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Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Identifying direct and indirect costs for cost units
2 Inventory valuation
Summary and Self-test
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
Introduction
Calculate direct material and direct labour costs from information provided
Practical significance
An important task to be fulfilled by the management information system is to provide unit costs as the basis
for a variety of management planning and control activities.
But how are the individual elements of costs to be determined for each cost unit? For example there must
be mechanisms for recording the hours worked by employees and the tasks they accomplish in this time.
As regards material, if several different batches of material are purchased, all at different prices, which price
should be reported within unit costs for managers to use as the basis of their day to day operational and
planning decisions?
Information providers need mechanisms to systematically record the prices paid for material and the
quantities purchased and issued to production or sales.
Working content
You may come across inventory valuations in the context of audit engagements. Typical procedures might
involve checking that costs have been calculated and recorded correctly and that the inventory valuation
method has been applied consistently.
Syllabus links
A thorough understanding of the valuation of materials inventory will underpin your understanding of
inventory valuation for the Accounting syllabus.
Examination context
Exam requirements
The context of much of this chapter provides scope for a range of numerical questions. However, you
should also be prepared to deal with narrative questions that examine your understanding of the
implications of the techniques you are using.
Narrative questions on the pricing of materials issues and on the classification of costs have been popular in
past examinations.
In the examination, candidates may be required to:
Calculate the price of materials and the value of inventory using ('first in, first out') FIFO, ('last in, first
out') LIFO and average pricing methods
It is important to realise that in this chapter and the next, ideas from Chapter 1 are being applied in
determining the cost of a unit of output. The cost object is, therefore, the unit of output and all terms such
as direct and indirect are used in that context. It is also essential to appreciate that direct and variable costs
and indirect and fixed costs are NOT the same thing. The narrative is as important as the calculations for
FIFO, LIFO and weighted average inventory valuations.
Section overview
Direct costs are those that can be specifically identified with the cost unit being costed.
Direct material cost is all material becoming part of the cost unit, unless used in negligible amounts.
Direct labour cost is all wages paid to labour that can be identified with a specific cost unit.
Direct expenses are expenses incurred on a specific cost unit, other than direct material and direct
labour costs.
Indirect costs are those that cannot be identified directly with the cost unit being costed.
For the purposes of this chapter and Chapter 3 the cost object is a cost unit (eg a unit of product, a job, a
batch, a unit of service).
Materials used in negligible amounts and/or having negligible cost can be grouped under indirect materials as
part of overhead.
It is easy to confuse fixed and variable costs with indirect and direct costs. A direct cost is
often also a variable cost: for example, the cost of raw materials that goes into making a unit of
product is both a direct cost and a variable cost. However, a direct cost may be a fixed cost rather
than a variable cost. For example, the direct cost of the labour employed to do a certain type of work
is a fixed cost to the business if the employees are paid a fixed amount of wages or salary regardless of
the amount of work they do. Similarly, an indirect cost may a variable cost. For example, the cost of
heating in a manufacturing plant may rise as more hours are worked. The cost of heating cannot be
directly attributed to an individual job or unit of output. Nevertheless, it is a cost that rises with the
level of activity, and is a variable cost. Variable indirect costs are more commonly referred to as
variable overheads.
2 Inventory valuation
Section overview
The pricing of issues of inventory items and the valuation of closing inventory have a direct effect on
the calculation of profit. Several different methods can be used in practice.
With FIFO all issues are priced at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory.
With LIFO all issues are priced at the cost of the most recent delivery remaining in inventory.
The cumulative weighted average pricing method calculates a weighted average price for all units in
inventory whenever a new delivery of materials is received into store.
The periodic weighted average pricing method calculates a single weighted average price at the end of
the period. The average is based on the opening inventory plus all units received in the period.
Each method of inventory valuation usually produces different figures for the value of closing
inventories and the cost of material issues. Therefore, profit figures using the different inventory
valuations are usually different.
The unit issued is valued as though it were the most recent unit received into inventory, ie at the
purchase cost of C, CU109. This method of valuation is LIFO, or last in, first out.
The unit issued is valued at an average price of A, B and C. The three units cost a total of CU315, an
average of CU105 each.
Using a tabular format, as below, is a practical way of tracking items when carrying out a FIFO calculation:
CU2.00 CU2.10 CU2.12 CU2.40 Total
b/f 100 100
Receipt 3 May 400 400
Issue 4 May (100) (100) (200)
Receipt 9 May 300 300
Issue 11 May (300) (100) (400)
Receipt 18 May 100 100
Issue 20 May (100) (100)
– – 100 100 200
Points to note
1 The cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of purchases plus the
value of opening inventory (CU1,916).
2 The market price of purchased materials is rising dramatically. In a period of inflation, there is a
tendency with FIFO for materials to be issued at a cost lower than the current market value, although
closing inventories tend to be valued at a cost approximating to current market value.
It is a logical pricing method, which probably FIFO can be cumbersome to operate because of
represents what is physically happening: in practice the need to identify each batch of material
the oldest inventory is likely to be used first. separately.
It is easy to understand and explain to managers. Managers may find it difficult to compare costs and
make decisions when they are charged with varying
prices for the same materials.
The inventory valuation can be near to a valuation In a period of high inflation, inventory issue prices
based on replacement cost. will lag behind current market value.
Inventories are issued at a price which is close to The method can be cumbersome to operate
current market value. because it sometimes results in several batches
being only part-used in the inventory records
before another batch is received.
Managers are continually aware of recent costs when LIFO is often the opposite of what is physically
making decisions, because the costs being charged to happening and can therefore be difficult to
their department or products will be current costs. explain to managers.
As with FIFO, decision making can be difficult
because of the variations in prices.
* A new inventory value per unit is calculated whenever a new receipt of materials occurs.
Points to note
1 The cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of purchases plus the
value of opening inventory (CU1,916).
2 In a period of inflation, using the cumulative weighted average pricing system, the value of material
issues will rise gradually, but will tend to lag a little behind the current market value at the date of
issue. Closing inventory values will also be a little below current market value.
Fluctuations in prices are smoothed out, making it The resulting issue price is rarely an actual
easier to use the data for decision making. price that has been paid, and can run to several
decimal places.
It is easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO, because Prices tend to lag a little behind current market
there is no need to identify each batch separately. values when there is gradual inflation.
B CU ........................................
C CU ........................................
D CU ........................................
(b) The values that would be entered on the stores record for A, B, C and D in a LIFO system would be:
A CU ........................................
B CU ........................................
C CU ........................................
D CU ........................................
= ( CU200 CU1,716 )
(100 800)
= CU2.129 per unit
This average price is used to value all the units issued and the units in the closing inventory.
CU
Cost of issues = 700 units CU2.129 1,490
Closing inventory value = 200 units CU2.129 426
1,916
Notice that once again the cost of materials issued plus the value of closing inventory equals the cost of
purchases plus the value of opening inventory (CU1,916).
Requirements
Calculate the gross profit from selling the pink satin dresses with orange sashes in November 20X2,
applying the following principles of inventory valuation.
(a) FIFO
(b) LIFO
(c) Cumulative weighted average pricing
Calculate gross profit using the formula: gross profit = (sales – (opening inventory + purchases – closing
inventory)).
Solution
(a) FIFO
Cost Closing
Date of sales Total inventory
CU CU
14 November 3 units CU120
+ 2 units CU125
610
21 November 2 units CU125
+ 3 units CU140
670
28 November 1 unit CU140 140
Closing inventory 4 units CU150 600
1,420 600
(b) LIFO
Cost of Closing
Date sales Total inventory
CU CU
14 November 4 units CU125
+ 1 unit CU120
620
21 November 4 units CU140
+ 1 unit CU120
680
28 November 1 unit CU150 150
Closing inventory 3 units CU150
+ 1 unit CU120
570
1,450 570
(c) Cumulative weighted average pricing
Balance in Cost of Closing
Units Unit cost inventory sales inventory
CU CU CU CU
1 November 3 120.00 360
10 November 4 125.00 500
7 122.86 860
14 November 5 122.86 614 614
2 246
20 November 4 140.00 560
6 134.33 806
21 November 5 134.33 672 672
1 134
25 November 4 150.00 600
5 146.80 734
28 November 1 146.80 147 147
30 November 4 146.80 587 1,433 587
Profitability Weighted
FIFO LIFO average
CU CU CU
Opening inventory 360 360 360
Purchases 1,660 1,660 1,660
2,020 2,020 2,020
Closing inventory 600 570 587
Cost of sales 1,420 1,450 1,433
Sales (11 CU200) 2,200 2,200 2,200
Gross profit 780 750 767
Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
A A packing machine
B The factory canteen
C Direct materials for production
D Annual salary of the chief accountant
E A telephone bill
2 Which two of the following are classified as indirect costs of individual units of output or of individual
projects?
A The cost of overtime worked specifically to complete a one-off project
B The depreciation of a machine on an assembly line
C Primary packing materials, eg cartons and boxes
D The hire of maintenance tools or equipment for a factory
3 Which one of the following would be classified as an indirect cost of individual batches of output, units
of service or of individual projects of the organisation concerned?
A The cost of sugar used for a batch of cakes in a bakery
B The lease rental cost of a leased car used by a site foreman travelling to a specific construction
project
4 When costing cost units, wage payments for idle time within a production department are classified as
If the retailer decides instead to use the FIFO method, in a period of rising prices
A The closing inventory value will be lower and the gross profit will be lower
B The closing inventory value will be lower and the gross profit will be higher
C The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be lower
D The closing inventory value will be higher and the gross profit will be higher
6 A wholesaler had an opening inventory of 750 units of geronimos valued at CU80 each on 1 March.
8 A wholesaler had an opening inventory of 330 units of product T valued at CU168 each on 1April.
The following receipts and sales were recorded during April.
A CU16,350
B CU18,120
C CU18,520
D CU19,764
9 Which of the following statements is/are correct?
True False
Using LIFO, managers are continually aware of recent costs when making
decisions, because the costs being charged to their departments or products
will be current costs
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high inflation
10 A business buys and sells boxes of item J. The transactions for the latest quarter are shown below.
Purchases Sales
Boxes Value Boxes
CU
July 1,000 2,600 1,100
August 1,200 3,300 900
September 1,000 3,000 800
The business values its inventories using a periodic weighted average price calculated at the end of
each quarter.
To the nearest CU, the value of the inventory at the end of September is CU........................................ .
Now go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
Answers to Self-test
2 B, D The cost of overtime worked specifically to complete a one-off project (option A) is direct
labour.
Primary packing materials, eg cartons and boxes, (option C) are direct materials.
3 C The accountant's salary is an indirect cost because it cannot be traced to a specific cost unit. It
would be classified as an administration overhead.
All of the other costs can be traced to a specific cost unit.
The cost of sugar would be a direct ingredients cost of a specific batch of cakes.
The cost of drinks served would be a direct cost of a particular train journey.
4 D Idle time is usually treated as an overhead; in this case it is within the production department and
is therefore a factory overhead.
5 D The FIFO method prices issues from inventory at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in
inventory.
The closing inventory will therefore be valued at the higher prices paid.
The charge to cost of sales will be lower than with LIFO, therefore the gross profit will be
higher.
6 D
CU
Weighted average cost per unit:
750 units CU80
-3360,000
180 units CU85
-3315,300
90 units CU90
-338,100
1,020
83,400
Weighted average cost per unit
= CU83,400/1,020
= CU81.76
42
© The Institute of
Chartered
Accountants in
England and Wales,
March 2009
CALCULATING UNIT COSTS (PART 1) 2
8 D The LIFO method uses the cost of the most recent batches first.
CU
Cost of units sold on 24 April:
90 units CU186 16,740
180 units CU174 31,320
162 units CU168 27,216
432 75,276
9
True False
Using LIFO, managers are continually aware of recent costs when making
decisions, because the costs being charged to their departments or
products will be current costs
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high
inflation
The use of the cumulative average pricing method of inventory valuation is
easier to administer than FIFO and LIFO because there is no need to
identify each batch separately
FIFO lets managers value issues at current prices in a period of high inflation is incorrect. Under
FIFO, inventory issues are valued at the cost of the earliest delivery remaining in inventory. In
times of inflation, this will mean that issue prices will be lower than current prices.
10 To the nearest CU, the value of the inventory at the end of September is CU2,200.
A can of engine oil used in the repair Direct. This cost can be directly attributed to this
particular repair.
A smear of grease used in the repair Indirect. This cost is negligible and would not be
recorded separately as a direct cost.
An overtime premium paid to the mechanic Indirect. The overtime is being worked due to a
carrying out the repair generally heavy work load. This particular repair
has not caused the overtime premium to be
incurred. The cost is indirect and must be shared
over all the repair jobs carried out.
An idle time payment made to the mechanic while Indirect. The cost cannot be identified with any
waiting for a delivery of parts for a number of jobs particular repair job.
The wages of the supervisor overseeing the Indirect. The supervisor is overseeing all repair
mechanic carrying out the repair jobs being undertaken.
(b) A CU30
B CU55
C CU14.40
D CU131.60
WORKINGS
CU
10 June 10 units CU3.00 30.00
14 June Issues 10 units CU3.00 = 30.00
10 units CU2.50 = 25.00
55.00
20 June Issues: 6 units CU2.40 = 14.40
Balance: 34 units CU2.40 81.60
20 units CU2.50 50.00
54 131.60