsequently occur and contaminate the
rubber bag. The dehydrating (silica) breathers are designed to dry the incoming air to the
necessary degree. They are further provided with oil seal bowls, which prevent contact
between the atmospheric air and the gel charge, when no “breathing” is taking place.
In order to give visual indication of the degree of saturation in the silica gel charge, the gel
is impregnated with cobalt chloride. This gives it a blue colour when dry which turns to pink
when a certain percentage of its weight in the water vapour has been absorbed.
(e) Marshalling kiosk
A marshalling kiosk is an electrical panel for each generator transformer and contains the
cooling fans and pumps power supply and control circuitry. The marshalling kiosk also
interfaces with the station control system for alarm purposes, generator protection system
for protection purposes and the tap changer electrical cubicle for control and alarming
purposes.
9.2.3 Transformer protection and indicating devices
The transformer protection and indication devices are listed and shortly discussed here
below:
• Gas actuated relay

Buchholz relays are mounted in the main oil pipe between the main tank and the
conservator. The relays react to gas formation, a loss of oil or a sudden oil pressure surge.
A Buchholz alarm or trip is activated in the control room associated with the gas formation
in the relay.
• Pressure relief device

Excessive pressure in the tank is released by a relief valve situated on the main tank. The
pressure relief valve trips the transformer in the event of the pressure in the main tank
exceeding the preset trip value of the relay. If a pressure relief device is activated, an
alarm will be initiated at the control room.

• Hydro mechanical type oil level indicator (main oil tank conservator)
The level of the oil in the main oil tank conservator is indicated locally. An alarm will be
activated in the control room if the level of the oil drops too low.
• Oil temperature thermometer

Oil temperature is indicated locally on the oil temperature indicator. The oil temperature
thermometer display is located next to the transformer. An alarm is activated at the control
room when the alarm value is reached and tripped if the trip value is reached.
• Winding temperature thermometer

The winding temperature is indicated locally on the winding temperature indicator. The
winding temperature thermometer display is located next to the transformer. A winding
temperature alarm is initiated at the control room when the alarm value is reached and if
the winding temperature rises to the trip value, the transformer is tripped.
• Current transformers
Ring type current transformers are fitted for protection purposes.
9.3 Dry type transformers
Dry type transformers (see figure 24) are air cooled that has the advantage that it can be
used in areas where the presence of oil is dangerous i.e. in switchgear rooms.
The transformers are normally installed with a lockable enclosure for safety reasons but
with adequate ventilation to allow for cooling of the transformer. Natural air flow for cooling
is preferred, but forced ventilation is also used in some applications, increasing the load
capability of the transformer considerably.
The standard requirement for temperature protection is one thermistor for a trip, one for
alarm and one RTD for remote indication on each of the three windings. A winding
temperature alarm is initiated at the control room if the winding temperature rises to 150ºC,
and if the winding temperature rises to 170ºC, the transformer is tripped.
Ring type current transformers are also fitted around the busbars on the LV side of the
transformer (normally inside the switchgear panel) to provide for transformer over current
protection.
9.4 Transformer application in the power station
Transformers are used in the power station to transform electric power from the generator
voltage (20 kV) to the transmission voltage of mainly 400 kV. From the generator voltage
level transformers are used for auxiliary power distribution within the power station on the
different voltage levels e.g. 11 kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 660 V, 550 V, 380 V and 220 V (single
phase).

Figure 24. Sectional view of a dry type transformer
The oil type transformers used at the power stations are divided in the following categories
(typical ratios and sizes are given in brackets):
• generator transformers (20/400 kV, 730 MVA),

• unit transformers (20/11 kV, 63 MVA),
• variable speed drive boiler feed pump transformers (11/3.3 kV, 13 MVA),
• station transformers (88/11 kV, 45 MVA),
• coupling transformers (400/88 kV, 100 MVA),
• large oil type transformers (11/6.6 kV, 5-20 MVA) and
• small oil type transformers (11 kV/380 V, < 5 MVA).

They are never installed indoors. Oil bund walls are provided for capturing the leaking oil
(can also be burning) and explosion protection walls are provided for protection of
personnel and nearby equipment, in the case of a catastrophic failure.
Dry type transformers (air natural, AN) are used wherever possible. This eliminates the fire
hazard due to oil leakage and enables the transformers to be located within plant areas,
adjacent to the switchboards being supplied, and thereby minimising long and costly cable
runs. The transformer secondary connections are normally busbars. Most of these
transformers have a ratio of 11 kV/380 V and with ratings from 400 kVA to 1600 kVA.

10 ELECTRICAL MACHINES
The three types of electrical machines mostly used at the power stations are the induction
machine, the direct current (DC) machine and the synchronous machine.
These machines can all be designed and constructed to operate with a high degree of
reliability and efficiency. It is normal that machines with a rating of the order of 1 MW can
operate at efficiency as high as 96% or even more. Smaller machines though operate at
much lower efficiencies for example the typical full-load efficiency of a motor with a rating
of 2.2 kW is about 76%. The designer of an electric machine has to keep the efficiency of
the machine as high as possible not only to keep the costs associated with the losses as
low as possible for the prospective user of the machine, but more important because
sufficient cooling for the machine is required to dissipate the losses due to the “higher”
losses inside the machine.
In all three the above mentioned main types of rotating electric machine electrical currents
must flow in windings on both the stator and the rotor of the machine (see figure 25).
These windings consist of coils made of insulated copper wire and are either located in the
inter polar spaces as concentrated coils (a), or they are constructed as distributed coils as
shown in figure (b), the sides of each coil being embedded in slots in the stator or rotor
surfaces. The un-insulated, short-circuited construction of the winding of most induction
motor rotors will be explained.
(a) Round rotor construction with coils in slots (b) Salient pole construction (4 pole)
Figure 25. Diagrammatic representation of construction of a machine
The height of the shaft centre above the base of the mounting feet is one of the most
important dimensions of any electrical machine. This height in millimetre is always
incorporated in the frame size of a particular machine. Therefore, a machine with a frame
size number of “200L” will have a shaft centre height of 200 mm.
The currents in the stator coils combine in generating a magnetic field on the rotor, and it is
the interaction between these two fields that causes the machine to develop a torque. The

resultant field in the machine is also responsible for the induction of voltages in the
windings of the machine. Control of the magnitudes and frequencies of these currents is
then the mechanism by which the machine is controlled.
It is important to note that the number of poles formed by these currents in the windings of
any given machine must always be the same for the stator and the rotor. The requirement
of this can be explained with reference to figure 26. In figure (a) a magnet system is shown
with only two poles on both stator and rotor. It is clear that the north and south poles on
both sides of the rotation centre will attract each other, therefore, resulting in an anti-
clockwise torque. In figure (b), however, no torque is developed at that specific position as
the attracting torque developed by two adjacent poles of opposite polarity will always be
cancelled by the repelling torque developed by two poles of similar polarity on the other
side of the centre point.
(a) Two pole stator and two pole rotor (b) Four pole stator and two pole rotor
Figure 26. Requirement for the same number of stator and rotor poles
It follows furthermore from the above that the magnetic field pattern of the rotor must be
stationary relative to the field pattern of the stator for a constant torque to be developed.
With relative movement the torque will change, and when the rotor rotates at a constant
speed the torque will alternate between positive and negative maxima with the result that
the average value of the torque will be zero. The conclusion may, therefore, be drawn that
for a constant torque to be developed under steady state conditions, the magnetic fields
generated by the stator and the rotor must rotate at the same speed.
The physical size of an electric machine is more or less related to the torque developed by
the machine. Torque times rotational speed is mechanical power and a measure of the
rating of the machine. It is therefore clear that the higher the speed of a machine the
higher the output of the machine will be for constant torque. The lower the speed, the
larger the machine must be for a given output.

The nature of the currents in the stator and rotor and the way in which they are fed to the
machine are responsible for the distinctive character of each machine type, i.e. the extent
to which its characteristics differ from that of the other.
The basic operation and theory of synchronous machines were discussed in section 3 in
the generator discussion. Below follows a brief discussion of induction and DC machines.
10.1 Induction machines
The induction machine is, because of its characteristics, nearly exclusively used as a motor
although it can also operate as an induction generator. At least 80% of the world’s electro-
mechanical conversion is performed by simple constant voltage, constant speed (at a
specific steady state load the speed will vary during transient conditions) induction motors.
Only the stator winding of the machine is connected to the alternating current supply,
thereby forcing currents at supply frequency to flow in the stator. Apart from supplying the
real power the machine has to convert to mechanical power, the supply must also feed to
the machine the inductive power necessary to magnetise the machine, i.e. the magnetising
currents needed to generate the magnetic flux in the air-gap of the machine.
It has a single-phase or three-phase winding embedded in slots on its stator, and in its
most common construction it has a rotor winding consisting basically of un-insulated
copper or aluminium bars in the slots in the rotor iron. These bars are then short-circuited
by a so-called endring, one at each end of the rotor lamination pack. Due to its shape
when considered alone, this type of winding is called a squirrel cage winding.
A squirrel-cage rotor is shown in figure 27 with the two axially mounted fans for ventilation
mounted on the front and rear ends respectively. A typical induction motor stator used in
medium voltage motors is as shown in figure 28.
Figure 27. Squirrel-cage induction motor rotor
A slipring rotor induction motor is much more expensive and less reliable than its squirrel-
cage counterpart, and is only used for special purposes. The sliprings are used to connect

the rotor winding to external resistors, but no power is fed directly to the rotor of the
machine. The currents flowing in the rotor circuit which is actually short-circuited through
the external resistors are induced in it by the magnetic field of the machine. Therefore, the
name of “induction motor” has been given to this type of machine. In the other machine
types, both the stator and the rotor windings are connected to external power supplies.
Figure 28. Squirrel-cage induction motor stator
The power fed to these machines is usually at the standard power supply frequency,
although modern power electronic equipment provides the possibility to feed the machine
at a variable frequency. The voltage level is chosen at a convenient value to keep the
supply current low. For small- and medium-sized machines up to approximately 250 kW
the standard low voltage for power distribution (i.e. 220 V single-phase or 380 V three-
phase) is used. At higher ratings the supply current, especially under starting conditions
becomes too high, and it then becomes necessary to work at higher voltages such as
6.6 kV or 11 kV or even higher values.
Squirrel-cage induction motors are without doubt the most robust of all rotating electric
machines mainly due to the construction of their rotors. The rotor forms one comparatively
rigid unit. Insulation is only used between the laminations on the rotor, and these are not
subjected to high voltages and are not easily damaged. The manufacturing process of the
rotors is also comparatively straightforward with a minimum amount of labour required.
They are, therefore, by far the cheapest of all motors for a given rating. For any drive
without special requirements they are the first choice.
10.2 DC machines
A direct current (DC) machine is relatively expensive and requires more maintenance than
the other types of machines. There must be distinctive reasons for choosing such a
machine for a particular application. When considering the application of DC motors, a

very good reason for using it is that it has excellent features as a control motor. Just by
adjusting its terminal voltage, the speed of the machine can be varied over a wide range.
As with the synchronous machine, both the stator and the rotor winding are connected to
external sources of energy, but now both are connected to direct current supplies. The
field systems are always arranged in the form of salient poles with the necessary
concentrated coils to magnetise the poles. Permanent magnet poles are sometimes used
in the smaller ratings. In contrast to the synchronous machine the field poles are usually
on the stationary member. Figure 29(a) displays an axial view of the stator of a DC motor
in which the field coils are clearly visible. The smaller coils in the inter-polar spaces are
called the commutating pole windings and are used to assist the commutation in the
machine.
(a) Stator (b) Rotor

Figure 29. Stator and rotor of a DC machine
The rotor carries the armature winding, and this winding is connected to the main power
supply via its commutator and the sets of brushes resting on the commutator. Figure 29(b)
shows a photo of the armature of a DC motor with the commutator on the near side of the
picture.
Adjusting the field and/or the armature voltage can very effectively and with a high
efficiency control the speed of a DC machine. By changing any one of these, the machine
can be made to switch-over from motoring to regenerative braking or vice versa almost
instantaneously. The terminal voltages are seldom higher than 1000 V, due to the
construction of the commutator of the machine.

11 VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
Variable speed drives (VSD’s) are used in many different plant applications. The
applications range from very large drives e.g. boiler feed water pumps to small drives e.g.
mill feeder drives but they mostly perform a very important and crucial function in the power
station process.
The VSD’s are normally located in ventilated substations or in IP 65 rated cubicles to

protect them from the environmental conditions. The equipment that makes up a VSD
includes sophisticated control electronics and power electronic switches that requires a
cool, dry and dust free environment for trouble free operation.
The VSD’s are basically maintenance free units and with the self-diagnostic functions of
the drive it gives an indication if something is wrong. The main preventative maintenance
action is, therefore, to keep the drive clean.
11.1 Advantages of VSDs
The precision control capability of a VSD is obviously an advantage when compared to a

normal electrical motor.
The energy consumption of the plant is lower, because the variable speed drive allows the
plant to run much more efficient. This is due to the advantage with the inverter control of
soft start/stop and speed ramp functions. These functions help to prolong the life of the
motor and its load by reducing mechanical stresses on them by controlled acceleration and
deceleration. Whenever the motor is stopped and started it needs to be brought up to
speed or back to standstill as smoothly as possible. This is done internally to the VSD with
speed ramp and soft starting.
Soft starting reduces peak power demands on starting compared to direct on-line starting
which can produce peaks of up to seven times the full load current on the mains. By
controlling the current and voltage to the motor, the VSD uses around a third of the start-up
power used with a direct on-line motor.
11.2 VSD basic operation
Motor drives are used in a very wide power range, from a few watts to megawatts, in
applications ranging from very precise, high-performance position-controlled drives in
robotics to variable-speed drives for adjusting flow rates in pumps. In all drives where the
speed and position are controlled, a power electronic converter is needed as an interface
between the input power and the motor.
A general block diagram for the control of motor drives is shown in figure 30. In servo
applications of motor drives, the response time and accuracy with which the motor follows
the speed and position commands are extremely important. However, in a large number of

applications, the accuracy and the response time of the motor to follow the speed
command is less critical. There is a feedback loop to control the process, outside of the
motor drive.
Power Electronic
Controller Motor Process
Converter
Process Control
Computer
Figure 30. Motor drive system logic control diagram
A converter is a power electronic device that first converts AC to DC. The inverter uses the
DC from the DC bus and inverts it to an AC supply feeding the specific AC motor. The
converter uses the DC from the DC bus and changes it to control the DC motor armature
and field windings. Typical AC and DC converter line diagrams are shown in figure 31.
Mains Mains
Main AC Switch Main AC Switch
Rectifier Rectifier
DC Bus DC Bus
Inverter Converter
Load Load
(Output) (Output)
AC Drive DC Drive
Figure 31. Typical AC and DC converter line diagrams

11.3 Design considerations for VSD’s
The drives must be functionally simplistic, allowing for fail-safe features, power and
electronic circuit protection, easy fault diagnoses and rapid fault repair. Some of the
important criteria to be considered when designing a VSD system are briefly discussed in
the following paragraphs.
11.3.1 Match between the motor and the load
Prior to selecting the drive components, the load parameters and requirements such as the
load inertia, maximum speed, speed range, and direction of motion must be decided. One
way to drive a rotating load is to couple it directly to the motor. In such a direct coupling,
the problems and the losses associated with gearing mechanism are avoided. The motor
must be able to provide the peak torques at the specific speeds.
11.3.2 Match between the motor and the VSD
A match between the load and the various characteristics of the motor, such as its inertia
and the peak and the rms torque capability, was mentioned. Depending on the power
rating, speed of operation, operating environment, reliability, performance requirements of
the load and the cost of the overall drive, one of the three types of motor drives is selected
(synchronous motor drive, DC motor drive or induction motor drive). The converter
provides a controlled voltage to the motor in order to control the motor current, and hence,
the electromagnetic torque produced by the motor.
11.3.3 Protection features
A main circuit breaker or switch for the isolation of the motor, drive and control unit from the
supply is provided in the switchgear. This circuit breaker limits the fault current in case of a
short circuit fault. High-speed fuses are supplied for the protection of thyristor elements
(mostly on the smaller drives up to 200 kW). Surge protection circuits are provided to
adequately protect the equipment from transient over voltages.
The AC power required for the control electronics is normally taken directly from the three-
phase supply feeding the load. This supply is equipped with a fuse in order to protect the
control electronics from fault conditions.
Over-temperature protection is supplied for conditions when the design ambient

temperature is exceeded. For thyristor stacks equipped with fans, detection of fan failure is
provided. The enclosure containing the thyristor stacks is earthed to eliminate any electric
field induced current in the enclosure or frame of panels.

11.4 Different types of drives
There are basically three types of motor drives namely synchronous motor drives, DC
motor drives and induction drives.
11.4.1 Synchronous motor drives
Synchronous motors with wound rotor fields are used in large power applications e.g. for
the 8.8 MW motors used for the boiler feed water pumps. Such a VSD system comprises
of a synchronous motor controlled at variable speed from a naturally commutated static
thyristor VSD. By controlling the speed of these drives, the feed water flow to the boiler is
controlled.
The power is drawn from the main supply (e.g. 11 kV) via the converter input transformer
that acts as an isolation and to transform the voltage to a lower value (e.g. 2.9 kV) for
feeding the thyristor (typically 12-pulse) converter equipment which feed variable voltage
and frequency to the synchronous motor (2-pole). The motor has it own directly coupled
brushless AC exciters and a shaft-mounted encoder to provide signals to the converter
during starting and at low speeds. Motor speed is directly proportional to converter output
frequency. The voltage is varied to give a constant voltage per cycle in order to maintain
approximately constant flux in the machine.
11.4.2 DC motor drives
DC motor drives are mostly used for speed and position control applications. This is due to
the initial lower cost of DC drives and the excellent drive performance. DC motors with
separately excited field windings are used in higher power applications. For accurate
position control it is important that the average voltage output vary linearly with its control
input, independent of the load on the motor.
11.4.3 Induction drives
The induction motor drive is used in the majority of applications incorporating three-phase,
squirrel-cage induction motors. Controlling the frequency and voltage of the motor via the
drive can control the motor speed. The drive can also be used to soft start the motor by
reducing the voltage and current at start-up. These drives are typically used in the power
station for the following plant:
• Bin feed conveyors for controlling the feeding of coal onto the conveyor belts.
• Mill feeder drives to control the flow of coal into the mills. This speed control forms an
important part in the combustion process of the boiler.
• Auxiliary water cooling plant where the cooling fan controls the airflow through the
cooling tower, therefore, controlling the cooling process.

11.5 Special operating conditions
Of the different special operating conditions that can occur overvoltage, overcurrent and
short circuit conditions are the most important that can be experienced by the VSD system.
These are briefly discussed here below:
• Overvoltage
The drives are fitted with transient overvoltage protection in the form of snubber circuits
and resistor/capacitor surge suppression networks which give protection against internal
and external “spikes”.
• Overcurrent
The drive can supply overcurrent conditions for a specific period of time, depending on the
specific drive. The overcurrent values can normally be set and the inverter will operate
only within these settings to prevent damage to the plant. If the drive goes into current
limit, the motor speed will fall. Overcurrent protection is primarily intended for thyristor
protection but should also more than adequately protect other plant items with longer
thermal time constants.
• Load short circuit

The inverter is short circuit proof. In the event of a sustained short circuit in the load circuit,
the output current is limited to a preset value. If the fault is not cleared within the preset
time, the inverter will be switched off.
11.6 Control of operation
The drives are controlled by switching them on and off from the relevant control room via
potential free contracts and controlling the speed via a 4-20mA signal. Every drive has a
software program that uses tables (that can be set by a competent person) for the specific
data of the motor. This data is used to control the motor within the required limits.
11.7 Alarms
The microprocessor-based nature of the VSD equipment generates a great deal of

information useful for investigating incidents or monitoring the VSD. The most important
alarms are routed to the control room via standard potential free contacts. The control
room mostly receives only a healthy/unhealthy alarm from the VSD. The details of the fault
condition can then be found locally at the VSD.

12 SWITCHGEAR
The function of the power station electrical reticulation network is to supply electrical power
to the equipment and auxiliaries needed to generate electrical power. The switchboards
(generally called switchgear) are the component used for the power distribution to the
various consumers. Each switchboard has one or more incoming feeders and several
outgoing supply circuits connected to the loads. Each circuit has the rating, protection and
control functions as required by the specific load.
The unit and common plant reticulation systems respectively are further subdivided in the
medium voltage (MV) supply system, low voltage (LV) supply system; AC essential system
and the DC system. Each of these systems is discussed in their respective modules. This
chapter briefly discusses the low and medium voltage switchgear, which will be discussed
in detail in the following modules:
• Module 12A: Low voltage switchgear and

• Module 12B: Medium voltage switchgear.
12.1 Voltage levels
The voltages generally used for power station medium voltage reticulation are 3.3 kV,
6.6 kV and 11 kV. These voltages are used where more power has to be transmitted or
where the distance to the load is further. In general 11 kV supplies are used for
transformer feeders and in the units for the very large motors such as the ID fan motors
(e.g. 8 MW). Due to the distance and the size of the load the loop supply to the units is
11 kV.
The AC low voltages generally used are 220 V (single phase), 380 V, 550 V (Matimba ACC
fan boards) and 660 V (Majuba ACC fan boards). Most of the equipment are supplied from
this voltage level and there are many more boards (can be more than twenty boards per
unit) when compared with the MV boards (four boards per unit). The number of circuits on
an AC LV board is also considerably higher than that for an MV board.
The DC low voltages generally used are 24 V, 48 V, 110 V and 220 V. There may be
variations on these voltages depending upon equipment requirements, national standards
and practices over the years. Additional special voltages may be chosen for specific
requirements but with the current equipment offered by manufacturers the client has a free
choice of power supply options meaning that the supplies can be consolidated to mainly
two DC voltage levels. In fossil fuel power stations and large hydro-electric and pump
storage installations 220 V and 24 V systems are employed. The 220 V supplies are used
for generator and switchgear protection, DC auxiliaries and emergency equipment e.g.
lighting while 24 V is used for unit and station control, indications, metering and alarms.

12.2 LV switchgear
The LV switchgear is of the floor mounted metal clad type as shown in figure 32. To allow
for additions, the switchboards are of the modular design with groups of circuits contained
in their own metal enclosed compartment (called a tier).
There are many different LV switchgear control circuits that perform the functions as
required for the plant e.g. valve actuators, pump motors, fan motors, heaters etc. These
circuits normally consist of standard circuit types to limit the number of different circuit
diagrams used. Some of these circuits have protection, instrumentation or control
functions included.
Maintenance can be performed on individual circuits without de-energising the entire

switchboard. A popular design is the withdrawable type switchgear where each circuit is
mounted in a drawer that can be completely removed from the board and repaired or
replaced with another drawer circuit of the same type.
Figure 32. LV switchboard
The power supply characteristics for typical LV supplies are as follows:
• 380 V, 550 V, 660 V: 3 phase, 4 wire, neutral solidly earthed, design fault level of
50 kA symmetrical
• 220 V DC: Artificial centre point earthed. The unit supplies can have a fault level as
high as 12 kA.
• 24 V DC: Artificial centre point earthed with a switchgear design fault level of 50 kA.

12.3 MV switchgear
The bulk of the electrical power at the power station is distributed by the MV reticulation
system. The reason for this is that it is more cost effective to distribute power in the power
station at a higher voltage than at a lower voltage, when considering the quantity of power
and the distances involved.
The MV switchgear is of the floor mounted metal-enclosed type as shown in figure 33.
Metal-enclosed switchgear is switchgear that is enclosed in a metal housing. An example
of switchgear that is not metal-enclosed switchgear is the 400 kV breakers in the HV yard.
One of the functions of metal-enclosed switchgear is to contain an internal arc (Internal Arc
Classified, IAC) during fault conditions.
To allow for additions, the switchboards are of the modular design with each circuit
contained in its own metal-enclosed compartment, allowing maintenance on individual
circuits (excluding the common busbars) without de-energising the entire switchboard.
These compartments are segregated. The 11 kV switchgear is painted green and the
6.6 kV switchgear, orange in accordance with the SABS specifications.
Figure 33. Metal clad MV switchboard

The power supply characteristics for typical MV supplies are as follows:
• 11 kV: 3 phase, 3 wire, resistance earthed, design fault level of 30 kA symmetrical,

maximum earth fault current of 300 A
• 6.6 kV: 3 phase, 3 wire, resistance earthed, design fault level of 25 kA symmetrical,
• 3.3 kV: 3 phase, 3 wire, resistance earthed, design fault level of 20 kA symmetrical,
12.4 Substations
The switchgear rooms and substations are provided at locations that are selected on the
basis of cost, environment, distance from source, and nature of the plant and area to be
served.
The unit switchgear rooms house most of the LV and MV switchgear in the power station
and are large air conditioned rooms that are situated in the auxiliary bay (for the unit
boards). The rooms are situated at different locations and levels. The “MV rooms” are
situated on ground level with one room per unit for the unit MV boards. This is a
convenient location for the distribution of the MV cables via the cable tunnels under the
power station terrace zero metre level. The unit “LV rooms” are situated on higher levels
but always with a cable tunnel directly underneath it for feeder and supply cables to the
equipment.
The off terrace switchgear is housed in substations that are strategically placed around the
plant and as near to the equipment as possible. Substations are provided with air handling
units for ventilation to prevent heat build-up in substations; slightly pressurised to limit the
ingress of dust.
The switchgear rooms and substations are provided with cable slots, concrete floors and
two access doors, one for equipment and one for personnel. The doors are fire rated and
fitted with locks to ensure only controlled personnel access. The door locks are of the anti-
panic type to provide safety exits under emergency conditions.
12.5 Power supply abnormal conditions
In addition to the normal operating requirement all plant must be capable of running under
the abnormal power supply conditions (see chapter 2) without being damaged and safely
shutdown in the event of exceeding the supply conditions (i.e. a total loss of electric power)
without damage and without operator intervention.
One of the abnormal conditions that require special attention for the switchgear is the
requirement for voltage depressions. The Standard OPS 5027/22-5 defines the required
capabilities of auxiliary plant during undervoltage conditions as follows:

• Clause 6.11(c): The minimum equipment terminal voltage and frequency at which
auxiliaries must be capable of supporting the full rated output of the unit for at least
1 h is 85 % UN and 48.5 Hz.
• Clause 6.11(d): Auxiliary plant should be designed to withstand (means that the
plant should continue running without damage) voltage dips of 90% UN (down to a
voltage level of 10% UN) for 0.2 s and 30 % UN for 3 s respectively.
Special measures are required for conformance to these abnormal conditions (that last for
short periods of time) that require the plant to be “voltage dip proof”. To achieve voltage
dip proofed plant an integrated technical solution is required. The main items of this
solution include:
• the requirement that MV breakers and contactors latch and therefore do not trip when
the voltage dips,
• the 220 V AC control supply to LV contactors is sustained (by using Dip Proofing
Inverters with charged capacitors) during severe dips and
• the plant safety and long term health is not jeopardised with any of the abnormal
conditions and/or the dip proofing measures required.
12.5.1 LV switchgear voltage dip proofing
The contactors of the 380 V boards drop out when a sustained voltage dip occurs, thereby
tripping all the equipment supplied from the board. The Dip Proof Inverter (DPI) maintains
the switchgear control voltage during voltage dips, effectively keeping the plant connected.
It consists of a static switch in series with the load and an inverter parallel to the load. The
energy is stored in a capacitor bank.
The boards that can cause a unit trip due to a voltage dip should be fitted with DPI’s. The
boards are also fitted with undervoltage relays for alarm purposes to indicate a loss of
voltage to the board. Some boards that do not cause a unit trip in the short term are also
fitted with DPI’s, for example, fuel oil plant boards and fabric filter boards or precipitator
plant boards, because of the complexity of restarting some of the plant after an
undervoltage trip.
The voltage setting of the DPI should be above that of the minimum drop-out voltage of the
contactors. A value of 75% to 80% UN is recommended. The time duration setting of the
DPI should just be longer than the time it takes for the main plant to trip. Another indication
of what this time setting should be is the mechanical plant’s reaction to dips. For example,
during a voltage dip a lubrication oil pump will reduce speed quickly and the associated
pressure reduction may be lower than the minimum and the plant is then tripped on low oil
pressure. It is important to realise that the typical voltage dip on the system is on one
phase only and therefore, with the three-phase supply to the plant considerable single-
phase disturbances can be tolerated.
It is recommended that the DPI time duration setting of the boards be dictated by the diesel
generator board operating philosophy and that the setting is put on maximum (2.56 s).

This time duration is longer than the required value of 1 s to allow for a controlled trip of
some of the motors (e.g. on the 380 V Essential Boards) after say 2 s, to prevent the
switchgear "discrepancy" situation and thereby keeping the motors ready for start-up after
an undervoltage trip.
12.5.2 MV switchgear voltage dip proofing
The unit MV boards mainly supply the large motor loads i.e. boiler feed pumps, draught
group fans, and should maintain the supplies to these motors (without plant damage)
during undervoltage conditions to ensure unit operation. Some of the electrical motor
phenomena when subjected to undervoltage conditions are as follows:
• When the voltage falls below nominal, electric motors draw higher currents in order
to maintain the power demanded by the load. The overload protection will eventually
operate if this condition is present for long periods.
• If the undervoltage is confined to one or two phases the imbalance will be
exaggerated within the motors. A 5% imbalance in supply voltage causes a 20%
imbalance in current drawn by the motor, but if this is sustained, the single-phasing
protection will operate.
• If the voltage is restored within one second whilst a motor is still spinning after a
severe three-phase dip to, or near to, zero, a high negative transient torque occurs
and this can cause damage to the coupling or driven equipment.
The circuit-breakers that supply the motors on the MV boards should latch and not drop out
during voltage dips. The motors are protected by an undervoltage relay in the board and
should trip for voltage dips down to 70 % of nominal voltage lasting 3 s (this is the
recommended setting).
The shafts of the MV motors are capable of withstanding a sudden restoration of voltage to
nominal, after a three-phase voltage dip and it should be checked whether this capability is
not exceeded for the maximum requirement of 1 s.

13 PROTECTION
The basics of protection were discussed in an earlier paragraph. In this paragraph, the
application of switchgear protection of the low voltage, direct current and medium voltage
systems are discussed.
13.1 Low voltage switchgear protection
The LV protection schemes used at the power stations can be divided into a few groups as
illustrated in the typical power reticulation system as shown in figure 34 (items one to
seven). Note that the voltages as indicated in brackets are included for example only and
may be different.
Figure 34. Typical MV and LV power reticulation system
Some of the different protection circuits that can be found in LV switchgear are shortly
discussed in the following paragraphs, with reference to the circuits (number in brackets) of
figure 34.
13.1.1 Incomer protection
Incomers feeding from 380 V boards (circuit no. 4) normally do not have any protection
except for some applications where power can flow in both directions e.g. essential boards
(also called diesel generator boards).

If an LV circuit does not have incomer protection, the protection scheme is situated at the
feeder side of the circuit (circuit no. 3). This is mainly used for the following switchgear:
• solid connections to motor control centres (MCC),

• link connections, or
• maintenance isolators.
The LV incomer protection scheme types include incomers of boards with a single supply
(from e.g. a transformer), where isolators are used as incomers and incomers of boards
with more than one power supply. These two types are shortly discussed here below:
• Incomer protection where isolators are used as incomers

Incomer protection protects the 380 V busbar that it is feeding. Instantaneous overcurrent
protection is normally installed on all incomers feeding from MV boards to LV boards
(circuit no 2). The LV protection relay will trip back to the MV breaker since the LV breaker
is not designed to break the fault currents.
• Incomer protection for boards with more than one incomer

This protection protects the 380 V board busbars. Instantaneous overcurrent protection is
installed on the incomers. Each individual relay on the board trips a master trip relay that
trips all incomer breakers to the board. The master trip relay is normally of the latching
type and needs to be reset by hand before closing of any incomer breaker to the boards is
possible.
13.1.2 Feeder protection
All LV feeders (circuit no. 3) have overcurrent protection. The feeder protection not only
protects the 380 V busbar it is feeding, but also the cable to the board.
Bus-section switches are installed as a link between certain LV switchboards to allow two
boards to feed from one incomer. However, under normal operating conditions each board
is fed from its own incomer. Only under abnormal operating circumstances for example
when the incomer circuit transformer failed, is the board fed via the bus-section switch.
Only bus-section switches, which are also classified as feeder circuits, do not have any
protection.
LV feeder protection schemes mainly consist of the following two types:
• Feeder protection with breakers rated for short circuit currents

LV feeder circuits for boards that are designed to withstand the system fault currents for
short durations are provided with an overcurrent protection scheme. The protection
scheme relay will trip the LV breaker directly. The overcurrent relay is also set with a time
delay (e.g. 50 ms) on the trip circuit.

• Feeder protection with Fault Current Limiting Breakers

These circuit breakers are mostly used on load centre boards feeding motor control centre
boards or any other board being fed with power of a lower fault current rating than that of
the board the feeder breaker is situated on. Current limiting circuit breakers are used to
limit fault currents on secondary boards. The reduction of fault levels on smaller boards
save capital cost for both the cubicle and switchgear equipment. It has internal protection
mainly against short circuit fault currents and thermal protection in line with the breaker
thermal current rating.
13.1.3 Outgoing circuit protection
Outgoing circuit protection can be divided into the following categories:
• heater circuit protection,

• motor protection,
• combination fuse switches (CFS) and
• undervoltage protection.
This is shortly discussed in the following paragraphs.
(a) Heater circuit protection
Heater circuits in general are protected using fuses or MCB’s. Larger heater circuits are
protected by means of undercurrent and earth fault protection relays.
Heater undercurrent detection is used to detect heater element open circuits. An electronic
undercurrent relay has an LED indicating that the circuit is healthy or not. When the circuit
is unhealthy a trip signal is sent to the control system, switching off the heater.
An electronic earth fault heater protection relay has a sensitive core balance function that
summates the currents flowing into the heater and summates the currents flowing out of
the heater. A difference in the sum totals will indicate an earth fault in the heater elements,
which will cause the relay to operate. The relay sends a trip signal to the control system,
switching off the heater. The relay trip needs to be reset at the switchboard.
(b) Motor protection
The LV motor feeder circuit location is indicated by the outgoing circuit number 5 in figure
34. LV motor protection is divided into different type of protection schemes that is
determined by the type and rating of the motor. The type and rating of the motor is used to
allocate the required protection functions as indicated by the power station electrical motor
specification or special requirements by the supplier of the plant equipment. The schemes
typically are as follows:

• Motor protection circuit for long sootblowers

The long sootblower motors are normally protected with a single phase over current relay.
This relay provides a maximum load trip which is based on an over current pick-up setting
that indicates that the sootblower lance movement is restricted. It also provides an over
current trip that indicates an over load due to a failure that restricts the motor rotation e.g.
motor bearing failure.
• Motor protection circuit for motors rated up to and including 37 kW

For motors up to and including 37 kW thermal overload protection relays with an inverse
characteristic and single-phase protection is used. The thermal overloads are directly in
series with the main contactor with full current flow through the overload. Any thermal
overload trip will cause the main contactor to trip and the thermal overload needs to cool
down before it will reset. The thermal overload protection relay protects the motor
insulation from being damaged due to continuous overloading and consequential
overheating of the motor windings.
• Motors above 37 kW up to and including 110 kW

For motors from 45 kW to 110 kW thermal overload protection with a 1 A current
transformer is used. The current transformer reduces the CT primary current from the
motor’s rated current to a 0 to 1 A current range on its secondary windings. The full current
flows through the current transformer but the thermal overload will only work on a reduced
current having an inverse characteristic and single-phase protection. The protection relay
operation and function is similar to that discussed here above except that the thermal over
load is reset manually.
• Motor protection for motors rated from 132 kW to 230 kW

For motors rated from 132 kW to 200 kW at 380 V (also used for higher ratings on the
660 V or 550 V air cooled condenser motors) the protection scheme consists of an
electronic protection relay and back-up fuses. A contactor is used to trip the circuit when
initiated by the relay. The relay and fuses grade to ensure that for fault currents above the
safe breaking capability of the contactor, the fuses clear the fault before the relay. The
protection relay will open the contactor for fault currents within the capacity of the
contactor. The grading between the protection relay and fuses are accomplished by a one
second lockout facility that delays the relay trip signal under short circuit conditions to
enable the motor fuses to fail.
13.1.4 Combination fuse switch (CFS)
The CFS circuits are indicated by circuit number 7 in figure 34. The CFS range is from
32 A to 630 A thermal rating. The combination fuse switches are rated at the maximum
low voltage fault current rating (e.g. 50 kA).

13.1.5 Moulded case circuit breaker (MCB)
The circuit is indicated by outgoing circuit type 7 in figure 34. The MCB’s protect the
equipment it feeds and the cable. The MCB range is from 5 A thermal rating to 160 A
thermal rating. The lower ranges are only rated at a fault current rating of 10 kA and can
therefore not be used directly off the 50 kA rated busbars. The MCB circuits are fed by
CFS circuits to protect the MCB from high fault currents.
13.2 Medium voltage switchgear protection
There are many manufacturers of switchgear offering a variety of different types and
layouts. In each of them the layout is different. The layout that is widely used in the
Eskom power stations is as shown in figure 35 with the protection, meters and indications
installed in the top panel and the breaker at the bottom.
Figure 35. Typical 6.6 kV switchboard panel front view
Some of the protection circuits that can be found in MV switchgear are shortly discussed in
the following paragraphs. The detail of all the different protection functions will be
discussed in the protection module, Module 13.

13.2.1 General MV protection
The MV protection relays generally installed at the power stations have some standard
general protection functions, irrelevant of what kind of circuit is to be protected. Although
the protection function is not to trip or disconnect faulty equipment from the rest of the
power system, these relays fulfil a very important duty to provide alarms to the control
rooms. These functions are listed and shortly discussed:
• Trip circuit supervision

This relay is found where MV breakers or contactors with trip coils are used. A very small
current is continuously passed through the trip coil, monitoring a failure of this coil. If the
current through the trip coil decays to zero, the trip coil or circuit is open circuit. This can
result in the protection failing to isolate faulty plant when needed because of a faulty trip
circuit.
• DC fail
This relay is found where relays with a DC auxiliary supply or control circuits are used, and
it monitors this DC supply. Failure in this supply can result in the protection failing to
isolate faulty plant when needed.
• Internal relay fault (IRF)

Most electronic relays are equipped with a self-supervision system. The self-supervision
alarm indicator (LED) indicates that an internal relay fault was identified. The protection
module also delivers a signal to the self-supervision system output relay of the protection
unit that in turn will issue an alarm to the relevant control room. Additionally, in most
cases, a fault code showing the nature of the fault appears on the display of the module.
13.2.2 Incomer protection
The purpose of MV switchboard incomer protection is to protect the switchboard and to

serve as back up protection for outgoing circuits on the switchboard. This incomer breaker
and protection also serve as a tool to disconnect the switchboard from faults upstream. In
some cases MV motor undervoltage protection is included into the incomer protection
scheme.
13.2.3 Bus-section protection
Although some bus-sections on the MV switchboards do have protection relays installed,

these are only used for alarm purposes and will be discussed in the paragraph for “board
protection”.

13.2.4 Cable feeder/incomer protection (loop supply)
The 11 kV loop supply system between the units and common plant is equipped with this
type of protection scheme and the purpose is to protect the feeding switchboard, serve as
back up protection for outgoing circuits on the switchboard and serve as unit protection on
the loop supply cable.
13.2.5 Transformer feeder protection
The purpose of the transformer feeder protection is to protect the transformer and the
primary cable.
13.2.6 Motor feeder protection
The purpose of the MV switchboard motor feeder protection is to protect the motor and
primary cable. In some cases, the under voltage protection function is situated in the
incomer protection scheme.
13.2.7 Switchboard protection
Some protection schemes or systems protect the MV switchboard as a unit. These

functions are shortly discussed here below:
• Switchboard undervoltage protection

The busbar under voltage function does not perform any tripping function and is only used
for alarm purposes. This function is incorporated either into the incomer protection scheme
or the bus-section scheme.
• Bus-zone protection
This is a switchboard unit protection scheme that only operates for faults on the
switchboard itself. This protection is not located in a specific switchboard panel, but in a
separate panel. The most common arrangement is where the current transformers are on
the feeder side of the circuit breaker. However, there is a dead spot between the CT and
the breaker, where a fault is seen by the busbar protection, but not by the feeder
protection.
For bus-zone protection, the principle of overlapping of zones is applied, which allows for
fast fault clearance of faults, as indicated in figure 36. For Fault 1 (within zone 1 and 2)
both zones operate and trip both busbars. A differential relay detects the fault and then
trips the breaker. This interrupts the fault current supplied by busbar 1. The busbar 2 relay
picks up and clears busbar 2. For Fault 2 (outside of zone 2) the bus-zone 1 protection
clears busbar 1 only.

Figure 36. Overlapping of protection zones

14 AC ESSENTIAL SYSTEMS
The AC essential system consists mainly of the AC interruptible power (diesel generator
system) and AC uninterruptible power (UPS’s). The function and layout of these systems
are shortly discussed.
14.1 AC interruptible power (diesel generator system)
The AC interruptible essential power supply (with diesel generator backup) is provided for
selected Common Plant and Unit loads by diesel generators connected to the 380 V
Essential Boards (diesel generator boards). These supplies are used to provide power to
the Unit and Common Plant equipment that is primarily used for safety, protection and
safeguarding of major primary plant.
The Unit AC interruptible essential system provides power to selected services to enable
the safe shutting down of the boiler, turbine, generator and associated plant and to keep it
in a state of readiness for starting up after a trip of the normal AC power supplies. Typical
loads are battery chargers, turbine AC lubricating oil pumps, essential lighting, air-
conditioning, barring gear, dampers and valves.
The Common Plant similarly has 380 V Station Essential Boards that supply power to
certain essential plant i.e. various battery chargers, fire pumps, cooling water pumps, air
compressors, service water pumps etc. It also keeps the Common Plant services in a state
of readiness for a restart after a total loss of supply. In addition it must maintain
communication, instrumentation, control, protection and essential lighting during the power
failure.
The AC interruptible power becomes available within 20 seconds after normal power
supplies are lost. The time delay is due to the time allowed for the board control sequence,
starting and running up to speed of the diesel engines and closing of the necessary
breakers.
14.1.1 Diesel generator board control
The essential board control system establishes the loss of supply, ensure that the diesel
generator is started and perform the switching sequence of the breakers to provide a
supply to the essential board. It also closes the correct feeder circuit breakers to provide a
supply to the boards feeding from the essential board.
The older board control systems utilised hard wired relays with timers to realise the
essential board breaker switching logic. New systems use PLC based control systems
either from a dedicated PLC or by using the station control system or a combination of
both.

The control system monitors the status and position of the Essential Board breakers, as
well as the supply voltage and electrical protection. Using this information the control
system will take corrective action after a power failure to restore the Essential Board
supply. The control system actions are governed by a set of interlocks and pre-
programmed rules required for safe switching of breakers. There are normally different
modes of automatic operation and when the control system fails, a manual function is
provided.
On receiving the undervoltage start signal, the control system starts a four-second-check
timer. After this time has expired a loss of supply is present and a start pulse will be
initiated to the diesel generator. With the time delay of 4 s the system distinguishes
between an undervoltage condition and a loss of supply, therefore ensuring that the diesel
generator is not started for voltage dips.
After a time delay of about 20 s the diesel generator has started, running at the correct
speed and the breaker is closed to energise the Essential Board. If any supply becomes
available before the diesel generator is ready that supply will be used and the diesel will
run until a shutdown request is initiated.
Restoring the plant to the normal supplies again requires that the two system are
synchronised again using the control system built in synchronizer. After the synchronising
system has closed the breaker, the diesel generator breaker on the Essential Board is
opened. Opening of the breaker will result in a 5 minute no load running period of the
diesel generator, required for cooling down of the machine turbochargers.
14.1.2 Diesel generator sets
The number of diesel generators differs at each power station depending on the AC
essential philosophy applied. There can be up to eight large diesel generator sets at a
power station, one per Unit, and two for the Common Plant. Each diesel generator set is
supplied as a stand alone system with a charger and batteries (for starting), a local control
panel with PLC and a diesel fuel tank (e.g. 1000 litres).
Each diesel generator set (see figure 37) consist of a diesel engine, an alternator, radiator,
air flaps, a starter with charger and batteries, a local control panel with PLC, engine
heaters and a diesel fuel tank.
The diesel engines have a limited capacity for step loading and therefore reloading of the
Essential Boards after a power interruption must occur in steps to prevent large frequency
deviations.
The diesel generator takes approximately 10 s to reach rated speed and voltage after
starting and can be synchronized within 15 to 20 s.
An automatic voltage regulator, with an adjustable set point, controls the stator terminal
voltage. The maximum tolerance allowed is 15% during starting of the largest motor on an
Essential Board.

Figure 37. Diesel generator set (1250 kVA)
Nickel Cadmium batteries (24 V DC) are normally used to drive the starter motors. The
capacity of a fully charged battery is adequate to perform a minimum of six continuous
starting attempts of 10 s each with a 10 s break between attempts.
Local day tanks supply fuel to the diesel engines. They normally have a capacity of a
1000 litres. This arrangement allows the unit diesel generators to run at maximum load for
a minimum of 3 hours on the day tank and the station diesel generators to run at maximum
load for a minimum of 2 hours. Bulk tanks extend the running period of the diesel engines
to a minimum of 24 hours.
The diesel engine has a local control system that consists of a programmable logical
controller (PLC) that supervises and controls all engine functions and alarms. The diesel
generator is started locally and the speed and voltage of the diesel generator is then
adjusted manually on the control panel. The voltage is adjusted to the correct value by
changing the excitation and the frequency is adjusted by changing the generator speed.
The diesel generator can also be synchronised from the local control panel by using the
selector switch to select the specific circuit.
A manual start key switch on the local control panel provides a backup if the automatic
control system as well as the diesel generator local control system fails. The key switch
overrides all diesel engine protection and must only be used as a last resort during a total
system failure.

14.2 AC uninterruptible power
AC uninterruptible power is supplied from UPS’s to the 380 V UPS Distribution Boards that
provide power to computer equipment that may not be without a supply for safety and plant
control purposes. The AC equipment supplied from the UPSs cannot withstand any
interruption or disturbance in supply or noise i.e. computers and screens, data-loggers, etc.
A limited period of supply is possible without having an AC battery charger supply from the
diesel generator boards.
The UPSs are supplied from the 380 V Essential Boards that keeps the UPS batteries
(batteries and battery rooms to be discussed under DC systems, section 15) fully charged
at all times so that when the UPS supplies are needed the batteries are fully charged and
therefore the designed UPS back-up time is available. When there is a total loss of power
supply the 380 V Essential Boards are supplied from the diesel generators and therefore
provide the required battery charge to enable a continuous UPS supply.
14.2.1 UPS systems application
There are several UPS systems in a power station with at least one on each unit and a one
or more for the common plant. For each system, two Static Uninterruptible Power Supply
Units (UPSs) are arranged in a parallel redundant configuration, each equipped with an
automatic bypass. During an abnormal condition each UPS is equipped with a static
switch that automatically bypasses the UPSs to provide an alternative no-break source of
supply.
Each UPS battery can be isolated from the UPS with a fused isolating switch located in a
separate cubicle.
14.2.2 UPS basic operation
A UPS is a power electronic device that first rectifies AC to DC. The DC is stored in a
battery for use during power dips or power failures. The inverter uses the DC and inverts it
to a very stable AC supply. A typical UPS system line diagram is as shown in figure 38.
The functions of the different switches as indicated in the diagram are as follows:
• Emergency Mains Fuse Switch

The Emergency Mains Fuse Switch (1), when closed, allows the static by-pass switch
(SBS) to be supplied by the emergency mains. Under normal operating conditions, this
switch should remain closed.
• Manual Maintenance Bypass Switch

The Manual Maintenance Bypass Switch (2) connects the emergency mains supply directly
to the output of the UPS without passing via the SBS. This switch is normally open. It is
closed only in case of an emergency (failure of both UPSs and SBSs).

• Load/Output Breaker Switch

The Output Breaker Switch (3), when closed, connects the output of the unit to the load.
During normal operation, this switch is closed. It should be opened only in the event of
breakdown or shutdown of the UPS.
Mains Mains
4 1 2 1 Emergency Mains Fuse Switch
Rectifier 2 Manual Maintenance By-pass Isolator
3 Load Isolator
5
4 Rectifier Fuse Switch/Mains Fuse Switch
5 Battery Fuse Switch (Wall mounted)
Inverter
Static
By-pass
Load
(Output)
Figure 38. Typical UPS system layout diagram
• Mains Fuse Switch

The Mains Supply Switch (4) controls the electrical supply to the rectifier. If open,
recharging or float charging of the battery is prevented. This switch should never be
opened except in the event of breakdown or shut down of the UPS.
• Battery Fuse Switch

The Battery Breaker Switch (5), when closed, connects the battery to the DC link between
the rectifier and the inverter. After following the start-up procedure, this switch must remain
closed to ensure an electrical supply to the load in the event of any interruption in the
mains supply. This switch is located in a wall mounted cubicle close to the UPS or a
second isolating switch can be located on the UPS itself.
14.2.3 Different operational conditions
The different operating conditions are listed as follows, and shortly discussed:
• Normal operation
The three-phase mains voltage is converted into a stabilised DC voltage by the rectifier, the
inverter then uses this voltage to produce a new AC voltage that powers the connected
loads. The battery is maintained in a fully charged state by "trickle charging" in the standby
mode.

• Mains failure
In the case of a mains failure or voltage dip, the rectifier switches off and the battery takes
over the supply of the inverter without any interruption. This prevents such power faults
affecting the loads. When the normal mains power is restored or the standby diesel
generator starts up, the rectifier automatically starts, powers the inverter and
simultaneously charges the battery. This re-establishes normal operation.
• Mains operation via the Static Bypass Switch

In the event of inadmissible overload or failure of the UPS block, the SBS automatically
switches over the loads, with no interruption, to direct raw mains supply. When the
overload condition ceases, the system switches back automatically and without interruption
to inverter operation.
• Mains operation via the Manual Maintenance Bypass Switch

The system can be disconnected for maintenance purposes with the integrated manual
bypass.
• Mains operation via the Maintenance Detour

The system can be disconnected completely from the load for servicing purposes with the
maintenance detour. This is a very special condition and should be used only under
controlled conditions.
14.2.4 Behaviour in the case of special operating conditions
The behaviour of the UPS under special operating conditions is as follows:
• Overload
The inverters can normally supply more than the rated power output for short time periods
(e.g. 150% of nominal power for 60 s). In the event of a higher overload, the current is
limited to the maximum overload value for a short time period by reducing the voltage and
then switching the inverter off. In such a case the system switches over to the mains
supply via the SBS. Should the overload be outside the tolerances of the SBS then the
load will be disconnected completely.
• Load short circuit

The inverter is short circuit proof. In the event of a sustained short circuit in the load circuit,
the output current is limited to the overload value and after a short period the monitoring
circuit switches off the inverter. In such a case the system switches over to the mains
supply via the SBS.
• Mains not ready

The inverter switches to self-clocking if the mains frequency changes beyond the
permissible tolerance band. When it returns to within this tolerance, the system once again
synchronises to the mains.

15 DC SYSTEMS
The DC low voltages generally used at the power stations are 24 V, 48 V, 110 V and
220 V. There are variations on these voltages at the different power stations depending
upon equipment requirements, national standards and practices over the years. Additional
special voltages may be chosen for specific requirements but with the current equipment
offered by manufacturers the client has a free choice of power supply options meaning that
the supplies can be consolidated to mainly two DC voltage levels.
In fossil fuel power stations and large hydro-electric and pump storage installations 24 V
and 220 V systems are employed. The 220V supplies are used for generator and
switchgear protection, DC auxiliaries and emergency equipment e.g. lighting while 24 V is
used for unit and station control, indications, metering and alarms. These systems are
required to ensure a high power station availability and reliability and to minimise the
personnel safety risk.
The systems that can generally be found in a power station are as follows:
• 220V DC Station and Unit "clean" battery supply

• 220V DC Substation battery supplies,
• 220V DC Unit "dirty" battery supply,
• 24V DC Unit battery supply and
• 24V DC Substation supplies (required for off terrace control equipment).
15.1 220 V DC Station and Unit supply
The 220 V DC (110 V DC at some power stations) supplies are mainly used for protection
circuits as indicated here below:
• electrical protection circuitry including bus zone, generator, turbine and station
transformer,
• MV switchgear control circuitry including tripping and closing coils,
• LV switchgear essential tripping and closing circuits,
• Station transformer fire protection,
• generator circuit breaker control circuitry, and
• boiler feedpump protection circuitry.
The ability of the system to supply “clean” DC to the consumers depends on correct
configuration. A single line diagram of a typical common supply system is shown in
figure 39.
15.2 24 V DC Unit supply
The 24 V DC Unit supplies are used mainly for the control and instrumentation loads for
Unit control, instrumentation and alarm systems. The supplies are used under normal and

emergency conditions. Each Unit is equipped with a dual redundant 24 V DC supply

system each consisting of a battery charger and battery as shown in figure 40. The
chargers are busbar coupled to the 24 V DC Unit Boards (normally two boards).
Siem ens Siem ens

E/F card E/F card
EF 100 EF 100
01B U A 02B U A
03B U A 04B U A
11B U A 12B U A
21B U A 22B U A
31B U A 32B U A
41B U A 42B U A
51B U A 52B U A
61B U A 62B U A
M C B feeds to LV sw itchgear & Protection C ubicles
eg. M V AC S W ITC H B O AR D
D C B U S W IR IN G
LE G EN D :
EF 100 - E F100 N on-directional earth fault relay (centre ea rth)
Siem ens
- S iem ens earth fa ult card in charger (centre earth)
E/F card
- S elector sw itch
- E ldec direction al earth fa ult relay
- Transcore C T
- A uto chop over sw itch
Figure 39. Typical 220 V DC supply system layout

Dual bulk supplies from these two switchboards feed the Unit 24 V DC power supply
cubicles (normally two of them) located some 40 m away near the consumers. This
arrangement of having sub-distribution boards located close to the consumers (short runs
of cable) is the most cost-effective method of transmitting these bulk supplies over the
distance while still keeping the voltage within the strict tolerances imposed. Each of the
two supplies from the sub-distribution boards is combined at the end user via diode
combiners.
Figure 40. Unit 24 V DC supply layout diagram
The battery chargers are sized to provide a standby time for at least thirty minutes. This is
the Unit Control System requirement to ensure safe shut down of the plant during a failure
of the normal and the essential AC power supplies.
15.3 Battery chargers
A charger is basically a rectifier that converts AC into DC (see figure 41). There are
different components inside a charger that includes thyristors, control cards, firing cards,
capacitors, inductors (also known as chokes) and transformers to name the main
components. The thyristors are used to rectify the AC supply to DC.
The chargers mostly used are of the constant voltage and constant current type. The
charger limits the voltage across the battery terminals (and therefore the current flowing
into the battery) to pre-determined values that are calculated to obtain a quick return of the
batteries to a fully charged state, as well as a prolonged battery life. Each charger has
three charging modes namely float, boost and equalise as follows:

• Float charge
A float charge is a charge that maintains a battery in an approximately constant state of
charge. A constant state of charge (2.25 V/cell for Plante' type batteries and 1.4 to 1.42
V/cell for high performance Nickel Cadmium type batteries) is applied to the battery while
simultaneously supplying an external load.
Mains
1 1 Mains Fuse Switch
2 Load Isolator
Rectifier 3
3 Battery Fuse Switch
Load
(Output)
Figure 41. Charger system layout diagram
• Boost charge
On boost charge the voltage is increased for a fixed period of time as the charge proceeds.
The boost voltage is set at approximately 2.35 to 2.4 V/cell for Plante' type batteries and
Nickel Cadmium batteries are boost charged at 1.47 to 1.7 V/cell. The boost charging is
performed on a 28 day cycle. Boost charging corrects out of step conditions to a certain
extend and mixes the electrolyte (prevent stratification). In this way the batteries are fully
charged and the full capacity is restored to the battery.
• Equalise charge
After a number of months the cells tend to go "out of step" due to the differing internal cell
resistances where each cells' voltage differs and therefore the load supplied by each cell is
imbalanced. In order to balance or equalise each cell a higher equalising voltage is
applied. In this mode the load is disconnected and the charging voltage is set at 2.6-
2.7 V/cell, higher than the gassing voltage so as to mix the electrolyte. Hydrogen gas will
be present in the battery room during gassing and therefore equalise charging is performed
by maintenance under supervision.

15.4 Batteries
The batteries that are part of the UPS and DC systems play a very important role in the
protection of the plant and people during normal and abnormal operation. During
emergency situations it is required to function when all other power supplies have failed:
• to provide emergency lighting in crucial areas e.g. unit control room,

• to provide control of the plant to shut it safely down and
• to safely run down the turbine by providing power to the lubrication oil pumps.
It is important that the batteries are well maintained to ensure that it is able to deliver the
required output when required. The most important factors that harm batteries are deep
cycle discharges, overcharging and high battery room temperatures (above 25°C). By
controlling these factors, the life of the batteries is extended to reach the designed life.
Most of the batteries used in the power stations are either lead acid Plante' batteries or
vented nickel cadmium batteries. These are briefly discussed.
15.4.1 Vented lead acid Plante' type batteries
The lead acid Plante' type batteries are the most ruggedly constructed lead acid type of
battery. A lead acid Plante' battery of the high performance type, if properly maintained,
have a life expectancy of approximately 20 years. However, surprisingly small deviations
from the correct treatment can significantly reduce their life span. Examples of this are
overcharging of batteries, chloride in the electrolyte, temperatures higher than 20°C and
regular deep cycle discharges.
They are most suitable for large power station applications, involving shallow (10 to 15%)
cyclic operation with intermittent heavy discharges, but are not suitable for withstanding
prolonged periods in a discharged state.
15.4.2 Vented nickel cadmium type batteries
The main advantage of these batteries over vented lead acid batteries is that they do not
require special rooms. A simple cabinet will suffice, except where the product of the
batteries' nominal ampere hour capacity and its number of cells are greater than 6000 (Ah
x no. of cells > 6000). This rugged type of battery, if properly maintained, have a life
expectancy in excess of 25 years.
Nickel cadmium batteries must not be located in the same environment as vented lead acid
batteries. The electrolyte properties changes due to CO2 contamination by atmosphere.
The accidental contamination between lead acid and nickel cadmium cells during
maintenance is also possible.

15.5 Battery rooms
The battery rooms provide an environment to optimise the battery life and guarantee the
safety of the personnel. The general layout requirements for the room, room ventilation
and temperature, safety equipment, monitoring functions etc. are provided in the Eskom
specification GGS 0838, “DESIGN GUIDE FOR POWER STATION BATTERY ROOMS”.
This design guide is applicable to rooms housing stationary vented lead-acid or nickel-
cadmium batteries.
The battery room is located very close to the DC boards (that supplies the load) and
chargers. This is an important design consideration because of the relative low voltages
(e.g. 24V DC) and high VA requirements where the voltage drop of the busbars and/or
cables becomes important to ensure a DC supply that operates within the required
parameters.
The recommended battery room temperature is 25°C. It is generally accepted that for
every 10°C increase in room temperature, the battery life is halved [Battery Care Training
Course 1998, First National Batteries article]. With no air-conditioning installed in the
battery rooms the life span of the batteries can be decreased considerably (from 15 to 7
years) because the temperatures in the battery rooms fluctuate from the summer to winter
months. In the summer months the batteries can be exposed to temperatures in excess of
35°C.
The battery room ventilation system keeps the hydrogen concentration within safe limits.
The ventilation system provides air (through filters) to the battery room that will mix with
and adequately dilute the hydrogen gas discharged by the cells and then extract the
resulting air-hydrogen mixture from the room by fans.
The water plumbing safety and maintenance equipment e.g. showers, eyewashes and
mixing bowls are very important and should be provided as per the functional and layout
requirements of the specification, with adequate water pressure and properly maintained.
The drains in the battery rooms should be checked on a periodic basis for blockages.
Demineralised water is also provided in the battery rooms, this is required for maintenance.
Acid spillages from the batteries cause damage to the floors, compromising the structural
integrity of the floors. The battery room floors are normally painted with acid resistant paint
or tiled.
The safety equipment and signs provided in the rooms comply with the Eskom specification
and with the OHS Act. The equipment should be easily reachable under normal and
emergency conditions.

16 CABLING
The function of the power station cabling is to interconnect the equipment as per the
electrical and C&I schematic drawings. The cabling installation includes the cables,
connections, labelling at each end, supporting racks, laying on the racks, fixing to the
racks, cable sleeves, cable tunnels etc.
The reliability of the cables and the connections is emphasised by the fact that one cable or
connection failure, from several thousand, can result in a unit trip and subsequent shut
down until the repair has been carried out.
The cables currently utilised in the power stations consist of a wide variety due to the time
span over which the power stations were built. The older power stations have a higher risk
in terms of cable and connection failures and subsequent fire risk due to the age of the
installation and cable and termination technology used.
16.1 Cable design
The failure mode of cables and connections is normally of the hidden type i.e. it cannot be
foreseen or predicted by inspection and testing. The failure type mostly experienced for
power cables is cable insulation breakdown and the consequence is an electrical short
circuit between phase and earth, phase to phase or a combination of this. The subsequent
flash over and possible fire due to the short circuit can cause serious damage to plant and
personnel, and if the fire risk has not been properly managed, the fire can spread to other
areas of plant.
The risk to plant and personnel due to the failure mode of cable and connection failures is
an important consideration during the initial design, installation and maintenance of the
cabling installation. The most important items that are considered during the design phase
are the size (length and effective area) of the cables, the type of cable used for the
application, cable route, cable supporting and the fire risk of the cables.
16.1.1 Current ratings
The current ratings are based on recommendations from the South African cable
manufacturers. The suppliers provide tables for the different cable types, sizes, application
parameters, resistance and current ratings that are then used for the design of the power
station application.
Cables with thermoplastic insulation may sustain serious damage when subjected, even for
short periods, to temperatures in excess of those permissible for continuous operation.
Accordingly, such cables may only be operated at full current and over load ratings as
given in the supplier tables if suitably protected against excess currents arising from
abnormal conditions. Cables with thermoplastic insulation are normally fuse protected.

16.1.2 Fault current ratings
The cables that are connected to circuit breakers are rated to withstand a three-phase or
DC through fault without damage for the total operating time of the protection and circuit
breaker. Where the circuit breaker is fitted with instantaneous over current protection, the
cable is rated for carrying full load (continuously) or short circuit current for 0.2 s, whichever
requires the larger cable.
Cables protected by fuses are fault protected if selected to carry full load current
continuously. The minimum duration considered in calculating the maximum short circuit
rating is 0.2 s.
16.1.3 Voltage drop
The voltage drop that is allowed over the cable is a very important consideration when the
cable size is determined. There is a wide spectrum of equipment that is supplied by cables
and it is important that the cable designer should be aware of the operating requirements of
each of them to ensure that the cables are correctly chosen. For example the allowed
voltage drop for consumers that are continuously in operation under normal unit operating
conditions is 3% and that for consumers that operate only during unit start up and shut
down is 5%.
16.1.4 Safety considerations
The predominant requirements when a fire occurs in the power station are reduced flame
propagation, reduced smoke during combustion and low emission of toxic and corrosive
gases.
The types of cable mainly used for new installations are the flame retardant PVC cables
and the halogen free (HF) cables. The most important difference in the properties of these
two cable types is the high emission of acid gas (hydrogen chloride) from PVC cables in
the case of fire whereas no hydrogen chloride gas is released from the halogen free
cables. The hydrogen chloride (HCL) gas in combination with other toxic gases that is
produced from the burning of PVC cables is mainly responsible for killing victims that were
detained or felled by smoke and/or heat in the fire situation. This acid gas is also
responsible for the corrosion to steel reinforcement of concrete, steel structures and
electronic equipment printed circuit boards.
It is also required that all cables installed above ground should be fire retardant to prevent
the spreading of the fire to other locations. The limiting oxygen index (LOI) is a measure of
the amount of oxygen required to sustain combustion after the ignition source has been
removed. The air contains approximately 21% and the cable LOI should be greater than
this value, 32% is specified in the Eskom specification.

Note that the toxicity index (according to the French Standard RATPk20 for which the
highest permissible value is laid down as 100) is approximately 40 for a halogen free cable
and that of PVC cable is 4390.
16.2 Power station cabling installation
The cable installation at the power station includes all the aspects to realise a system with
a high reliability and availability, long life expectancy and with the minimum of routine
breakdown actions. Some of the most important aspects are briefly discussed in the
following paragraphs.
16.2.1 Cable types and application
The highest concentration of cables are in the Auxiliary Bay, where the largest number of
personnel is also present and therefore halogen free (HF) cables are used. These cables
are installed in protected runs i.e. cable trays and do not require armouring.
Halogen free cables are not buried directly in ground, as they have no long-term resistance
to immersion in water. All cables for such installations and those where mechanical
damage is possible will therefore be steel wire armoured and PVC insulated and bedded
with FR PVC.
The different cable types mainly used in a power station and their application are briefly
discussed.
Power cables are applied as follows:
• All unarmoured cables are of halogen free low smoke and fume materials for
insulation. The unarmoured 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV and 11 kV cables that are single and
three core cables are individually screened with copper tape.
• Armoured cables with PVC sheaths are used where cables are buried in ground or
for installations where mechanical stresses are expected. The armoured cables are
single and three-core cables with steel wire armouring and the cores are individually
screened with copper foil.
• Armoured PVC and unarmoured halogen free power cables are used for the 220 V
and 380 V AC power cables.
• Single core cables are only used on major power distribution circuits where the
current rating is such that multi-core cables are not practical.
Control, protection and instrumentation cables are applied as follows:
• Multi-core thermoplastic insulated cables are used for all current transformer and
voltage transformer secondary circuits and protection, tripping and closing circuits.
These cables have a voltage rating of 600 V to 1000 V.

• In general armoured cables are laid where armouring is essential for physical
protection e.g. for burial in ground (i.e. cables from the unit to the HV Yard) or in
positions with an increased danger of mechanical damage either during installation
or in service.
• Armoured PVC and unarmoured halogen free power cables are used for the 24 V,
50 V and 220 V DC, 220 V AC control cables.
Mineral insulated cables are only used in exceptional circumstances where route
temperatures are high. They are not used where vibration could result in failure due to
metal fatigue. Where mineral insulated cable is used for motor supplies, it is terminated in
a junction box near the motor and the final connection made with special cable suitable for
the high ambient temperature i.e. silicon insulated cable or equivalent.
High temperature flexible cables are applied where electrical equipment is mounted on e.g.
the boiler face that is subject to vertical movement (due to heat expansion). The
connection between the equipment and the static steelwork is made by means of high
temperature flexible cables in a flexible conduit.
16.2.2 Cable identification
The cables are marked with cable number tags at both ends of the cable. The tags are
manufactured from copper, aluminium or pre-fabricated plastic strip and attached to the
cable with galvanised steel wire or cable ties.
The cable identification system mostly used is the KKS system of numbering. Each cable
number comprises of seven distinct portions that form its unique identification code in
accordance with the KKS coding manual.
16.2.3 Cable racking
The terms cable tray and cable ladder is generally used when cable support systems are
discussed, it is called a tray when installed horizontally and it is called a ladder when
installed vertically i.e. in cable risers. The term cable tray is also used for the perforated
cable racks (covered after cable installation) used for control cables. In this course the
term cable racks is generally used.
The function of cable racks is to ensure that every cable is adequately supported
throughout its run. The following general racking installation guidelines are of importance:
• Separation for different voltages

Separate racks are installed for cables of different voltage levels and applications, each
having a unique tray identification number so that cable routes can be identified before and
after installation. The minimum spacing between open telephone, control and
instrumentation cable racks and power cable racks is 1000 mm. This may be reduced at
crossings, which is at right angles. Where limited space makes it necessary to bring power

and control cable racking closer than 1000 mm, the control cables are installed in
perforated trays and closed by means of covers to create a Faraday cage around the
cables.
• Loading of cable racks

The laying of cables onto racks is done in accordance with the material supplier
specifications for the maximum allowed weight for the different supporting systems
considering the length of the support arms, width of the tray, distance between the tray
supports etc. The number of cables that is allowed on a cable rack depends on the type of
cable; spare capacity is also provided for future additions. Detailed guidelines will be
provided in the cabling module, Module 15.
• Supporting and fixing of cables on racks

Armoured and unarmoured multi-core cables are supported every 300-400 mm in the
horizontal position where racks are provided. Where cables leave the racks or descend or
ascend vertically, they are clamped every 750 mm at clipping points to be provided. Where
a large number of control cables is accommodated in a limited space, they may be
bunched and fixed to racking or trays by means of an approved strap. Not more than 12
cables are accommodated under one strap.
16.2.4 Cable laying in ground
The cable installation in trenches require special preparation regarding the cable laying
depth, type of filler material, marking of the trenches, cable type and cable installation
instructions.
Where cables are laid in ground, such runs are shown in detail on appropriate drawings for
reference purposes and protected by concrete slabs or yellow plastic cover plates and
marker tapes. Every effort is made to run cables either in tunnels, trenches or sleeve
pipes, should they have to be laid below ground level. Halogen free type of cables should
not be buried directly in ground, as they have no long-term resistance to immersion in
water.
Concrete cable route markers are provided to mark all cable servitudes and the general
location of buried cables. The route markers are located at 50 m intervals and wherever a
route changes direction, to mark buried joints and where cables cross roads, railways or
any other servitude.
16.2.5 Reduction of fire hazards along racking routes
Where practical, cable racks are routed away from fire exposure or hazards or is protected
from such exposures. Where cable racks are subject to oil spills, they are designed to
prevent the spread of oil spill fires. Some under-floor and concealed cable spreading areas
have fire detection systems in accordance with the Eskom standard GGS0224, “Fire
Protection at Coal Fired Power Stations”.

16.2.6 Sun and dust shields
Where cabling is subject to direct sun radiation, oil spills or severe dust accumulation,
shields are provided. The shields are designed to protect the cables against sunlight, oil,
dust and other foreign matter, as required for the particular case and does not obstruct air
flow past the cables or diminish the thermal rating of the cables in any way.
16.2.7 Sleeve pipes for cables
PVC sleeve pipes are provided to carry cables under roadways, foundations, aprons and
certain floors.
16.2.8 Cable chases
Cables are only buried in chases in concrete floors or walls where no alternative
arrangements are possible. Floor chases are filled with sand and screeded over. This is
used in e.g. the oil type transformer yards.
16.2.9 Cable entries of outside plant buildings and substations
Where power and control cables enter buildings from cable trenches or racks the
appropriate number of separate cable entry openings should be provided. This ensures a
simple racking arrangement and laying of the cables and also eliminates the possibility of
noise interference in control cables.
Once the cabling work is completed all cable entries leading from inside buildings directly
into the ground or to cable tunnels/trenches are sealed with fire proofing and then made
watertight by applying bituminous paint (or something similar) over the outside plaster.
This is also applicable to transformer bays. This prevents the ingress of vermin and
rainwater into the cable trenches or cable basement as well as providing a fire barrier.
16.2.10 Cable junction boxes and through joints
Through joints in protection cables and secondary CT or VT leads are not acceptable. No
through joints are permissible under any circumstances with screened instrumentation
cables. Where a cable run exceeds the maximum drum length, soldered resin
encapsulated joints are required.
The voltage drop consideration on long LV-cable runs may require the use of cables with
rated areas one or more sizes above that which would normally suffice for given motor
currents. It may then become necessary to install cable junction boxes near the consumer
and to install a short length of cable with the smaller rated area to suit the termination box
size of the motor. The junction boxes are rated for the applicable fault current.

16.2.11 Termination of cables and cores
The most important issues to be considered regarding the termination of cables and cores
are shortly discussed here below:
• Termination through gland plates

Where cables enter enclosures through gland plates, mechanical cable glands of the
armour or cable gripping type is used. Weatherproof shrouds are required only for
exposed positions indoors and for all field mounted terminations. The quality of the gland
terminations may not lower the degree of protection of the enclosure (IP rating).
• Termination of cables in switchboards

Where cables enter switchboards or other cubicles through floor openings which will later
be closed by adequately fire rated material (also vermin proof), gland plates are not
considered essential. In that case fixing rails are provided to which the cables can be
securely clamped by means of “K-clamps” or approved equivalent.
• Earthing of single core MV cables

Single core cables connected between boards are single-point-earthed on the feeder side.
Cables connecting transformers to boards are single point earthed at the switchboard.
Trefoil earth tails are bonded together with the shortest possible earth strap to the earth
bar.
• Multi-core cable terminations

Spare cores (those not connected to any terminal) are left long enough to reach the
furthest terminal and is neatly fastened, ferruled with the cable numbers and earthed on
one side only, usually the outgoing side of the cable.
• Process control cable terminations

Process control cable is generally terminated using MAXI-TERMI-POINT connections at
one end of the cable and screw clamp type connections at the other end. Pre-insulated
lugs are crimped onto stranded cores for screw clamp type terminations, e.g. on line-up
terminals.
• Cable lugs and crimping tools

The size of cable lugs are selected to fit the bare copper conductors on which they are
used. All lugs are crimped by means of industrial crimping tools of the manual or hydraulic
(preferred) type. Wire strippers are used to strip flexible stranded cable, not wire cutters or
a hack saw as this can damage the strands or creates distortion in the cable.
• Connection tightness
Torque wrenches are used to tighten screw-joints of copper bars as well as bolting cable
lugs onto copper bars, battery terminating plates and motor terminals to consistent and
repeatable values. Applying the correct tightness (± 10% tolerance) to connections
prevents hotspots.

17 EARTHING AND LIGHTING PROTECTION
The grounding of electrical equipment must firstly ensure personnel safety under all
circumstances. This is achieved by effective earthing to limit the touch and step potentials
on structures and equipment and to provide low impedance return path to limit the damage
to equipment or danger to human life by fault currents during abnormal system conditions.
The second objective of grounding is to facilitate interference-free operation of electronics

by establishing equipotential areas on all structural levels. This method provides that
building floors, equipment enclosures and circuit boards are constructed using local ground
planes on each level. The ground planes can also be mesh structures.
The traditional grounding philosophy is based on the principles of the electrical safety code.
This philosophy is good in maintaining personnel safety and in limiting material damages
due to electrical faults. However, for interference-free electronics more actions are
needed. The modern digital electronics, whether for communication, computing or control
of power semiconductors, consists essentially of high frequency equipment that are
potential sources of high frequency (HF) power and susceptive to interference from other
equipment. Therefore, proper HF-grounding methods are needed to maintain the
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), together with other relevant measures.
The types of interference and the zoning concept are firstly discussed, followed by a brief
discussion of the power station earthing and lightning protection application.
17.1 Types of interference
The different types of interference that can be experienced by equipment are shortly
discussed here below:
• Common impedance coupling

Common impedance coupling appears if interference sources have a common path of
current. Usually this impedance can be found in the grounding or power supply circuit.
Current changes in the interfering circuit cause potential changes in the common
impedances.
• Capacitive coupling
Capacitive disturbance is coupled by a changing electric field. Capacitive coupling appears
in circuits that have stray capacitance with each other.
• Inductive coupling
Inductive disturbance is coupled via magnetic field. Current in the interfering circuit will
generate magnetic flux around the conductor. When a changing magnetic flux cuts a
closed loop circuit, an alternating voltage will be induced to the victim circuit and
interference current will flow in the closed loop.

• Electromagnetic coupling
Each conductor carrying a changing current is a potential transmitter antenna of
electromagnetic waves. Jointly, all conductors can operate as a receiver antenna. In
addition, each conductor, whether part of the active circuit or not, will shape the fields and
perhaps amplify the antenna operation. Sometimes a solid insulator may behave in the
same way. The problem gets worse from 10 MHz onwards due to improved antenna
function and because of the suitable dimensions of normal digital electronics and because
they operate at those speeds. Also part of the climatic interference is 10 to 100 MHz,
applying to lightning at a long distance. A stroke of lightning close to electronic equipment
easily stops normal function. The coupling will decrease as the distance increases.
17.2 Zoning concept [12]
The objective of the lightning protection zoning concept is to be able to define the
electromagnetic conditions within certain areas. The defined lightning protection zones
(LPZs) act as boundaries where transient currents can be diverted to earth. In this way,
one prevents interference from moving from one zone to the other. At the shielding point,
also known as the equipotential points, all conducted surges are conducted to ground
before entering the next zone. Electromagnetic shields at power stations can include the
building steel/reinforcing, walls of equipment rooms and the equipment cabinets.
If the walls of a building were perfectly conducting, then they would form a Faraday cage,
and differential voltages within the building would be limited to very low values even though
the building earth (and hence the building) may fluctuate dramatically due to currents in the
earth electrode. Achieving this is not easy so separate items or systems of electronic
equipment is rather shielded e.g. the electronic equipment and the associated cabling of
part of the process control system.
The different zones that are used for shielding are as shown in figure 42. It is shown that
LPZ0A is in a very harsh interference area experiencing direct lightning activity. LPZ0B on
the other hand is protected from direct lightning by the shielding of the building although
still experiencing high interferences. When entering the building, one enters into LPZ1 that
are more shielded from interference. All interferences in this area need to enter via
another route (indirectly), i.e. unprotected power cables. One continues like this until you
reach LPZ3 that is the area inside e.g. a PLC cabinet, “perfectly” protected from the
external lightning interference.
It is aimed to achieve zones where the exterior to the building is the harshest and deeper
into the building towards more protected zones, the electromagnetic environment becomes
more and more harmless. This only applies if the shield between the inside and the
outside zones is not violated. Dr. John van Coller called this phenomenon in his articles
[12] the “nested shielding” topology.
A galvanic continuous cable with armouring running from outside (LPZ0) to a PLC cabinet
deep within a building in LPZ3 is shown in figure 43.

At the point of entry to the next zone, surge protective devices (SPD’s) would be installed
as necessary to limit voltages between screen and signal lines. The interference is drained
to earth at every zone boundary and in this way, prevents it from influencing the very
sensitive PLC equipment in LPZ3. The harsh external environment is shielded from the
deeper zones.
Metal Roof
Equipment room
LPZ2
PLC Cubicle
LPZ3 Re-inforced walls
400 kV
LPZ0A Auxiliary Bay

LPZ1
LV
LPZ0B UPS
MV
V≈0
Trfr’s
Earthing system
Figure 42. Power station typical zone definition
It is important to maintain shielding integrity. The skin effect is where current flowing within
conductors prefers to flow near the surface; this becomes more significant at higher
frequencies. This simple fact should be remembered when installing surge protective
devices (SPD’s), cable screens, or even grounding conductors. The frequency of
interference is usually high.
LPZ1
LPZ2
LPZ3
LPZ0
Signal cable enter from

V≈0 outside the power station
to PLC cubicle in LPZ3
Figure 43. PLC cable entering from LPZ0 to the highly protected zone LPZ3

A further consideration is to minimise coupling into zones. Surface currents should be

minimised. Therefore, the single entry point panel is recommended. The surface currents
are diverted to earth at one point unnecessary surface currents are prevented through e.g.
the cubicle housing. The two scenarios are as shown in figure 44. The surface currents in
the bad installation can start to flow in screens and cause problems at other areas of the
plant. Using a single entry point implies that (in most industrial situations) poor quality
shielding can be used on the remainder of the shield.
PLC cubicle with cable PLC cubicle with cable entry

entry from one side from different directions
LPZ1 LPZ1
LPZ0
GOOD BAD
Figure 44. Minimising of surface current by single entry point of cables
In poorly shielded areas electronic equipment should ideally be in the centre of the
building. It should not be near the roof of the building or near corners where high lightning
currents are expected in down conductors. Routing of cabling within a screened room is
not critical. However, avoidance of large loop areas between mains supply cables and
communications cables by running them adjacent (but not in the same) ducts is
recommended.
In unscreened buildings, cabling and wiring should not be run adjacent to conductors
expected to carry high lightning currents (down conductors). To minimise coupling with
fields generated by high currents in vertical down conductors, loops in the vertical plane
should be avoided.
17.3 Power station application
Equipment earthing is the connection to ground of non-current carrying metal parts of an

installation. This includes e.g. the earthing of metal conduits, metal cable racks, cable
armouring, junction boxes, panels, motor frames, transformer tanks, switchgear
enclosures. The earthing details of the power station areas and equipment will be

discussed in the specific module, Module 17. The earthing application of some of the main
areas and equipment is shortly discussed here below.
• Earth mats
The power station main earth mat consists of 10 mm diameter black copper rod laid at a
depth of one meter under the on terrace foundation. In some places i.e. generator
transformer bays two copper rods are run in parallel. The rods under the main buildings
and the transformer bays are arranged to provide a matrix such that the maximum size of
each mesh does not exceed 800 mm2. All other earth mats are connected to the main
station earth mat by at least two connections of 50 x 3 mm flat copper bar. These do not
run side by side and where possible connect to diagonally opposite portions of the earth
mat system.
• Earth mats under foundations and floors

Where the earth mat passes under concrete foundations or floors the lowest earthing
resistance as well as minimal corrosion effect between copper and reinforcing bars is
achieved if the 10 mm diameter copper rod is placed directly on top of the blinding, then
cast in by the foundation or floor as the case may be.
• Main cable tunnels

Two main earth conductors each comprising of two 10 mm diameter annealed copper rods
are installed on all cable racks in the auxiliary bay for the whole length of the station.
These are cross connected by one 10 mm diameter copper rod at every second row of
columns (20 m intervals). Bonding to the station earth mat is done at the points where
earth tails are provided from the meshes of the earth mat. All additional cable racks
running in the auxiliary bay are provided with two 10 mm diameter copper rods running
along one of the trays and earthed to the main earth conductor, described above, at every
second column by a 10 mm diameter copper rod.
• Process control equipment

In principle earthing of cubicles, distribution frames, control boxes, switches etc. is to be
done directly to the nearest tail of the earth mat. Details of the earthing in the process
control equipment room as well as its bonding to the main station earth mat are carried out
according to the requirements of the supplier of the equipment. Earthing of the system
earth is done via insulated earth conductors (cables) to one central point from where
connection to the main station earthing via cables is effected. The central earth point
connection box has either a ‘G’ or ‘U’ shaped insulated copper bar.
• Computer room earthing

Details of the earth grid in the computer room as well as its bonding to the main station
earth mat are carried out according to the requirements of the supplier of the computer and
ancillary equipment. The uninsulated earthing circuits for the bonding of the computer
flooring, frames and cabinet earths are separated from the insulated electronic earths and
connected to the station earth mat via the shortest possible route. The electronic earths
are brought to a common insulated bar or junction box and are bonded to the earth mat
from there via an insulated earth cable (at one point only).

• MV and LV switchboards, control panels and cubicles

Switchboards, control panels and cubicles have an earth bar running over the length of the
board. This earth bar is connected to the earth mat once for single panels and at least on
each end for larger boards. Boards exceeding 15 m in length are bonded to the earth mat
in at least three positions. The neutral of the main LV board with direct transformer feeds
are earthed inside the board at only one point. In LV boards fed from a main board
(secondary switchboards), the neutral is not earthed again to avoid circulating currents.
• Auxiliary transformers
The tank of oil type transformers and the housing of dry type transformers are earthed at
two points in accordance with the manufacturers’ drawing indicating the positions of the
earth terminals. Transformer neutrals except 380 V neutrals are earthed either directly or
via earthing transformers and resistors as per the specific electrical single line drawings.
• Power and control cables (600/1000 V)

Where earth continuity conductors are provided as a separate core in cables this earth
core is to be connected to the earth bar of the switchboard, cubicle, etc. at the origin and to
the internal earthing point provided in the motor termination box, local control station etc. of
the target point.
• Process control cables

These include standard screened cables and special cables such as coaxial, compensating
and other cables. In general these cables are not armoured but have braided screens or
taped screens with screen drain wires to prevent the coupling in of interference voltages.
The normal practice is to earth the screen at the source of the cable and to insulate the
drain wire together with the screen at the remote cable end to avoid the creation of earth
loops. However, the latest EMC practice is to earth the screen at both ends.
• Electric motors and local control stations

Only one earth connection is required for a motor. For smaller motors this is provided by
the fourth cable core (up to 4 x 16 mm2). For larger motors this takes the form of a
yellow/green insulated fine stranded earth wire up to 70 mm2 (flat copper strap 25 x 3 mm
or 10 mm diameter round conductor) with a maximum length of 1000 mm bonding to the
nearest earth.
• Ancillary buildings
These buildings include for example the electrical substations, water treatment plant,
auxiliary cooling system, workshop and stores, station services building, hydrogen plant,
coal silos, fuel oil plant and administration buildings. Each off terrace building is provided
with its own earth mat that must be large enough to provide a resistance to earth of not
more than 0.2 ohm. This is achieved by either putting 10 mm diameter earth rod into
trenches or by driving earth rods into the ground. The individual building or area earth
mats on the terrace is bonded to the main station earth mat by at least two connections of
10 mm diameter copper rod each, linking into separate meshes of the main station earth
mat where possible.

• Vessels
All storage tanks are bonded to the earth mat. For tanks with diameters less than
5000 mm, one connection is acceptable. For all larger tanks two connections are required
on opposite sides to separate meshes in the earth mat.
17.4 Installation and materials
The work practices and materials used for the installation of the earthing and lightning
protection system require careful attention because it can jeopardise the integrity of the
function of the system. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to find workmanship and
material problems once the initial installation has been completed because of the difficult
access to the earthing system e.g. underground conductors.
17.4.1 Routing of conductors
Travelling waves caused by lightning strikes are exceptionally steep fronted, i.e. the
voltage rise occurs in nanoseconds. To cater for these, sharp bends or corners must be
avoided in the installation of all earth conductors, as fault currents will otherwise not follow
the metallic paths provided but will jump across insulation gaps and cause damage at
undetermined points.
17.4.2 Materials used
The materials used for earth mats and conductors depend on the specific application, cost
etc. but the power stations generally used 10 mm diameter black Cu rod for earth mats and
50 x 3 mm copper strap (or 2 x 10 mm diameter copper rod) for interconnections and
earthing of equipment. Note that alternative materials (e.g. aluminium) and earthing
methods are available and should be kept in mind when replacement or upgrading of
earthing is required.
17.4.3 Material joints
The joints between mild steel straps should be welded. Joints between mild steel and
copper straps used above ground for earthing purposes should preferably be made indoor.
Where they have to be made outdoor the joints must be protected against corrosion of the
joint by wrapping it with Denso-tape to about 100 mm on either side of the joint. Steel-
copper joints are to be brazed with silver alloy rod or preferably using an exothermic
welding process.
Brazing is a process for joining metallic materials with the aid of an additional molten
material (the solder) together with a flux, if necessary, and/or with inert gases. The melting
temperature of the solder is above 450°C, but less than that of the materials to be joined.
Therefore, the surfaces of the materials can be made wet without being melted. The

advantage of brazing compared to welding is the lower working temperature and the rapid
completion of the joints.

18 LIGHTING AND SMALL POWER
The lighting and small power system includes the distribution boards, single and multi-core
cables, conduits, wiring, luminaire brackets, luminaires, switch socket outlets, isolators and
circuit breakers.
The lighting design principles, different type of luminaires, lamps used and the application
of the lighting installation are shortly discussed in the following paragraphs.
18.1 Lighting design principles
The lighting and small power installation is in accordance with the law, SABS standards
and the Eskom specifications. In all areas the lighting is designed with personnel safety as
the main criteria. The installation provides adequate lighting to allow employees in their
work stations to do their work safely and efficiently. Unwanted light and glare from the light
sources are limited.
18.1.1 Illumination levels
The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS Act) specify minimum illumination levels for
safety as shown in figure 45. At no time shall the illumination level fall below these
recommendations, hence the lighting installation must be regularly maintained to ensure
conformance to the law.
The illumination levels used as design guide are those recommended by SANS 10114-1,
“Interior lighting part 1”, as shown in figure 45. These illumination levels are for a 90%
performance level for each specific task. Additional lighting may be required due to other
factors such as ageing, the specific task, environment, etc.
The emergency illumination levels are also specified in the specification, the minimum
allowed illumination level being 0.3 lux.
Architects and specialists determine the classification of an area i.e. office, welding
workshop, walkway etc. The lighting engineer designs a lighting installation that provides
the recommended lighting levels for those areas using the most cost effective lighting. In
addition the engineer provides the circuit layout with distribution boards, power supplies,
control circuitry, cabling etc. to attain a working installation.
18.1.2 Electrical supply philosophy
The lighting power supply philosophy incorporates four types of supplies namely the
normal supply, the essential supply, DC supply and emergency supply. The power
supplies and operation characteristics of each type are as follows:

• Normal lighting
The normal lighting system is supplied by the unit 380 V lighting board and the essential
lighting system is fed from the unit 380V essential lighting board. The latter is again
supplied from the unit 380V essential board with diesel generator back up. The essential
lighting system operates at all times. Under normal operational circumstances the normal
lighting together with the essential lighting provide sufficient light to meet the requirements
of SANS 10114-1 and the OHS Act.
LOCATION - INDUSTRIES TYPE OF WORK SANS 10114-1 GLARE OHS Act

[LUX] INDEX (MAX.) [LUX]
Electricity Turbine halls (operating floor) 300 25 200
Generating Blowers, auxiliary generators 150 25 100
Station (Indoor) Cable, screens, and transformer chambers 100 25 75
Cable tunnel, covered ways, storage tanks 50 25 50
Battery and charging equipment rooms 150 25 100
Boiler front (operating floor) 150 25 150
Pulverizers, feeders, ash plant, conveyors 100 25 75
(tunnel, junction tower)
Boiler house and turbine house basements 150 25 100
Pump houses and rooms, water treatment 150 25 100
plant
Overland conveyor housing walkways 100 25 50
Control rooms:
• Vertical control panel face 300 19 200
(vertical luminance)
• Control desks 400 19 200
• Rear of control panels 150 22 100
Computer room 500 19 500
Switch houses and rooms 200 25 150
Relay and telecommunications rooms 300 22 200
Nuclear reactors and steam raising plants:
High voltage substations 200 25 100
Offices Entrance halls and reception areas 200 22 100
Conference rooms, general offices, typing, 500 19 300
and filing
Computer and business machine operation 500 19 500
Drawing offices 750 16 500
Figure 45. Illumination levels (extract from SANS 10114-1 and the OHS Act)
• Essential lighting
The essential lighting with diesel generator back up provides sufficient lighting for the
personnel to evacuate the power station plant in the event of the normal lighting system
failing. Sufficient lighting is also provided in plant areas where personnel is required to
ensure safe shut down or bringing back into service of the plant. The lighting is available
for as long as the diesel generator is running.
• DC Lighting
The DC lighting luminaires are fed from the respective unit 220 V DC essential board. DC
lighting is provided in the control rooms and provides sufficient light for the safe shut down
of the unit or when preparing to start up under a power station black out situation. These
lights are also classified as emergency lights.

• Emergency lighting
The emergency lighting is required when the normal and essential lighting supplies failed.
The main function of this lighting is to ensure the safe evacuation of personnel. The
emergency luminaire has a battery that is charging during normal operation and changes
automatically to battery supply when the normal supply fails. A back-up time of one hour is
normally required.
The application philosophy of the types of lighting supplies differs for the on terrace area
and the outside plant in that the essential and DC supplies are not readily available in the
remote areas of the common plant:
• On terrace
The lighting power supply philosophy in this area incorporates all four of the types of
supplies namely the normal supply, the essential supply, DC supply and emergency
supply.
• Common/outside plant
In the common plant areas and substations two normal AC supplies are provided and a
chop-over circuit is used to perform a change-over of the two supplies when one fails.
Each lighting distribution board is supplied with two normal power supplies from the chop-
over. Each distribution board has a “normal” and “essential” side. Although both sides are
supplied from the same chop-over with normal supplies, the design is performed as if there
were a normal and essential supply available.
18.1.3 Maintenance lighting
The required lighting level in an area is based on the type of work that is normally
performed there e.g. operating tasks in a switchgear room. When it is required to perform
maintenance on the equipment in the area the lighting may not conform to the level
required for the specific type of work. This then means that additional lighting should be
provided, this is called maintenance lighting. The maintenance crews are expected to
provide their own working lights that provide adequate lighting for the specific task to be
performed.
18.1.4 Lighting maintenance considerations
The lighting and small power system maintenance is an important consideration during the
design and installation phases. The type of maintenance, i.e. breakdown repairs or routine
bulk changes, to be performed on the installation is already decided at the design stage
when the number and type of luminaires are chosen. There is an important relationship
between the lighting level required by law and the maintenance plan that is implemented at
the power plant. This should always be kept in mind and it is important for the system
engineer to have a good understanding of the design philosophy when maintenance plan
decisions are made.

The light output from the lamp and luminaire reduce due to dirt and dust collected on them
and it is necessary to clean all lamps and luminaires at regular periods. The lamp light
output also reduces due to age. Visually the lamp can still look as if adequate light is
provided, but the lux output may have decreased to a value below the required level for the
application and design.
18.1.5 Switching
Switching facilities are normally provided in offices, general rooms, workshops and cable
tunnels in the auxiliary bay and in the off terrace buildings. The boiler house, turbine house
and auxiliary bay corridors are normally non-switched. In access controlled areas e.g.
transformer bays situated outdoor, switching can be done as well, normally in parallel with
daylight switches to ensure that the lights are not permanently switched on.
Daylight switches are installed for high mast lights on outside plant areas, like the ACC,
precipitators, fabric filter plant, auxiliary cooling plant etc. to ensure lights are only switched
on when required.
On older plant timer circuits were installed, but this is not preferred. When modifications
are done to such plant, daylight switches should be installed. The timers go out of
sequence when power is lost to the circuit and cause lights to be switched on during
daytime.
18.2 Lamp types
The aim of the designer when choosing the type of lamp is firstly to apply the correct lamp
for the application area. Some important considerations are the light level requirement,
physical size and layout of the area to be illuminated, luminaire installation positions, life
cycle maintenance costs etc. The variety of different types of lamps that are available from
the suppliers should be limited to as few as possible in the installation to ensure that the
minimum of spares are kept and to reduce the possibility of confusion for maintenance
personnel.
The principle of operation and application for the different categories remain almost the
same for all the manufacturers. The main categories and types used in the power stations
are shortly discussed:
• Fluorescent lamps
Fluorescent lamps are available in a variety of sizes, types and light output e.g. 1200 mm x
40 W, giving the tube length and power consumption respectively. The main production of
light from a fluorescent lamp comes from the phosphor coating on the inside of the glass
tube. The phosphor coating is activated to produce light by the ultra violet radiation from
the glow discharge contained within the glass tube. All fluorescent lamps require a current
limiting device and some sort of starting mechanism. The current limiting device is
normally in the form of an inductor, and is referred to as the ballast or choke. There are

various ways to start a fluorescent lamp, the one mostly applied is the switch start type also
called a glow starter. Electronic and semi-electronic switch starters are also available.
• High pressure sodium lamps

High pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are available in ratings from 50 to 1000 W in either a
tubular or elliptical bulb. The lamps have equivalent size high pressure sodium control
gear. The production of light comes from an arc within an arc-tube inside the glass bulb.
The arc-tube is sintered from aluminium oxide powder to give a polycrystalline structure.
Inside the arc-tube there is an amalgam of mercury and sodium metals, it is these two
elements in their gaseous form that produces the intense light. All high pressure sodium
lamps require a current limiting device, and some form of starter to start the lamp. The
current limiting device is normally an inductor (ballast). The starter for high pressure
sodium lamps is called an ignitor and it is normally electronic and housed in the luminaire
with the ballast and a power factor correction capacitor.
• Xenon high pressure sodium (Eye) lamps

Xenon high pressure sodium lamps have ratings of 110 to 940 W in either a tubular or
elliptical bulb. The different lamps have slightly higher rated mercury vapour control gear.
The production of light also comes from an arc within an arc-tube inside the glass bulb
similar to the HPS lamp, the difference being that inside the arc-tube there is an amalgam
of xenon and sodium metals. The ignitor is inside the Eye lamp and there is a power factor
correction capacitor with the ballast.
• Incandescent lamps
This type of lamp is also called GLS (general lighting service) lamps. The light is produced
from the heating effect of a filament of tungsten wire. The tungsten wire is wound into a
coil, and is sometimes wound again into a second coil, called a coil-coiled filament. The
life of an incandescent lamp is quite short, in the region of 1000 hours. The supply voltage
plays and important roll in the life of an incandescent lamp, a 7% increase in the voltage
will decrease the life of the lamp by half. Long life incandescent lamps are normally used
in power plants having a filament that is much thicker.
18.3 Luminaire types
The same aim as was mentioned for lamps is applicable for luminaires and that is that the
many types of luminaires available from the suppliers should be limited to as few as
possible in the installation to ensure that the minimum of spares are kept and to reduce the
maintenance burden. The designer should ensure that the type of luminaire is suitable for
the application area with regard to the environmental conditions, layout of the area and
when obviously chosen because of the choice of lamp being the principal factor.
The main types of luminaires are shortly discussed:
• Fluorescent luminaires
There is a vast range to choose from, ranging from the well known batten type to the
double parabolic type. The majority of the fluorescent luminaires are used in offices,

switchgear rooms and workshops. The E(x)e type luminaires are used in areas classified
as Hazardous Areas and the appropriate classified luminaire is required. The IP 55 (or
higher) type luminaires are used outside or in areas where dust, water or water vapour may
be a problem. Except for the E(x)e type luminaires, all fluorescent luminaires are switch
start, fitted with a reset type semi-electronic starter.
• Bulkhead luminaires
The luminaire should have a minimum protection class rating of IP 55 and be suitable for
150 W high pressure sodium and xenon high pressure sodium lamps. It is a low glare
luminaire with a classic “bat wing” light distribution. The bulkhead luminaire is used
extensively in the boiler, and turbine, and to illuminate small outside areas. The low glare
and batwing light distribution make it ideally suitable for low mounting heights, such as in
cable tunnels and on conveyors. Dust ignition proof, IP 65 luminaires are used in the coal
handling areas such as the coal silos, head and tail end of conveyors etc.
• Industrial Wellglass luminaires

The minimum protection class rating for the luminaire of IP 55 is required and generally
suitable for both 110 W and 220 W Xenon high pressure sodium lamps are required. It is a
high glare luminaire. The Wellglass luminaire is normally used extensively in the boiler and
turbine, and to illuminate small outside areas. The light distribution makes the light ideal
for lighting small areas when fitted vertically and that can be illuminated from a position well
above eye level.
• Floodlight luminaires
The minimum protection class rating of IP 55 is required. The floodlights that are used
inside the power station for general lighting are normally of the broad beam type with either
150 or 250 W lamps. In the outside areas luminaires with 940 W Xenon high pressure
sodium lamps are mostly used. As a floodlight is a powerful projector of light, careful
positioning and angling of the luminaire is required, specially the azimuth angle. A
reasonable amount of light overlap is required to avoid harsh shadows. The minimum
classification of IP 65 luminaires are used to provide light into the mill bunkers, head and
tail ends of conveyors etc., with a minimum of 360 W lamps.
• High bay luminaires

The self cleaning type of luminaire is required. Although these luminaires are called self
cleaning they still require periodic cleaning. The main use of high bay type luminaires are
to illuminate the turbine hall and large operating floors using 400 W high pressure sodium
and 940 W Xenon high pressure sodium lamps.
18.4 Lighting application
The lighting installation should be suitable for the area of application, easily accessible for
maintenance and standardised as much as possible. Standardisation is an important
consideration in selection of luminaire types to keep the quantity of luminaires and lamp
spares to be carried by the station to a minimum.

The application of lighting in a power station is shortly discussed here below:
• Boiler house
The luminaires mostly used are broad beam low wattage floodlights with a low glare light
distribution, bulkhead fittings and industrial Wellglass luminaires. Special care is taken in
the design of the lighting in the boiler to minimise glare and harsh shadows. All luminaires
are mounted at a maximum height of 2.2 m from floor level or access stairways for ease of
maintenance. Luminaires should have a minimum protective class rating of IP 55.
• Turbine house
The light source best suited for this area is xenon high pressure sodium lamps. The
luminaires applied are the same as for the boilers, with the addition of the self cleaning
high bay types for the turbine hall.
• Auxiliary bay, offices, substations and workshops

The auxiliary bay encompasses many different types of areas e.g. offices, switchgear
rooms and workshops. Recessed or surface mounted low glare fluorescent luminaires
(also called a low brightness luminaire) are used in offices and areas of similar
environment. Generally, fluorescent battens are used in all other areas.
• Control rooms
The control rooms require special consideration. Down lighters on dimmer switches are
used for the general area lighting. Low glare fluorescent luminaires are installed to light the
mimic panel. Even light distribution is required. DC luminaires are installed at the doors
and above the control desk for emergency use when the normal and essential power
supplies fail.
• Cable tunnels and conveyor walkways

A low glare classic “Battwing” light distribution luminaire is normally used with a xenon high
pressure sodium lamp.
• Outside areas and terrace lighting

For large areas that require area lighting, 20 m light masts with 8 or 12 × 400 W high
pressure sodium or 6 × 940 W xenon high pressure sodium floodlights are used. The
lighting is controlled by a photo electric cell (preferred) or timer and contactor, and has an
override switch.
• Chimney (smoke stack)

The chimneys are the highest structures at the power station and Aircraft Warning Lights
(AWL) are installed, normally on three levels equally spaced (every 120º) around the
outside wind shield. Long life incandescent lamps are used. The AWL’s are controlled
with a daylight switch and a bypass switch for maintenance. An alarm to the station control
room is installed to indicate lamp failure. The staircase is only for emergency use (rack-
and-pinion lift is normally used) and lighted accordingly, a 100 lux light level is adequate.
Bulkheads with a long lamp life and a robust structure are preferred.

• Coal Stock Yard

Lighting masts up to a 40 m height with 8 × 940 W xenon high pressure sodium floodlights
are mostly used for area lighting. The lighting is controlled by a photo electric cell and
contactor, and has an override switch.
• Security fence
The power station security fence normally uses 150 W high pressure sodium floodlights
mounted on 3 m poles. The luminaires have screens directing light to the outside of the
fence for security purposes. Several mini-substations situated around the fenced area
supply the different sections of the fence lighting. Adjacent luminaires are fed from
alternative mini-substations to ensure that there is still lighting when one mini-substation
fails.
18.5 Modifications
Changes to the plant area and office building layouts i.e. where dry walls are added or
removed should be properly designed before the alterations are made. This is to ensure
that the area is correctly classified and the required illumination level determined to ensure
that the correct number of luminaires are installed as well as correctly positioned.
Before any luminaires are added to any circuits, or complete new circuits added, in a
distribution board (DB), the designer should recalculate the load and check the circuit and
DB power capability. Only after the calculations have been performed and the modification
approved, can the changes be done according to the new set of approved drawings. In
this way it is ensured that the installation conforms to the law.
Note that, normally air conditioners on site should not be supplied from lighting distribution
boards (DB’s) but directly from the switchgear circuits. In the office areas it might be
incorporated in the lighting design.

19 ELECTRICAL FENCE
Each power station has a protection system around the power station that will prevent
someone from entering the premises unnoticed. The fence normally consists of two barrier
fences with an electrified section between them. A central control system is normally
included that can alarm and indicate the area of a possible intrusion. Adequate lighting is
also provided to discourage intruders as well as for inspection patrols by security
personnel.
19.1 Legal requirements
New legislation requires the electrified fence to be non-lethal; that means that the type of
electrical power that is used on the active part of the fence may not cause a lethal
electrification to a person. It is therefore limited in voltage level and current, and pulsed
thereby limiting the power of the waveform to a non-lethal level.
19.2 Fence construction
The fence consists of outer and inner perimeter fences that prevent access to the electrical
fence between them (see figure 46). The outer and inner fences provide a physical barrier
with warning notices in accordance with the OHS Act.
Figure 46. Electrical fence in the centre with two barrier fences

19.3 Central control system
The modern electrified fences have a central control system with an indication mimic
normally installed in the protective services control room. The mimic displays the fence
layout and indicates the different zones. The fence is divided in different zones that can be
triggered individually by an intruder. An alarm of intrusion is related to each zone and
indicated as such on the mimic for action from the operator.
19.4 Lighting
Security lighting is installed around the inside barrier fence. The installed system is
permanently energised, feeding from mini substations positioned around the inside of the
fence. The lights can be switched automatically or manually by the security personnel.
19.5 Gate interlock system
To gain access into the electrified fence, every electrifier has to be switched off. The
access gate key will only be released when the complete system is earthed. The locking
mechanism should meet the safety requirements of an electrified fence system. Note that
monitoring of the gate(s) and lock(s) is not required but recommended.

20 HV YARD
This section provides the general layout requirements for power station HV yards in
accordance with the Grid Code and the Eskom Transmission System Planning Guide,
TSPG 001/95-01. The advantages and disadvantages of the different HV yard busbar
arrangements and the security and planning criteria are discussed. The section is
concluded with a discussion of the different equipment technologies applied. The details of
the HV yard power station application will be discussed in Module 20.
20.1 Station importance ranking
The busbar layout considers the security and planning criteria as well as the importance
ranking of the power station. The importance ranking is categorised in three levels, as
shown in figures 48, 49 and 50. The symbol legend for these figures is as shown in
figure 47.
Feeder connection to main and Feeder connection to single Bus section breaker (isolators
alternative busbars (breakers busbar only (breakers and not shown).
and isolators not shown). isolators not shown).
Figure 47. Symbol legend for figures 48, 49 and 50
The level 3 to 1 importance rankings are defined and explained as follows:
• Level 3 (unfirm, n contingency)

A loss of a section of busbar normally results in the loss of the designed load or loss of the
designed transfer capacity (refer to figure 48).

Busbar
Figure 48. Example of a level three, unfirm busbar layout
• Level 2 (firm, n-1 contingency)

The loss of a section of busbar does not result in the loss of the designed load or the loss
of the designed transfer capacity (refer to figure 49).
Busbar 2
Busbar 1
Figure 49. Example of a level 2, firm busbar layout
• Level 1 (firm with maintenance busbar, n-1 contingency)

A loss of a section of busbar does not result in the loss of the designed load or loss of the
designed transfer capacity even with one section of busbar out of service for maintenance
(refer to figure 50).
Busbar 2
Busbar 1
Figure 50. Example of a level 1, firm with maintenance busbar layout

A “firm”, n-1 contingency supply is defined as one where at least two energy supplies are
available so that the loss of one will not cause a loss of supplies.
20.2 Busbar arrangements and security criteria
The busbar layouts as shown in figures 48 to 50 give the typical evolution of standard
arrangements for transmission substations over time. The standard Eskom layout with a
double busbar, no bypass facility and a bus coupler is as shown in figure 51.
Busbar 2
Busbar 1
Figure 51. Double busbar with bus coupler arrangement
This arrangement is typically used for 275 kV and below, is cheap and simple but it has a
number of limitations:
• the operator has a very limited choice to group feeders as there are only two busbars,
• a busbar fault can severely influence the network,
• during maintenance of switchgear at the HV yard, all switchgear except that which is
being maintained is on one busbar. The possibility of a fault is increased with persons
working in the yard and hence the possibility of losing the complete HV yard is high and
• the line whose switchgear is being maintained is not available.
The isolators are used for the following purposes:
• to enable feeders to be connected to different busbars,

• to enable lines, breakers, transformers, or other items of electrical equipment to be
isolated from the system for maintenance or inspection,
• to bypass circuit breakers whilst maintaining supplies and
• to isolate faulty transformers in the transformer-feeder schemes.

20.3 Feeder circuit selection and bypass facilities
The disadvantages of the standard layout can be overcome by the application of additional
bus couplers and using bypasses as discussed in the following paragraphs.
20.3.1 Increasing the choice for grouping equipment at the busbar
This is achieved by the addition of bus sections and a bus coupler (refer to figure 49). The
choice of the number of bus sections can be determined by the maximum number of lines
and transformers that can be lost simultaneously without causing the supply to be lost. For
example, it is usual to group a line supplying power into the busbar with a line taking power
away from the busbar and a transformer on one section of busbar. Under normal
circumstances, a busbar fault would not compromise any customer’s supply with this
arrangement.
20.3.2 Use of bypasses
The normal double busbar layout with a bus coupler has no bypass facility as shown in
figure 52. High line availability is achieved by providing bypasses which enable circuit
breakers to be taken out of service for maintenance and testing without affecting line
availability. However, if isolator maintenance has to be performed, the line and/or section’s
busbar still have to be taken out of service.
Busbar 2
Busbar 1
Figure 52. Normal double busbar selection with no bypass
The bypass with single busbar selection (figure 53) was generally used in the past at
275 kV on single line radial feeds to provide continuity of supply when maintaining the line
breakers.

Busbar 2
Busbar 1
Figure 53. Single busbar selection with bypass onto busbar 2
The bypass with double busbar selection (figure 54) is used without exception on 400 kV
and 765 kV lines and is becoming common practice at 275 kV voltages as well. The
reason is that for a small initial additional capital cost, it is possible to perform maintenance
on all the busbar isolators without having to compromise security of supply.
Busbar 2
Busbar 1
Figure 54. Double busbar selection with bypass onto busbar 2
20.4 Planning criteria
This paragraph discusses the Eskom planning criteria [17] for the integration of power
stations in the Transmission Network.

20.4.1 Stations of less than 1000 MW
With all the connecting lines healthy it is possible to transmit the total output of the station
to the system for any system load condition. If the local area depends on the station for
voltage support, connection is done with a minimum of two lines. Transient stability must
be maintained following a successfully cleared single phase fault.
If only a single line is used it is able to be selected to alternative busbars and be able to go
on to bypass at each end of the line.
20.4.2 Stations of more than 1000 MW
With one connecting line out of service it is possible to transmit the total output of the
station to the system for any system load condition. With the two most demanding line
outages it is possible to transmit 83% of the total output of the station to the system.
20.4.3 Transient stability
The transient stability is retained for the following conditions:
• A three-phase, line or busbar fault, cleared in normal protection times, with the system
healthy and the most onerous station loading condition, or
• a single phase fault cleared in “bus strip” times, with the system healthy and the most
onerous station loading condition, or
• a single-phase fault, cleared in normal protection times, with any one line out of service
and the station loaded to average availability.
20.4.4 Busbar arrangements
The requirement for busbar layouts are that they allow for the selection to alternative
busbars, the ability to go on bypass and that no more than a 1000 MW of generation is
connected to any bus section, even with one bus section out of service.
20.5 Technologies
The technologies that are generally used in Eskom are shortly discussed in the following
paragraphs.

20.5.1 Air insulation: Strung conductor
This technology is used in almost all the Eskom substations and power station HV yards.
All the electrical equipment is for outdoor application. The conductors are supported with
self-supporting structures of the galvanised, steel lattice type. Insulation is provided by
strings of insulator discs of the composite material type. The clearances for the conductors
and the insulator creepage distance specifications are specified in line with the applicable
environment conditions i.e. lightning density and level of natural and industrial pollution.
The earthing arrangement used in the HV yard is very important due to the high exposure
level to lightning. An earth mat is normally constructed under the yard terrace that consists
of a lattice of 10 mm diameter round black copper rod. The structures are then earthed to
this copper earth mat via tails that is connected to the lattice structure, preferably with
clamps. The supporting structure concrete plinth reinforcement is also connected to the
earth mat. The HV yard earth mat is then connected to the power station earth mat to
ensure low voltage rise levels under fault conditions. Earth wires protect the conductors
against direct lightning strikes. The earth wires are stranded aluminium alloy or stranded
copper conductor and solidly connected to the supporting steel structures.
20.5.2 Air insulation: Tubular conductor
The tubular conductor is applied similarly to the strung conductor with the exception of the
conductor itself. This conductor is a hollow tube manufactured from aluminium.
Advantages are that conductor sag and swinging are eliminated and therefore smaller
phase to phase and phase to ground clearance values are required. The substation profile
can therefore be lowered considerably having a lower visual impact.
A problem that can be experienced with this technology is expansion and contraction
related, and the subsequent requirement for expansion joints. The electrical grade
aluminium alloy conductor is expensive and can only be justified where a low visual
environmental impact is required.
20.5.3 Gas-insulated-switchgear
In the Gas-Insulated-Switchgear (GIS) application all the equipment i.e. breaker, busbars,
isolators, earthing switches, CT's, VT's and surge arrestors are enclosed in metal clad
compartments and insulated by SF6 gas. The GIS application requires the least space and
reduces the environmental impact of the yard. It is only feasible in applications where the
additional cost in comparison to the air insulated option can be justified in terms of the
space and environmental constraints.
The GIS option is applied where severe space restrictions are imposed, the environmental
impact of the yard should be minimal, in areas of high industrial pollution and in areas of
high corrosion e.g. coastal areas.

20.5.4 Air insulated modular indoor technology
The area of application of this technology is similar to that of the GIS option. The
substation building adds to the cost but it is much cheaper in comparison to the GIS
technology. The connections to the transformers can be performed with cables and
therefore having no terminations or busbars exposed to air, excluding that of the feeder
connections via HV bushings.
A major advantage of the application of this technology is that equipment from different
manufacturers can interface with each other. A few smaller substations have been
constructed in populated areas but never at a power station. It is not generally applied at a
voltage higher than 132 kV because of the large clearances required that increases the
size of the building to reach impractical dimensions. A disadvantage is that the whole
modular bay must be isolated before entrance can be allowed.
This technology is feasible where a low visual environmental impact is required. The
application is generally feasible at a voltage of 132 kV but has been used at a voltage of
275 kV.

21 MEASUREMENTS AND METERING
The measurement and metering system is required for the purposes of operational,
commercial and planning requirements and conform to the relevant ESKOM standards, the
NRS 057: 2001 national specification and the South African Grid Code.
There is a need to have up to date information of the relevant power station and network
parameters at all times e.g. the energy flow, power consumption, efficiency, voltage levels,
frequency etc. The measurements accurately reflect the status of the complete power
generation process. The data can be analysed to determine the plant efficiency,
deficiencies etc. by evaluating the power plant parameter absolute values or changes in
association with the operational conditions.
With the deregulation of the energy market in South Africa and the establishment of an
open trading and bidding system and the introduction of independent power suppliers,
higher accuracy and reporting specifications with respect to the measurements and
metering of energy are required. This is as specified by The South African Grid Code for
metering.
21.1 Inadequacy of the older systems
The analogue electronic measurement transducers applied in the old power stations has
been superseded by equipment having multi-functionality, are more accurate and easier to
integrate with different control and communication systems. The outputs of the old
transducers are calibrated for a specific range that cannot be easily changed unless the
output circuits are modified, a process that is very time consuming when it is required that
all transducers be changed to interface with a new system (also affects the reliability of the
transducer).
At some of the older power stations the energy values are not very accurate; the power
station efficiency calculations are therefore incorrect and the management of auxiliary
power consumption is also impossible. Generating on the contracted energy export value
is unattainable which have economic implications i.e. loss of income for over/under
generation. The aforesaid problem then forces the power station to use the transmission
metering values for determining its own outputs. The method employed is an
approximation and makes use of calculating averages during a specified period. The
values obtained from these calculations can differ by more than 5% per day when
compared with that measured with the integration method. This estimation of energy data
is not in line with the new requirements.
Many of the old energy metering devices are of the induction type that is now obsolete.
They have the capability for metering only active (kWh) energy, not both active and
reactive (kVArh) energy as required. The measurement method used is three-phase-three-
wire and can cause additional inaccuracy of the measurement, depending on the
configuration and the power factor of the load. These devices require a high level of
routine maintenance.

21.2 Power station application
With the modern systems the processing of data are easy, changing device configurations
are fast and simple and they have a very high reliability and availability. The measurement
and metering system can be easily integrated with the station control system which means
that the type and number of parameters that can be chosen are almost unlimited. With
software arithmetic it is also possible to calculate values at points not specifically measured
but needed by the power station for efficient energy and process management.
The systems are fully dual redundant and consist of multi-function transducer devices that
can be programmed and be used both for interfacing via analogue outputs as well as
digitally via a protocol bus. The analogue outputs are user configurable and therefore
outputs can be selected according to what is required. Different protocols can be applied
using the same transducers by using the software provided with the device.
The application of some of the important measurements that are in accordance with the
latest power station operational requirements and the national standards are briefly
discussed in the following paragraphs. The complete system with details will be discussed
in Module 22: Measurements and metering.
21.2.1 Generator
The measurements of the generator parameters are required to determine the power
output performance of the machine. The operating point is measured and continuously
reflected on a capability chart to ensure that it is only operated in the permissible safe
region. The parameters that are measured are active and reactive energy, terminal
voltage, stator current, machine frequency, rotor voltage, rotor current and the power
factor.
21.2.2 Unit transformers
The unit auxiliary power is supplied via the unit transformers (can be as high as 8% of the
generated power) and therefore accurate energy metering is required to determine boiler
and turbine efficiency respectively. The active and reactive energy is measured on the
primary side of the unit transformers, other parameters that are measured are the voltage
and the current (that reflects the plant load).
21.2.3 Generator transformers
The generator transformer is the interface point between generation and transmission and
the measurements function at this point is therefore very important. This point is the
energy billing interface and provide a fast and accurate reflection of the unit efficiency. The
sent out energy of the units is measured at this point and used to calculate the power
station sent out energy by adding these values and subtracting the station transformer

supply (if used for common plant supply). Active and reactive energy metering (main and
check four quadrant meters) are required as well as the current and the system voltage.
21.2.4 Station transformer
The station transformer is the interface point between generation and the distribution yard
and sometimes used as a power supply to the common plant (see the above paragraph).
Active and reactive energy metering (main and check uni-directional meters) are required
as well as the current and the system voltage.
21.2.5 MV and LV boards
The unit and common plant boards are an integrated part of the power station auxiliary
power system and play an important role in the electricity generation process. The
measurements on these boards are monitored continuously by the operating personnel to
ensure operation in accordance with the allowed values and for the early detection of plant
abnormalities. The measurement of busbar voltage, incomer current, feeder currents of
major loads (MV motors) and a local indication for smaller feeders are normally required.
21.2.6 Energy management systems
The Energy Management Data Acquisition System (EMDAS), shown in figure 55,
automatically collects data from energy measurement devices situated throughout the
plant, calculates the power station energy output and consumption values and then stores
and archives the data continuously in a central data base. The active and reactive energy
values are measured at selected points in the power station and by performing some basic
addition and subtraction on these values the energy produced and used by the different
power plant systems in the power station is obtained.
The power stations trading and bidding is done via the Phoenix information system (see
figure 51) on a daily basis. The Energy Managers bid the price and quantity that the
station is willing to sell its electricity and the Phoenix system then calculates the amount of
power required to meet the estimated demand for the next day. The station is then given a
contract for every hour for the next day; the contract is available on Phoenix on the
afternoon of the previous day. The quantity of energy produced by each unit is recorded
on an hourly basis in Phoenix. The system then automatically checks the actual against
the contracted values and if there is more than a 4% difference, a reason must be given by
the power station.
The data from EMDAS is automatically uploaded hourly to GENIX and POWI (manual input
of data to the various systems is not required). The GENIX system is an application
running on a client/server architecture with the server situated at Megawatt Park and
clients throughout generation. This is a Third Party application used for generation bidding,
events, hourly send out values and key performance indicators. The POWI system is an

online application for power trading situated at National Control. This is a Third Party
application that belongs to Transmission.
Figure 55. Typical energy management system configuration

22 STATION ELECTRICAL CONTROL
The electrical power distribution network in South Africa is known as the Interconnected
Power System (IPS) and is coordinated by a control desk in Germiston known as National
Control (see figure 56). This IPS consists of various power generation units (power
stations) and consumers (customers) interconnected by a transmission and distribution
network. The electrical operating desk (EOD) or station control room is the control centre
at the power station and is the data and communication link between National Control and
the power generating units.
22.1 Electrical operating desk (EOD)
The local control officer (LCO) is stationed at EOD and is responsible for the IPS level
interface as well as various other tasks within the power station. These tasks can be
divided into six main groups as represented by the blocks (number 1 to 6) in figure 52. The
systems, equipment and other tools used by the LCO to perform these tasks are as listed
in each function block and will be shortly discussed in the following paragraphs.
National Control
Other power stations Transmission and

Distribution
networks
Power Station EOD
1. Reticulation control 4. Energy

Control EMDAS
Indications and alarms Phoenix
Measurements AGC
Mimic Clocks
2. Plant information 5. Fire system

Sequence of events Indications
Trends Alarms
Printers
Recorders
3. Communication 6. Permit system

Emergency telephone Key cabinet
Recorded telephone LV permits
Radios HV permits
Pagers Key safe
PA system
Figure 56. EOD interface and areas of responsibility

22.1.1 Station reticulation control
The purpose of the station electrical reticulation network is to supply electrical power to the
equipment and auxiliaries needed to generate electrical power. The EOD is responsible to
ensure continuity of the auxiliary power supply to the common plant and the power-
generating units and to do this, a station control system throughout the power station help
the operating personnel (LCO) to manage the station reticulation network.
The purpose of the integrated station control system is to provide a real time, detailed
report of the status of the plant controlled by the operator and to allow remote operations of
plant either by the operator or fully automatic operations by the control system. The plant
is graphically represented on a set of computer screens as well as on a mimic panel
(dynamic in the new power stations) that represents the electrical reticulation system.
The operator interface is the tool the operator uses to control and monitor the plant through
the controllers and field instruments. Various tools are available at EOD as the operator
interface, namely the operating stations (keyboard, mouse and screen), information
management system, EMDAS, printers, recorders and the mimic.
The mimic is used to provide a graphical representation of the station reticulation system in
the station control room. Sometimes the most urgent alarms are also displayed on the
mimic. A “dead” mimic philosophy is used at the power stations. This means that LED’s
will only light up if an abnormal condition exists. A combination of static artwork and
dynamic objects are used on the mimic to represent breakers, couplers, isolators, earth
switches, transformers, analogue values and statuses.
22.1.2 Plant information system
The duty of the LCO is to ensure the continuity of supply to the station reticulation system
of the power station. Any information from the plant that can influence the integrity thereof
needs to be identified as soon as possible so that the necessary action can be taken e.g.
quick reaction to an alarm can prevent the loss of supplies, a subsequent unit trip or
damage to the plant. If there was an equipment failure and/or the plant did trip it is also
important to have the plant trip/failure details to ensure that the fault can be identified and
rectified in a short time. A quick decision for example can be taken for alternative supplies
if the LCO has enough information to accurately assess the problem.
To be able to monitor and control such a big plant, it is important to have a system that is
capable to continuously provide adequate and accurate plant information to the LCO. The
following information is provided:
• Events
Any status change of a field instrument interfacing with the information management
system will be an event and be available on the event list. Events are only for operator
information and no action is necessary. Events are time stamped with real time, and can
be viewed in this order.

• Alarms
Any condition in the plant that needs action to be taken to rectify is seen as an alarm. An
alarm will sound as an audio alarm that needs to be acknowledged. When the signal
returns to normal condition, a new alarm (indicating normal) appears on the alarm list.
After acknowledgement, a “return to normal” alarm will disappear from the alarm list.
Therefore, provided that alarms are regularly acknowledged, no “normal alarms” will be
present on the screen.
• Trends
Trending of analogue input information on XY plots is a very useful tool to monitor changes
in for example MW, MVar, V, A, Hz etc. This is normally a standard function that is
available in the modern station control systems.
22.1.3 Communication
The most important aspect of the power station EOD is the ability of the personnel to
communicate effectively with people. The consequence of communication errors, failure to
communicate, misunderstandings etc. can be plant trips, major damage to the plant and
fatal accidents. The tools used at EOD to ensure that adequate communication can take
place are as follows:
• Normal phone: This phone is used internally at the power station. No operating
instructions and discussions are performed on this phone.
• Emergency telephone: All emergencies must be reported using this telephone.
• Recorded telephone: This telephone is linked to a recorder and is used to give
instructions to other operating staff.
• Radios: The power stations each have a radio network with repeaters through the
station for communication between the plant personnel and the EOD when required.
• Pagers: The pager system is used to send messages to anyone with a pager in the
receiver area.
• PA system: The PA system is used to communicate with all personnel and is only used
when urgent.
• Lift intercom: The lift intercom systems are used for communication between the EOD
and the lifts if a problem arises or the lift is stuck.
• Intercom: A direct communication line between EOD, the common plant control room
and all the unit control rooms make it possible to communicate even if the telephones
are out of order or busy.
• Alarms/sirens: The fire, emergency and evacuation alarms are used to initiate the
respective sirens for personnel reaction.
• Operator log: Everything that happens on shift must be chronologically logged in the
paper or computerised logging system.

22.1.4 Energy management
A very important function that is performed from the station control room is to ensure that
the energy output of the power station follows the contracted plan. The energy
measurement equipment (as discussed in section 21) is used by the LCO to perform this
function. In addition an automatic frequency control system and clocks are employed as
discussed here below.
(a) Automatic frequency control
The automatic governor control (AGC) system is an interface system between National
Control and each power station. The AGC system provides an automatic frequency control
function that has the capability to change the turbine speed set point on a generating unit
from a remote location, namely National Control. Any generator can be bid onto AGC
control by the power station, for any hour of the day and is then selected as such in the unit
control room. The AGC control system will then change the set point on the unit between
the high and low limits by means of raise and lower pulses.
The speed high and low limits, speed set point and AGC on/off signals are set by the
relevant unit control operator. The LCO does not have any control over this, and can only
view the status on a display at EOD. The display also indicates the number of frequency
raise and lower pulses received. A trending facility of data is available for each unit
respectively. The actions that can be performed from EOD by the LCO on the AGC display
are “emergency generation request/cancel”, “maximum generation request/cancel” and a
“reschedule request”.
(b) Clocks
The GPS (Global Positioning System) master clock system is used to synchronise the
power station to an international time reference. All the control networks are synchronised
to this system to operate on a common time base. The digital clocks that are normally
provided in the EOD room are as follows:
• Real time clock

The real time clock is directly linked to the GPS master clock to determine the real time.
• System time clock

The system time clock is a normal clock that operates from a 220 V, 50 Hz supply. If the
frequency drops below 50 Hz, the clock will lose time, if the system frequency is higher
than 50 Hz, the clock will gain time.
• Time difference clock

The time difference clock displays the time difference between the real time and system
time. This is used to see if the system frequency is faster or slower than 50 Hz.

The energy supply and demand on the system always needs to be balanced. If this is the
case, the system frequency will be exactly 50 Hz. If, however, the system demand is more
than what can be supplied by the units on the system grid for that specific time, the system
frequency will drop. This will be visible on the clocks.
If the system demand is less than what is supplied by the units for that specific time, the
system frequency will increase. It is normal to have some difference on these clocks
because the system demand can change much faster than the supply. It is however
important not to have a big difference in time at any moment, and to be stable over a 24
hour period.
22.1.5 Fire detection system
The computerised fire detection system detects a fire by means of smoke or heat sensors.
The system sounds an alarm and indicates on a display screen in which zone the problem
is. The LCO then needs to take immediate action by sending someone to investigate.
22.2 Permit to work (PTW) system
The permit system is designed for the purpose of making the plant safe to work on. It is in
line with the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHS Act). The permit system is
controlled via two sets of regulations namely:
• Plant safety regulations (PSR). These regulations are designed for Mechanical and
Electrical Plant isolations below 1 000 V rms.
• Operating Regulations for High Voltage systems (ORHVS). These regulations are
designed for isolations on electrical plant greater than 1 000 V rms.
There are two main parties involved in the permit system, the person that applies for the
permit (responsible person) and the person who isolates the plant to make it safe to work
on (appointed operator). For a person to become a responsible person or an appointed
operator, they have to attend the applicable courses and pass the examination. An
approved committee then tests them orally before they will be authorised. They also have
to be tested every two years to retain their authorisation.
When a responsible person wants to work on the plant, he/she formally applies for the
plant permit and must state the following on the application form:
• the plant required,

• the time that the work starts,
• the duration of the work,
• the isolations that are required and
• any other actions, tests etc. that must be performed to declare the plant as safe.
Once the appointed operator receives the application, he/she will perform the following:

• Ensure that the plant required can be isolated safely without interruption to other running
plant.
• Confirm that the isolations requested on the permit are correct and sufficient for the work
that needs to be done.
• Makes the necessary arrangements to isolate the plant.
• The isolations are then performed under the instruction of the local control officer.
• When the isolation is completed, this is entered on the permit and the permit is then
issued to the responsible person with the necessary keys.
Before the responsible person accepts the permit, he/she ensures that the isolations are
correct and sufficient. All isolation points that are required for the permit are locked in the
position stated on the permit, with operating locks. The keys of the locks that are used on
the plant to perform the isolation are put in a key safe. The key for the key safe is handed
over with the permit to the responsible person before commencement of work.
The control of access to e.g. switchyards, switchgear rooms and substations is an integral
part of the PTW system and there is a special system in place to manage this and the
associated keys. The keys to these areas are all kept at the EOD in a cupboard where
only the EOD personnel have access. All of the keys have an identifying number and a
nameplate attached to them. If any person needs a key to enter into an area, that person
must be authorised to enter that specific area. The key is then signed out in the key
register and the person remains responsible for that key and for the personnel that enters
into the area with him/her until such time that the key is returned and signed back in the
key register; the appointed person also signs that the key has been received.
22.3 Emergency operation
There are a variety of emergency situations ranging from minor to catastrophic in

magnitude that can be experienced at the power station which must be dealt with by the
LCO from EOD. These are categorised as emergency generation, plant and equipment
failures, power station black out and emergency preparedness (EP). This is shortly
discussed in the following paragraphs.
22.3.1 Emergency generation
Emergency generation is enforced by National Control if the system frequency is below

49.7 Hz and expected to fall below 49.5 Hz for 15 minutes. The plant is then required to
operate in excess of the maximum generation limit, without regard to economy, for as long
as possible (and required) within safe limits. The emergency generation capability for each
unit is established beforehand by the power station. Plant parameters may be exceeded
with permission, as long as safety is not affected. Emergency generation is cancelled by
National Control when the frequency is expected to remain above 49.7 Hz for at least 30
minutes.

22.3.2 Plant trips
An equipment failure normally causes a protection operation that de-energises the plant
that can result in the tripping of a unit or multiple unit trips. All trips are considered as
serious and the corrective actions by the operating personnel are very important. The
incorrect actions and responses to a trip can cause damage to the plant and also
jeopardise the safety of personnel.
The plant should always be inspected after a trip and the relevant maintenance and
engineering personnel should be notified accordingly to investigate the reason for the
failure. The LCO is responsible to get the trip recorded on a protection flag sheet that is
used to determine whether the protection operated correctly. Permission to re-energise is
normally required from an independent technical competent person as stipulated by the
power station procedure.
When the plant trip is of such a nature that the operation of the emergency supplies i.e.
batteries, UPS’s and diesel generators are required, the operating personnel need to
ensure that all the emergency plant is in operation and give special attention to their
operating parameters. The re-energising of the normal supplies is then priority.
22.3.3 Power station black-out
A power station black-out means that all the normal power supplies in the power station
and feeding from the HV yard or distribution yard into the power station tripped. Special
operating is then performed in accordance with the procedure for the start-up after a black-
out. If there is a total Eskom grid black-out the special operation measures to re-energise
the grid are managed from National Control.
Under power station black-out conditions, the LCO on duty is responsible for the auxiliary
electrical power system and needs to take the following immediate actions:
• Assess the situation and inform National/Regional Control.

• Stabilise the essential power supply systems (UPS, diesel generator and DC supplies)
to ensure safe unit(s) run down.
• Establish communication with National/Regional Control, if not possible, attempt to
communicate with adjacent power stations.
• Announce on the PA system that a black-out of the power station and Eskom grid (if so)
occurred.
Thereafter the following actions are performed:
• Ensure that the HV yard is disconnected from all power sources to prevent an
inadvertent and possibly an “out of phase” connection when the power supply is
restored.
• The status of all breakers is logged and then all the circuit breakers (400 kV, 132 kV,
88 kV, 11 kV etc.) are opened, the final status is then again logged.

• Once power is available on the incoming line(s), the transmission yard is energised as
instructed by National/Regional Control, ensuring that both the busbars are alive.
• The distribution yard is similarly energised ensuring that both the busbars are alive.
The feeders are only energised on National/Regional Control instructions.
• All power in the power station is then restored as per procedure.
22.3.4 Emergency preparedness
This paragraph covers the actions to be carried out by the LCO during emergency
situations as defined by the power station specific emergency preparedness (EP)
procedure. These situations may be caused by natural or man-made causes. Examples of
natural causes for emergencies are storms, floods, snowstorms, tornadoes, earthquakes,
epidemics, droughts and lightning. Examples of man-made causes for emergency
situations are sabotage, explosions, fires, unrest, strikes, lock-outs, bomb threats, attacks,
spillage of dangerous chemicals.
(a) Emergency calls
The public or a staff member can make a call to report an emergency situation to one of
the following telephone numbers i.e. EOD, protective services or the power station main
telephone switchboard. After the LCO on duty at the EOD has received an emergency call,
the following actions are performed:
• Record the time, place, name of the caller and the type of emergency.
• After an emergency call, the LCO should immediately call the necessary people e.g. the
Fire & Rescue Team and the Medical Team in case of a fire, the Head of EP or Deputy
Head of EP for other situations as prescribed by the EP procedure.
• The call is discussed with no one and no further action is taken unless instructed by the
Head of EP or Deputy Head of EP.
(b) Emergency alarms and reaction
The emergency alarms are activated at the EOD by the LCO. Either an intermitted or
continuous alarm can be activated. Activation of the alarms should only be done as
follows:
• Intermitted alarm
This alarm is activated on reception of an emergency call reporting a fire in the power
station or observation by the LCO of a fire in the power station. On activation of an
intermitted alarm (fire and rescue) the fire & rescue team and protective services should
react immediately, the medical centre is on standby until instructed for action.

• Continuous alarm
This alarm is activated when requested by the head of EP or the Deputy head of EP, or a
request from the fire & rescue team section head to change the intermitted alarm to a
continuous alarm due to the fire getting out of control or, observation by the LCO of a fire
getting out of control. After activation of the continuous alarm the head of EP or the deputy
must immediately be informed for the reason for activating the continuous alarm. On
activation of a continuous alarm (emergency preparedness), the EP personnel and staff
react as per the EP procedure and associated training for evacuation.

PART 2. HEALTH CARE

1 INTRODUCTION
The Generation Group power station electrical plant health care drive is discussed in this
section in broader terms. The details of the health care programme and the resultant
actions for the specific electrical plant are discussed in the respective modules. Note that
there are not active programmes in place for all of the electrical plant but the health care
principles applied to the plant that does have these programmes in place can be applied to
all plant on a smaller scale.
When one looks at the activities of the work groups, it is clear that the responsibilities are
much wider than just the long term health of the plant. It basically includes the complete
scope of the system engineer’s responsibilities to the plant. The system engineer’s
responsibilities towards the plant are summarised as follows:
• Analysis of performance of plant components and systems.

• Optimisation of technical and economic performance of the plant (Improvement of
availability, reliability and maintainability of the plant where economically justifiable).
• Development of optimised maintenance strategies and plans to assure the long term
integrity of the plant.
• Technical specification of plant components and materials.
• Project management of the modification control system.
• Accountability of the technical content of as-built information.
• Development of inspection and testing schedules.
• Root cause analysis of plant failures, incidents and occurrences in conjunction with
other line functions.
• Coordination of inputs to design, testing and other technical activities from outside
the station.
2 CARE PROGRAMME
The care programme was initiated in 1992 from the Electrical Plant Engineering Managers
Forum. This forum was initiated and chaired by the Generation Group Power Electrical
Engineering Division Manager and is still active today.
All the respective power station electrical engineering managers or their representatives
attend these quarterly meetings. From this forum smaller work groups are formed (using
power station personnel) and tasked with plant health care issues. For the plant that does
not have a specific work group functioning, ad hoc meetings are arranged as required, but
the principles of plant care and the subsequent actions by the system engineer is the same
as for the plant with formal work groups.
The following health care work groups exist:

• Auxiliary Care,
• Transformer Care,
• Generator Care,
• Protection Care,
• Motor Care,
• Hydrogen Plant Care,
• Generator Circuit Breaker Care and
• DC systems Care.
These work groups gather quarterly using a chairman that is selected by the group from
the group. Issues, concerns, problems etc. are raised, discussed and action plans and
solutions to problems are formulated and communicated to ensure that the plant health
care function is fulfilled. The purpose of the plant health care function (and therefore
essentially of the work groups) is discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.1 Risk assessment and action plan
A detailed risk assessment of the plant area is performed (component level) and a report
with an action plan is provided. The report is updated on a regular basis with regards to
the technical aspects and the progress of the action plan.
2.2 Outstanding items list
The list of outstanding items of the plant includes details of the actions required, the
responsible person and the completion date for each action. The action list is compiled by
using the risk assessment report, incident investigations, health care reports, audit reports
etc.
2.3 Technical plan
This is a five year plan compiled by the system engineer for the plant and reflects the
financial requirements with respect to maintenance, spares, capital expenditure etc.
2.4 Life of plant plan (LOPP)
This is a plan for the remaining life of the power station compiled by the system engineer
for the plant and reflects the financial requirements with respect to maintenance, spares,
capital expenditure etc.

2.5 Corporate health care policies, standards and specifications
The required documents to establish a care programme for the plant are determined and
provided as a corporate policy. The standards and procedures ensure that all the power
stations conform to the plant technical requirements. This is in line with the required
specific plant performance criteria that are needed to reach the power station output
performance and efficiency. The power station uses these documents to establish
shortcomings and deficiencies in their plant and for motivation of modifications to the plant
to conform to the policy requirements.
2.6 Power Station specific health care procedures and works instructions
The power station provides the documentation that is needed to ensure conformance to the
corporate documents. Where in non-conformance, special measures are implemented to
minimise the risk to personnel and optimise the plant reliability and availability.
2.7 Audits
Audits and peer reviews to determine power station conformance to the health care plans
are performed and the reports are distributed to all members. The outstanding actions are
clearly identified, an action plan agreed and then continuously monitored until finally
resolved or completed.
2.8 Technical problems/issues correspondence
Details of technical problems and associated correspondence are distributed to all

members. The information obtained from the work group meetings is used by the system
engineer as a help tool for the technical management of his/her respective plant.
2.9 Reports
Plant health care reports are issued by the Generation Group Corporate Specialist
reflecting the problems and the status of solutions (information is provided by each power
station) at all the power stations.
2.10 Work Group meetings
The meetings are used as a networking platform where the system engineers can raise
problems and find solutions. Smaller task teams may be formed to address specific
problems. System engineers, suppliers, specialists and guest speakers are used to give
presentations on topics as required.

2.11 Care training courses
The training courses are provided for the enhancement of the system engineer’s skills and
knowledge. Many plant health care issues are raised at these training courses which are
then addressed within the forum meetings.

PART 3. MAINTENANCE
1 INTRODUCTION
The system engineer has responsibilities with regards to the plant maintenance function,
because it is an important element of the plant long term health care programme, plant
reliability and the plant availability. The quality inspection role by the system engineer
(SE), the interpretation of test results, the evaluation of maintenance problems and failures
detected during the inspections, the review of maintenance documentation etc., are all very
important functions that the SE must perform. The SE must also ensure that the data is
stored in a system from where it is easily retrievable.
2 SE MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITY
The SE has specific responsibilities to the plant as well as to the maintenance department,
the latter being not much different from the first, if one looks at the activities of this
supporting role. The system engineer’s responsibilities towards the maintenance
department are summarised as follows:
• Provision of maintenance strategies and plans.

• Technical review of work instructions as requested.
• Provision of consultation service on maintenance problems.
• Supporting the development of work instructions as requested.
• Execution of equivalence studies on replacement spares.
• Issuing of conditional releases for plant spares held under deviation reports.
The SE maintenance related functions are discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.1 Maintenance philosophy
A high level philosophy (condition based maintenance, routine maintenance or breakdown

maintenance) is required to coordinate the maintenance activities and intervals with the
rest of the plant outages.
2.2 Maintenance plan
The obvious reason for performing maintenance on the plant is to ensure reliability and
availability by the prevention of breakdown failures. These can result in major plant
damage, fatal accidents and long plant down time to perform repairs. With power station
plant it also makes sense to have one scheduled outage on e.g. a unit to perform routine
maintenance instead of many smaller outages. A large portion of the plant is then
inspected for defects, wear, condition, remaining life etc. This action is collectively
categorised as condition based maintenance.

Another reason is a statutory one, both from a general plant point of view, and specifically
prescribed for certain plant and equipment by the act. The general requirement of the
Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulations (hereafter called the OHS Act),
General Machinery Regulations, is as follows (extract):
Safeguarding of machinery
3 (1) Every employer or user of machinery shall –
(a) ensure that all machinery used by him, is suitable for the purpose for which it is used, and
that it is installed, operated and maintained in such a manner as to prevent the exposure of
persons to hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions or circumstances;
(b) in particular cause every exposed and dangerous part of machinery which is within the
normal reach of a person to be effectively safeguarded by means of insulation, fencing,
screening or guarding, except where an inspector has granted written permission for the
omission of such safeguarding;
(c) ensure that all safety equipment is kept in a good working condition and is properly used;
and
(d) ensure that the quality of material used in, and the construction, of the machinery or safety
equipment is suitable for the purpose of which it was intended.
(2) Where machinery constitutes a danger to persons, the employer or user of machinery concerned shall
cause the premises in question to be enclosed, and where such premises are unattended the
designated entrances to such premises shall be kept closed and locked.
(3) Unless he has been authorised thereto by the employer or user of machinery, no persons shall
remove any safety equipment which relates to the machinery in question.
The OHS Act definition of ‘Machinery’ is: “any article or combination of articles assembled, arranged or connected and
which is used or intended to be used for converting any form of energy to performing work, or which is used or intended
to be used, whether incidental thereto or not, for developing, receiving, storing, containing, confining, transforming,
transmitting, transferring or controlling any form of energy”.
From this it is clear that there are legal requirements with regards to plant maintenance and
the only method to ensure conformance to the law is to have a formal maintenance plan in
place. The intention of a maintenance plan is to implement the maintenance philosophy
(planned, breakdown, condition based) by formalising the required activities, the intervals
between the activities and their duration, outage requirements, the resource requirements,
spares holding requirements etc.
The maintenance plan recommendation can be based on an RCM II analysis, good

engineering practice, utilising experience gained at the specific power station and other
power stations.
The general requirements of a maintenance plan are as follows:
• A broad overview of the maintenance philosophy of the plant is given.

• The design principles of the electrical plant in terms of maintenance and the OEM
recommendations are discussed and incorporated in the maintenance philosophy.
• The failure mode of the equipment is taken into consideration and discussed.

• The plan also provides important background information of the electrical plant
maintenance history, failures, defects, design problems etc.
• A formal RCM II analysis can be performed if the resources are available. The
advantage of performing a formal RCM II analysis cannot be ignored i.e. the plant
knowledge gained by personnel, updating of drawings and manuals and the
justification of decisions taken. The maintenance plan can then be updated to reflect
the results of the RCM II analysis.
• The issue of extending the intervals between outages for inspection and
maintenance should be addressed cautiously. A flexible maintenance strategy
approach is followed to optimise between the routine (preventive), condition based
(preventive) and breakdown maintenance strategies.
• Spares being an important issue are investigated and a strategy to keep the spares
holding to a minimum but prevent prolonged down time is discussed. In most cases
the spares and maintenance resource issue can not be treated separately.
• Manpower possibilities are discussed i.e. contracting out maintenance, utilise
internal resources (EMD), specialist inspections and tests, OEM involvement, and a
recommendation is made.
The maintenance plan is a live document that is changed as more experience is gained of
the plant. It is also possible that plant modifications are implemented that can change the
maintenance philosophy that can then be substantiated with good engineering practice or a
RCM II analysis.
By formalising the process it will make it easier for new personnel to understand the plant
and why things are performed in a certain manner. It would also be easy to evaluate new
proposals by using the maintenance plan to establish whether something specific was
addressed.
Any future changes should be implemented by using the change management procedure
at the power station. It is important that all the relevant documents are changed namely,
maintenance plan, maintenance procedure and the PM. The reason for the change should
also be documented and stored.
2.3 Maintenance procedures (PM’s)
The maintenance procedures and works instructions are used for the realisation of the
maintenance plan. They also ensure implementation and adherence to the plan by having
quality plans and feedback mechanisms in place. The procedures and work instructions
are detailed instructions of the inspections, tests or work that must be performed by the
maintenance personnel. They are automatically triggered (based on time interval) by the
software of the maintenance management system (e.g. Permac, SAP) and then issued to
the respective discipline. Feedback is provided on the feedback portion of instruction form
and this is then fed back into the system to accumulate a plant maintenance history.
The compilation of the procedures and work instructions (PM’s) is normally a maintenance
function and is implemented on a data base system e.g. Permac or the SAP maintenance

module. The system engineer should review the contents with regards to conformance to
the maintenance plan, what maintenance actions are performed, the interval and the
acceptance parameters. For a simplistic distinction between the responsibilities of
engineering and maintenance, it can be said that engineering is concerned with the “what
and when” and maintenance with the “how” of the plant maintenance.
The PM’s and associated QCP’s (not necessarily separate) are important to ensure that
the specific maintenance actions are performed, quality control inspection and hold points
are adhered to and the quality criteria are included and adhered to.
Due to the number of documents involved, the system engineer should keep a complete
list of these documents that indicates SE approval, future review dates etc. Copies of the
generic and most important documents should be stored by the SE in a system with quick
and easy reference.
2.4 Tests
All the tests to be performed on the plant or equipment is formalised with procedures
clearly indicating the actions, acceptance criteria and the QC inspection and hold points.
These test results should be analysed and kept by the SE. It also includes all type, routine
and special tests and tests performed by the supplier prior to delivery to site of repaired,
refurbished or replacement/upgraded equipment.
2.5 Inspections
The inspection procedures, check sheets etc. are normally provided by the SE or the
maintenance department, if the SE is not providing it , then he/she should perform a review
function and ensure that the documentation is stored (lengthy reports can normally not be
stored in the maintenance system) for future reference when plant problems are analysed
or outage scope of work is determined.
2.6 Condition monitoring
This function is a collective description of the testing and inspection of the plant. The SE
should assess the testing and inspection information results and make an engineering
decision regarding the condition e.g. make a recommendation of the next inspection and/or
maintenance (and the interval), repairs and refurbishment.
The information includes the in house condition monitoring information by the system
engineer, maintenance feedback, performance and testing department and from external
sources like the OEM, Rotek, TSI and other specialist service companies.

2.7 Quality control plans
The quality control plans (QCP’s), check sheets and copies of the signed QCP’s and check
sheets for each time work is performed must reviewed, approved as stipulated and stored
for future reference.
2.8 Commissioning
The commissioning procedures, reports and other supporting information are reviewed,
approved as required and stored for future reference.
2.9 Standard outage scope of work
The maintenance plan is used as basis to compile an outage work package. It is therefore
essential to have the maintenance plan in place with the associated PM's approved to
ensure that the correct actions are taken and feedback documented. The outage work
package can then be completed by adding the breakdown maintenance activities (defects)
and the modification work.
The outage maintenance work package consists of four components namely:
• the repair of defects raised during the running period (breakdown maintenance
activities),
• implement outstanding modifications,
• perform routine maintenance as per the approved maintenance plan and
• condition based maintenance inspections from which work in the current outage or
for future outage(s) can be scheduled.
2.10 Outage report
The maintenance outage reports are reviewed by the SE, the relevant information included
in the plant condition monitoring or health care report.
2.11 Refurbishment, repair and replacement
The SE ensures that the specifications used are in accordance with the corporate
documents, the station interface details are correct and up to date. The QCP’s are in place
and the inspection and hold points are signed off by the SE when the work is performed.

2.12 Long term storage
Ensure that the necessary procedures are in place and that they are used when required.
The QC inspection and hold points are monitored by the SE and the feedback information
are reviewed and stored for future reference.

PART 4. OPERATING
1 INTRODUCTION
The system engineer has responsibilities with regards to the plant operating function
because it has plant health consequences. It is important that the plant is operated
according to the design philosophy, the equipment specification parameters are not
exceeded and that plant problems are detected at an early stage before failure.
2 SYSTEM ENGINEER OPERATING RESPONSIBILITY

The engineering group’s responsibilities towards the operating group are:
• Provision of consultation service on operational problems, issues and parameters.

• Definition of operating technical specifications.
• Review of operating documentation i.e. procedures and instructions.
• Assistance provided with the commissioning of new plant.
• Investigation of operating incidents.
The SE must also ensure that the relevant operating related data is captured and stored in
a system from where it is easily retrievable. The SE function and responsibilities with
regards to operating is shortly discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.1 Operating training
The SE should ensure that the correct training material is used for the plant by performing
a training documentation review. Interfacing with operating training personnel on a
frequent basis will also help to highlight possible problems and short comings with training
material.
2.2 Operating procedures
The procedures should be in accordance with the plant design philosophy and the
equipment specification parameters. This is a very important aspect of the plant long term
health.
2.3 Alarm response cards
The actions by the operating personnel when an alarm is initiated are very important from a
plant safety point of view as well as to detect problems at an early stage of development.
The system engineer should ensure that specific and detailed alarm response procedures
for each alarm that can be received are in place.

2.4 Special operating instructions
When there is a plant deficiency or a failure of equipment that limits the normal plant
operation philosophy, the SE ensures that a special operating instruction is issued.
2.5 Operating technical specifications
The “Ops Tech Specs” provides the operating personnel with technical plant and
equipment information that indicates the risks and plant health criteria that becomes
important when the operating limits are exceeded due to e.g. a failure and special
operational measures are required.

PART 5. INCIDENTS
An event is defined as a problem, issue, abnormality, incident or accident that is reported
according to reporting criteria. This includes potential occurrences that may lead to an
event. Note that an event must be precisely described in clear terms, i.e. the description
must have at least one active verb and include the date and time the event took place.
Events are based on facts and must be quantified when possible. Where appropriate each
event should be derived from the one preceding it.
Each power station has an incident investigation procedure in place that conforms to the
minimum requirements of the following Eskom documents:
• ESKPVAAP5, Reporting, recording and investigation of incidents.

• GGS 0653, Occurrence management.
• OPG 0125, The fossil fired power station Occurrence Investigator’s guide.
• GGP 0180, Management of major and identified significant events.
1 NOTIFICATION OF EVENT
A typical mechanism that is used at the power stations for the documenting of adverse
conditions in the plant and equipment, operation, maintenance etc. is the procedure for
INCIDENT NOTIFICATION OF OCCURRENCE (INO). Any event or "occurrence" is
reported by using a form that requests certain minimum information of the event. These
INO’s are sorted according to the type of event e.g. minor, major, multi-discipline etc.,
registered and then investigated by an investigation team (e.g. for major incidents), the
system engineer (e.g. smaller incidents in a specific discipline) or any other individual
deemed competent to perform a particular investigation.
2 INVESTIGATION
The main purpose of the investigation is to identify the root cause and the associated
secondary causes, determine the corrective actions required and properly document it in
an incident report. The corrective action is defined as the necessary action proposed or
taken to correct a deficiency caused or identified by an event. Such action shall include
preventive measures to ensure there is no recurrence of the event.
3 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
The corrective actions are then managed by ensuring that they are classified in terms of
departmental responsibility, individual responsibilities are established, target completion
dates is set etc., to ensure that the actions are corrected and a recurrence of the events
are prevented. The existing power station management tools for implementing the
changes as required are utilised e.g. project management procedure, change management
procedure etc.

4 HUMAN RELATED INCIDENTS
If the event is human error related then an additional analysis is performed and the
investigation is conducted in terms of the guide GGG 0753, “GUIDELINE FOR
INVESTIGATING AND ADDRESSING HUMAN FACTOR CONTRIBUTORS IN
OCCURRENCES”.
5 SYSTEM ENGINEER RESPONSIBILITIES

The investigation and management of corrective actions are very important aspects of the
system engineer’s (SE) function. The SE should have a complete list of all incident
investigations and corrective actions with progress indicated for his/her scope of plant.
Copies of the relevant technical information are kept in the respective information files as
required. Copies of all major incidents (external investigations) should be included,
otherwise a documentation centre reference is provided.

PART 6. MODIFICATIONS
The power station plant modification or change process is controlled by a modification
procedure in accordance with Project ‘R’ and GGG 1197, ‘CONTROL AND
MANAGEMENT OF POWER ELECTRICAL MODIFICATIONS AND NEW PROJECTS’.
The following Project “R” guidelines are of importance:
• OPG 0159-04 – Project “R” Design guideline

• OPG 0159-02 – Project “R” Classification guideline.
• OPG 0159-05 – Project “R” Procurement guideline.
• OPG 0159-06 – Project “R” Materials guideline.
• OPG 0159-10 – Project “R” Documentation guideline.
• OPG 0159-15 – Project “R” Engineering guideline.
The requirement for a modification may be due to several reasons e.g. for personnel safety
and health reasons, conformance to legal (statutory) requirements, prevention of plant
trips, improving of plant reliability and availability, installation of new or replacement plant
and refurbishment.
It needs to be justifiable from a financial point of view and therefore the engineer should
have a good motivation for making a proposal to change the plant. Not only is the
changing of the plant and associated documentation expensive, the time and resources
required to perform the investigation are also expensive.
The history of plant changes is a very important aspect of the system engineer’s
knowledge for the specific plant that falls within his/her responsibilities. The system
engineer should have a complete list of all approved plant modifications for his/her
respective plant with copies of the relevant technical information included (can be an
extract from the modification file). The complete modification file can remain in the power
station documentation centre, as long as the reference is provided and it is easily
accessible.
Note that modifications or changes to the plant may involve other engineering plant
disciplines and also interacts with other groups during the modification process.
1 MODIFICATION PROCEDURE
Each power station has a procedure in place for the management of modifications that will
be different from each other, but the basic steps of the process will be similar. The steps to
be followed for a typical modification are discussed in this paragraph.

1.1 Modification proposal
The proposal may originate from a variety of sources e.g. incident investigations, technical
reports, published articles, engineering investigations, operating department, maintenance
department etc. The proposal then goes to the Engineering Manager and/or a committee,
normally called the Modification Committee.
1.2 Project manager appointment
When received, the modification proposal is evaluated by the committee and a project
manager is appointed that has the knowledge and experience to drive the modification
process and perform the required investigations, write the reports, perform an interface
management function etc.
1.3 Feasibility study and conceptual design
The feasibility study is the initial investigation to determine the feasibility and cost
implications of alternative designs. This is normally performed in conjunction with the
conceptual design. It includes an evaluation of the user requirements, a statement of
conformance and a cost benefit analysis (plant life cycle costing).
The conceptual design determines the nature and applicability of the proposed design,
major design parameters, plant interfaces, installation considerations, and provides a broad
outline of the scope of work i.e. high level equipment requirements, re-use of old
equipment, interface requirements etc. Alternative solutions are evaluated on their ability
to meet the user and financial requirements.
At this stage the design review team should perform a review to ensure that the feasibility
study has been performed properly, to ensure that the best solution has been chosen, that
the conceptual design included the full high level scope and that there are no major cost
implications (direct and indirect costs for all disciplines) that were overseen.
1.4 Approval for design (power station/MIT)
The modification is then reviewed at the power station which includes input from the
different departments, disciplines, the originator or customer and is then finally approved
for the design phase. If not accepted by the customer a new feasibility study and
conceptual design are performed. An unsuccessful review is referred back to the compiler
of the feasibility study with the relevant comments.
The modification is also submitted and approved by MIT for the design phase if so required
by the classification thereof.

1.5 Design package
This is the process of producing the engineering package. It is performed by the design
engineer, a person, who by virtue of qualifications, experience and knowledge of the
proposed designs, is capable of producing the required engineering design package.
The following are important with regards to this process:
• Design objective
To satisfy the customer’s requirements as defined in the scope of work within the design
constraints.
• Design base
This is the fundamental requirements on which the design is based. All information
obtained externally is requested and verified.
• Design constraints
The restrictions imposed on the design by factors such as safety, reliability availability,
maintainability, finances, etc.
• Design methodology
The way in which the design is performed, employing acceptable engineering practise.
A design change control form will be completed where required to record the plant design
changes, drawing changes etc.
1.6 Compile modification package
The engineering package is a package containing the design basis, design requirements,
calculations, design/drawings, design specifications, works information and design outputs.
It also contains all the relevant documentation change requirements and design check off
sheets.
1.7 Design package review
The design review is performed by a person(s), (other than the design engineer) with
expert (specialist) knowledge whose function is to check and approve the engineering
design package.
This again should preferably include inputs from the different disciplines, departments and
other interested parties to ensure that nothing is overseen and problems can be addressed
pro actively. It is recommended that the “customer” be involved during this process to
ensure understanding of the full scope of the modification and to ensure a short approval
time period.

If not accepted by the customer, a new design is performed. An unsuccessful review is

referred back to the compiler of the design together with the relevant comments.
1.8 Design package approval (power station and MIT)
After the design review and the engineering package have been approved by the
“customer”, it is submitted to MIT (if required) for approval to start with the procurement
process.
1.9 Procurement process
The procurement process is normally controlled and directed by the Financial Department
at the power station. The Buyer issues the enquiry documents, receives the tenders,
control the tender evaluation process up to the contract award point.
1.9.1 Enquiry
The enquiry provides the technical specification (Works Information) and the scope of work
to the manufacturers that are on the tender list. The latter is determined by evaluating the
commercial, financial and technical parameters of the company, and if acceptable, the
company is included on the tender list. This is called the pre-qualification. The technical
information of the enquiry document is compiled by the engineer, the contractual document
by the project manager (may also be the engineer) with inputs from the financial
department (buyer), quality department, maintenance department etc.
1.9.2 Tender evaluation
The tender evaluation is performed by performing a financial evaluation, commercial

evaluation and a project and life cycle cost comparison of the plant offered by the different
suppliers. It is important that the technical scope offered by the supplier is as per the
requirements of the enquiry document, and if not, the tender is disqualified based on
technical reasons. The tenders that are technically acceptable are evaluated and
compared financially over the life cycle of the contract, and the lowest cost alternative is
then recommended in the tender evaluation report.
1.9.3 Management approval
The tender evaluation report is submitted to the power station tender evaluation committee
(selected by management) for final approval. Depending on the value of the contract, it
may also be required to further submit it for approval by the Management Board and the
Council.

1.9.4 Contract award
Once the approval process has been finalised, the contract may be placed with the
successful supplier. This is done with a contract award letter from the buyer. The enquiry
document is now converted to a contract document and signed by the representatives from
both Eskom and the Contractor.
1.10 Implementation
The implementation phase includes all the facets of a construction project and is managed
as such, on a scale appropriate to the scope and complexity of the work to be performed.
1.10.1 Detail design and approval
The manufacturer’s detail design is submitted to Eskom for approval and the Eskom
drawings are created or updated as required, including all the interface drawings. The
contractor’s system and interface drawings are evaluated and approved before
manufacturing can commence.
1.10.2 Manufacturing
The manufacturing process is followed closely by the engineer/project manager by using a

program similar to that used for site erection. The quality program that indicates witness
and hold inspection points is agreed and implemented. This phase is very important
because problems can be located and addressed pro actively, before the equipment is
delivered to site. The quality of the manufacturing will also ensure a quality end product, a
facet often being neglected somewhat due to the location of the factory with regards to the
site.
1.10.3 Site erection
The site implementation of the modification includes the erection, erection checks, pre-
commissioning checks (also referred to as cold commissioning), testing and the final hot
commissioning. This is normally performed by both the contractor and Eskom, to ensure
that the plant and all the interfaces are tested for both integrity and functionality. This is
controlled by using detailed quality check sheets with the agreed witness and hold points,
signed by both parties as required. Any problems, outstanding work and defects are noted
on the documentation and addressed by the contractor, preferably before the final
completion and take over of the works. This also depends on the time constraints
associated with the works.
Note that the plant is safety cleared before any power can be switched on to energise the
equipment, a process being managed and carried out by the Operating Group. This is a
safety measure and transfers the responsibility in terms of safety to Eskom and the

contractor must obey the rules of the Plant Safety Regulations (PSR) and the High Voltage
Regulations as applicable for the different voltage levels. Sections of the plant may be
safety cleared where the commissioning can be performed whilst the rest of the plant is still
being completed. The decisions are made with the emphasis on safety.
1.10.4 Take over
The final taking over of the works transfers the responsibility of the works from the
contractor to Eskom and is done by using formal take over certificate(s), signed by both
parties. Any outstanding issues and defects are noted and completion dates for these
items are agreed. A retention percentage, based on the value of the contract, is normally
retained by Eskom as an incentive for the contractor to complete the outstanding items and
for a cover during the operating of the plant up to the end of the guarantee period, normally
three, six or twelve months depending on the scope of work.
1.11 Final close out of modification
The modification project is reviewed by the design review team after a time period normally
associated with the guarantee period. All the facets of the project are considered, the
manufacturing, site erection and commissioning documentation is checked for
completeness and feedback is provided accordingly. The documentation that is required
for the future operation of the plant is very important (see the next section regarding
“Documentation change management”) and the modification can not be closed out before
this has been completed and implemented.
2 DOCUMENTATION CHANGE MANAGEMENT
The management of the documentation changes and updates is an aspect that should be
addressed through the whole modification process, the responsibility being that of the
engineer/project manager to ensure that all the different types of documentation are being
changed and updated as required. This is shortly discussed.
2.1 Drawings
A Design Change Request (DCR) particularly, addresses the management of drawing

changes (as part of the modification process) and to reflect the as-built status of plant. The
drawings are checked and approved in accordance with the power station procedures, by
competent personnel. This is also a statutory requirement for certain plant e.g. electrical
plant and equipment, pressure devices etc. (see OHS Act).

2.2 Setting documents
This specifically refers to the requirements of the Eskom policies for protection setting
management. The setting changes or new settings are managed as per the power station
specific procedures and the setting documents are updated and approved accordingly,
before implementation. The documents are sometimes again updated after commissioning
has been completed where changes were required due to unforeseen circumstances that
appeared during the erection checks, pre-commissioning and final hot commissioning.
2.3 Procedures and instructions
This includes the requirement for new procedures and instructions (engineering,
maintenance and operating) or changing of existing procedures to accommodate the new
plant. All the aspects are considered e.g. safety, environmental management, engineering,
operating and maintenance etc.
2.4 Manuals (Training, maintenance and operating)
This aspect of a modification is often neglected because the facility to update existing
manuals is not available or not managed properly. The plant will be in use for many years
to come after the modification has been implemented and many new personnel will receive
training and consult these manuals. If incomplete and outdated, the value thereof
becomes diminished and personnel must revert back to experience of other personnel, if
available, intuition, or any other non formal way, that may be detrimental to the plant health
and a safety risk to personnel.

PART 7. TECHNICAL REPORTS

Technical reports written in house or from external sources are a good source of
knowledge and should be properly indexed and stored for future reference. This is typically
the reading work that is not that urgent at the time, but may contain very important
information regarding the plant. The information may also be very informative with regards
to the plant basics and theory, new technology and similar installations elsewhere that can
help the system engineer to perform his/her duties.
An example of a technical report is as follows:
• SM590/754, Coetzee, GJ, Recent transformer failures and transformer care 2001
plan of action, Generation Technical Department, Eskom, South Africa, 2001.

PART 8. RESEARCH
The research reports from TSI or any other institution may contain information ranging from
the plant or equipment application to highly theoretical academic material. This knowledge
provides a good foundation for the system engineer. The reports are treated similarly to
technical reports (Part 7).
An example of a research report is as follows:
• TRR/E/98/EL, Higgins, SA, Research report: Use of the core monitor, Technology
Group, Eskom, South Africa, 1998.

PART 9. TRAINING
Training material from courses internal or external to Eskom is kept for future reference by
the system engineer. This material is also helpful to new engineers that did not have the
opportunity to attend a specific course that may not be repeated for some time.
An example of training material is as follows:
• Lead acid battery theory presentation.

PART 10. LITERATURE

Any relevant literature e.g. handbooks, application guides, articles or information from any
other source is gathered and stored. The emphasis should be on the ‘usefulness’ of the
information and the system engineer that is currently responsible for a specific plant,
should keep all information that can be of help to him/her in the future or for a successor.
This is normally also a very good source of knowledge.
An example of literature is as follows:
• Smit, PM, Internal arc protection for power station metal-clad switchgear, Eskom,
South Africa, 1998.

PART 11. BROCHURES

This type of information includes any related supplier catalogues, brochures, CD’s etc. The
knowledge of new suppliers in the market, new equipment etc. may be useful when plant
refurbishment, major repairs or replacement is considered. This information is also treated
similarly to that of reports, training material and literature.
An example of a supplier brochure is as follows:
• CSI Motorstatus: Integrated condition monitoring for AC induction motors.

PART 12. BASE LINE INFORMATION

This is the information from the initial planning, construction and commissioning of the
power station. It is used to refer to when issues of performance or operating limits are
raised, when new specifications are compiled, to establish a scope of work and to
determine the boundaries when plant must be repaired, refurbished or replaced.
When new work, major replacements or refurbishment is performed at the power station,
this documentation should also be treated as base line information and stored
appropriately.
The different types of information that can be found are as follows:
• Technical specifications: This includes the technical specifications that were used to
procure the plant i.e. IEC, BS, SABS and NWS specifications. Extracts from the
contract document is also applicable namely the Technical Schedules A&B. Where
power station specific documents are available i.e. "Notes on station cabling", it is
also categorised as technical specifications.
• Tender document: The tender documents (documents from more than one supplier
may be available) may contain specific information, drawings, brochures, reference
lists etc. that contain useful information of the plant and those that can be supplied by
other manufacturers.
• Contractual documentation: These documents include e.g. the contract document,
contractual correspondence (technical), meeting minutes and is an indication of the
problems that were experienced during the initial construction and commissioning. It
is of importance when problems are experienced that may be related to the
specifications not being met, old problems not solved etc.
• Erection documentation: This includes the erection instructions, check sheets, non
conformance reports, accident reports and any other quality documents.
• Commissioning documentation: This includes the initial commissioning check sheets,
commissioning procedures, factory and site test results, commissioning reports and
any other commissioning quality documents.
• Guarantee maintenance inspections: These inspections are normally carried out after
a running period of 12 to 18 months to establish whether there are any problems with
the plant, and if there are, these are repaired by the contractor. This documents
include the scope of work, feedback reports, failure reports etc.

PART 13. OEM INFORMATION

The original equipment manufacturer (OEM) information also originates from the initial
installation contract (as discussed in Part 12) but this is compiled and provided by the
supplier and normally includes the following documents:
• Training material: Many of the contracts include formal training that must be provided
by the OEM. These manuals can be very helpful, especially later during the
equipment life cycle when the training service is no longer provided by the supplier.
• Training, maintenance and operating (TMO) manual: This is provided as part of the
contract and is used as basis for training, compiling the operating procedures,
maintenance plans and procedures. The new specifications place a much bigger
emphasis on the documentation e.g. material of a much higher standard is required
and maintenance documentation that includes maintenance plans, procedures etc.
are required.
• Contractor drawings: These are the drawings submitted by the manufacturer for
approval before manufacturing commences and during the construction phase and
may include detailed drawings of parts, manufacturing drawings etc. that can be
essential in later years when in house refurbishment or repairs are carried out.

QUESTIONS
Safety
1. Name three precautions that can be taken against the danger of moving plant or parts
thereof (e.g. conveyors can be started without warning).
2. Name one precaution that can be taken against the danger of devices that can retain
a dangerous charge.
3. Name the two Eskom regulations that are used in the power station to enforce safe
operating and maintenance practices.
Introduction
4. Why is it important to store the electrical plant information and keep it updated?
5. Name the four different types of power stations used in Eskom?
6. What is a power station unit?
7. Name three types of auxiliary (common) plant services that are needed at the power
station.
Auxiliary power system

8. List the four systems that form the power station reticulation system.
9. What provides the connection to the Eskom transmission power system?
10. State how a unit supplies power to itself. State also, an alternative method and when
it is used.
11. What is the redundancy principle’s primary aim?
Generator
12. Explain the basic operation of a synchronous generator.
13. What is the function of the generator stator winding cooling water system?
14. What is the purpose of the hydrogen in the generator?
15. What is the function of the generator seal oil system?
Generator AVR
16. Briefly explain the function of the excitation system.
17. Shortly explain the difference between the terms excitation control system (ECS) and
automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
18. Briefly explain how the main exciter output determines the generator output.
19. What is a generator capability diagram?
Generator protection
20. Why do we install main and back-up generator protection systems?
21. Name the main primary plant that is protected by the generator protection system?
22. What is the reason for limiting the generator fault current with resistance earthing?
23. What is the function of the generator fault recorders?

QUESTIONS (continued)
Generator synchronising
24. Name the requirements to synchronise a generator to the transmission system?
25. What is meant by voltage and frequency difference?
26. Why is it important to have special procedures in place when performing
commissioning of the synchronising system?
Generator busbar system

27. What is the generator busbar system function?
28. Of what does the generator busbar system consist?
29. What is the purpose of the busbar enclosure?
30. What is the purpose of the generator busbar air pressurisation system?
Generator circuit breaker and earth switch

31. What is the function of the generator circuit breaker?
32. What are the main capability requirements of the generator circuit breaker?
33. Explain the main function of the circuit breaker compressor.
34. What is the function of the earth switch?
Transformers
35. Briefly explain the basic principle of operation of a transformer.
36. What is the purpose of the oil and paper respectively is an oil type transformer?
37. Name three auxiliary components of a Generator Transformers.
38. Why is a dry type transformer preferred above an oil type transformer in certain
applications?
Electrical machines
39. What is meant by the power of a motor?
40. What is the temperature rating of a motor?
41. What is the purpose of the motor enclosure and how is the degree of protection it
provides classified?
42. On what does the direction of rotation of an induction motor depend?
43. What is the principle difference between an induction motor and a synchronous
motor?
44. Name one application of a DC motor in a power station?
Variable speed drives

45. In what type of applications are VSD’s used?
46. How is the induction motor speed controlled with a VSD?
47. What is the function of a soft starter?
Switchgear
48. Why do we distribute the power at medium voltage and not low voltage?
49. Where do we use the low voltage system?
50. What is the advantage of withdrawable circuits?
51. What is the function of dip proof inventors (DPI)?

52. Why do we have AC and DC control voltages?

53. What is internal arc classified switchgear?
54. How is the operator informed of plant conditions?
55. Why do we pressurise substations?
Protection
56. What are the four major purposes for electrical power system protection?
57. What are the three major causes for electrical faults?
58. Name two effects of an electrical fault.
59. What is a protective relay?
60. Explain the operation of a time graded protection system.
61. Why must a protection system operate as fast as possible?
AC essential systems
62. Name some of the consumers of the essential supplies?
63. What will happen when the AC fails at the power station?
64. Discuss the role of diesel generators in the AC emergency power supply system.
65. How long can the diesel generators run at full load on the day tank?
66. Explain briefly how an UPS works?
67. What is the purpose of static bypass switches?
68. Name some of the component that forms part of a charger?
69. What is a parallel redundant system and name one?
DC systems
70. What is a dual redundant system and name one?
71. The 24V system is sensitive to voltage drop problems. Why?
72. Name the plant that mainly uses the 110 V or 220V DC “clean” supplies?
73. How would you detect DC earth faults?
74. What is the factors affecting battery life most?
75. Why do we boost charge batteries?
76. Name some of the components that form part of a battery charger?
77. If you receive charger alarms, how would you react to them?
Cabling
78. Is the cable number of any significance?
79. What important requirement is placed on all indoor cables?
80. True or False: Properly earthed steel wire armouring also provides a degree of
protection against electromagnetic interference in areas with a high disturbance
signal level.
81. What is the primary use of cable racks?
82. What is the minimum distance between power and signal cable racks?
83. Why does one want to mark cable routes for cables in ground?

Earthing and lightning protection

84. What are the main objectives of earthing?
85. True or false: Travelling waves caused by lightning strikes are exceptionally steep
fronted.
86. Does every building have its own earthmat?
87. True or false: Steelwork structures in station transformer, generator and unit
transformer and coal stockyard transformer bays are connected to the earth mat.
88. How do you make earthing connections?
Lighting and small power

89. From what power supply is the normal lighting fed?
90. From what power supply is the essential lighting fed?
91. Is the installation of Aircraft Warning Lights (AWL) a statutory requirement?
92. What general maintenance tasks are performed on lighting?
Electrical Fence
93. What is the function of the electrical fence?
94. What is the most important statutory requirement for electrical fences?
95. What are the main components of the electrical fence?
HV yard
96. From where is the Eskom transmission system (TS) coordinated.
97. What is the main function of the 400 kV Yard?
98. Describe a typical 400 kV Yard busbar layout.
99. What is the purpose of the 400 kV circuit breakers in the HV Yard?
100. What is the function of a coupling transformer?
101. What is the purpose of interlocking in the HV Yard?
102. Who are the users of measurements taken in the HV Yard?
Measurements and metering

103. Discuss the purpose of measurements at the power station.
104. What is the function of transducers and provide an example.
105. Explain the term digital input signals (DI).
106. Explain the term analogue input signals (AI).
Station electrical control

107. What is the function of the Electrical Operating Desk (EOD) or Station Control Room
at the power station?
108. What is the main purpose of electrical board alarms?
109. Discuss the function of the AGC system.
110. Discuss the system demand with respect to the frequency and time clocks.
111. Explain the purpose and operation of the fire system operator station.
112. Explain the purpose of the recorded telephone.
113. What is the function of the PTW system?
114. Under which regulations are the PTW system controlled?

Health care
115. What is the main purpose of plant health care?
116. Name three typical plant health care measures that can be implemented?
Maintenance
117. Name three important maintenance measures that can be implemented?
118. What is the purpose of a maintenance plan?

ASSIGNMENTS
1. Electrical plant: Generator - Make a list of the parameters on which off-line and on-line
monitoring respectively is performed (two separate lists).
2. Electrical plant: Generator busbars - Is there a maintenance inspection plan in place for
the flexible connections. What criteria are used to determine whether the bolts,
washers and conducting surfaces are still acceptable?
3. Electrical plant: Transformers - What are the routine oil testing intervals for the different
types of oil transformers. Give an example of the oil test results and how it is trended
over a period of time.
4. Electrical plant: Switchgear - Is the MV switchgear at your power station internal arc
tested. State the test current and time respectively for the different ratings. If the
switchgear is not internal arc tested, name the measures that are implemented to
ensure the safety of personnel.
5. Electrical plant: DC systems - Explain the unit DC systems layout and function by using
single line diagrams.
6. Electrical plant: Earthing and lightning protection – Is there drawings available at your
power station that indicates earthing tails and if so provide an example? What is the
interval of earthing continuity testing and give an example of the test results?
7. Health care: Give an extract of the life of plant plan for the electrical plant.
8. Maintenance: Give an example of a maintenance plan at your power station.
9. Operating: Give an example of the routine operating inspections that are performed on
the electrical plant at your power station. Give an example of an alarm response card
at your power station.
10. Incidents: What is the reference number of the incident procedure at your power
station? Do you have a copy of it?
11. Modifications: What is the reference number of the modification procedure at your
power station? Do you have a copy of it?

GLOSSARY
• Abnormal supply voltage

The conditions other than those defined under the definition of “normal supply voltage” are
considered abnormal supply voltage conditions.
• Ampere-hour capacity
The ampere-hour capacity is the number of ampere-hours that a fully charged battery is
capable of delivering under specific conditions of temperature, discharge rate and final
voltage.
• Auxiliary electrical power system

This includes the complete power station electrical distribution system from the high
voltage bushings of the Generator Transformers (at each unit) and the Station Transformer
to the electrical equipment terminations. The equipment includes transformers, cabling,
switchgear, protection etc.
• Battery
A battery consists of two or more cells connected electrically for producing electrical
energy.
• Battery cycle
The battery cycle is the discharge and subsequent charge to restore its initial condition.
• Battery room
A battery room is designed and built specifically to house batteries (consisting of several
cells) in accordance with the safety requirements of the Eskom standards and the OHS
Act.
• Boost charge
A boost charge is a partial charge at a high current rate for a short duration, and is also
known as a fast charge and a quick charge.
• Bright chop over

A bright chop over is the switching from one supply to another, by paralleling the two
supplies for a short period, without interrupting the supply.
• Busbars
Any solid or fixed type conductor used to carry current in the plant and equipment such as
for example the generator phase isolated busbars, switchgear, HV Yard, etc. Insulated
cables are excluded from this definition.
• Charge
A charge is the conversion of electrical energy into chemical energy within a cell or battery
by the restoration of active materials by maintaining a unidirectional current through the cell
or battery in the opposite direction to the direction during discharge.

• Circuit breaker
A fault current breaking device that can be operated from the protection relays, by remote
operating control or locally.
• Common Plant (also referred to as “Station”)

The services that is common to all Units and any other plant which is not directly applied
for Unit operation.
• Constant voltage charge

A constant voltage charge is a charge during which the charging voltage is maintained at a
constant value.
• Current transformer
This “measuring” device provides a scaled down replica of the input current. Coupling is
required through transformers when the value of current in the power circuit is too high to
permit direct connection to the measuring instruments or relays.
• Dark chop over

A dark chop over is the switching from one supply to another by disconnecting a supply
before closing onto the alternative supply, thereby disconnecting the load during the
switching operation.
• DC room
A room that houses DC equipment e.g. DC boards, battery chargers and UPSs.
• Discharge
The discharge of a battery is the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy by
the removal of energy from the battery.
• Discrimination
The discrimination of a protection function is the ability to distinguish between conditions
for which it is intended to operate and those for which it is not intended to operate.
• Electrical power system

This description is generally used to describe the reticulation system. The boundaries are
not clear and it may or may not include the HV Yard, generator main busbars and other
plant that is generally not considered as part of the reticulation system.
• Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a conducting medium in which the flow of current takes place by the
migration of ions.
• Emergency plant
The emergency plant is used under extreme conditions when the normal and essential
supplies failed i.e. the diesel generators failed to start after the loss of the normal AC
supplies. The plant that performs this function is e.g. the DC emergency lighting that is
required for control room lighting and the evacuation of the personnel.

• Essential interrupted power supplies

The equipment can withstand an interruption of AC supply for up to one hour without
jeopardising the required unit shut down safety criteria. Diesel generators are normally
used to provide the back-up AC power to the 380V essential boards from where the
equipment is supplied i.e. essential lighting, battery chargers etc.
• Essential plant
The essential plant is required under abnormal conditions when the auxiliary power system
is not functioning in a normal way i.e. the 11 kV station/unit boards have no supply. The
essential power supply systems are divided into two categories namely interruptible and
uninterruptible power supplies. The plant that performs this function includes the 380 V
station/unit diesel generator supplies, 380 V UPS supplies, 220 V DC station/unit supplies
and the 220 V DC unit essential supplies. The plant is not used only during abnormal
conditions but also used when the plant is normally operated i.e. the 220 V DC unit
essential board is used for normal unit running and for a safe shut down after all the AC
auxiliary supplies failed. The “essential plant” is also generally called “emergency plant”.
• Essential uninterrupted power supplies

The equipment supplied cannot withstand any interruption in their supply and includes AC
and DC respectively. The AC supplies are provided by Uninterrupted Power Supplies
(UPSs) and the DC supplies by DC boards with batteries (and chargers) as back-up.
• Equalising charge
An equalising charge is a prolonged charge, normally at the finishing rate or less, to correct
inequalities in voltage and specific gravity between cells.
• Export system
The term is used to describe the system that transports the power from the generator to the
HV Yard. The boundaries are the Generator Transformer high voltage side bushings, the
Unit Transformer high voltage side bushings and the generator terminals.
• Feeder
Feeder in the power station context means a line or cable to the substation, power station
or switchboard.
• Float charge
A float charge is a charge that maintains a battery in an approximately constant state of
charge when a constant voltage is applied to the battery while simultaneously supplying an
external load.
• Gassing
Gassing is the evolution of gasses from one or more of the electrodes during electrolysis.
• Generator busbar earth switch

This device is used for the connection of the phase isolated generator busbars to earth for
the implementation of permits.

• Generator busbar system

The generator busbar system is mainly used to export electrical energy from the generator
to the HV Yard and consist of the main phase isolated busbars, secondary busbars to
auxiliary plant and equipment, busbar enclosures with supporting system, the air
pressurisation system and the associated auxiliary equipment.
• Generator circuit breaker

The main generator circuit breaker is used for connection and disconnection of the
generator to the HV Yard during normal and abnormal (fault tripping) circumstances.
• Generator protection
The generator protection is a general term used for the system that includes the protection
for the generator and the export system (including the unit and generator transformers).
• High voltage
See “voltage level”.
• High voltage yard (HV Yard)

This term is used in the document in a context having a comprehensive meaning that is not
strictly as per the definition of voltage levels. This description is used for both HV and EHV
yards.
• Hydrometer
A simple hydrometer reading indicates the state of charge. A fully charged Plante' type
lead-acid cell will have a specific gravity of between 1.205 and 1.215. The specific gravity
of Nickel Cadmium cells does not vary with state of charge but falls gradually during its life
(1.190 – 1.210 at 20°C).
• Incomer
The incomer of a switchboard is the circuit that is used for the power supply to the
switchboard (also called the incoming circuit).
• Inverse time delay relay

A dependent time delay relay having an operating time that is an inverse function of the
electrical characteristic quantity.
• Initial charge
An initial charge is the charge given to a new battery before putting it into service.
• Isolator
Isolator means the device provided for the purpose of isolating apparatus from the source
of electrical energy.
• Low voltage (LV)


• Lead-acid battery
A lead-acid battery is a battery with lead electrodes and an electrolyte consisting of a
solution of sulphuric acid.
• Medium Voltage (MV)

• Multiple unit trip (MUT)

This is defined as the tripping of two or more units simultaneously or within a very short
time span (minutes) of each other. The Generation Policy, GGP0773, provides a definition
in detail. In the Transmission Group it is known as a "system bulk load separation".
• Nickel-cadmium battery
A nickel-cadmium battery is an alkaline battery in which the positive active material is
nickel oxide, and the negative material is cadmium.
• Power station
A power station site is where electrical energy is generated and consists of one or more
Units and the Common Plant.
• Protective gear
The equipment used in a protective system and includes e.g. relays, current transformers,
voltage transformers and other small ancillary equipment.
• Protective relay
A relay initiates the disconnection of a part of an electrical installation and provides an
indication of the location and type of fault. It can also provide a warning signal in the case
of a fault or other abnormal condition in the installation.
• Protection scheme
A protection scheme is the co-ordinated arrangement for the protection of one or more
elements of a power system.
• Protective system
The protection system is the combination of protective gear to secure under predetermined
conditions the disconnection of an element of a power system and/or to give an alarm
signal.
• Redundant
A system or equipment is redundant when it is duplicated to enable a continued service
when there is a complete failure of the one system or piece of equipment. It does not
mean that the service can be provided without interruption of that service but in some
instances it is possible.

• Reticulation system
The reticulation system is used to provide auxiliary power to the Unit and Common Plant
equipment. Note that the Export System and HV Yard are excluded from this definition.
The system is also loosely referred to as the “auxiliary power system” and vice versa.
• Specific gravity (of electrolyte)

The specific gravity of an electrolyte is the ratio of the mass of a given volume of the
electrolyte to the mass of an equal volume of water at 20oC. A fully charged Plante' type
lead-acid cell will have a specific gravity of between 1.205 and 1.215.
• Substation
The term is generally used at the power station to describe off terrace switchgear rooms.
• Switchboard
Switchboard means all the apparatus i.e. breakers, busbars, protection and control circuitry
in one complete metal clad housing.
• Switchgear
A general term used to describe the power equipment that makes up a switchboard.
• Switchgear room
Switchgear room means a room within the power station building that house the auxiliary
power system switchgear.
• Undervoltage or voltage dip:

An “undervoltage” is a condition where the voltage is outside of the “normal” conditions and
is now defined under “abnormal supply conditions” e.g. it falls below 95% of nominal, either
on the overall system or locally on a section of the network. The per unit or percent
nominal voltage resulting from an undervoltage will be quoted as a voltage drop of e.g.
30%, this gives a voltage drop to 70% of the nominal voltage. Symbolically it is expressed
as VDROP = 30%, VSUPPLY = 70% with VNOMINAL = 100%.
• Unit
A boiler, turbine and generator set and all its dedicated auxiliaries.
• Unit islanding
This is the abnormal condition when the generator transformer is disconnected from the HV
Yard (HV breaker is open) with the generator still connected to the unit auxiliary power
system and is therefore supplying its own auxiliaries with the boiler, turbine and generator
running at very low load (between 25 and 45 MW for a 660 MW unit).
• Voltage dip
An undervoltage is also called a “voltage dip” or simply a “dip”. Also refer to the definition
for “undervoltage”.

• Voltage level
According to SANS 1019, Amendment 2 the definitions are:
Extra High: 220 kV < U ≤ 400 kV
High: 44 kV < U ≤ 220 kV
Medium: 1 kV < U ≤ 44 kV
Low: U ≤ 1 kV
The voltage level definitions of the Eskom Plant Safety Regulations (OPR 3305) are:
High: U > 1000 V
Medium: 250 V < U ≤ 1000 V
Low: U ≤ 250 V
• Voltage transformer
This “measuring” device provides a scaled down replica of the input voltage. Coupling is
required through transformers when the value of voltage in the power circuit is too high to
permit direct connection to the measuring instruments or relays.

ABBREVIATIONS
A Ampere
AC Alternating Current
ACC Air Cooled Condenser
CFS Combination Fuse Switches

C&I Control and Instrumentation
DC Direct Current
EOD Electrical Control Room
HV High Voltage
KKS Kraftwerk Kennzeichen System

kV Kilo Volt
kVA Kilo Volt Ampere
kW Kilo Watt
LV Low Voltage
MCB Moulded Case Circuit Breaker

MV Medium Voltage
MVA Mega Volt Ampere
MUT Multiple Unit Trip
OHS Act Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993
PTW Permit to work
UCR Unit Control Room

UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
V Volt
SCBC Self-Contained Battery and Charger Unit

REFERENCES
1. Copeland, JM, Eskom design guide, DC system design guide, Eskom Generation
Group, 1996.
2. GEC, “Protection Relay Applications Guide”, GEC Alsthom Measurements Limited,
Stafford, England, 1987.
3. GGS 0770, Eskom standard, Eskom generator protection philosophy for large fossil
fuel power stations with generator circuit breakers.
4. GGS 0838, Eskom standard, Design guide for power station battery rooms,
September 2001.
5. GGSS 0846, Eskom standard, Static UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) for Power
Stations.
6. IEC 1662, Assessment of the risk of damage due to lightning, International Electro-
technical Commission, Geneva, 1995.
7. NRS 042: 1996, Guide for the protection of electronic equipment against damaging
transients.
8. NWG 7007, Eskom Design Guide, Notes on earthing and lightning protection of
equipment moving on rails i.e. coal stackers/reclaimers and ash stackers.
9. NWM IIM 2, Matimba Power Station Information Manual, Notes on station earthing
and lightning protection, Revision 1, June 1990.
10. NWS 7016, Eskom Guideline, Guide for the maintenance of power station earthing
and earth mats, September 1990.
11. SABS-03 (discontinued), The protection of structures against lightning, South African
Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1985.
12. Say, M.G., Alternating current machines, (fourth edition), Pitman Publishing, Great
Britain, 1983.
13. SANS 10114-1, Edition 2.01, Interior lighting part 1, Artificial lighting of interiors,
South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1998.
14. SANS 60529, Edition 1.01, Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP Code),
South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 2001.
15. SANS 61024-1, edition 1, Protection of structures against lightning Part 1: General
principles, South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria, 1990.
16. Smit, P.M., The measurement of the properties of laminated sheet steel (M. Eng.
degree thesis), University of Stellenbosch, March 1989.
17. TSPG 001/95-01, Transmission Guideline, Transmission System Planning Guide,
Eskom, November 1996.
18. Van Coller, JM, Jandrell, IR, Lightning protection and earthing of electronic systems,
A Continuing Engineering Education course, revision 8.0, University of the
Witwatersrand, January 1996.
19. Van der Merwe, FS, Enslin, NC, Introduction to electrical machines and their
applications, University of Stellenbosch, 1984.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• Original Equipment Manufacturer manuals.
• Eskom Documentation.
• Subject matter expert and compiler: PM Smit
• Subject matter experts: GJ Coetzee

BGM van Wyk

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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM ENGINEER

POWER STATION INTRODUCTION

TITLE: Power station introduction

DOCUMENT NUMBER: Module 1

ISSUE DATE: 30 April 2004

MSWORD FILE: 01_Power station introduction_Rev0

SYNOPSIS: This document contains the training material needed to

Doc. rev. Date Amendment details Author

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page i

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page ii

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page iii

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page iv

PART 9. TRAINING ........................................................................................................................................ 18

PART 10. LITERATURE ................................................................................................................................. 18

PART 11. BROCHURES................................................................................................................................. 18

PART 12. BASE LINE INFORMATION .......................................................................................................... 18

PART 13. OEM INFORMATION ..................................................................................................................... 18

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page v

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page vi

LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page vii

• System Engineer training course layout.

• Knowledge of basic electrical engineering principles.

• Electrical technician/engineer qualification.

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page viii

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page ix

• Classroom with electronic overhead projection facility

Materials and stationery

• Manufacturer’s Training, Operating and Maintenance Manuals

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page x

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page xi

• awareness of potential dangers,

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page xii

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page xiii

PART 1. POWER STATION BASICS AND APPLICATION

1.1 Course layout

1. Power station introduction

The contents of each plant module are as follows (Part 1 to 13):

1. Basics and application

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 1

1.2 Plant information files

1.3 Eskom plant

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 2

1.4 Eskom power stations

• Arnot (6X350 MW),

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 3

There is one nuclear power station namely Koeberg (2X965 MW).

1.5 Basic power generation cycle

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 4

2 AUXILIARY POWER SYSTEM

2.2 Power supply conditions

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 5

2.3 System layout

Distribution network Transmission network

Distribution Yard 400 kV HV Yard

Figure 1. Block diagram of a typical power station reticulation system

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 6

2.4 Unit reticulation layout and operation

Figure 2. Single line drawing of a unit reticulation layout

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 7

2.5 Common plant reticulation layout and operation

Figure 3. Single line drawing of a common plant reticulation layout

01_Power station introduction_Rev0.doc Page 8