Knitting Manual 2. Basis of Knitting - Draft 1

PREPARED BY : KANNAN
TEXCOMS TEXTILE SOLUTIONS
KNITTING MANUAL
Basics of Knitting
Company Name: Doc No.:
የኢትዮጵያጨርቃጨርቅእንዱስትሪልማትኢንስቲትዩት TM/ET-01
Ethiopian Textile Industry Development Institute
Document Title: Issue No.: Page
የቴክኒክማማከርአገልግሎትዳሰሳጥናትሪፖረትእናየድርጊትመርሃግብር 1 1 of 57
Technical Consultancy Service Manual
Table of Contents
Objective______________________________________________________________________3
1. Introduction_______________________________________________________________4
2. Basic Concepts_______________________________________________________________5
3. General terms and principles of knitting technology_________________________________7
3.1 Knitted loop terminology:__________________________________________________________7
3.2 The process of loop formation_____________________________________________________11
4. Basic Weft Knit Constructions__________________________________________________14
4.1 Plain or single jersey_____________________________________________________________14
4.1.1 Derivatives of single jersey:_____________________________________________________________15
4.1.2 Characteristics of the FLOAT stitch:______________________________________________________17
4.1.3 Characteristics of the TUCK stitch:_______________________________________________________19
4.1.4 Effect of tuck and float stitches on fabric properties:_________________________________________21
4.2 The Rib construction_____________________________________________________________22
4.3 The Purl construction____________________________________________________________25
4.4 The Interlock Construction_______________________________________________________27
4.5 Conversion for representation of constructions_______________________________________30
6. The Primary Knitting Elements_________________________________________________31
6.1 Knitting needles_________________________________________________________________31
6.1.1 Bearded Needle______________________________________________________________________31
6.1.2 Latch Needle_________________________________________________________________________33
6.1.3 Compound Needle____________________________________________________________________37
6.1.4 Double ended latch Needle______________________________________________________________40
6.2 Needle beds_____________________________________________________________________41
6.3 Sinkers________________________________________________________________________43
6.4 Knitting Cams__________________________________________________________________45
6.5 Relation between Machine gauge and Yarn count_____________________________________50
Table of Figures
Figure 1 Stocking Frame................................................................................................................4
Figure 2 Weft and Warp Knitting..................................................................................................5
Figure 3 Woven, Weft knit and Warp knit Structures..................................................................6
Figure 4 Loop..................................................................................................................................7
Figure 5 Basic Stitch and Loop of a Knit.......................................................................................7
Figure 6 Course and Wael..............................................................................................................8
Figure 7 Technical Face and Back................................................................................................9
Figure 8 Loop................................................................................................................................10
እባክዎበዚህሰነድከመጠቀምዎበፊትትክክለኛመሆኑንያረጋግጡ
PLEASE MAKE SURE THAT THIS IS THE CORRECT ISSUE BEFORE USE
Figure 9 Weft Knitting...................................................................................................................11

Figure 10: Process of loop formation...........................................................................................12
Figure 11: Warp Knitting..............................................................................................................13
Figure 12 Plain Jersey...................................................................................................................14
Figure 13: Three basic types of loops...........................................................................................15
Figure 14: Construction with float and tuck................................................................................16
Figure 15 Miss stitch....................................................................................................................17
Figure 16 Technical face and black of Float Stitch.....................................................................17
Figure 17 Tuck stitch.....................................................................................................................19
Figure 18 Tuck Face side and Back side......................................................................................19
Figure 19 Rib construction...........................................................................................................22
Figure 20: 1x1 Rib.........................................................................................................................23
Figure 21 Purl Construction.........................................................................................................25
Figure 22: 1x1 Purl.......................................................................................................................26
Figure 23: Interlock......................................................................................................................27
Figure 24: 1x1 Interlock...............................................................................................................28
Figure 25: Projection of 1x1 Interlock on XZ plane....................................................................29
Figure 26: Properties of Weft knitted fabrics...............................................................................30
Figure 27: Conventions for representation of stitches.................................................................31
Figure 28 Flow chart of Warp knitting process..........................................................................32
Figure 29 Overlap and Underlap..................................................................................................33
Figure 30 Classification of Warp knitting....................................................................................34
Figure 31 Different type of needles...............................................................................................36
Figure 32: Bearded needle............................................................................................................37
Figure 33: Latch needle................................................................................................................39
Figure 34: Loop formation by latch needle..................................................................................40
Figure 35: Compound needle........................................................................................................44
Figure 36 Tucking & Knitting by a compound needle................................................................44
Figure 37 Compound needle in action.........................................................................................45
Figure 38: Double headed latch needle........................................................................................46
Figure 39: Types of needle beds....................................................................................................47
Figure 40: Knitting head of a single –bed circular knitting machine.........................................48
Figure 41: Sinker in weft knitting using latch needles................................................................49
Figure 42 Parts of a Sinker..........................................................................................................49
Figure 43 Sinker operation of Knitting machine........................................................................50
Figure 44 Knitting cam.................................................................................................................51
Figure 45: Knitting Cams of different functions..........................................................................52
Figure 46 Interlock Cam Arrangement System...........................................................................53
Objective
This manual will be used to give training on basic concepts on knitting for those who are having
very little basic knowledge on knitting for example fresh graduates, TVET, new staff recruited
knitting factories those who are coming from the knitting factories.
This manual is prepared to give basic concept on knitting process. It describes the simple
knitting elements starting from loop formation.
Objective of the manual

 To know about the basic knitting elements
 To understand the loop formation on different knitting technology
 To know about machine components, accessories and its function
 To know about basic knit structures.
1. Introduction
Knitting is the action of interlinking loops of yarn to form a fabric. The first records of knitted
fabrics came from the Coptic Egyptians in the 5th century AD. Knitting arrived in Europe in the
1400’s. Knitted garments were used to provide practical clothing for warmth, protection and ease
of movement, starting with coverings for the extremities –head, feet and hands –and then for the
body
Henry The VIII was the first English monarch to wear knitted stockings. As underclothing, it
gave rise to ‘shirts’, underpants and ‘combinations’, and the ‘gansey’ or ‘jersey’ worn by
fishermen. Up until this point all knitted garments were produced by labour intensive hand
knitting. In 1589 Rev. William Lee invented the Stocking Frame in Nottingham, England. This
was the forerunner of modern knitting machines.
Figure 1 Stocking Frame

Its use, known traditionally as framework knitting, was the first major stage in the
mechanisation of the textile industry, and played an important part in the early history of
the Industrial Revolution. It was adapted to knit cotton and to do ribbing, and by 1800 had been
adapted as a lace making machine.
2. Basic Concepts
A knitted fabric consist of forming yarn(s) into loops, each of which is typically only released
after a succeeding loop has been formed and intermeshed with it so that a secure ground loop
structure is achieved. There are two different types of knitting, Warp Knitting and Weft
Knitting.
Figure 2 Weft and Warp Knitting

In Warp Knitting the yarn travels in a predominately vertical direction through the fabric (like the
warp threads in a woven fabric) (Fig.3). In Weft Knitting the yarn travels in a predominately
horizontal direction across the fabric. Weft knitted structure can also be produced using weft
knitting machines or by hand knitting techniques, whereas warp knitted structures can only be
produced using Warp knitting machines. The structural properties of the fabrics produced by
these two different techniques vary considerable, details of which are given in the following
sections.
Figure 3 Woven, Weft knit and Warp knit Structures
Difference between the Warp & Weft knits
Warp Knitting Weft Knitting
The loops are produced to the length of fabric The loops are produced to the width of the
fabric
The threads runs in the vertical direction The threads runs in the horizontal direction
Each loop in the horizontal direction is made A horizontal row of loops can be made by
from a different thread using on thread
It is elastic to the length It is elastic to the width
It’s elasticity is less Higher elasticity
Yarns are supplied from beam From cone
At least one yarn is needed for each needle Any number of needle are required for one yarn
Less shrinkage More/Higher shrinkage
3. General terms and principles of knitting technology

3.1 Knitted loop terminology:
The KNITTED FABRIC can be defined as a two dimensional continuum, produced by

looping around (intra looping and inter looping) of individual yarns or sets of yarns. The
building block of a knitted fabric is the LOOP. In a woven fabric, yarns are held in place
owing to its inter yarn friction. In a knitted fabric the looping of yarns results in positive
binding.
Loop
a) Loop top
b) Loop side and bottom
c) Half inter loop (The inter loop is the yarn that
links two consecutive loops)
Figure 4 Loop
Loops are stitches hanging on to one another and held in shape on the upper and lower
interlacing zones by other loops. The last row of knitted loops in a fabric is only bound at
the lower zones and can be referred to as half-loop.
In the knit stitch on the left, the next (red)

loop passes through the previous (yellow)
loop from below, whereas in the purl stitch
(right), the next stitch enters from above.
Thus, a knit stitch on one side of the fabric
appears as a purl stitch on the other, and
vice versa.
Figure 5 Basic Stitch and Loop of a Knit
Course
A COURSE is a predominantly horizontal row of loops produced by adjacent needles during the
one knitting cycle. (in an upright fabric) produced by adjacent needles during the same knitting
cycle (Fig. 6)
Wale
A WALE is a predominantly vertical column of loops intermeshed with each other along the
length direction of a knitted fabric produced by the same needle at successive (not necessarily all)
knitting cycles (Fig.6).
Figure 6 Course and Wale
Stitch length
The length of yarn required to produce a complete knitted loop (i.e Needle loop and sinker loop)
is known as stitch length or loop length.
Stitch length is a length of yarn which includes the needle loop and half the sinker loop on either
side of it.
Generally, the larger the stitch length, the more extensible and lighter the fabric and the poorer
the cover and bursting strength.
Course length
In weft knitted fabrics, a course of loops is composed of a single length of yarn termed a course
length.
Definition: The length of yarn required to produce a complete knitted course is known as course
length.
Course length= No. of loops per course X Stitch length

Course length= No. of needles X Stitch length
Wale - Spacing
The distance between centers of neighbouring wale lines is known as WALE-SPACING (w). The
number of wales in unit width of fabric is designated as W.
Course - Spacing
The distance between the courses of two successive needle loops of the same wale line is known
as COURSE-SPACING (c). The number of courses in unit length of fabric is designated as C.
Stitch Density
The product of the number of wales per unit width and courses per unit length of fabric equals the
number of loops per unit area of the fabric. This is designated as STITCH DENSITY (S). Stitch
density happens to be a more accurate measurement than linear measurement of courses and
wales because tension acting in one direction of the fabric may produce low reading in, for
example, the courses/unit length and high reading for the wales/unit width. When multiplied
together, this effect cancels out to a degree.
Technical Back & Technical Front
If the feet (c) of a loop lie above the binding points at the base, and the arms (b) lie below, then
the loop is being viewed from the TECHNICAL BACK side. On the other hand, the feet (c) are
below the binding points and the legs (b) are above, then the TECHNICAL FRONT of the loop is
being viewed.
Figure 7 Technical Face and Back
Needle & Sinker Loop
Figure 8 Loop
Incidentally, the crown (a) is known as needle loop. The two elements “c” if joined together on
the same side of the loop would result in a mirror image of element (a). This so joined element is
also known as sinker loop is c&d.
3.2 The process of loop formation
A straight yarn segment is brought close to a column of loops supported by a needle and bent into
a shape which may resemble a loop.
Kink of yarn
The length of yarn that has been bent into a shape appropriate for its transformation into a weft
knitted loop.
Knitted loop
A kink of yarn that is intermeshed at its base i.e. when intermeshed two kink of yarn is called
loop.
Knitted stitch
Stitch is a kink of yarn that is intermeshed at its base and at its top. The knitted stitch is the basic
unit of intermeshing and usually consists of three or more intermeshed loops, the centre loop
having been drawn through the head of the lower loop which had in turn been intermeshed
through its head by the loop which appears above it. .
Yarn feeding and loop formation
In a weft knitting machine, even when the needles are fixed or are caused to act collectively, yarn
feeding and loop formation will occur at each needle in succession across the needle bed during
the same knitting cycle (Fig. 9).
All, or a number of, the needles (A, B, C, D) are supplied in turn with the same weft yarn during
the same knitting cycle so that the yarn path (in the form of a course length) will follow a course
of the fabric passing through each needle loop knitted from it (E, F, G, H).
Figure 9 Weft Knitting
Figure 10: Process of loop formation
In fact, from the arrangement of new yarn and half loops, it is apparent that the needle must have
penetrated the loop it has been supporting from the back of the plane of loop to it’s front side,
then caught the new yarn and drawn it to the back of the plane of half loop. This process is also
known as stitching to the back and the resultant loop is termed as having been STITCHED TO
THE BACK. Hence a loop stitched to the back reveals its technical back side to the observer.
Similarly if the loop is turned around about their axis of symmetry by π radians, one would
observe the needle penetrating the half loop from its front to the backside and pulling the yarn
from the back to the front side. This is equivalent to STITCHING A LOOP TO THE FRONT.
Thus a loop stitched to the front reveals its technical front side to the observer.
A fabric on a knitting machine would exhibit one of the two surfaces to the operator and its
nature would depend on the relative spatial disposition of operator, half loop and new yarn. If the
half loop is between the operator and new yarn, then the resultant fabric would exhibit its
technical front side to the operator. If on the other hand, the new yarn is between the half loop
and operator, then the fabric would exhibit its technical back side. However, if there is a
combination of these two cases, i.e. of the new yarn being in front of some half loop and being at
the back of some other half loops, then the resultant fabric would exhibit an admixture of
technical front and technical back surfaces.
In a warp knitting machine there will be a simultaneous yarn-feeding and loop-forming action

occurring at every needle in the needle bar during the same knitting cycle (Fig.10). All needles
(A, B, C, D) in the needle bar are simultaneously lapped by separate warp guides (E, F, G, H). As
all needles receive their overlaps simultaneously, a guide under lapping from one needle to
another will be passing from one knitting cycle or course to the next. Thus, the warp yarn passes
from an overlap produced in one course to an overlap produced in the succeeding course (for
example, guide F under lapping from needle B to needle A).
Figure 11: Warp Knitting
4. Basic Weft Knit Constructions

4.1 Plain or single jersey
Single jersey is the simplest to knit and it can be produced either on circular or flat machines by
means of one set of needles which draw their loops to only one side of the fabric. Hence this
construction is termed as plain jersey or plain knit, simplest of all single jersey constructions.
The fabric has one appearance on the face side and a different one on the reverse. The side on
which the straight parts of the stitches appear in V formation is called the face side (Technical
Face) and the reverse side (Technical Back) has twin rows of opposed semi circles.
Figure 12 Plain Jersey
Video clip attached for single knit loop formation
4.1.1 Derivatives of single jersey:
There are three basic types of loops in weft knitting
- A loop is a stitch exhibiting four binding or interlacement zones, two around the needle
loop and two around the base.
- If however the two zones of interlacement around the base are done away with, then a
new structural element, namely the TUCK is formed.
- Furthermore if all the four binding zones are removed then evidently a straight segment
of yarn, namely the FLOAT would materialize.
- One may consider TUCK and FLOAT as derivatives of loop stitches. Thus the three basic
structural elements of a knitted fabric are LOOP, TUCK and FLOAT.
-
Figure 13: Three basic types of loops
It is noticed that no structural element can be formed with interlacement zones only around the
base of a loop. A great many derivatives of single jersey construction can be developed by
combining the three structural elements judiciously. A hypothetical construction involving all the
three elements is shown in Fig.13.
Figure 14: Construction with float and tuck

This construction shows five wale lines and seven course lines and hence a total of 35 loops /
stitches, all of which are showing the technical back side. The stitch numbered “1” (&“2”) is a
loop; the one with the number “3” is a tuck while the float bears the number “4”. One notices that
the float stretches across three wale lines in the third course, and hence would be counted as three
float stitches, while the tuck is limited to one wale line in the fifth course.
Thus in the depicted construction there are 31 loops, 3 floats and 1 tuck making up a total of 35
structural elements. It is noticed that the tuck and float stitches do not appear in isolation; indeed
they are always accompanied by the conventional loops which although differ in length and shape
from rest of the loops. A float in a woven fabric however is not accompanied by a stitch! In this
sense a knitted construction differs fundamentally from the woven.
4.1.2 Characteristics of the FLOAT stitch:
A miss stitch or float stich is composed of a held loop, one of more float loops and knitted loops.
Figure 15 Miss stitch

It is produced when a needle holding its old loop fails to receive the new yarn that passes, as a
float loop to the back of the needle, and to the reverse side of the resultant stich
Figure 16 Technical face and black of Float Stitch
Features of float stitch
- The float extends from the base of one knitted or tucked loop to the next, and is notated
by an empty square.
- The held loop extends into the courses above until a knitted loop is indicated in that wale.
- A single float stitch has the appearance of a U-shape on the reverse of the stitch.
- Float stitch fabrics are narrower than equivalent all-knit fabrics.
- As the wales are drawn closer together by the floats, thus reducing width-wise elasticity
and improving fabric stability.
- The maximum number of successive floats on one needle is four.
- Six adjacent needles are usually the maximum number for a continuous float.
- It is observed that a float stretches across the technical back side of a knitted fabric and
hence would be completely hidden to the view from the front side. Thus if one wants to
deliberately hide yarns from the front side, as for example in generating a design with
threads of many colours, one could take recourse to floating the undesirable colors at the
desired locations
- The miss stitch can occur accidentally as a fault due to incorrectly set yarn feeders.
- A float is however a loose yarn segment on the technical back side of a single jersey
fabric and is therefore prone to snagging caused by any sharp object or abrasive surface.
This would distort and damage the fabric. Hence the actual length of a float is always
restricted to very short stretches.
- If however design considerations demand a long float, then it should be tucked into the
structure at suitable distances, limiting the snagging potential to an acceptable level while
at the same time preventing the yarn from being accessible to view on the technical front
side, as the tuck stitch also is visible primarily from the technical back side only
Effect of float stitches

- Float stitches make the fabric thinner than the tuck stitched one, as there is no yarn
accumulation.
- It makes the fabric narrower as there is no looped configuration and hence the whole
structure is pulled to minimum width.
- Less extensible than either knitted or tucked structure.
- Fabric is lighter in weight due to minimum yarn used in construction.

- Fabric is flimsy and less rigid compared to others.
4.1.3 Characteristics of the TUCK stitch:
A tuck stich is composed of a held loop, one or more tuck loops and knitted loops. It is produced
when a needle holding its loop also receives the new loop.
The tuck loop assumes an inverted U-shaped configuration.
Figure 17 Tuck stitch
Tuck Face side
Tuck Back side
Figure 18 Tuck Face side and Back side
The tuck stitch exhibits two free arms that spread away from the concerned wale line. The
neighbouring wale lines would therefore be pushed away from their normal location in the
resultant fabric. This results in localized openings on the two sides of a tuck stitch and in
reduction in number of wales per unit length. Effectively the resultant fabric becomes more
porous and wider. This is the most preferred property for any sports article. That is reason most
of the sports shirts are made with tuck looped structures like Pique, Honey comb etc.,
The needle loop of a tuck stitch is always accompanied by the needle loop of a complete loop.
Indeed if the tuck stitch is extended over “n” courses then there would be “n+1” needle loops
bunched up together. This collection of yarns at one location would make the fabric thicker.
Tuck loops reduce fabric length and length-wise Elasticity because the higher yarn tension on the
tuck loop causes then to rob yarn from adjacent knitted loops, making them smaller and providing
greater stability and shape retention.
Effect of tuck stitches

 Fabric with tuck stitches is thicker than knit stitches due to accumulation of yarn in
stitches at tucking places.
 The structure with tuck stitches is wider than with knit stitches as the loop shape has a
wider base.
 As the loop length is shortened, the tuck stitched structure is less extensible.
 Due to thicker in nature, the tuck stitched fabric is heavier in weight per unit area than the
knit stitches.
 Tuck stitched structure is more porous and open than the knit stitched fabric.
 Tuck stitch is also used to get fancy effects by using coloured yarns.
 Tuck loops reduce fabric length and length-wise elasticity because the higher yarn tension
on the tuck and held loops causes them to rob yarn from adjacent knitted loops.
 Fabric width is increased because tuck loops pull the held loops downwards, causing them
to spread outwards and make extra yarn available for width-wise extensibility.
 Fabric distortion and three-dimensional relief is caused by tuck stitch accumulation,
displacement of wales, and by varying numbers of tuck and knitted stitches per wale.
 The tuck stitch may also be employed to produce open-work effects, improve the surface
texture, enable stitch-shaping, reinforce, join double-faced fabrics, improve ladder-
resistance and produce mock fashion marks.
4.1.4 Effect of tuck and float stitches on fabric properties:
One can summarize the effect of introduction of derivative stitches to the plain jersey
construction by the following statements:
 Tuck stitch makes the fabric wider, more porous and thicker
 Float stitch makes the fabric narrower, thinner and more rigid in the course direction
 Effect of tuck and float stitches on the areal density of fabric would depend critically on
the actual change in fabric width although presumably the effect may be marginal
Popular single jersey derivatives
By combining loop and tuck stitches one can develop constructions such as Cross Tuck (both
single and double), Lacoste and Crepe while Cross miss, Bird’s eye, Mock rib and Twill, etc.,
Some Twill can also be generated by combining all the three types of stitches.
Properties of Single Jersey Fabric

- Simplest knit structure.
- Face side smooth and sheen.
- Back side rough and dull.
- Lighter fabric.
- Economical.
- Easily ravels at both the ends.
- Highly extensible in length and width.
- The fabric curls towards the face at the top and bottom and towards the back at the sides.
- Laddering is very common in these fabrics.
- Knitted loops in plain knit fabrics tend to distort easily under tension which helps to give
a form fitting and comfort due to property of elastic.
End Uses of Jersey Knits

- Sheets
- Sweaters
- T- s h i r t s
- Men’s underwear
- Dresses
- Hosiery
4.2 The Rib construction
Fabrics in which both back and face loops occur along the course, but all the loops contained
within any wale are of the same types. A rib structure implies a knitted fabric with face and back
loops occurring in the same courses but not in the same wale. Knitted rib fabrics
characteristically have raised vertical wales or ribs on both sides. Rib is one of the four primary
weft-base knit structures (the others are interlock, plain knit and purl) may be knitted by hand or
on a weft knitting machine.Ribbed structures are more durable than plain knit so it is often used
at the cuffs of a plain knit garment.
1x1 Rib 2x2 Rib

Figure 19 Rib construction
The simplest rib construction is shown in Fig. 18. It has alternate wales stitched to front and is
known as lx1 rib.
Figure 20: 1x1 Rib
Video clip attached for Rib knit loop formation
- The projection of the technical front side of a course of loops, would exhibit curved lines
alternately concave and convex, thus neutralising reaction couples of each. This would
overcome the curling tendency along the course lines.
- Considering the curling tendency along wale lines it is observed that if the projection of
first wale line is composed solely of convex lines than the next wale line would display
only concave ones. Thus the tendency of the first wale line to curl inwards is compensated
by the opposite tendency of the adjoining wale line.
- Hence in this structural solution, the neutralising of reaction couples along a course line is
achieved internally whereas the wale lines neutralise curling tendency of each other.
- A noticeable difference between plain-knit and 1x1 rib construction lies in the spatial
configuration of sinker loops. The sinker loop connecting a plain wale (stitched to the
front) with a rib wale (stitched to the back) would have a sigmoidal configuration instead
of a semi-circle, as is the case with plain-knit.
It may be mentioned here that when larger number of similar wale lines are knitted adjacent to
each other, in either plain or rib wale lines, the resultant fabric becomes thicker and broader. This
results out of the curling tendency along the course line of adjacent similar wale lines accounting
for larger thickness whereby the lesser number of rib sinker loops make the fabric shrink less in
the course direction. A thicker fabric would also be warmer as it would trap more air.
Properties of Rib Fabric

Rib is produced by two sets of needles being alternately set orated between each other.
The simplest rib in (1 x 1) rib
It is now normally knitted with two sets of latch needles and known as double jersey fabric.
Rib has a vertical cord appearance
Relaxed 1 x 1 Rib is twice as thick and half the width of an equivalent plain fabric.
1 x 1 Rib normally relaxes by 30% compound with its knitting width.
Rib cannot be unroved from the end knitted first because the sinker loops are securely anchored
by the cross meshing between face and reverse loop.
It is used for loops for socks, cuffs of sleeves, rib-bordery for garments.
End Uses of Rib Knits

Collars
Necklines
Cuffs
Bottom edges of sweaters
Knit hats
Men’s hosiery
4.3 The Purl construction
Purl Knit is made by knitting yarn as alternate knit and purl stitch in one wale of the fabric. The
fabric has alternate courses of knit stitch and purl stitch. The fabric is reversible and identical on
both sides of the fabric. The fabric does not curl and lies flat. It is more stretchable in length
direction.
Figure 21 Purl Construction

Purl Knit Fabrics look the same on both sides of the fabric. Many attractive patterns and designs
can be created with the purl stitch. It is often used in the manufacture of bulky sweaters and
children’s clothing. The production speed is generally slow with Purl knits.
Just as a rib construction involves neutralising reaction couples along a course line, a purl
construction too neutralises reaction couples, although along a wale line. To that end it is
necessary to have loops stitched both to the front as well as to the back in each wale line. Hence,
some course lines would be knitted to front and some to the back. The fabric would shrink
lengthwise due to the courses, stitched to front and back, moving away from each other across the
plane of symmetry and at the same time closer to each other along the fabric plane.
Considering Fig. 21, a 1x1 purl construction, it is noticed that the successive pair of binding
zones across needle loops along the same wale line is subjected to reaction forces of opposite
sense. Hence successive course lines would tend to rotate in opposite directions about their axis
of symmetry, in the process drawing close to each other making the resultant fabric twice as thick
as plain in the relaxed state. This would also cause the needle and sinker loops to literally jut out
of the fabric plane and be more visible on both faces then rest of the body of loop. One would
then have literally technical back sides on both faces of fabric.
Figure 22: 1x1 Purl
Video clip attached for Purl loop formation
The lateral stretch of 1x1 purl is same as that of plain-knit but its length-wise elasticity is almost
double. It can be unroved from both ends because the all the knitted courses are individually quite
the same as plain knits.
Derivatives of Purl construction, such as Moss Stitch and Basket Stitch can be generated by
skilfully combining in each course stitches to the front and to the back.
Properties of Purl Fabric

1. Purl is reversible structure the both side appearance are same.
2. Extensibility is same as all direction.
3. There is no curling tendency. (it does not curl at the edges).
4. The fabric will run in the wale direction starting from either end.
5. Unraveling of fabric course by course from either side is possible.
6. The fabric tends to be two or three times thicker than single jersey.
7. There are two types of purl needle bed machine, flat bed purl, and circular purls.
4.4 The Interlock Construction
Interlock has the technical face of plain fabric on both sides, but its smooth surface cannot be
stretched out to reveal the reverse meshed loop wales because the wales on each side are exactly
opposite to each other and are locked together (fig. 22).
Figure 23: Interlock
Each interlock pattern row requires two feeder courses, each with a separate yarn that knits on
separate alternate needles, producing two half-gauge 1 x 1 rib courses whose sinker loops cross
over each other. Thus, odd feeders will produce alternate wales of loops on each side and even
feeders will produce the other wales.
This construction is generated by interlocking or intermeshing two 1x1 rib fabrics. In Fig. 23, a
course of 1x1 rib in white has been intermeshed with a similar course in black.
Figure 24: 1x1 Interlock
Similarly the 1x1 rib course using speckled yarn has been interlocked with a corresponding
course generated from white yarn. It is observed from this figure that
Each wale line is actually composed of two columns of loops, whereby the top column is knitted
to the front and the lower column is knitted to the back. Hence the fabric would, similar to a rib
fabric, exhibit only front stitched loops on both faces of fabric. However, unlike rib fabrics, the
surface won’t exhibit cords and won’t show the back side of loops even when stretched laterally.
The intermeshed rib courses cross over across corresponding sinker loops in the manner
illustrated in Fig. 24.
Figure 25: Projection of 1x1 Interlock on XZ plane

As because the interlocking rib courses are produced one after the other, there is a vertical shift
between the two columns of loop of the same wale line.
Because of the interlocking, the adjacent plain and rib wale lines cannot collapse as much as in
the case of 1x1 rib as because the corresponding space is occupied by loops of the crossing
course. Hence this fabric would not shrink as much as the parent 1x1 rib.
Eight lock is a 2x2 version of interlock. Such a construction involves interlocking of two 2x2
ribs. Similarly 3x3 and 4x4 structures can also be produced.
Video clip attached for Interlock technology

Properties of Inter lock Fabric
1. Interlock the technical face of plain on both sides so the appearance of face and back are
same.
2. The Wales of each side re exactly apposite to each other and are locked together.
3. Width wise and length elongations are approximately the same as single jersey.
4. The fabric does not curl at the edges.
5. The fabric can be unravelled from the knitted last.
6. Two yarn must be removed to unravel a complete repeat of knitted courses.
7. Fabric thickness is approximately twice than that of single jersey
Figure 26: Properties of Weft knitted fabrics
4.5 Conversion for representation of constructions
It is already apparent that pictorial diagrams of looping of yarn are both difficult to develop and
difficult to understand when a certain degree of complexity is incorporated in the construction.
Hence, instead of actually drawing the stitches physically, conventions are made use of for
indicating the kind of construction.
Both point and square papers may be employed for this purpose, as illustrated in Fig. 26.
Figure 27: Conventions for representation of stitches
The lines, both curved and straight ones, drawn around or adjacent to a needle, represent the yarn
path and indicate the type of stitch. A square block on the other hand needs to be filled up with
various symbols for representing the different types of stitches.
5. Basic Warp Knit Constructions

Warp knitting represents the fastest method of producing fabric from yarns. Warp knitting differs
from weft knitting in that each needle loops its own thread. The needles produce parallel rows of
loops simultaneously that are interlocked in a zigzag pattern. The fabric is produced in sheet or
flat form using one or more sets of warp yarns. The yarns are fed from warp beams to a row of
needles extending across the width of the machine. The sheets of yarn are supplied from warp
beam as in weaving.
Each warp end is provided to each individual needle. The same yarn runs along the warp
direction and the needles draws the new loop yam through the old loop that was formed by
another yarn in the previous knitting cycle. Each yarn also passes through the guide mounted on
guide bar that provided the movement of the same yarn between the needles.
The warp knitting machines are flat and fabric formation technique is more complex as compared
to the weft knitting process. The process flow is given in Fig.27
Yarn Cone / Warp Knitting

Package Warpping Machine
Figure 28 Flow chart of Warp knitting process

Two common types of warp knitting machines are the Tricot and Raschel machines. Raschel
machines are useful because they can process all yarn types in all forms (filament, staple,
combed, carded, etc.). Warp knitting can also be used to make pile fabrics often used for
upholstery.
5.1 Warp Knit Structure
Warp knitting is defined as a stitch forming process in which the yarns are supplied to the
knitting zone parallel to the selvedge of the fabric, i.e. in the direction of the wales. In warp
knitting, every knitting needle is supplied with at least one separate yarn. In order to connect the
stitches to form a fabric, the yarns are deflected laterally between the needles. In this manner, a
knitting needle often draws the new yarn loop through the knitted loop formed by another end of
the yarn in the previous knitting cycle.
Figure 29 Overlap and Underlap

A warp knitted structure is made up of two parts. The first is the stitch itself, which is formed by
wrapping the yarn around the needle and drawing it through the previously knitted loop. This
wrapping of the yarn is called an OVERLAP. The diagram shows the path taken by the eyelet of
one yarn guide traveling through the needle line, making a lateral overlap (shog) and making a
return swing. This movement wraps the yarn around the needle ready for the knock-over
displacement. The second part of stitch formation is the length of yarn linking together the
stitches and this is termed the UNDERLAP, which is formed by the lateral movement of the
yarns across the needles.
- The length of the under lap is defined in terms of needle spaces.

- The longer the underlap, the more it lies at right angles to the fabric length axis.
- The longer the underlap for a given warp the greater the increase in lateral fabric stability,
- Conversely a shorter under lap reduces the width-wise stability and strength and increases
the lengthways stability of the fabric.
- The length of the underlap also influences the fabric weight.
- When knitting with a longer underlap, more yarn has to be supplied to the knitting
needles.
- The underlap crosses and covers more wales on its way, with the result that the fabric
becomes heavier, thicker and denser.
- Since the underlap is connected to the root of the stitch, it causes a lateral displacement in
the root of the stitch due to the warp tension.
- The reciprocating movements of the yarn, therefore, cause the stitch of each knitted
course to incline in the same direction, alternately to the left and to the right.
- In order to control both the lateral and longitudinal properties, as well as to produce an
improved fabric appearance with erect loops, the second set of yarns is usually employed.
The second set is usually moved in the opposite direction to the first in order to help
balance the lateral forces on the needles. The length of the underlap need not necessarily
be the same for both sets of yarns.
5.2 Classification of Warp knitting
Warp knitting machines are categorised on the basis of construction of different machine parts
and their operations. Tricot and Raschel are two main categories of machine.
Warp Knitting
Tricot Raschel
Bearded /
Compound Needle Latch
Needle
Double
Needle Single
Needle Bar Double Single
Bar Needle Needle Bar
Bar
Weft Insertion,
Gloves, Pile Fabric, Carpet Standard
Lingere Curtain, Pile (Co weave -
Lining knit, Weft
inlay)
Multiple
guide bars
(Crochet
Milanese)
Figure 30 Classification of Warp knitting
5.3 Properties of warp knitted fabrics
Tricot knit
 Tricot fabric is soft, wrinkle resistant & has good drape ability.
 Tricot knits are used for a wide variety of fabric weights & design.
 It makes light fabric weighing less than 4 ounces/square yard.
 Some examples of tricot fabric are sleepwear, blouses, dresses etc.
Raschel knit
 The Raschel knit ranks in the importance of production with tricot but it makes varieties
of products ranging from laces, power nets for foundation garments, swimwear to carpets.
 Raschel knitting is done with heavy yarns & usually has a complex lace-like pattern.
 Raschel knit has wide range of industrial application, functional fabrics, Geo textiles,
home furnishings etc.
Crochet knit
 This basic stitch is used in hand crochet.
 This construction is used in a wide variety of fabrics ranging from nets & laces to bed
spreads & carpets, various types of edgings or trimmings lace are also produced.
Milanese knit
 The Milanese stitch produces a fabric very similar to tricot.
 It can be identified by the fine rib on the face & a diagonal pattern on the back.
 However, a Milanese fabric is superior to tricot in smoothness, elasticity, regularity of

structure & friction resistance.
6. The Primary Knitting Elements
6.1 Knitting needles
In machine knitting a series of needles is used to form the stitches. They perform different
functions depending on the knitting technique and the needle type.
A knitting needle has a hook at one end to catch the yarn forwarded to the knitting zone, a stem
(or shaft) to carry the knitted loop during the early stage of the loop formation process and a butt
at the other end. The butt is used either to position the needle on a needle bar or to move the
needle during the stitch formation process. At the start of the knitting cycle (to form a stitch) the
hook of the needle is opened to release the retained knitted loop and to receive the new yarn loop,
which is then enclosed in the hook. Before the new yarn loop can be drawn through the knitted
loop (linking up) the loop must be closed (bridge formation) for the knitted loop to slide over the
closed hook. Thus all needles must have a means of closing and opening the needle hook – there
are three ways in which this may be achieved:
1. applying an external force, as in the bearded needle;
2. using movement of knitted loop relative to knitting needle, as in the latch needle;
3. using an additional closing element, as in the compound needle
Figure 31 Different type of needles
6.1.1 Bearded Needle
The bearded needle was used by William Lee in his stocking frame to enable a single needle to
undertake the tasks achieved by hand knitters with two needles. It is the simplest in structure
being made from a single piece of wire, at times drawn to a thickness as low as 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
The bearded needle (Fig. 31) shown with the beard in the open and closed positions.
The bearded needle consists of five main parts
1. Shaft or stem – used with the jack sinkers to

form new loops.
2. Head – the point at which the stem is bent to

form the beard.
3. Beard – the needle continues from the head to

be turned back on itself to form the beard. The
beard is used to trap new loops while old loops
are pushed over the top.
4. Groove or eye – a small groove is worked into

the stem of the needle to allow the beard to fit
flush with the stem and ensure the old course
is pushed over the beard.
5. Shank – The shank is used to attach the needle

to the frame
Figure 32: Bearded needle

The shank is meant for mounting the needle on a rigid body. Any movement of the rigid body
would be exactly followed by the needle. Usually the rigid body is a bar which is provided with
matching holes on one of its face in which shanks of the needles are pushed in. A group of such
needles mounted on a bar is finally clamped on the bar by suitable fasteners. Alternately a group
of such needles may be cast on a small block. Such blocks are in turn screwed on to the moving
bars, mentioned in the foregoing. The bearded needles do not thus move independent of each
other. All needles mounted on a bar move together.
The stem is the thickest part of the needle and supports a wale line. The cross section of the
stem is designed to counter the bending couple exerted on the stem by tension in wale line. The
yarn of the wale line slides up and down along the stem which therefore needs to have the
required smoothness as well as hardness to resist wear and tear.
The hook of a bearded needle encloses a finite space in which yarn of the new loop is housed.
Evidently there has to be a correspondence between the space available within the hook and the
thickness of yarn that a hook can process. During the formation of tuck stitches, more than one
yarn would be within the hook. Hence the capacity of the hook can become a constraint to the
number of tucks that can be formed over consecutive courses.
The beard is an extension of the hook and is the thinnest portion of the entire needle. The kink in
the front of a hook is the starting point of the beard which terminates in a sharp point at its free
end. Thus the geometry of the beard may be approximated to that of a cone. If a light pressure
normal to the stem is applied on the kinked portion of the hook then the tip of the beard would
move in and touch the body of the stem at a specially designed location, called the eye of the
stem.
The eye of the stem is a depression that permits the tip to sink into the body of the stem, creating
in the process a very smooth and continuous outer surface joining the hook and the stem. With
the tip of the beard sunk into the eye, a loop under tension can slide easily along the stem and
onto the outer wall of the hook. If the tip of the beard is away from the eye then the sliding loop,
instead of riding along the outer wall of the hook, would land up within the space enclosed by the
hook.
6.1.2 Latch Needle
Matthew Townsend, a Leicester hosier, patented the latch needle in 1849. Townsend spent much
of his time developing new knitted fabrics and he investigated a simpler way of knitting purl
fabrics. Purl fabrics required two beds of bearded needles and pressers to alternate the face of
loops between courses. A double-headed latch needle was developed as a result of the research
to allow the alternation to be achieved on one bed of needles. A single-headed latch needle (Fig.
32) was also developed to provide an alternative to the bearded needle.
The latch needle has the following key parts:
1. Stem – Used to hold the course of old

loops
2. Hook – The hook is used to catch a

thread and form loops.
3. Rivet – Holds the latch in place and

allows it to pivot.
4. Latch – (The latch combines the task

performed by the presser bar and the
beard of the bearded needle) The latch
spoon an extension of the latch blade
and bridges the gap between the hook
and the stem covering the hook when
closed.
5. Butt – The butt enables the movement

of the needle to be controlled by a cam
mechanism. A track raises and lowers
the needle.
6. Tail – Used to provide support to the

needle.
Figure 33: Latch needle

The hook is designed to catch the feed yarn from the supply package and pull it close to the wale
line supported by the needle and subsequently pull it through, either from back or from the front
of the wale line.
The latch is a freely fulcrum body which can swing up and down about a rivet mounted suitably
on the needle. The rivet passes through the base of a latch which is slotted in a groove on the
needle body. The free end of a latch ends in a spoon like object that is designed to securely
enclose the outer surface of the tip of needle hook when the latch is located at its uppermost
position. Hence a latch needle is relatively massive compared to a bearded needle. When the latch
swings to its uppermost position the space under the needle becomes closed while when it swings
to its lowermost position the space under the needle becomes open. The closed space situation is
required for the old loop to slide along the outer walls of the needle hook and the latch for getting
cast-off while the open space situation is necessary for enabling the loop to slide away from
within the hook down onto the stem and beyond the grip of the latch, a process termed as
clearing.
Knitting Action of the Latch Needle
Figure 34: Loop formation by latch needle
Fig. (33) Shows the position of a latch needle as it passes through the cam system, completing
one knitting cycle or course as it moves up and in its trick or slot.
1. The rest position: The head of the needle hook is level with the top of the verge of the trick.
The loop formed at the previous feeder is in the closed hook. It is prevented from rising as the
needle rises, by holding-down sinkers or web holders that move forward between the needles to
hold down the sinker loops.
2. Latch opening: As the needle butt passes up the incline of the clearing cam, the old loop,
which is held down by the sinker, slides inside the hook and contacts the latch, turning and
opening it.
3. Clearing height: When the needle reaches the top of the cam, the old loop is cleared from the
hook and latch spoon on to the stem. At this point the feeder guide plate acts as a guard to prevent
the latch from closing the empty hook.
4. Yarn feeding and latch closing: The needle starts to descend the stitch cam so that its latch is
below the verge, with the old loop moving under it. At this point the new yarn is fed through a
hole in the feeder guide to the descending needle hook, as there is no danger of the yarn being fed
below the latch. The old loop contacts the underside of the latch, causing it to close on to the
hook.
5. Knocking-over and loop length formation: As the head of the needle descends below the top
of the trick, the old loop slides off the needle and the new loop is drawn through it. The continued
descent of the needle draws the loop length, which is approximately twice the distance the head
of the needle descends, below the surface of the sinker or trick-plate supporting the sinker loop.
The distance is determined by the depth setting of the stitch cam, which can be adjusted.
The rest position actually occurs between positions 1 and 2, when the open needle hook just
protrudes above the needle trick verge. In this position, a feeder would be passed without the
needle receiving a new loop and the old loop would not be cast off, so that a float stitch would be
produced. The tucking in the hook position occurs between positions 2 and 3, when the needle
can receive the new yarn but the old loop has not been cleared from the open latch.
The latch needle has a spring-loaded latch so that it fully opens and fully closes. Also, the latch
spoon does not project beyond the needle head. Loops thus slide easily over the hook and latch,
the yarn is less likely to be split, and there is greater security for the knitted loops.
Design of the latch as also its fulcrum along with design of the needle hook are therefore crucial
for enabling a knitting machine employing latch needle to knit small loops without damaging or
breaking the yarn.
The butt of a latch needle is a projection on the needle stem which is meant to be lodged securely
in the groove of a suitable cam track. The butt faces the same direction as the needle hook
The contour of a suitable cam track is followed by the butt during the operation of a knitting
machine, thus imparting a corresponding motion to the needle. During continuous operation of a
knitting machine the needle butt is subjected to large impactful forces in addition to considerable
frictional and thermal strains as it is forced to follow a path dictated by the profiles of two
opposing walls of cam track. The designing of cam track as also its suitable and continuous
lubrication is very important not only for quality knitting but also for a long life of the very
expensive latch needles.
The latch needle appears very robust owing to its massive nature. However it is prone to damage
of the latch and breakage of the hook and the butt. For example if for some reason the latch gets
slightly bent then it won’t sit properly on the hook and thereby strain the loop being cast-off. The
hook and the butt often break due to impulsive shocks associated with motion of a needle as also
the formation of a loop. A solution to such a problem is attempted through the meandered shape
of a needle stem. The body of such a needle has some ability to absorb shock waves that
propagate along the needle axis.
6.1.3 Compound Needle
The advantage of a latch needle over a bearded needle is primarily in its self acting latch. The
operation of a latch is carried out by the sliding of the loop along the length of needle body. The
loop flips the latch close during the cast-off motion while the latch is flipped open during the
clearing motion. Thus for creating the open and closed hook space no additional element is
required by a latch needle. On the other hand a bearded needle needs a presser bar to depress the
tip of the beard into the needle eye for creating a closed hook space. This action of the presser bar
also slows down the needle and hence the machine considerably accounting for a lower
productivity of bearded needle systems.
On the other hand the throw of a latch needle, i.e. its amplitude of movement in a cycle is nearly
double the length of the latch. This movement is required to ensure that a loop held within the
hook can securely clear the latch and land on the stem. In bearded needle on the other hand this
amplitude is slightly larger than the distance between the crown of the hook and the tip of the
beard. Lower amplitude can result in higher number of cycles and therefore higher machine
productivity.
The compound needle (fig. 34) does away with the problems associated with a latch. Compound
Needle consists of two separately controlled parts; these are- the open hook and the sliding
closing element (tongue, latch, piston, and plunger).
 The two parts rise and fall as a single unit but at the top of the rise, the hook moves faster
to open the hooks and at the start of the fall the hook descends faster to close the hook.
 It is easier to drive the hooks and tongues collectively from two separate bars as in warp
knitting; than to move each hook and tongue individually as in weft knitting.
Figure 35: Compound needle

Figure 36 Tucking & Knitting by a compound needle
The hook is a thin and stiff wire which can fit into and slide along the
channel easily. The two components essentially move in opposite
directions. During the knitting cycle at one extreme stage the jack
reaches its lowest position while the needle is at its highest which
results in an open space under the hook. The opposite occurs when a
closed space under the hook is required.
Figure 37 Compound needle in action

The total displacement itself being fairly low, the amplitude of the hooked body is effectively
much lower than that of either the bearded or the latch needle. This system can therefore be
operated at much higher frequency resulting in the highest productivity of the resultant knitting
machine. In the absence of a latch this needle is also less prone to damage than the latch needle,
while being as robust. The absence of latch also ensures that the casting off and the clearing loops
are not strained, permitting knitting of smaller loops and less elastic yarns.
The compound needle has not lived up to its earlier promise in circular weft knitting. It has failed
to gain a foothold in hosiery and even in simple plain knit single jersey. It is most popular in warp
knitting machines
6.1.4 Double ended latch Needle
Double ended latch needles (Fig.37) are in essence two latch needles joined end to end without
their respective butts.
Figure 38: Double headed latch needle
Such a needle, shown along with two sliders in Fig. 37 would hence be devoid of any butt, but
would have loop forming elements on both ends. The sliders are equipped with butts which
follow the contour of respective groove cams. At any time only one of the two sliders would
engage with one of the two hooks of the needle and impart it a to and fro motion while the hook
at the other end of the needle remains free to catch yarn and form loops. Such a needle can
therefore form loops at either of its two ends. The resultant wale line remains supported at the
centre of the kinked portion of the hook. These needles are used only on machines equipped to
knit purl constructions.
6.2 Needle beds
The needle bed holds the needles at specific distances and guides them during the stitch
formation process. To achieve this control grooves (which are slots) are milled on a flat metallic
plate or on the outer surface of a hollow right circular metallic cylinder at predetermined spacing
corresponding to thickness of the needle to be housed, then a bed is formed. The needles are
placed in needle beds called needle tricks.
Needle beds are of two main forms

1. Flat form: a rectangular thick metal plate is used to make the needle bed, which is used in flat
bed knitting machines, where the tricks are parallel.
2. Circular form: a metal cylinder or metal disc (or dial) is used to make the needle beds for
circular knitting machines. If a metal cylinder is used to make a cylindrical needle bed the
tricks are machined parallel to the axis of the cylinder. If a metal disc is used to make a dial
needle bed, the needle tricks are not parallel, but instead they are all pointing towards the
centre of the dial.
Figure 39: Types of needle beds
 A bed may be circular or flat. A circular bed may be a right circular hollow cylinder or a
disc.
 In the case of circular bed grooves are milled along the outer wall of the cylinder, in the
case of a disc - commonly referred to as dial - grooves are milled radially on the working
surface. Obviously, the thickness of wall separating two neighbouring grooves would
keep on diminishing as one approach the centre of dial.
 Knitting machines may be thus circular or flat having single or double beds. Latch needle
and compound needles can be housed in beds
 In a bar on the other hand no groove needs to be milled. The bearded needle is mounted
on a bar by inserting its shank into a suitable hole, drilled on the surface of the bar. There
are as many holes on the bar as the number of needles to be mounted on it. After
mounting the required number of needles on the bar small caps are screwed on side by
side thus rigidly clamping the needles on the bar. In the event of needle damage, the
respective cap can be unscrewed and the damaged needle would be taken out to be
replaced by a new needle. Alternately the needles can be cast in a block of lead in advance
and the block then fastened on to the bar
Figure 40: Knitting head of a single –bed circular knitting machine
.
6.3 Sinkers
The sinker is the second primary knitting element. It is a thin piece of metal acting as a divider
blade which is used to perform a number of tasks in the loop formation process. Sinkers are
generally placed at 90o to the needle bed and can be either fixed to a bar, or held on the end of a
pivoting lever. The sinkers fall between needles and form loops from yarn laid across the needles.
Subsequently they are used to move the course of loops on and off the needles.
A second and more common function of sinkers is to hold down the old loops at a lower level on
the needle stems than the new loops which are being formed. They prevent the old loops from
being lifted as the needles rise to clear them from their hooks. Fig.40 shows sinkers in weft
knitting with a latch needle in position, ready for the formation of a new loop.
Figure 41: Sinker in weft knitting using latch needles

The sinkers generally include a blade having an upper edge which defines a lower knitting level
and a nib having an upper edge which is at an upper knitting level. Long loops are formed at the
upper knitting level of the sinkers with a loop yarn and a base yarn is knitted over the blade. The
sinkers may be formed and their movement controlled to cause either the loop yarn to appear on
one side of a fabric and the base yarn on the other or the loop yarn to appear on both sides.
1=Butt
2=Butt breadth
3=Height of shank
4=Buldge
5=Neb
6=Length of neb
7=Throat angle
8=Sinker platform height
9=Breadth of lower shank
10=Clearance
11=Throat
Figure 42 Parts of a Sinker
Sinkers Operation
Figure 43 Sinker operation of Knitting machine

1. The held loop is positioned in the throat of the sinker when the sinker moves forward and the
needle moves upward for clearing. The held loop is held by the throat and hence its
movement along the needle is restricted.
2. The sinker remains at its forward position when the needle attains its clearing position.
3. The sinker retracts when the needle comes down after feeding. At this stage, due to sinkers
retraction, fabric or held loop is eased out. Also the sinker belly supported the fabric or held
loop and hence its movements along the needle is prevented.
4. Sinker remains in backward position and the needle descends to its lowest position drawing
the new loop through the old one.
5. Before the needle ascends, the sinker moves forward to push the knitted fabric a little and
to hold the old loop away from the head of the needle and to be in a position to control the
fabric
6.4 Knitting Cams
The knitting cams are hardened steels and they are the assembly of different cam plates so that a
track for butt can be arranged. The knitting cam is of angular type and acts directly on to the butt
of needles or other elements to produce individual movement in the tricks of needle weft knitting
machine as the butts pass through the stationary cam system or the cams pass across the
stationary tricks.

Figure 44 Knitting cam

Knitting cams are attached either individually or in unit form to a cam plate and depending
upon the machine design, are fixed exchangeable or adjustable. At each of at least a raising cam,
a stitch cam and an up throw cam whose combined effect is required.
Usually four main types of knitting cams are used.
1). Raising cam: The raising cam causes the needle to be lifted to either tuck, clearing
loop transfer or needle transfer depending upon machine design.
2). Stitch cam: The stitch cam controls the depth to which the needle descends thus controlling
the amount of yarn drawn in to the needle loop. It also a knock-over cam.
3). Up throw or counter cam: The up throw or counter cam takes the needles back to the rest
position and allows the formed loops to relax.
4). Guard cam: The guard cam is often placed on the butts and to prevent needles from
falling out of track.
The shape of the needle cam grooves depends on the required knitting pattern. The basic shapes
of needle cam are shown in the figure below. The cams are placed outside the needle-bed; each
feed system is provided with its own cam group. In Double-bed, two cam frames, one around the
cylinder and the other above the dial. All the cams are fixed to a bearing structure called “cam
frame”. On single-bed machines, the cam frame is stationary, while the needle-bed revolves i.e.
cylinder. Outside the cams, on each feed system, there are special micrometric screws, which
adjust the stroke of the lowering cams and determine accurately the length of the yarn feed.
Figure 45: Knitting Cams of different functions
In their simplest structure, the cams are screwed to the cam frame and command a single
movement of the needle: for example, when for a certain feed system we only have one group of
lowering and rising cams, the selection possibilities will be very restricted. In fact, in this feed
system, the needles must knit or remain idle (this is the typical situation of jersey knitting
machines). In this case, to modify the pattern it is necessary to change the cam. These technical
limits have been overcome by increasing the number of needle butts and the corresponding cam
tracks necessary to drive the needle.
Now machine manufacturers are able to offer modern single-bed machines with up to 5 selection
tracks.
Interlock Cam System

The cylinder and dial needle camming to produce one course of ordinary interlock fabric, which
is actually the work of two knitting feeders. In this example, the dial has a swing tuck cam that
will produce tucking if swung out of the cam-track and knitting if in action.
Figure 46 Interlock Cam Arrangement System
The cylinder cam system:

A - Clearing cam which lifts the needle to clear the old loop.
B, C -Stitch and guard cams respectively, both vertically adjustable for varying stitch length.
D -Up throw cam, to raise the cylinder needle whilst dial needle knocks-over
E, F -Guard cams, to complete the track.
G, H - Guide cams that provide the track for the idling needles.
The dial cam system:

1- Raising cam to tuck position only.
2, 3- Dial knock-over cams (adjustable).
4 -Guard cam to complete the track.
5 -Auxiliary knock-over cam to prevent the dial needle re-entering the old loop.
6, 7 - Guide cams that provide the track for the idling needles.
8 -Swing type clearing cam, which may occupy the knitting position as shown feeder 1 or the
tuck position as shown at feeder 2.
Interlock thus requires eight cam systems or locks in order to produce one complete course, two
cam systems for each feeder in each needle bed. Basic cylinder and dial machines and flat-
machines having this arrangement are often referred to as eight lock machines.
6.5 Relation between Machine gauge and Yarn count
Each knitting machine is characterized by its “gauge” which represents number of needles in unit
length. Usually the unit of length is 1 inch. However for straight bar weft knitting machines, the
unit of length is 1.5 inches. Similarly for Raschel machines the unit of length is 2 inches.
The term “cut” is also used at times to indicate number of needles in circumferential length of
cylinder. Empirical formulae, a typical set of which is listed below can be used as guidelines for
choosing yarn count suitable for weft knitting machine of given type and gauge. Evidently
depending on the conditions at hand one can choose a yarn count greater or smaller than that
given by these formulae.
For single jersey Ne =(Gauge2) / 20

Circular bed For rib Ne = (Gauge2) / 6
For interlock Ne = (Gauge2) / 9.6
Flat bed For single bed Ne = (Gauge2) / 15
For rib double bed Ne = (Gauge2) / 12.5
Circular bed For single jersey Ne =(Gauge2) / 20
From the above formulae that flat bed machines need finer yarn compared to circular bed
machines. However, the difference is really due to the different nature of yarns employed. Flat
bed machines are normally produced in coarse gauges to convert coarse and bulky yarns into
fabrics such as pullover. Such yarns of same count would show higher diameter values. It is
therefore more advantageous to express the machine gauge - yarn count relationship as function
of various raw materials attention to the circular knitting machines. It is observed that for the
same machine gauge, the finest yarn would be required to knit a rib while the coarsest yarn is
employed for the single jersey. This is due to the difference in availability of space between
neighbouring needles through which the knitting yarn must be manipulated into corresponding
loops. A single jersey machine has only one single row of needles while a double jersey machine
has twice that number. Hence a much thinner yarn and a smaller needle can effectively operate in
the reduced space of a double jersey machine of same gauge as that of a single jersey machine.
Moreover recalling the interlock gating one observes that only alternate needles operate from any
one bed at a time; hence the effective available space in an Interlock machine of the same gauge
is higher than that of rib machine, permitting knitting thicker yarns on the Interlock machine.

Knitting Manual 2. Basis of Knitting - Draft 1

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Knitting Manual 2. Basis of Knitting - Draft 1

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PREPARED BY : KANNAN

TEXCOMS TEXTILE SOLUTIONS

Figure 9 Weft Knitting...................................................................................................................11

Objective of the manual

Figure 1 Stocking Frame

Figure 2 Weft and Warp Knitting

Figure 3 Woven, Weft knit and Warp knit Structures

Difference between the Warp & Weft knits

Warp Knitting Weft Knitting

It is elastic to the length It is elastic to the width

It’s elasticity is less Higher elasticity

Yarns are supplied from beam From cone

Less shrinkage More/Higher shrinkage

3. General terms and principles of knitting technology

The KNITTED FABRIC can be defined as a two dimensional continuum, produced by

In the knit stitch on the left, the next (red)

Figure 5 Basic Stitch and Loop of a Knit

Figure 6 Course and Wale

Course length= No. of loops per course X Stitch length

Figure 7 Technical Face and Back

Needle & Sinker Loop

3.2 The process of loop formation

Yarn feeding and loop formation

Figure 9 Weft Knitting

Figure 10: Process of loop formation

In a warp knitting machine there will be a simultaneous yarn-feeding and loop-forming action

Figure 11: Warp Knitting

4. Basic Weft Knit Constructions

Figure 12 Plain Jersey

Video clip attached for single knit loop formation

4.1.1 Derivatives of single jersey:

There are three basic types of loops in weft knitting

Figure 13: Three basic types of loops

Figure 14: Construction with float and tuck

4.1.2 Characteristics of the FLOAT stitch:

Figure 15 Miss stitch

Figure 16 Technical face and black of Float Stitch

Features of float stitch

Effect of float stitches

- Fabric is lighter in weight due to minimum yarn used in construction.

4.1.3 Characteristics of the TUCK stitch:

Figure 17 Tuck stitch

Tuck Face side

Tuck Back side

Figure 18 Tuck Face side and Back side

Effect of tuck stitches

4.1.4 Effect of tuck and float stitches on fabric properties:

Popular single jersey derivatives

Properties of Single Jersey Fabric

End Uses of Jersey Knits

4.2 The Rib construction

1x1 Rib 2x2 Rib

Figure 20: 1x1 Rib

Video clip attached for Rib knit loop formation

Properties of Rib Fabric

End Uses of Rib Knits

4.3 The Purl construction

Figure 21 Purl Construction

Figure 22: 1x1 Purl

Video clip attached for Purl loop formation

Properties of Purl Fabric

4.4 The Interlock Construction

Figure 23: Interlock

Figure 24: 1x1 Interlock