DSE CHEM MASTERY

MOLE 數思維特訓班
THE MASTER NOTE

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 Table of Content

Reacting Masses ................................................................................. 4

1.1 Mole, Avogadro Constant & Molar Mass .............................................................................4

Mole & Avogadro Constant .................................................................................................................. 4

Molar Mass ............................................................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Percentage by Mass of an Element in a Compound ...................................................... 12

% by Mass of An Element in a Compound ...................................................................................... 12

Mass of An Element in a Compound ................................................................................................ 14

1.3 Chemical Equations & Reacting Masses ........................................................................... 19

1.4 Limiting Reagent & Excess Reagent .................................................................................. 24

1.5 Percentage Yield .................................................................................................................... 27

1.6 Chemical Formulae of Compounds .................................................................................... 30

Determination of Empirical Formulae ............................................................................................... 30

Determination of Molecular Formulae ............................................................................................. 36

Concentrations & Molarity ............................................................. 40

2.1 Basic Concept of Concentration ......................................................................................... 40

2.2 Advanced Calculations Involving Concentration ............................................................. 43

2.3 Dilution of Solution ................................................................................................................ 47

2.4 Mixing of Solution .................................................................................................................. 49

Volumetric Analysis ......................................................................... 54

3.1 Basic Concept of Titration .................................................................................................... 54

3.2 Acid-Alkali Titration ............................................................................................................... 56

Titration Procedure ............................................................................................................................... 56

More About Acid-Base Indicator ....................................................................................................... 58

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3.3 Volumetric Analysis Related Calculation ........................................................................... 59

3.4 Back Titration .......................................................................................................................... 68

Reasons to Use Back Titration ........................................................................................................... 68

Back Titration’s Steps & Calculation ................................................................................................. 68

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 REACTING MASSES

1.1 Mole, Avogadro Constant & Molar Mass

Game Rule

Perform calculations related to moles, Avogadro’s constant & molar masses.

Mole & Avogadro Constant

What is mole?

Mole (mol) is just a unit of amount like dozen

§ One mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are
atoms in 12.0 g of carbon-12.
§ 1 mole of particles = 6.02 x 1023 particles
§ Avogadro constant (L) = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

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 1 dozen 12 units

1 kg 1000 g

1 mol of O2 molecules 6.02 x 1023 O2 molecules

2 mol of H2O molecules 2 x 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

# "( )*+,-.#$/
!"#$ =
0. 23 × 52!" (7)

Example 1

A water bottle contains 1.5 mole of H2O molecules.

a) Calculate the number of H2O molecules in the bottle.
b) Calculate the number of atoms in the bottle.
Solution

a) Number of H2O molecules = 1.5 × (6.02 × 10#$ ) = 9.03 × 10#$ molecules

b) Each H2O molecule contains 3 atoms (2 H atoms + 1 O atom).
Number of atoms = 9.03 × 10#$ × 3 = 2.709 × 24 atoms

Example 2

Calculate the number of moles of electrons & protons in 2.40 x 1020 potassium ions.
Solution
§ Since the atomic number of K is 19, no. of protons in 1 K+ ion = 19
§ No. of electrons in 1 K+ ion = 19 – 1 = 18
#.&'×)'!" ×)*
§ No. of moles of protons = +.'#×)'!#
= 7.575 × 10,$ mol
#.&'×)'!" ×)-
§ No. of moles of electrons = +.'#×)'!#
= 7.176 × 10,$ mol

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Molar Mass
Key Concept

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance

§ Unit of molar mass: gram per mole (g mol-1 or g/mol)

!*//
!"#$ =
!"#*+ !*//

Substances Relative Atomic Mass Relative Molecular Mass Mass Mole

O2 O = 16.0 2 x 16 = 32 64 g 2 mol

H = 1.0
H2O 2 x 1 + 16 = 18 9g 0.5 mol
O = 16.0

C = 12.0
CO2 11 g
O = 16.0

H = 1.0
CH3COOH C = 12.0 600 g
O = 16.0

H = 1.0
Fe(OH)3 O = 16.0 26.7 g
Fe = 55.8

H = 1.0
NaOH O = 16.0 0.1 mol
Na = 23.0

H = 1.0
C6H12O6
C = 12.0 0.01 mol
(glucose)
O = 16.0

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Mole Calculation Relationship

Example 3

Calculate the number of atoms in 76.25 g of sodium chloride.

(Relative atomic masses: Na = 23.0; Cl = 35.5)
Solution
.+.#/
§ Number of moles of NaCl: #$.'0$/./ = 1.3034 mol

§ Number of NaCl molecules: 1.3034 × 6.02 × 10#$ = 7.8465 × 10#$

§ Number of atoms: 7.8465 × 10#$ × 2 = 1.57 × 10#&

Calculate the number of molecules and atoms in 6.80 g of NH3

(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0).

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Calculate the mass of one molecule of ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)

Calculate the number of chloride ion present in 10.8 g of solid calcium chloride.
(Relative atomic masses: Cl = 35.5, Ca = 40.0)

Calculate the number of zinc ions and nitrate ions present in 127.0 g of zinc nitrate respectively.

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Example 4

If the mass of one NO molecule is a, what is the mass of one NO2 molecule in terms of a?

Solution 1 – Easier with more calculation

)&0)+
§ Mass of one NO molecule = N = +.'#×)'!# → N = 4.983 × 10,#$ P
)&.'0)+.'×#
§ Mass of one NO# : +.'#×)'!#
= 7.631 × 10,#$ g
.,+&)×)'$!#
§ ∴ Mass of NO# in terms of a: &.*-$×)'$!# = 1.53 a

Solution 2 – More difficult with less calculation

) 3 5
§ Mass of one NO molecule = × (14 + 16) = a → =
2 4 "6

§ Mass of one NO2 molecule = no. of mole × molar mass

) 7
§ = 2 × (14 + 16 × 2) = $' × (14 + 16 × 2) = 1.53 a

If the mass of one H2O molecule is a, what is the mass of one H2O2 molecule in terms of a?

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If there are n molecules in 56 g of nitrogen, how many molecules are there in 23 g of nitrogen dioxide?

If 8.9 g of carbon monoxide gas contains n molecules. how many molecules does 63.57 g of sulphur
trioxide gas contain?
(Relative atomic masses: C=12.0, O=16.0, S=32.0)
A. 3n
B. 2.5n
C. 1.2n
D. 7n

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Refer to the set-up for electroplating an object shown in the diagram below.

It is known that 2.28 x 1022 electrons have passed through the external circuit during the electroplating
process. Calculate the mass of copper that would theoretically be plated on the object.
(Relative atomic mass: Cu 63.5; Avogadro's constant 6.02 x 1023 mol-1)
(2 marks)

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1.2 Percentage by Mass of an Element in a Compound
Core Idea

一杯榴連雪糕入面有幾多真．榴連肉

% by Mass of An Element in a Compound

(+$#*,-W$ *,"X-. X*// "( Y) × (# "( *,"X/ "( Y -Z ,[$ ("+X\#*)
= × 522%
("+X\#* X*// "( ,[$ ."X]"\Z^

Example 5

Calculate the percentage by mass of copper in copper(II) oxide (CuO).


(Relative atomic masses: Cu = 62.9; O = 16.0)

Step 1: 搵出主角
題目要求你搵 % by mass of Cu in CuO，所以主角就是 CuO 裡面的 Cu

Step 2: 將相關數值放進公式
R. A. M. of Cu 63.5
% by mass of Cu in CuO = = × 100% = 79.87%
Molar Mass of CuO 63.5 + 16

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Calculate is the percentage by mass of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0, O = 16.0)

Calculate the percentage by mass of chloride in hydrated magnesium chloride (MgCl2．6H2O).

(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3, Cl = 35.5)

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Mass of An Element in a Compound
= X*// "( ,[$ ."X]"\Z^ × % fg X*// "( $#$X$Z, Y -Z ,[$ ."X]"\Z^

Game Rule

Calculate the percentage by mass of an element in a compound using appropriate

information.

Example 6

Calculate the mass of carbon in 55.0 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH).

(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0; O = 16.0; H = 1.0)

Step 1: 先拆題
簡單來說，題目問在 32.0 g 的 CH3COOH 裡有多少 g 是 Carbon，拆題後可得出以下步驟：

Mass of Carbon ← % by Mass of C in CH3COOH ← Mass of CH3COOH

Step 2: 找到 % by Mass of C in CH3COOH

R. A. M. of C
% by Mass of C in CH$ COOH = × 100%
Molar Mass of CH$ COOH
12 × 2
= × 100% = 40%
12 × 2 + 1 × 4 + 16 × 2

Step 3: 利用 % by mass 找到 C 的質量

上一步找到的 40% 是指 “每 100 g 的 CH3COOH 中，有 40 g 是 Carbon”，因此可以利用這個 % by mass
去找出 32 g 的 CH3COOH 中有多少 Carbon：

Mass of Carbon = 32 × 40% = 12.8 g

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Example 7

The bromine of a metal M has the formula of MBr3 and contains 18.9% by mass of M. Calculate the
relative atomic mass of M. Hence, deduce what M is.


(Relative atomic masses: Br = 79.9)

Step 1: 先拆題
題目要求你找到 R.A.M. of M，這此我們可以利用題目給予的 R.A.M. 去設立一條 equation：
R. A. M. of M
% by Mass of M = 18.9% = × 100%
Molar Mass of MBr$
m
18.9% = × 100%
m + 79.9 × 3
設立好這條 equation 後，只要你的數學有中二水平均能輕鬆解決並找到答案！

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A metal oxide M2O3 contains 69.9% by mass of metal M. Find the relative atomic mass of M.


(Relative atomic mass: O = 16.0)

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Example 8

What is the mass of nitrogen present in the sample of potassium nitrate which contains 100 g of
potassium?


(Relative atomic masses: K = 39.1; N = 14.0; O = 16.0)

Solution – 正常學生
$*.)
Percentage by mass of K: $*.)0)&.'0)+.'×$ × 100% = 38.67%

Mass of KNO$ which contains 100 g of K: 100 ÷ 38.67% = 258.598 g

)&.'
Percentage by mass of N: $*.)0)&.'0)+.'×$ × 100% = 13.848%

Mass of N: 258.598 × 13.848% = 35.8 g

Solution – TC 學生
)''
Mass of N = $*.) × 14.0 = 35.8 g

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Hydrated salt X．nH2O contains 55.38 % of water by mass. Given that the molar mass of X is 58.0 g
What is the value of n?
(Relative atomic masses: O=16.0, H=1.0)
A. 1
B. 3
C. 4
D. 7

Hydrated salt CaSO4.nH2O (Gypsum) contains 79.07 % of CaSO4 by mass. What is the value of n?
(Relative atomic masses: Ca=40.0, S=32.0, O=16.0, H=1.0)
A. 5
B. 2
C. 3
D. 6

In an oxide of metal M, the mass percentage of M is 55.0%. What is the chemical formula of this oxide ?
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, M = 39.1)
A. MO2
B. M2O
C. M2O2
D. M2O3

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1.3 Chemical Equations & Reacting Masses
Game Rule

Calculate masses of reactants & products in a reaction from the relevant equation & state the
interrelationship between them.

§ mole ratio: the stoichiometric coefficients in the equation

KEY CONCEPT

If you know the mass of ONE substance in the reaction,

you know the rest.

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Example 9

Consider the following reaction:

Pb$ O& (s) + 4H# (g) → 3Pb(s) + 4H# O(l)
Calculate the mass of lead oxide required to produce 89 g of lead.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Pb = 207.0)

Step 1: 先拆題
題目需要我們找出 lead oxide, Pb3O4(s) 的質量，所以我們應按以下流程找到答案：

Mass of Pb3O4 ← Mole of Pb3O4 ← Mole of Pb ← Mass of Pb

Step 2: 計算 Mole of Pb
這部分不算難，利用題目給予的 mass 除以 R.A.M. of Pb 即可：
89
= 0.42995 mol
207

Step 3: 計算 Mole of Pb3O4

這步可以算是題目最難的一步，因為當中需要處理 Mole Ratio。從題目的 Balanced Equation 可見：

Pb : Pb3O4 = 3 : 1

處理 Mole Ratio 的口訣為「除自己、乘人哋」，因此就可計出 Pb3O4 的 mole 數：

Mole of Pb 0.42995
Mole of Pb$ O& = ×1= × 1 = 0.14332 mol
3 3

Step 4: 計算 Mass of Pb3O4

上一步找到 Mole 數後，這一步就簡單得多了：

Mass of Pb$ O& = Mole × Molar Mass = 0.14332 × (207 × 3 + 16 × 4) = 98.17 g

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Consider the following reaction: 2Al(s) + Fe# O$ (s) → Al# O$ (s) + 2Fe(s) . Calculate the mass of Al
required to react with 100.0 g of Fe2O3.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Al = 27.0, Fe = 55.8)

Potassium reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen. Calculate the mass of hydrogen
formed when 12.69 g of potassium reacts completely with water.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0; O = 16.0; K = 39.1)

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Example 10

Copper(I) sulphide reacts with oxygen according to the following chemical equation:
Cu# S(s) + O# (g) → 2Cu(s) + SO# (g)
Calculate the mass of copper formed when 42.3 g of copper(I) sulphide react completely with oxygen.
(Relative atomic masses: S = 32.1, Cu = 63.5)
Solution – Mole Ratio
&#.$
Number of moles of Cu# S: +$./×#0$#.) = 0.266 mol

Number of moles of Cu produced: 0.266 × 2 = 0.532 mol

Mass of Cu formed: 0.532 × 63.5 = 33.78 g

Solution - % by Mass
+$./×#
Mass of Cu formed = mass of Cu in Cu2S = 42.3 × +$./×#0$#.) = 33.78 P

P.S. 要 42.3 g Cu2S 都反應晒先可以咁計

What mass of copper is obtained when 0.40 mol of copper (II) oxide are completely reduced by carbon?
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Cu = 63.5)
A. 12.7 g
B. 15.9 g
C. 25.4 g
D. 31.8 g

The formula for hydrated iron (II) sulphate is FeSO& ⋅ xH# O. On strong heating, 20.1 g of the sulphate
produces 9.1 g of water. What is the value of x?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1, Fe = 56.0)
A. 5
B. 6
C. 7
D. 8

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23
1.4 Limiting Reagent & Excess Reagent
Game Rule

Solve problems involving limiting reagents.

KEY CONCEPT

The limiting reactant limits the amount of the product formed in a reaction

Egg Sugar Orange Peel Orange Cake

6 2 1 1

6 4 2

18 4 1

30 10 100

10000 5000 20

3 1000000 1000000

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Steps to find the limiting reactant

Step 1: Write down the balanced equation

Step 2: Calculate the # of mole of the reactants
Step 3: Compare their mole number based on the mole ratio (from the balanced equation)

Example 11

When 16.28 g of zinc oxide are heated with 5.23 g of carbon powder, zinc will be formed. Write down a
balanced equation and calculate the mass of zinc formed.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0; O = 16.0; Zn = 65.4)

Step 1: 先寫出 Balanced Equation

如果寫錯 Balanced Equation，你的答案也必定錯誤，因為計算過程需要用到 Mole Ratio。

3rZs(/) + t(/) → 3rZ(/) + ts! (u)

Step 2: 拆題並找出 Limiting Reagent

先分別計算 ZnO 同 C 的 Mole 數，再決定誰是 Limiting Reagent：

ZnO C
)+.#- /.#$
Mole +/.&0)+
= 0.2 mol )#
= 0.436 mol

由於 ZnO : C = 2 : 1，這個 Mole Ratio 告訴我們每 2 mole 的 ZnO 需要 1 mole 的 C 去完全反應。從上面

'.#
的計算的們得知現在 0.2 mol 的 ZnO，因此所需的 C = #
= 0.1 vwx

也就是說明明我們只需 0.1 mol 的 C 去完全反應 0.2 mol 的 ZnO，但現在我們有 0.436 mol 的 C，比所
需的高出四倍有多！

因此 C 是過量，而 ZnO 是 limiting reagent！

Step 3: 利用 Limiting Reagent 去完成接下來的計算

由於 Limiting Reagent 是 ZnO，我們可以利用 ZnO 和 Zn 的 Mole Ratio 找到 Zn 的 Mole 數，再計算它
的 Mass：

Mole of Zn = Mole of ZnO = 0.2 mol

Mass of Zn = 0.2 × 65.4 = 13.08 g

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When 15 g of carbon dioxide was pumped into a solution containing 90 g of calcium hydroxide, insoluble
calcium carbonate was formed. Calculate the theoretical mass of calcium carbonate that can be obtained.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1)

When 6.32 g of lithium were heated with 7.88 g of nitrogen, solid lithium nitride was formed. Calculate
the theoretical mass of lithium nitride formed.
(Relative atomic masses: Li = 6.9, N = 14.0)
“Nitride” means “N”.

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1.5 Percentage Yield
/$&0', *+",-
!"#$"%&'(" *+",- = × 566%
12"3#"&+$', *+",-

§ Theoretical Yield : the expected amount of product to be obtained.

§ Actual Yield : the amount of product actually obtained from the reaction.
§ Percentage Yield : to measure the efficiency of a chemical reaction.

KEY CONCEPT

In most of the case, theoretical yield > actual yield, because......

Source of Error
§ impurities exist in the reactants
§ the reaction is incomplete
§ side reactions occur
§ some product is lost during experimental processes……
Must memorize these reasons! DSE will ask!

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Example 12

TC heated 24.35 g of Fe(III) oxide with 1.10 g of hydrogen to give water and iron. What is the theoretical
yield of iron produced? Given the percentage yield of iron is 67%, calculate the actual yield of iron.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Fe = 55.9)

Analysis

z$! s" + {|! → 3z$ + {|! s

§ To find the theoretical yield, we need to first determine whether Fe2O3 or H2 is limiting reagent.

Solution
#&.$/
Number of moles of Fe# O$ : //.*×#0)+.'×$ = 0.152377972 mol
).)'
Number of moles of H# : = 0.55 mol
).'×#

Fe# O$ is the limiting reactant

Number of moles of Fe formed: 0.152377972 × 2 = 0.304755944 mol

Theoretical yield of Fe: 0.304755944 × 55.9 = 17.03585732 g
Actual yield: 17.03585732 × 67% = 11.41 g

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Given that 40 g of Mg react with 32 g of O2 to produce 41 g of MgO. What is the percentage yield of
the reaction?
(Relative atomic masses: Mg = 24.3, O = 16.0)

TC heated 25 g of PbO with 1 g of carbon in the presence of excess oxygen. This experiment produces
5 g of Pb at the end. Calculate the percentage yield of the reaction.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Pb = 207.0)

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1.6 Chemical Formulae of Compounds
Game Rule

Determine empirical formulae & molecular formulae from compositions by mass & molar
masses.

Definition
§ Empirical formula : shows the simplest ratio of the atoms/ions present in the compound
§ Molecular formula: shows the actual number of the atoms present in a molecular substance (with
simple molecular structures)

呢部分十分重要！DSE 年年都出唔少分！

Substances Molecular Formula Empirical Formula

carbon dioxide CO2 CO2

methane CH4 CH4

ethane C2H6 CH3

glucose C6H12O6 CH2O

Silicon dioxide SiO2 SiO2

Sodium chloride NaCl NaCl

Determination of Empirical Formulae

Step 1: Write down the mass & the relative atomic mass of each element (if mass % is given, simply
assume the mass of the compound is 100 g)
Step 2: Calculate the # of moles of each element
Step 3: Calculate the simplest mole ratio of each type of elements

MUST-KNOW DSE SKILL

If mass % of different substances are given,

simply assume the mass of the compound is 100 g

30
 X Y Z

mass (g)

relative atomic mass

# of mole

simplest mole ratio

31
Example 13

After conducting an experiment on an unknown compound X, it was found that X only 70% iron and 30%
oxygen by mass. What is the empirical formula of X.
(Relative atomic masses: Fe = 55.8; O = 16.0)

Step 1: 找出主角
主角是指組成 Compound X 的 element，一般題目上會很清楚告訴你 Compound X 是由什麼東西組成。
以這題為例，主角們就是 Fe 和 O 兩位了！

Step 2: 於 Table 上寫上主角並找到他們的 Mass

Table 主要會分為三行：Mass, Mole 和 Mole Ratio，你必須先分別找到主角們的 mass 才能進行下一步！
但正常情況下題目不會直接把 mass 列出來，但會提供每個 element 的 % by mass！因此你可以先 “Let
the mass of compound X be 100 g.”，這樣你便能輕鬆找到 Fe 和 O 的 mass 了！

Fe O

Mass 70 g 30 g

Mole

Ratio

Step 3: 分別找出主角的 Mole 數

這步只需將 mass 除以 R.A.M. 即可，所以我也不廢話太多了！

Fe O

Mass 70 g 30 g

70 30
Mole = 1.254 mol = 1.875 mol
55.8 16

Ratio

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Step 4: 找出主角間的 Mole Ratio
先找到主角間誰的 Mole 數是最少，然後把所有主角的 Mole 數都除以那個最少的 Mole 數！以這題為例，
Fe 的 Mole 數是最少，所以我們將會把所有主角的 Mole 數均除以 “1.254” 從而去找出答案！

Fe O

Mass 70 g 30 g

70 30
Mole = 1.254 mol = 1.875 mol
55.8 16

1.254 1.875
Ratio =1 = 1.49 ≈ 1.5
1.254 1.254

Step 5: 約簡 Mole Ratio 並找出 Empirical Formula

從上一步可見，Fe : O = 1 : 1.5。但在寫出 Empirical Formula 前我們需要把這個 Ratio 轉為整數，因此
我會把所有數值乘 2，便可得出一個整數的比例：

Fe : O = 2 : 3 ➝ Empirical Formula is Fe2O3.

33
Given that compound Y contains 39.1% sulphur, 58.5% oxygen and 2.4% hydrogen by mass. What is the
empirical formula of Y?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0; O = 16.0; S = 32.1)

34
Titanium (Ti) is a metal. 2.66 g of a sample of titanium powder is heated in excess oxygen until the metal
is completely oxidised. The mass of the oxide formed is 4.44 g. Which of the following is the empirical
formula of the oxide formed?
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, Ti = 47.9)
A. TiO
B. Ti2O3
C. Ti3O4
D. TiO2

39.2 g of an oxide of rubidium (Rb) contains 28.5 g of rubidium. What is the empirical formula of this
oxide?
(Relative atomic masses : O = 16.0, Rb = 85.5)
A. RbO
B. RbO2
C. Rb2O
D. Rb2O2

35
Determination of Molecular Formulae
How to find it?

Question MUST give you the molecular mass

to obtain the molecular formulae.

Example 14

Experiment showed that an unknown compound Y only contained 82.8% carbon and 17.2% hydrogen
by mass. If its relative molecular mass is 58, what is the molecular formula of Y?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0)

Step 1: 先找出 Y 的 Empirical Formula

找 Empirical Formula 的方法在上一步已經教了，如果還不熟悉的話可以到上一個部分重新學習一次，這
裡我就很快帶過！

C H

Mass 82.8 g 17.2 g

82.8
Mole = 6.9 mol 17.2 mol
12

6.9 17.2
Ratio =1 = 2.49 ≈ 2.50
6.9 6.9
在進一步約簡後便可以得出 C : H = 2 : 5，因此 Empirical Formula of Y 是 C2H5.

Step 2: 利用題目的 Molar Mass 找出 Molecular Formula

Let the molecular formula of Y be (C2H5)n.

上面這句話的意思是指 Molecular Formula 必須是 Empirical Formula 的整數倍數，因此我們只要利用

Molar Mass 去找到 “n” 便可以找到 Molecular Formula 了！

§ Molar Mass = 58 = n × Molar Mass of C# H/

§ 58 = n × (12 × 2 + 1 × 5)
§ n=2
由於 n = 2，所以 Y 的 Molecular Formula 就是 C4H10.

36
It is known that compound Y containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Upon completed combustion,
7.30 g of compound Y gave 11.87 g of carbon dioxide and 4.04 g of water. What is the empirical formula
of Y? If its relative molecular mass is 486, what is the molecular formula of Y?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
This looks complicated, but you can do it!

37
In a sulphide of metal Na, the mass percentage of Na is 58.97%. What is the empirical formula of this
sulphide?
(Relative Atomic masses: Na=23.0, S=32.0)
A. NaS
B. Na2S
C. Na3S
D. Na2S2

Titanium (Ti) is a metal. 6.02 g of a sample of titanium powder is heated in excess oxygen until the metal
is completely oxidised. The mass of the oxide formed is 10.05 g. Which of the following is the empirical
formula of the oxide formed?
(Relative atomic masses: Ti=47.8, O=16.0)
A. TiO
B. TiO3
C. TiO2
D. Ti2O2

A hydrocarbon burns completely in oxygen to give 461.0 g of carbon dioxide and 188.64 g of water.
Which of the following is the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon?
(Relative atomic masses: O=16.0, C=12.0, H=1.0)
A. CH
B. C2H3
C. C2H5
D. CH2

38
39
 CONCENTRATIONS & MOLARITY

2.1 Basic Concept of Concentration

/930%& 3: ;3,0&"
83%$"%&#'&+3% =
<3,09" 3: &2" =3,0&+3%
§ Amount of solute can be measured by “mass (gram)” or “mole” ➝ two different units
§ Unit of Volume : dm3
® 5 ^X = 52 .X, 5 ^X" = 5222 .X"

Game Rule

Perform calculations related to the concentration of solution.

#1 Concentration in g dm-3
mass of solute (g)
Concentration of a solution g dm-3 Ä=
Volume of the solution (dm-3 )

#2 Molarity: Concentration in mol dm-3

number of moles of solute (mol)
Molarity mol dm-3 or MÄ =
Volume of the solution (dm3 )
8799
§ Mole = 8:;7< 8799

40
Example 15

Calculate the concentration of the following solution in g dm-3 & mol dm-3.
(R.A.M.: H = 1.0; Cl = 35.5; Zn = 65.4 ; N = 14.0; Cu = 63.5; S = 32.1; O = 16.0)
a) 10.0 g of hydrochloric acid in 100 cm3 of solution
b) 23.8 g of zinc nitrate in 250 cm3 of solution
c) 98.6 g of copper sulphate in a solution with density of 0.65 g cm-3.

Solution
)'
a) Concentration in g dm-3 = %"" = 100 g dm,$
%"""

)'.'
Mole of HCl = )0$/./ = 0.273972602 mol
'.#.$*.#+'#
Concentration in mol dm-3 = %"" = 2.740 mol dm,$
%"""

#$.-
b) Concentration in g dm-3 = !&" = 95.2 g dm,$
%"""

#$.-
Mole of Zn(NO3)2 = +/.&0)&×#0)+×+ = 0.125659978 mol
'.)#/+/**.-
Concentration in mol dm-3 = !&" = 0.503 mol dm,$
%"""

*-.+ >
c) Volume of the solution = = 151.69 cm$
'.+/ > ?@$#

*-.+
Concentration in g dm-3 = %&%.() = 650 g dm,$
%"""

*-.+
Mole of CuSO4 = = 0.617794486 mol
+$./0$#.)0)+×&
'.+)..*&&-+
Concentration in mol dm-3 = %&%.() = 4.073 mol dm,$
%"""

41
200 cm³ of calcium hydroxide solution contains 22.2 g of calcium hydroxide. What is the molarity of the
solution?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1)
A. 0.50 M
B. 1.00 M
C. 1.50 M
D. 2.00 M

What is the number of moles of SO42- ions in 100 cm³ of 0.5 M Fe2(SO4)3 solution?
A. 2 x 0.1 x 0.5
B. 3 x 0.1 x 0.5
C. 2 x 0.1 x 0.5 x 6.02 x 1023
D. 3 x 0.1 x 0.5 x 6.02 x 1023

20 cm³ of zinc chloride solution contains 0.01 moles of Cl⁻(aq) ions. What is the molarity of the solution?
A. 0.025 M
B. 0.05 M
C. 0.25 M
D. 0.5 M

50.0 cm3 of 0.6 M FeSO4(aq) is mixed with 150.0 cm3 of 0.2 M Fe2(SO4)3(aq). What is the concentration
of SO42- (aq) ions in the resulting mixture?
A. 0.3 M
B. 0.4 M
C. 0.6 M
D. 0.8 M

42
2.2 Advanced Calculations Involving Concentration

Example 16

Given that concentrated sulphuric acid has a density of 1.83 g cm-3 and contains 98.5% by mass of
sulphuric acid. Calculate the molarity of sulphuric acid.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1)
Analysis
§ Density = Mass/Volume
§ To calculate molarity, we need mole and volume of sulphuric acid.
Solution
Let the volume of sulphuric acid be 1000 cm3.
8799 8799
Density= = 1.83 = → Mass = 1830 g → Mass of H# SO& = 1830 × 98.5% = 1802.55 g
A:;B@C )'''
)-'#.//
Mole = = 18.37 mol
)×#0$#.)0)+×&
)-.$.
Molarity= %""" = 18.37 M
%"""

A sample of 0.75 dm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid has a density of 1.68 g cm-3 If the sample contains
78.0% of sulphuric acid, calculate the molarity of the acid.
(Relative atomic masses: S = 32.0; H = 1.0; O = 16.0)

43
A storage tank contains 100.0 dm3 of concentrated nitric acid. If the density of the acid is 1.32 g cm-3
and the percentage by mass of HNO3 in the acid is 25.0%, calculate the molarity of the acid.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, N = 14.0; O = 16.0)

A sample of concentrated sulphuric acid has a density of 1.83 g cm³ and contains 98.0% of sulphuric acid
by mass. What is the concentration (correct to one decimal place) of sulphuric acid in the sample?
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1)
Still remember the formula of density?

A. 17.8 M
B. 18.3 M
C. 18.8 M
D. 19.3 M

44
Example 17

The percentage by mass of M2CO3 in a sample is 65%. 70 cm3 solution is prepared by dissolving 40 g of
the sample. It waws found that the concentration of metal cation is 5.38 M. What is element M?
Analysis
§ To identify M, we need the R.A.M. of M → Molar Mass of M2CO3 → Mole & Mass
§ Mass of the sample is given in the question → Mass of M2CO3
§ Molarity & Volume are given → Mole of M2CO3

Solution
§ Mass of M2CO3= 40 × 65% = 26 g
.'
§ No. of mole of metal cation = 5.38 × )''' = 0.3766 mol
)
§ No. of mole of M2CO3 = 0.3766 × # = 0.1883 mol
§ Let the R.A.M. of metal M be m.
26
Mole = 0.1883 =
2m + 12 + 16 × 3
m = 39.1
§ Therefore, metal M is K, potassium.

45
The diagram below shows a truck with a storage tank for transporting concentrated hydrochloric acid.

a) Suggest a hazard warning label that should be posted on the storage tank. =

b) The storage tank is made of steel and the inner wall has a lining of polyethene.
i) Draw the structural formula of polyethene.

ii) Explain the function of the lining of polyethene in terms of the chemistry concept involved.

c) The storage tank contains 57 000 kg of concentrated hydrochloric acid, which occupies a volume
of 50 m$ . If the percentage by mass of HCl in the acid is 38.0%, calculate the molarity of the acid.

46
2.3 Dilution of Solution

§ During dilution, # of moles of solute remains unchanged.

Before Dilution After Dilution

# of moles of solute Same

Volume Smaller (V1) Larger (V2)

Concentration Higher (M1) Lower (M2)

Volume↑ → Concentration ↓

M1 V1 =M2 V2

total number of mole of the solute remains unchanged!!!

§ M1V1 = # of moles before dilution

§ M2V2 = # of moles after dilution

47
What volume of water is required to dilute 100 Çv$ of 8 M hydrochloric acid to a concentration of 2 M?
A. 200 Çv$
B. 300 Çv$
C. 400 Çv$
D. 700 Çv$

What volume of water should be added to 100 cm3 of 5 M hydrochloric to change the acid concentration
to 0.5 M?
A. 200 cm3
B. 900 cm3
C. 950 cm3
D. 1000 cm3

48
2.4 Mixing of Solution
Mole 數一定要分開計完再加埋一齊！

Example 18

600.0 cm³ of 3.0 M potassium hydroxide solution is mixed with 200.0 cm³ of 1.0 M potassium hydroxide
solution. What is the concentration of the resultant solution?
Solution
+''
Mole of KOH from solution A= 3.0 × = 1.8 mol
)'''
#''
Mole of KOH from solution B= 1.0 × = 0.2 mol
)'''

Total no. of mole of KOH = 1.8 + 0.2 = 2.0 mol

#.'
Concentration of the resultant solution = (""*!"" = 2.5 M
%"""

In a solution containing sodium nitrate and sodium sulphate, the concentrations of sodium ions and
nitrate ions are 1.0 M and 0.4 M respectively. Calculate the concentration of sulphate ions.
A. 0.10 M
B. 0.20 M
C. 0.30 M
D. 0.40 M

Solution Z is prepared by mixing 100.0 cm³ of 2.0 M K2SO4(aq) with 50.0 cm³ of 1.0 M KNO3(aq). What is
the concentration of K+(aq) ions in Z?
A. 1.5 M
B. 1.7 M
C. 3.0 M
D. 3.3 M

49
Example 19

50.00 cm3 of 0.50 M lead(II) nitrate solution is mixed with 50.00 cm3 of 2.00 M sodium chloride solution.
Insoluble lead(II) chloride is formed during mixing. What is the concentration of Cl-(aq) in the mixture?
Analysis
§ Pb(NO$ )# (aq) + 2NaCl(aq) → PbCl# (s) + 2NaNO$ (aq)
§ To calculate the final concentration of Cl-, we need to find out the mole of Cl-(aq) remaining and
the final volume.

§ 用剩幾多 Cl- (aq) = 一開始有幾多 Cl- (aq) – 用咗幾多 Cl-(aq)

Solution
/'.''
Mole of Cl-(aq) before reaction = mole of NaOH(aq) = 2.00 × = 0.1 mol
)'''
/'.''
Mole of Pb(NO3)2(aq) = 0.50 × )''' = 0.025 mol

Mole of Cl-(aq) reacted by Pb(NO3)2(aq) = 0.025 × 2 = 0.05 mol

Mole of Cl-(aq) in the resultant solution = 0.1 − 0.05 = 0.05 mol
'./
Final [Cl-(aq)] = &"*&" = 5 mol dm,$
%"""

25.00 cm3 of 1.0 M lead(II) nitrate solution is mixed with 50.00 cm3 of 1.00 M sodium chloride solution.
Insoluble lead(II) chloride is formed during mixing. What is the concentration of Cl-(aq) in the mixture?
A. 0.33 M
B. 0.50 M
C. 0.0 M
D. 1.50 M

450.0 cm3 of 1.50 M potassium hydroxide solution is mixed with 150.0 cm3 of 0.50 M potassium
hydroxide solution. What is the concentration of the resultant solution?
A. 0.3 M
B. 0.33 M
C. 0.375 M
D. 0.4 M

50
33 g of calcium carbonate are allowed to react with 100 cm3 of 1.5 M hydrochloric acid until no further
reaction occurs. Calculate the mass of calcium carbonate left behind. (Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0,
0 = 16.0, Ca = 40.0)
A. 25 g
B. 25.5 g
C. 25.6 g
D. 25.7 g

50.00 cm3 of a solution of a dibasic acid required 60.00 cm3 of 0.10 M potassium hydroxide for complete
neutralization. Calculate the molarity of the acid.
A. 0.03 M
B. 0.06 M
C. 0.12 M
D. 0.24 M

Which of the following pairs of aqueous solutions, upon mixing, would have the lowest electrical
conductivity?
A. 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M H2SO4 and 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M Ca(OH)2
B. 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M HCOOH and 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M NaOH
C. 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M HCl and 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M NaHCO3
D. 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 M NaCl and 25.0 cm3 of 0 M H2O

Which of the following pairs of solutions, when mixed, would give a neutral solution?
A. 10 Çv$ of 1 M sulphuric acid and 10 Çv$ of 1 M potassium hydroxide solution
B. 10 Çv$ of 1 M sulphuric acid and 10 Çv$ of 2 M potassium hydroxide solution
C. 10 Çv$ of 2 M sulphuric acid and 20 Çv$ of 1 M potassium hydroxide solution
D. 20 Çv$ of 2 M sulphuric acid and 10 Çv$ of 2 M potassium hydroxide solution

51
Given that acid X is a strong tribasic acid and the pH of a sample of acid X is 3.5. What is the pH of the
resulting mixture when 50 cm³ of this sample is mixed with 50 cm³ of water?

What is the pH value of the solution when 25.0 cm³ of 0.1 M sulphuric acid is diluted to 250.0 cm³?
(Assume that the acid ionizes completely in water)

52
Example 20

The pH of a sample of hydrochloric acid is 1.9. 100 cm3 of this sample is mixed with 100 cm3 of water.
What is the pH of the resulting mixture?
Analysis
§ To obtain pH, we must first calculate the molarity of H+(aq) after dilution.
§ To obtain the molarity of H+(aq) after dilution, we must first calculate the molarity of H+(aq) before
dilution
Solution
§ Before dilution:
pH = 1.9 ⇒ [H0 (Nà)] = 10,).* M
§ After dilution:
M) V) = M# V#
10,).* × 100 = M# × (100 + 100)
M# = [H0 (aq)]# = 0.5 × 10,).* M
pH = −log (0.5 × 10,).* ) = 2.2

The pH of a sample of sulphuric acid is 2.2. 100 cm3 of this sample is mixed with 100 cm3 of water. What
is the pH of the resulting mixture?
A. 2.6
B. 2.5
C. 1.3
D. 2.0

53
 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
What is the purpose of volumetric analysis?

To determine the concentration or number of mole of a substance in a

sample.

3.1 Basic Concept of Titration

§ Titrate A against B: solution A (with known concentration) is added into solution B (with unknown
concentration but known volume) until the two solution react completely.

How do we determine the amount or concentration of solution B?

By measuring the amount of solution A required to react completely with

solution B

54
Common Apparatus

Apparatus Diagram Function

solution with UNKNOWN concentration

Conical Flask
For solution to be titrated

Measuring
Measure a rough volume of solution
Cylinder

solution with KNOWN concentration

Burette Deliver volume of solution accurately to
conical flask

Transfer specific volume of solution

Pipette accurately. (e.g. 25.0 cm³)

Volumetric Prepare solution of specific volume by

Flask standardization

55
3.2 Acid-Alkali Titration
§ Equivalence Point
§ End Point
§ Acid-Base Indicator
§ Titrant
§ Titre
: the point at which the acid & alkali have just completely reacted.
: the point at which the indicator changes colour sharply.
: a substance whose colour depends on the pH of the solution.
: the solution in the burette
: total volume of titrant delivered by the burette to reach the end point.

Common Misconceptions

Titration of solution X against solution Y = X in conical flask, B in burette

Titration Procedure
Game Rule

Describe & demonstrate the techniques of performing acid-alkalis titration.

56
Step 1: Wash 25.0 cm³ pipette with distilled water, follow by solution X.
Step 2: Transfer 25.0 cm³ of solution X with the washed pipette into a conical flask
Step 3: Add a few drops of suitable indicator into the conical flask.
Step 4: Wash the burette with distilled water, follow by solution Y.
Step 5: Add solution Y into the burette and record the initial reading before titration.
Step 6: Add solution Y slowly from the burette to the conical flask. At the same time, keep stirring
the flask until the end point is reached. (i.e. colour change of indicator is observed.)
Step 7: Record the final reading of the burette at the end point. (the volume of solution Y used =
initial reading – final reading)
Step 8: Repeat titration a few times to improve accuracy.
Remark for Washing of Apparatus

Apparatus Purpose How to wash?

Transfer accurately known volume of First with distilled water, then with solution X
Pipette
sample solution to conical flask (the unknown)

Contain the sample solution & allow the

Conical Flask standard solution to be added from the With distilled water only
burette

Add standard solution slowly to conical First with distilled water, then with solution Y
Burette
flask (the standard solution)

57
More About Acid-Base Indicator
Indicator 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Litmus red purple blue

Methyl Orange red orange yellow

Phenolphthalein colourless pale pink pink

Colour Changes of Indicators at End Point

Indicators Alkali against acid Acid against alkali

Methyl Orange Yellow ➝ Orange Red ➝ Orange

Phenolphthalein Pink ➝ Colourless Colourless ➝ Pink

一定要記熟啲 colour change！

Selecting Suitable Acid-Base Indicators

§ Depends on the strength of acid and alkali involved

Acid Alkali Methyl Orange Phenolphthalein

Strong Strong ✓ ✓

Strong Weak ✓ ⨯

Weak Strong ⨯ ✓

Weak Weak ⨯ ⨯

Please remember this!

58
3.3 Volumetric Analysis Related Calculation
Game Rule

Apply the concepts of concentration of solution & use the results of acid-alkali titrations to
solve stoichiometric problems.

Calculation Process

Step 1: Identify the acid and the alkali, then write the balanced equation.
Step 2: Calculate the # of moles of acid or base added from the burette
Step 3: Calculate the # of moles of base or acid using the mole ratio from the balanced equation
Step 4: Calculate the molarity of the base or acid

Example 21

What is the volume of 0.250 M sodium hydroxide solution required to neutralize completely 23.20 cm³
of 0.105 M sulphuric acid?
Analysis
Mole
Molarity =
Volume
§ To calculate volume, we need to find the molarity and number of mole of NaOH.

Solution
3ã*s|(*å) + |! çsD (*å) → ã*! çsD (*å) + 3|! s(#)
#$.#'
Mole of H# SO& (aq) = 0.105 × )''' = 2.436 × 10,$ mol

Mole of NaOH(aq) = 2.436 × 10,$ × 2 = 4.872 × 10,$ mol

&.-.#×)'$#
Volume of NaOH(aq) = '.#/'
= 0.019488 dm$ = 19.49 cm$

The concentration of potassium hydroxide solution is 2.5 M. 25.0 cm³ of this solution requires 38.0 cm³
of hydrochloric acid for complete neutralization. What is the molarity of the acid?

59
Example 22

13.34 g of pure ethanoic acid CH3COOH is dissolved in 100.0 cm³ of distilled water. 25.0 cm³of this
solution is titrated against 0.500 M of NaOH solution. Calculate the volume of NaOH solution required
for complete neutralization.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0; O = 16.0; H = 1.0)
Analysis
§ To calculate the volume, we need to find the number of mole of NaOH & its molarity (given).
§ Mole of NaOH can be obtained from the number of mole of ethanoic acid.
§ CH$ COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → CH$ COO, Na0 (aq) + H# O(l)
Solution
)$.$& #/.'
Mole of CH3COOH reacted with NaOH= )#×#0&0)+×# × )''.' = 0.055583333 mol

Since mole ratio between CH3COOH and NaOH is 1:1, mole of NaOH = 0.05583333 mol
'.'//-$$$$
Volume of NaOH required = './''
= 0.1112 dm$ = 111.2 cm$

23.34 g of pure sulphuric acid H2SO4 is dissolved in 250.0 cm³ of distilled water. 25.0 cm³ of this solution
is titrated against 0.250 M of KOH solution. Calculate the volume of KOH solution required for complete
neutralization.
(Relative atomic masses: S = 32.0; O = 16.0; H = 1.0)

60
Example 23

3.26 g of a sample of ethanedioic acid crystals (COOH)2 2H2O was dissolved in distilled water and made
up to 250.0 cm³ of solution. 25.0 cm³ of the solution required 29.30 cm³ of 0.179 M sodium hydroxide
solution for complete neutralization. Determine the basicity of the acid.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Analysis
§ To determine basicity, we need to find the mole ratio between acid & alkali.
§ i.e. to find the no. of mole of acid & alkali reacted.
® If no. of mole of acid : alkali = 1:1, then the acid is monobasic.
® If no. of mole of acid : alkali = 1:2, then the acid is dibasic.
® If no. of mole of acid : alkali = 1:3, then the acid is tribasic.
§ Only 25 cm3 of the acid solution is being reacted with NaOH.
Solution
#*.$'
Mole of NaOH reacted= 0.179 × )''' = 5.2447 × 10,$ mol
$.#+ #/
Mole of acid reacted with NaOH = ()#0)+×#0))×#0)-×# × = 2.5873 × 10,$ mol
#/'

Mole of acid: NaOH = 2.5873 × 10,$ : 5.2447 × 10,$ = 1: 2

Therefore, the basicity of the acid is 2.

61
Example 24

2.00 g of a solid tribasic acid (H3X) was dissolved in water and made up to 250.0 cm³ of solution. 25.0
cm³ of this solution required 31.80 cm³ of 0.150 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization.
Determine the molar mass of the acid.
Analysis
§ To determine molar mass, we need number of mole and mass of the acid.
Mass
Mole =
Molar Mass
§ Mass of the acid used is given.
§ No. of mole of acid used can be calculated from the amount of NaOH used.
§ H3X is a tribasic acid shows that the mole ratio between the acid and NaOH is 1:3.

Solution
$).-
Mole of NaOH = 0.150 × = 4.77 × 10,$ mol
)'''
) #/'
Mole of the acid= 4.77 × 10,$ × $ × #/
= 0.0159 mol
8799 #.''
Molar mass of the acid = G:.:H 8:;C = '.')/* = 125.8 g mol,)

8.88 g of a solid dibasic acid (H2X) was dissolved in distilled water and made up to 250.0 cm³ of solution.
25.0 cm³ of the solution required 12.33 cm³ of 0.75 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete
neutralization. Determine the molar mass of the acid.

62
2.85 g of a sample of water-soluble metal carbonate, M2CO3, was dissolved in distilled water and made
up to 250.0 cm³ of solution. 25.0 cm³ of this solution required 25.30 cm³ of 0.213 M hydrochloric acid
for complete neutralization. Determine the
a) molar mass of M2CO3,

b) relative atomic mass of M.

(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)

63
2.58 g of an unknown metal carbonate, M2CO3, was dissolved in distilled water and made up to 100.0
cm³ of solution. 10.0 cm³ of this solution required 24.90 cm³ of 0.150 M nitric acid for complete reaction.
Determine the
a) molar mass of M2CO3,

b) relative atomic mass of M

(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0)

64
Example 25

0.670 g of a sample of hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 • nH2O required 27.00 cm³ of 0.200 M
sulphuric acid for complete reaction. Determine the number of molecules of water of crystallization in a
formula unit of the hydrated sodium carbonate sample.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0; Na = 23.0; C = 12.0, O = 16.0)
Analysis
§ To determine the no. of molecules of water of crystallization, we need to calculate its molar mass.
§ To calculate its molar mass, we need its mass and its no. of moles.
Solution
H# SO& (aq) + Na# CO$ (aq) → Na# SO& (aq) + H# O(l) + CO# (g)
#..''
No. of mole of H2SO4 used = 0.200 × )''' = 0.0054 mol

No. of mole of Na2CO3 • nH2O = no. of mole of Na2CO3 = no. of mole of H2SO4 used= 0.0054 mol
Mass
Mole =
Molar Mass
0.670
0.0054 =
23 × 2 + 12 + 16 × 3 + 18n
0.670
106 + 18n =
0.0054
n=1
Therefore, the number of molecules of water of crystallization is 1.

65
1.26 g of a hydrated dibasic acid (H2A․nH2O) (relative molecular mass of the anhydrous form is 90.0) was
made up to 100.0 cm³ with distilled water. 25.0 cm³ of this solution required 28.00 cm³ of 0.20 M sodium
hydroxide solution for neutralization. Calculate the number of molecules of water of crystallization per
molecule of the hydrated dibasic acid.
Hydrated = 有水；Anhydrous = 無水

0.483 g of an impure sample of anhydrous sodium carbonate (contaminated with sodium chloride) was
dissolved in water. The resultant solution required 24.90 cm³ of 0.150 M hydrochloric acid for complete
reaction. Calculate the percentage by mass of the anhydrous sodium carbonate in the sample.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0)

66
Solid acid X has a relative molecular mass of 192.0. A sample of 1.60 g of X is dissolved in water to form
a solution which requires 25.0 cm3 of 1.00 M potassium hydroxide solution for complete neutralization.
What is the basicity of X?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

After 100 cm3 of 0.6 M H2SO4 have completely neutralized 100 cm3 of 1.2 M KOH, calculate the
concentration of the resulting potassium sulphate solution.
A. 0.2 M
B. 0.3 M
C. 0.6 M
D. 1.2 M

X is an acid. 50.0 cm3 of 0.40 M solution X requires 60.0 cm3 of 1.00 M sodium hydroxide solution for
complete neutralization. What ls the basicity of X?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

Solution X is 90 cm3 of 0.60 M HCI and solution Y is 120 cm3 of 0.45 M CH3COOH. Which of the
following statements concerning X and Y is correct?
A. X has a higher pH value than Y.
B. Y has a faster rate of reaction with marble chips than X.
C. Both X and Y need the same volume of 1 M NaOH for neutralization.
D. Both X and Y have the same electrical conductivity.

67
3.4 Back Titration
KEY CONCEPT

We need back titration because direct titrations sometimes are impossible.

Reasons to Use Back Titration

Reason 1: One of the Reactant is INSOLUBLE

§ e.g. find the percentage by mass of calcium carbonate in a sample

§ calcium carbonate is insoluble in water cannot make an aqueous solution of it

Reason 2: No Suitable Indicator

§ no suitable indicator can be used for the detection of the end point
§ e.g. titration between NH4Cl (aq) and NaOH (aq) or weak acid and weak alkaline

Back Titration’s Steps & Calculation

Step 1: Known excess amount of acid is added to a known mass of the substance X sample.
Step 2: Back titrate the unreacted acid against a standard alkali.
Step 3: Calculate the amount of unreacted acid, then the amount of acid reacted with the sample.
Step 4: Calculate the amount of substance X in the sample.
Step 5: Calculate the required information.

68
Example 26

2.38 g of marble were added to 75.0 cm³ of 1.50 M hydrochloric acid. The unreacted acid required 38.80
cm³ of 2.00 M sodium hydroxide solution for complete reaction. Calculate the percentage by mass of
calcium carbonate in the marble.
(Relative atomic masses: C = 12.0, O = 16.0, Ca = 40.1)
Analysis
CaCO$ (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl# (aq) + H# O(l) + CO# (g)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H# O(l)
§ % by mass of CaCO3 → mass of CaCO3 → mole of CaCO3 → mole of HCl reacted with CaCO3
§ mole of HCl reacted with CaCO3 = mole of HCl before reaction –mole of HCl reacted with NaOH

Solution
./.'
Mole of HCl before reaction = 1.50 × )''' = 0.1125 mol
$-.-'
Mole of HCl reacted with NaOH = 2.00 × = 0.0776 mol
)'''

Mole of HCl reacted with CaCO3 = 0.1125 − 0.0776 = 0.0349 mol

)
Mole of CaCO3 = 0.0349 × # = 0.01745 mol

Mass of CaCO3 = 0.01745 × (40.1 + 12 + 16 × 3) = 1.746745 g

)..&+.&/
% by mass of CaCO3 in the marble= #.$-
× 100% = 73.4%

69
Given an alloy containing copper and lead only. 10.87 g of this alloy reacted with 75 cm³ of 1.5 M HCl.
The excess acid required 24.8 cm³ of 0.5 M KOH for complete neutralization. Calculate the percentage
by mass of lead in the alloy.
There is a trap!

70
Example 27

4.82 g of an antacid tablet (containing magnesium hydroxide as active ingredient) was dissolved in 100.0
cm³ of 1.20 M hydrochloric acid. The excess acid required 22.40 cm³ of 2.50 M potassium hydroxide
solution for complete neutralization. Calculate the percentage by mass of magnesium hydroxide in the
antacid tablet.
(Relative atomic masses: H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Mg = 24.3)
Analysis
Mg(OH)2 (s)+2HCl(aq)→MgCl2 (aq)+2H2 O(l)
HCl(aq)+KOH(aq)→KCl(aq)+H2 O(l)
Solution
##.&'
Mole of HCl(aq) reacted with KOH = 2.50 × )''' = 0.056 mol
)''.'
Mole of HCl(aq) reacted with Mg(OH)2 = 1.20 × )''' − 0.056 = 0.064 mol
)
Mole of Mg(OH)2 = 0.064 × # = 0.032 mol

Mass of Mg(OH)2 = 0.032 × (24.3 + 16 × 2 + 1 × 2) = 1.8656 g

).-+/+
% by Mass of Mg(OH)2 in the tablet = &.-#
× 100% = 38.7%

71
72
A fertilizer only contains ammonium sulphate ((NH4)2SO4) and potassium oxide (K2O). An experiment was
performed to determine the percentage by mass of (NH4)2SO4 in this fertilizer. The set-up used is shown
below:

The KOH (aq) was added slowly to the fertilizer and the mixture formed was heated gently. The ammonia
liberated from the reaction between (NH4)2SO4 and KOH was first cooled in a condenser, and then
passed through an inverted funnel to a solution containing 0.0827 mol of HCl. The solution was finally
made up to 200.00 cm3 and labelled ‘S’.
c) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between (NH4)2SO4 and KOH.

(1 mark)
d) Suggest the potential hazard of using HCl.

(1 mark)

73
e) Determine one of the assumptions made in the experiment.

(1 mark)
f) 50.00 cm3 'S' was transferred to a conical flask, and then titrated with 0.200 M NaOH (aq) using
phenolphthalein as an indicator. 82.00 cm3 of the NaOH (aq) was required to reach the endpoint.
i) Name the apparatus that should be used to transfer 50.00 cm3 of S.

ii) State the colour change at the endpoint of the titration.

iii) Calculate the percentage by mass of (NH4)2SO4 in this fertilizer.

(Molar mass of (NH4)2SO4 is 132g/mol)

(5 marks)
g) Suggest a test to show the presence of a potassium-containing compound in the fertilizer.

(1 mark)

74
An experiment was carried out to determine the concentration of a magnesium sulphate solution. The
experiment consisted of the following three stages:

50.0 cm³ of 0.503 M aqueous ammonia was added to 50.0 cm³ of the magnesium
Stage 1
sulphate solution to precipitate out magnesium hydroxide.

The mixture obtained in Stage 1 was filtered and the residue was washed thoroughly
Stage 2
with distilled water.

The excess alkali in the filtrate was titrated against 0.251 M hydrochloric acid with
Stage 3
methyl orange as indicator. 37.0 cm³ of the acid was required to reach the end-point.

h) Write the ionic equation for the reaction in Stage 1.

(1 mark)
i) State the colour change at the end-point of the titration I Stage 3.

(1 mark)
j) Based on the titration result in Stage 3,
i) calculate the number of moles of hydroxide ions present in the filtrate.

ii) Calculate the number of moles of aqueous ammonia that was added in Stage 1.

(2 marks)
k) Using your results in (i) and (ii) above, calculate the molarity of the magnesium sulphate solution.

(1 mark)

75
Jot Your Own Note

76
Jot Your Own Note

77
Jot Your Own Note

78
Jot Your Own Note

79
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