KNIU ED FA BRIC A N D KN IU ING TECHNO LO GY

INTRO DUCTIO N

AND
HISTORICALBACKGROUND OF KNITTING TECHNOLOGY

Knitted fabric differs vastly from woven fabrics. W oven fabric is formed substantiall y by
interlacing of a series of Iengthwise and crosswise threads. Knitting, in its simplest form,
consistsin form ing Ioopsthrough those previously form ed. Thisinterloping and the continuous
formation of more Ioops into each other produce the knitted fabric structure. ln m achine
knitting,a m ultiplicity ofneedles,needle holdersand yarn feeders replace the pins, hand and
fingersused in hand knitting.

W oven Fabric
A
> Hand knitting byTw o Pins

Knitting is the m ethod ofcreating fabric by transform ing continuous strands ofyarn into a
series of interlocking Ioops, each row of such loops hanging from the one imm ediately
preceding it.The basicelementofa knitfabric structure isthe loop intermeshed with the Ioops
adjacentto itonbothsi
desandaboveandbelow it.
jKnitted fabricsare divided into two main groups,weftand warp knitted fabrics.
The weft knitted structure is very different from the warp knitted one.The difference is
apparentfrom both warp and weftknitted structuresare shown in sim plestform sin below .ltis
seen from thisfigurethatin aweftknitted structure a horizontalrow ofIpopà can be made
using one thread andthe thread runsin horizontaldirection.
323
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e tKnitting W arp Knitting

In a warp knitted structure,each Ioop in the horizontaldirection is made from a different

thread and the numberofthreadsused to produce such a fabric isatfeastequalto the number
ofloopsin a horizontalrow.One can say thatin a warp knitted fabricthethreadsrun roughlyin
a verticaldirection.
The knitting industry belongsto the branchesofthe textile ihdustrywith Iong tradition and the
knitted goodshave been know n forcenturies.ln the early days they were m ade by hand and
the first hand operated knitting machine was not invented untilthe sixteenth century.This
inventionisusuallyattributedtoacertainEnglishclergyman (1589)W illiam Lee.Sincethattime
knitting m achines have been developed and redesigned so that nowadays they present the
mostcomplicated and mostautomatedmachineryinihetextileindustry.
A skilled hand knitterproduced 120 to 150 stitchesperm inute.In com parison,a m odern high
speed circularknitting machine m akesabout20 m illion stitchesperminute.'

1589:W illiam Lee,the inventorofthe mechanicalstitch form ationtechnique.

1758:JedediahStrutt,theinventorofthedoubleknit(rechts- rechts)technique.Thisinvention
refers to an attachment forthe hand knitting frame,which became world famous underthe
name ''Derby rib machine''
1798:M onsieur Decroix arranges the needles radially into a corona,which rotates and thus
movesthe needlesone afterthe otherthroughthe kni tting stages.The circularknittingframe is
born.
1805:Joseph Marie Jacquard presented his controlapparatus for shed building on weaving
Ioomsin Lyon.Itisnotclearasto when Jacquard started getting interested in the problemsof
the knitting industry after his success in the weaving field.But today we do encounterthe
jacquard device in differentvariationson knitting machinesforthesame purposes:individual
m ovem entofknittingand transferneedles,sinkersorguide needlesforpatterning.
 324
1847:M atthew Townsend obtainsa patentforhis invention ofthe Iatch needle.A new epoch
in the knittingtechnique begins.W ith the help ofthese needlesstitch form ation becam e easier,
because the press was no Ionger necessary.The result was:sim plification ofthe m echanism ,
increase in production speeds,and reduction ofcosts.
1850:The circular kni tting m achine has been developed from the English circular knitting
frame.ltwas initiallyequipped with stationary bearded needlesin verticalpositi
on.Lateron,it
was built with Iatched needles,which can be individually m oved;this is characteristic for a
circularknitting m achine.
1852:Theodor Groz.Opened his workshop in Ebingen in the Swabian AIb and Ernst Beckert
started m aking needles in Chem nitz. Both of them wanted to assist the m anufacturers of
knitted stockings by presenting them with needles,w hich would not get bentorbroken.This
m eantthatthe needleswere no Iongermade from iron butfrom steel.Today the concern Groz
-
Beckertdeliversexactlyadapted needlesforevery kind ofknitting machine.
1878:D.Griswold gets a patent for a circular knitting m achine,w hich can produce plain or
ribbed fabric tubes in any desired distribution.The verticalcylinderneedles are enhanced by
horizontaldialneedles,also indi vidually m oveable in radialslots.ThisIeadsforthe firsttime to
two new denotions:smallrib machine and Iarge rib m achine.
1910:The firm RobertW alterScottin Philadelphiawasgranted a patentfor''interlockfabrics'.
The interlockfabric isadoublefaced fabriccom posed oftwo crossed double knitfabrics.
1918:The firstdouble cylinder,smallcircularknitting machine with a double hook needle and
sliders(needlepushers)wasbuiltinEnglandbythefirm Wildt.
1920:Besidesflatknitting machines?increasing use ismade ofcircularknitting machinesforthe
fabrication ofcolourpatterned fabrics.This isdone'with the help ofyarn changerdevicesand
needle selection viapattern wheelsand puncht::1tapesm adefrom steelorpaper.
1935:Afterthe production of circular sinkerwheelm achines was started in 1906,the firm
M ayer& Cie.began producing circularknitting m achines.M ayer& Cie.introduced m ass-line
production ofthese m achinesin 1939.
1946:After this period noteable further developm ents were made in circular knitting with
regard to higherperform ance and new productsasa resultofan increase in feedernumbers,a
raise in the production speeds and the use ofnew needle technologies.The oId pinion feed
w heelunitswerereplaced by new yarn deliverydevicesIike tapefeedersand measuring meters
withyarn reserveforsmoothfabricsand kni
tpatternsaswellasstoragefeedersforjacquards.
These new devices have increasingly taken overthe controland monitoring ofyarn delivery.
Such peripheralequipment is continually gaining signi ficance in order to cope up with the
dem andsplaced on high speed circularknitting m achinesand fabricquality.
1963:The erathe electronicsbegins atthe InternationalTextile M achinery Exhibition ITM A
1963 in Hanover.Thefirstelectronic needle selection isdemonstrated bythe firm M oraton its
325
film-taper-controlled ''M oratronie', which later on gets into serial production. Today a
com puterisused fordata storage and a diskette isthedata carrier.
1967: The Iegendary OVJA 36, w hich is probably world-w ide the most successfulcircular
knitting machine so far,isexhibited atthe ITMA in Basle.M ore than 7000 machinesofthistype
werebuiltinthefollowingyears.
1987:Thefirm Mayer& CiebeginswiththeserialproductionoftheRELANIT,aplain(rechts-
links)circularknitting machine havinga relative movementbetweenneedlesandsinkers.ltwill
be producing morethan 1000 m achinestillthe ITM A 1991.
M odern circularknittingtechnology willbe determ ined by increasesin pedormance,reductions
in setting-up times and flexible utilization.The technicaldesignerwillhave to dealwith this
challenge now and in thefuture..
Knitting isthe mostcomm on method ofinterloping and issecond only to weaving asa method
ofmanufacturing textile structures.Itisestimated thatoverseven m illion tonsofknitted goods
are produced annually throughout the world.Although the unique capability of knitting to
manufacture shaped and form -fitting articles has been utilized for centuries, m odern
technology has enabled knitted constructions in shaped and unshaped fabricform to expand
into aw ide rangeofapparel,domesticand industrialend-uses.
Knitted fabrics of a wide variety of types are presently enjoying unprecedented consumer
demand.In m any end-uses,where formerly woven fabricsheld undisputed away,knitted c10th
hastaken a com manding Iead,while in those end-useswherethe knitted fabrictraditionally has
been suprem e,production advanced by Ieapsand bounds.
To m ostpeople,knitted fabricissom ew hatofan unknow n quantity.Few peoplecandistinguish
itreadily from woven fabrics;fewerstillhave anyconception how itisproduced.
 GENERALTERM S RELATED TO KNIU ING TECHNOLOGY

Kink ofyarn:
A length ofyarn thathasbeen bentinto a shape appropriate foritstransform ation into a weft
knitted loop.

Knitted Ioop:
A kink ofyarn that is interm eshed at i
tsbase i.e.when intermeshed two kink ofyarn iscalled
loop.

Knitted stitch:
Stitch is a kink ofyarn that is intermeshed at its base and at itstop.The knitted stitch is the
basic unitofintermeshing and usually consists ofthree ormore interm eshed loops,the centre
Ioop having been drawn through the head of the lo/er Ioop which had in turn been
intermeshed through i
tshead by the Ioopwhich appearsabove it.

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Kinkofyarn Kni
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Top arc:
Theuppercurved portionoftheknitted Ioopiscallidtoparc.
Bottom half-arc:
The Iowercurved portion thatconstitutes in a weftknityed Ioop,halfofthe çonnection to the
adjacentloopinthesamecourse.
Legsorside lim bs:
The Iateralpartsofthe knitted Ioopthatconned the top arcto the bottom half-arcs.
327
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Top arc Bottom halfarc Legs Needle loop SinkerIoop

Needle loop:
The needle Ioop isthe sim plestunitofknitted structure.Needle loop form ed bythetop arcand
the two Iegsoftheweftknitted loop
Needle loop =Top arc+ Two legs
SinkerIoop:
The yarn portion that connects two adjacent needli Ioops belongiig in the same knitted
course.Bottom arcàlso called sinke'rIoop.

Open Ioop:
A knittedloopofwhichathreaàentersandIeavesattheoppositesideswithoutcroFsingover
itself.

Closed Ioop:
A knitted Ioop of which a thread enters and Ieaves at the opposite sides with crossing over
itself.Itismadebyspecialneidle.
Knitted Ioop structure:
The properties ofa knitted structure are Iargely determ ined by the interdependence ofeach
stitchwithitsneighboursoneithersideandaboveandbelow it.Knittedloopsarearrangedin
rows and colum ns roughl y equivalent to the weft and warp of woven structures termed
''courses''and '
/wales''respectively.

W ale
 328
Course:
Acourseisaprejominantlyhorizontalrow ofIoops(inanuprightfabric)producedbyadjacent
needlesduring the same knitting cycle.

In weft knitted fabrics a course is comppsed ofyarn from a single supply termed a course
Iength.A pattern row isa horizontalrow ofcleared Ioopsproduced by one bed ofadjacent
needles.In a plain weftknitted fabricthis isidenticalto a course butin more com plexfabricsa
pattern row may be com posed oftwo ormorecourse lengths.
In warp knitting each Ioop in acourse isnorm allycom posed ofa separate yarn.

W ale:
A wale is a predominantly verticalcolumn of needle Ioops produced by the same needle
knitting atsuccessive knitting cyclesand thusinterm eshing each new loop through the previous
loop.ln warp kni tting a wale can be produced from the sam e yarn ifa warp guide lapsaröund
the same needle at successive knitting cycles thus are m aking a pillar orchain sti
tch Iapping
movement.W alesarejoinedto eachotherbythesinkerloopsorunderlaps.
Stitch density:
The term stitch density isfrequently used in knitting instead ofa Iinearmeasurementofcourses
orwales,itisthe totalnum berofneedle loopsin a square area measurementsuch asa square
inch or square centimeter.It is obtained by multiplying,for exam ple,the numberofcourses
and wales,perinchtogether.Stitch density tendsto be a more accurate measurementbecause
tension acting in one direction in the fabric may,forexam ple,produce a Iow reading forthe
courses and a high reading forthe wales,w hich when m ultiplied togethercancels the effect
out. Usually pattern rows and courses are,for convenience,considered to be synonymous
when counting coursesperunitofIinearm easurem ent.

Stitchdensity=Walesperinch(wpi)xCoursesperinch(cpi).
Interm eshing pointsorcrossoverpointofa needle loop:
AI1needle Ioops oroverlaps have four possible intermeshing or cross-over points,two.at the
head,where the next new Ioop willbe draw n through by that needle and anothertwo atthe
base where the loop hasinterm eshed w i th the head ofthe previously form ed Ioop.Any one of
the fourpoints at which stitches are intermeshed.The intermeshings atthe head are always
identicalwith eachotherasare interm eshingsatthe base with each otber.
329

1 a

3 4

Fourinterm eshingpoints An im possible intermeshing

It is impossible to draw a new Ioop through the oId Ioop so that itstwo feet are alternately
intermeshed.A new Ioop can thusonly be intermeshed through the head ofthe oId Ioop in a
mannerwhich willshow a face Ioop stitch on one side and a reverse Ioop stitch on the other
side,because the needle hook isunidirectionaland can only draw anew Ioop down through an
oId loop.Bottom cross-overpointissituated atthe base and top cross-overpointissituated at
the head.

toop orStitch Iength:

The length ofyarn knitted into one stitch in aweftknitted fabric.Stitch Iength istheoreticallya
singleIengthofyarnwhichincludesoneneedleIoopandhalftheIengthofyarn (hal
fasinker
Ioop)betweenthatneedleIoopandtheadjacentneedle Ioopsoneithersideofi t.Generally,
the Iargerthe stitch Iength the more elastic and Iighterthe fabric,and the poorer its cover
opacity and bursting strength.
Stitch Length,l= one needle loop+ two halfasinkerIoop.

Extended sinkerIoop:
A sinkerloopthatiswiderthan the othersinkerIoopsin the fabricand thatisproduced when a
needle isinactive orhasbeen removedfrom the needle bed orneedle bar.
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Stitch Iength Extended sinkerIoop Face Ioop Back Ioop

Face Ioop orstitch:
Also called plainsti
tchorjerseystitchorflatstitch.A stitchthatissointermeshedinthefabric l
th ;
atitsIegsaresituatedabovethetoparcofthestitchformedinthesamewaleintheprevious j
course.Thissideofthestitchshowsthenew loopcomingthroughtowardstheviewerasit j
passesoverand coversthe head ofthe oId Ioop.Face Ioop stitchestend to show the side Iimbs 1
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Technicalface orrightside:
The undersurface ofthe fabric on the needles willthusonly show the face stitchesin the form
oftheside Iim bsorIegsofthe loopsoroverIapsasa seriesofinterfitting &Vs''.

Reverse orback Ioop orstitch:

Also called purlstitch.A stitch that is so intermeshed in the fabric that the top arc and the
bottom arcsare situated above the Iegs ofthe stitch form ed in the same wale in the previous .
and in the following course.This is the opposite side ofthe stitch to the face loop side and
showsthe new Ioop m eshing awayfrom the viewerasitpassesunderthe head ofthe oId Ioop.
Reversestitchesshow the sinkerIoopsin weftknitting and the underIapsin warp knitting most
prominently on the surface.The reverse Ioop side isthe nearestto the head ofthe needle
because the needle draws the new loops downwards through the oId Ioops. The notation of
backIoop is * and bygraphpaperis0.

TechnicalbackorIeA side:
The uppersurfaceofthefabricon the needleswillonlyshow reverse stitches i
n the formx
inf.
sinkerIoopsorunderIapsand the headsofthe loops.
Doublethreadstitch:
Also called double Ioop stitch orspliced stitch.A stitch formed from two endsofyarn.
331 :
Single faced structures:
Singlefaced structuresareproduced inwarpand weftknitting bythe needles(arrangedeither :
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in a straightIine orin acircle)operating asa single set.Adjacentneedleswillthushavetheir :
hooksfacing towardsthe sam e direction and the headsofthe needlesw illalwaysdraw the new l
loopsdownwardsthrough the old Ioopsin the sam e direction so thatinterm eshingpoints3 and
4 willbe identicalwith interm eshing points1 and 2.
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Technicalface side Technicalbackside

Double faced structures:

Double faced structures are produced in weft and warp knitting when two sets of
independentlycontrolIed needlesare employed withthe hooksofone setknitting orfacingin
the opposite direction tothe otherset.The two setsofneedlesthusdraw theirIoopsfrom the
sam e yarn in opposite directions,so thatthe fabric,form ed in the gap between the two sets,
showsthe face loopsofone seton one side and the face Ioops ofthe otherseton the opposite
side.The two facesofthe fabricare held together by the sinkerIoops orunderIaps which are
insidethe fabric so thatthe reversestitchestend to be hidden.

Balanced structure:
This isa double faced structure which has an identicalnum berofeach type ofstitch produced
on each needle bed and therefore showing on each fabricsu/ace usuallyin the sam esequence.
These structuresdo notnorm ally show curling attheiredges.

Face and reverse stitcheson the sam e surface:

These are norm ally produced on purl weft knitting machines which have double headed
needles capable ofdrawing a face stitch with one hook and a reverse stitch on the other,so
thatinterm eshing points3 and 4 willnotalwaysbe identicalwith interm eshing points 1and 2.
Fabricdraw -off:
Fabricisalwaysdrawn from the needleson the side rem ote from theirhooks.W hen two setsof
needlesareem ployed,eitherarranged vertically oratsome otherangle to each other,each set
ofhookswillface away from the othersetand the fabricw illbe produced and drawn away in
the gap betweenthetwo sets.

Knitting m achines:
The machinesthose produced fabricsby intermeshing orinterloping ofone orone setofyarn.
Knitting machinesare divided asfollows-

* W eftknitting machine:
A machine producing a knitted fabric by interm eshing Ioops formed successively
acrossthewidth ofthefabricfrom a yarn fed substantiallycrosswiseto the length of
fabric.
* .W arp knitting machine:
A machine in which the fabric form ation occurs by interlacem ent of Ioops formed
sim ultaneously acrossthe fullwidth ofthe fabric from a system ofyarnsw hich are
fed to the needlessubstantially inthe direction ofthe length offabric.
@ OtherIoop formingand com bined technique m achines:
M achines thatform the fabric by the technique of intermeshing ofyarn Ioopsbut
which cannotbe defined eitherasweftoraswarp knitting machines.

Needles:
Needle isthe principalkni
tting elem ent.Needlesare divided into two categories according tot
.

theirfunctionsasfollows-
* Independentneedles:
Needleswhichcan slide inthe needle bed and be moved individuallyduring tàe
stitch orIoop form ing process.
@ United needles:
Needleswhich are fixed in the needle barand w hich can only be m oved in unison
duringthe stitch orIoop form ing process.
 B

Needle carrier:
A

Independentneedle
Q!

1 United needle

A partof the knitting m achine containing independently m oved needles in a needle bed or
united needlesin a needle bar.The needle carriermay beflatorcircular,cylindricalordialtype.

Fabricface type:
The basictype ofconstruction offabricsproduced on the respective knitting machines:
Rt:Single face fabric,also called right- Ieftfabric;knitted on one row ofneedles.
@ RR:Double face fabric,also called right- rightordouble rightfabric;knitted ontwo
rowsofneedles.
@ LL:Links- Iinksfabric,also called Ieft- Ieft ordouble Ieftfabric;knitted on one or
two rowsofneedles.

Num beroffeed system :

On the circumference gf a circular knitting machine up to 120 knitting cam sets can be
mounted,each cam set fed with a separate yarn.This results in obtaining 120 knitted loop
coursesin one machine revolution.
Numberoffeeders= Num berofcourses

Specification ofknitting m achine:

The needle beds and needle bars, and thus the knitting machines,are specified with three
features,namely:

Theworkingdiameter(Circularneedlebedsand needlebars)
OrTheworkingwidth (FIatneedlebedsand needle bars)
The needle gauge orneedle pitch.
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The diam eter of a knitting machine is m easured at the bottoms of two opposite:yz.y
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needlegroovesi
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and isusuallyexpressedin inches. : 7

Theworking width:
The working width ofthe machine should notbe missused withthe 'tadualworking
width''.Theworkingwidth ofa knitting machine isa measure(in cm orinches)
describing the distance between the firstand Iastneedle in aflatneedle bed, whilst
the ''actualworking width''isthe distance between the firstand Iastneedle actually
used in theneedl e bed during knitting.

M achine orneedlegauge:
The needle gauge ofa knitting machine (also called cutorgage)isa measure
expressingthenumberofneedlesperaunitoftheneedlebed(bar)width.
Gauge,N = How manyneedlesare used inone English inch.
N = Num berofneedles
O ne English inch.

Highestneedle gauge isabout60 and lowest needle gauge isabout2 to

2.5.

The needle pitch is the distance between two neighbouring needles in the sam e
needle bed (bar),from the centre ofa needleto the centreofthe neighbouring
needle.

Relationship betweenthe needle gauge and the needl

e pitch isasfollows:
N 1
eedlepitch(Lengthunits/needle)=N
eedlegauge(Iength unit)
Thepitch ordistancebetweenoneneedleandanotherisproportionaltothe needlegaugeor
thicknessandtherefore to thespace available fortheyarn.Asthe diameterofayarn is
proportionalto itscount,arelationshipexistsbetween the rangeofoptimum countsofyarn
whichmaybeknitted on aparticularmachineand itsmachinegauge.Machinegaugethus
influenceschoice ofyarnandcount,and affectsfabricpropertiessuch asappearance and
weight.Foragiven machinediameterorwi dth,finergaugemachinestendto kni
tawiderfabric
asmorewalesare involved.Forexampl e a30*diametercircularmachinem ighthave 1716
cylinderneedlesin 18 G and1872cylinderneedlesin 20 G.Coarsegaugemachineshave Iatch
needleswithIargerdimensionsrequiringgreatermovements.Duringknittingthesizeofthe
knitting camsare correspondingly Iarge so Iesscam systemscan be accom modated
335
around a given machine diameter(forexample 30'')so therefore coarsergauge
m achinesoften havefewerfeeders.

Selvedged fabric:
A sel
vedged fabric is one having a ''self- edge''to itand can only be produced on m achines
whose yarn reciprocates backwards and forwards acrossthe needle bed so that a selvedge is
formed asthe yarn risesup to the nextcourse atthe edge ofthe fabric.

Cutedge fabric:
cutedge fabricis usually produced by slitting open a tube offabric produced on a circular
machine.A slittube offabricfrom a302diametermacbinewillhaveanopenwidthof94' '(#d)
atknitting and before relaxation.

Tubularfabric:
This m ay be produced in double faced orsingle faced structures on circularmachines,orin a
single faced form on straightmachineswith two setsofneedlesprovided each needle setonly
knitsatalternate cyclesand thatthe yarn only passésacrossfrom one needle bed to the other
atthetwosejvedgeneedlesateachend,thusclosingtheedgesofthetubebyjoiningthetwo
singlefaced fabricsproduced on each needle settogether.

W arp knitted Iaps:

Loops are term ed Iaps in warp knitting because the guides Iap the warp yarn around the
needles in orderto form the Ioops,the Iapsm ay be eitheropen orclosed.So,Iap isa Iength of
yarn in a warp knitted fabricthatconsistsofanoverlap and ofan underlap.

Open lap:
An open lap is produced eitherwhen the underlap isin the sam e direction asthe overlap,orit
is om itted so that the next overlap comm ences from the space where the previous overlap
finished.Closed laps are heavier,m ore com pact,opaque and Iess extensible than open laps
produced from the same yarn and atacomparable knittingquality.

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Closed Iap:
A closed lap isproduced when an underlap followsin the opposite direction to the overlap and
thusIapsthe thread around both sidesofthe needles.

The overlap:
The overlap is a shog usually across one needle hook by a warp guide which forms the warp
yarn into the head ofthe loop.The swinging movement ofthe guide to the hook side and the
return swing afterthe overlap produce the two side lim bsorlegs ofthe Ioop which has a very
similarappearanceonthefacqsideofthefabrictoaneedle Ioopproducedbyweftknitting.So,
overlap isa Iength ofyarn in a warp knitted fabricthathasbeen placed overthe needle during
loopformation.

The underlap:
The underlap shog occursacrossthe side ofthe needlesrem ote from the hooks,on the frontof
single barand inthe centre ofdouble barneedle machines,itsuppliesthe yarn between one
overlap and the next.So,underlap isa length ofyarn in a warp kni
tted fabricthatconnectstwo
overlapsinconsecuti ve courses.
Underlapsaswellasoverlapsare essentialin aIIwarp knitted structuresin orderto join the
wales ofIoopstogether,butthey may be contributed by a differentguide barto those forthe
overlaps.
337

M ECHANICALPRINCIPLES OF KNIU ING TECHNO LOGY

Basic elem entsofknitting:

There are three basic elem entsofknitting,such as needle,cam and sinker.Thischapterdeals
with the features,functions,usesetc.ofthese knitting elem entsand also focusthe principlesof
knitlingbasedontheseelementsasfollows.
The Needles:
The fundamentalelem entin construction ofknitted fabrics isthe knitting needle.Needle isthe
m ain knitting tools and also the principalelem entofm achine knitting.During yarn feeding the
hook is opened to release the retained old loop and to receive the new loop which is then
enclosed in the hook.The new Ioop is then drawn by the hook through the oId Ioop which
slideson the outside ofthe bridge ofthe closed hook.AIlneedles m usttherefore have some
method ofclosing the needle hookto retainthe new Ioop and exclude theoId Ioop.
There are hundredsand hundredsofdifferentshapesofknitting needlesused forproduction of
kni
tted loopsbutaIIofthem can be grouped in three m ain needle types:

The spring-bearded needles

The Iatch needlesand

The com pound needles.

* The Spring-Bearded Needles:

The spring-bearded needlesmadeofsteelwire consistofthefollowing parts:

a. The Stem:Thestem around which the needle Ioop isformed.
b. The Head:W here the stem isturned into a hook to draw the newloop through
theoId loop.
c. The Beard:W hich isthe curved downwardscontinuation ofthe hookthatisused
to separate the trapped new Ioop inside from the o1d loop as it slides offthe
needle beard.
d. The Eye orgroove:Cutin the stem to receive the pointed tip ofthe beard when
itispressed,thusenclosingthe new Ioop.
 338
The Iatch needle is the m ost widely used needle in weft knitting,because itis self- acting or
Ioop controlled.Itis also regarded as more versatile in term softhe range ofm aterialsthatcan
be processed on Iatch needle machines.Bearded needles are Iess expensive to manufacture,
can be produced in finer gauges and supposedly knit tighter and m ore uniform stitches
compared with Iatch needles,buthave Iim itationswith regard to the types ofmaterialthatcan
be processed as wellasthe range ofstructuresthatcan be knitted on them .Bearded needle
machines are fasterthan the equivalent Iatch needle macbipes.The com pound needle has a
short,smooth and sim pl e action,and because itrequires a very sm alldisplacementto form a
stitch inbothwarp andweftknitting,itsproduction rate istliehighestofthethreemaintypes
of needle.Compound needles are now the m ostw idely used needles in warp knitting and a
num berofm anufacturers also offercircularmachines equipped w'ith com pound needles. The
operation speeds of these machines are up to twice those ofitie equi valentlatch needle
machines.
The m ain parts of the bearded,Iatch and compound needle are describe and shown in the
above figures respectively.Variations of Iatch neqdles ipclude rib Ioop transfer needles and
double - ended purlneedles,which can slide through the oId Ioop in orderto knitfrom an
opposing bed thusdraw a loop from theopposite direction.
Friction and Frictionless Needles:
There aretwqtypesofIatchneedle,frictionandfrictionless.Frictionneedleshave aslightflex,
cram p orbend in tl:e tailsso thatthey contactthe side - walls ofthe tricks in w hich they are
housed.They are used in open cam system sw here cam s may be introduced ortaken out of
actionto divertthe needle path.
Frictionless needlesare em ployed in closed cam - tracks which have guard orsafety camson
the opposite side to the knitting cams,to produce a com pletely enclosed track through which
the needles run,otherwise the freely m oving needles would be thrown outoftheirtricks at
high speed.

The Needle Bed:

The needlesare disposed in the slots ofneedle bedswhich can be flatorcircular(dialand
cylinder),ormounted on the needle bars.A flat needle bed consists of a steelplate with
grooves.In the grooves the latch needles are inserted in such a way thattheirbutts protrude
above the plane ofthe steelplate.From below in the grooves,the needlesare supported with
specialsprings.Upperpartofthe flatneedle bed isshaped in m illed - offteeth belping in the
processofstitch form ation.
'

Inacylindricalneedlebedtheknittingneedlesareplaced betweenihetricksinsertedincuts
alongthe cylindersurface generator.The dialneedle beds have the needle groovescutradially
' i.e.horizontally.The butts of the needles in circular needle beds, both cylinder and dial,
protrude from theirsurfaces.Thariksto the needle buttsthe needlescan be dtiven along their
groovesbycamslocated in cam boxes.
''
.

.
;
339
d. Tbe Rivet; W hich m ay be plain or threaded.This has been dispensed with on
m ost plate m etalneedlesby pinching in the slotwallsto retain the Iatch blade.
The SlotorSaw - cut:W hich receivesthe Iatch - blade.
The Cheeks or Slot w alls:W hich are either punched or riveted to fulcrum the
latch blade.
g. The Butt:W hich serving to displace the needle along the needle bed slot.The
butt w hich enables the needle to be reciprocated when contacted by cam
profiles on either side of it form ing a track.Double - ended purltype needles
have a hook ateach end,w hilstone hook knits,the inactive hook is controlled as
a buttby a cam reciprocated elem entcalled a slider.
h. The Tail:W hichvis an extension below the butt giving additionalsupport to the
needle and keeping tBe needle in itstrick.Som etim esused fortbe sam e purpose
asthe butt.

* The Com pound Needles:

The com pound needles are used in weft and w arp knitting m achines.In contrast to
standard spring - bearded needles and latch needlesthe com pound needle consists
oftw o separate parts- the stem and the sliding Iatch.Atthe top ofthe com pound
needle stem there is a hook.The tw o parts rise and fallas a single unitbutatthe top
of the rise the hook m oves faster to open and at the start of the fallthe hook
descends fasterto close the hook.
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The com pound needle stem can be m ade of a U - shaped steelw ire or of a steel
tube.Thesliding Iatch (closingelement)ismadeofasteelwire.Duringthe cycleof
Ioop orstitch form ation the sliding Iatch slides along the groove of the U - shaped
stem or in the tube - shaped stem .Priorto m ounting onto a warp knitting m achine
the stemsand Iatchesofthe com pound needlesarecastin leads(separately,in stem
leadsand latch leads).
 340
The latch needle is the m ost widely used needle in weft knitting, because itis self- acting or
Ioop controlled.Itisalso regarded asm ore versatile in terms ofthe range ofm aterialsthatcan
be processed on latch needle m achines.Bearded needles are less expensive to manufacture,
can be produced in finer gauges and supposedly knit tighter and m ore uniform stitches
compared with Iatch needles,buthave Iim itationswith regard to thetypesofm aterialthatcan
be processed as wellasthe range ofstructures that can be knitted on them . Bearded needle
machines are fasterthan the equivalent Iatch needle machines.The com pound needle has a
short,sm ooth and simple action,and because itrequiresa very smalldisplacementto form a
stitch in b0th warp and weft knitting,itsproduction rate isthe highestofthe three m ain types
of needle.Compound needles are now the m ost widely used needles in warp knitting and a
numberof manufacturers also offercircularm achinesequipped with com pound needles. The
operation speeds of these machines are up to twice those of the equivalent Iatch needle
machines.
The m ain parts of the bearded,Iatch and com pound needle are describe and shown in the
above figures respectively.Variations of latch needles include rib Ioop transfer needles and
double - ended purlneedles,which can slide through the old loop in orderto knitfrom an
opposing bed thusdraw a Ioop from the oppositedirection.
Friction and FrictionlessNeedles:
There aretwo typesoflatch needle,friction and frictionless.Friction needleshave a sli
ghtflex,
cram p orbend in the tailsso thatthey contactthe side - wallsofthe tricks in which they are
housed.They are used in open cam system s where cam s may be introduced ortaken outof
actionto divertthe needle path.
Frictionless needlesare employed in closed cam - tracks which have guard orsafety camson
the opposite side to the knitting cams,to produce a completely enclosed trackthrough which
the needles run,otherwise the freely m oving needles would be thrown out oftheirtricks at
high speed.

The Needle Bed:

The needlesare disposed in the slotsofneedle beds which can be flatorcircular(dialand
cylinder),ormounted on the needle bars.A flatneedle bed consistsofa steelplate with
grooves.In the groovesthe Iatch needlesare inserted in such a way thattheirbutts protrude
above the plane ofthe steelplate.From below in the grooves,the needles are supported with
specialsprings.Upperpartofthe flatneedle bed is shaped in m illed - offteeth helping in the
processofstitch form ation.
*

ln a cylindricalneedle bed the knitting needles are placed between the tricks inserted in cuts
talongthecylindersurfacegenerator.Thedialneedlebedshavetheneedlegroovescutradially
j i.e. horizontally.The butts of the needles in circular needle beds, both cylinder and dial,
protrudefrom theirsurfaces.Thankstotheneedlebuttstheneedlescanbedrivenalongtheir
roovesbycamsIocatedincam boxes .

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-
.

.
341
The Cam s:
Cam is the second primary knitting element.The cam s are the mechanicaldevices which
convertthe rotary m achine drive into a suitable reciprocating action forthe needles orother
elem ents.Because aIlneedles have a reciprocating action eitherserially orseriatim,excepton
the bearded needle sinkerwheeland Ioop wheelframeswhere the fixed needle circle merely
revolves.The cams are carefully profiled to produce preciselptim ed movement and dwell
periOds. '
The cam sare oftwo types,Engineering camsand Kni
tting cam s.
* Engineering Cam :
Itis circularcam.This circularengineering cam sorhigh speed eccentiics indirectly
controlthe motion of bars of elements which move en masse as single units in
cottonsPatentand warp kni tting m achines.They are attached to a rotary drive shaft
situated parallelto and beiow the needle bar.A num ber of identicalcams are
positioned alopg the shaft to ensure correctly aligned m ovem ent.The drive is
transm itted and adapted via cam - followers,levers,pivots and rockershafts.One
com plete 360 - degree revofution of the drive shaft is equivalentto one knitting
cycle and itproducesaIIthe required m ovementsofthe elementsonce only in their
correcttim ing relationship.
In warp knitting m achines,fourtypesofcam drive have been em ployed:
a. Single acting cams
Cam and countercam s
c. Box cams,and
d. Contourcam s.
Single acting cam s:Thistype requires a powerfulspring to negatively retain the
cam truck orfollower in contact with the cam surface,bounce and excessive
wearoccursatspeed.
b. Cam and countercams:Thisarrangem entprovidesacam and itsfollowerin each
direction ofmovem entbutisobviously more expensiveto m anufacture.
The boxorenclosed cams:Thisem ploysa single cam followerwhich isguided by
the two cam races of a groove on the face ofthe cam .However,change of
contactfrom one face to the othercauses the followerto turn in the opposite
direction producingwearwhich cannotbe compensated.
d. The contour,ring orpotcams:Itisthe reverse ofthe boxcam asthe cam profile
projectsoutfrom one face ofthe cam in the form oflip with acam - follower
placed on eithersijeofit.Thisisa popularand easily adaptable arrangem ent.
Although camsare comparatively cheap,simple and accurate,atspeedsabove 800
coursesperminutetheyaresubjecttoexcessivevibration.Forthisreason,atspeeds
in excessofthatEccentri
cdrive isnow employed.
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'
 342
Eccentric:
The eccentric is a form of crank w hich provides a sim ple harm onic m ovem ent with
sm ooth acceleration and deceleration.lts w ide spread use is the result of adapting
this sim ple m otion and m odifying it to the requirem ents of the warp knitting
machine so that even dwell(stationary periods) in the element cycle can be
achieved.Now, how ever,the sim pler single eccentric drive is successfully driving
elem entbars atspeedsof2000 courses perm inute orm ore.

* Knitting Cam :

The angularknitting cam acts directly on to the butts of needles or other elem ents
to produce individuai or seriatim m ovem ent in the tricks of latch needle weft
knitting machines as the butts pass through the stationary cam system (revolving
cylinderm achines)orthe cam spassacrossthe stationary tricks (reciprocating cam
boxflatmachinesorrotating cam - boxcircularmachines).
On weft knitting m achines, yarn feeds m ust m ove if the cam s m ove, in prder to
supply yarn atthe knitting point,and ifthe cam -boxesrotatetheyarn packhjesand
tackle m ust rotate with them .If, however,the yarn carriers reciprocate as on flat
m achines their yarn supply packages m ay be situated in a suitable stationary
position.

Knitting cam s are attached either individually or in unitform to a cam -plate and,
depending upon machine design,arefixed,exchangeable oradjustable.

KnitCam Tuck Cam M issCam

The knitting cam s are divided in to three groups, such as knit cam ,tuck cam and
miss cam.At each yarn feed position there is a set of cam s (m ainly knit cam )
consisting ofat least a raising or clearing cam ,a stitch orIowering cam ,guard cam
and an up throw cam whose com bined effect is to cause a needle to carry out a
knitting cycle if required.On circularm achines there is a rem ovable cam section or
doorso thatknitting elernentscan be replaced.
343
3. The Raising Cam :Thiscausesthe needlesto be lifted to eithertuck,clearing loop
transferorneedle transferheightdepending upon m achine design.A sw ing cam
isfulcrum m ed so thatthe butts willbe unaffected w hen it is outofthe track and
m ay also be swing into the track to raise the butts.A bolt cam can be caused to
descend into the cam track and towards the elem enttricks to controlthe butts
orbe withdraw n outofaction so thatthe butts pass undisturbed across itsface,
itis m ostly used on garm ent- Iength m achinesto produce changes ofrib.

b. The Stitch Cam : It controls the depth to which the needle descends thus
controlling the am ount of yarn draw n into the needle Ioop, it also functions
sim ultaneously asa knock- overcam .
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The Up throw Cam :lttakesthe needles back to the rest position and allowsthe
newly- form ed Ioopsto relax.The stitch cam isnormallyadjustable fordifferent
Ioop Iengths and it m ay be attached to a slide togetherwith the upthrow cam so
that the two are adjusted in unison.ln the above figure there is no separate
upthrow cam ,section X - ofthe raising cam isacting asan upthrow cam . )
1
d. The Guard Cam ;These are often placed on the opposite side ofthe cam - race to .

Iim itthe m ovem entofthe butts and to preventneedlesfrom falling outoftrack.

j
 344
The Sinkers:
The sinkeristhe third primary knitting element.It is a thin metalplate with an individualor
collectiveactionapproximatelyatrightanglesfrom thehooksidebetweenadjoiningneedles.

FunctionsofSinker:
< <
Itmay perform one orm ore ofthe following functionsdependentupon the m achines knitting
actionand consequentsinkershape and movem ent:
Loopform ation
Holding- down and
Knocking- over.
According to these functions the sinkers are alsc divided into three groups, such as Ioop
form ing sinker,holding-down sinkerand knocking-oversinker.
* The first function ofthe sinker is loop form ation.On bearded needle weft knitting
machines of the strai ght barfram e and sinker wheeltype the main purpose of a
sinkeris to sink orkinkthe newly Iaid yarn into a Ioop as itsforward edge orcatch
advancesbetween the two adjoining needles.On the bearded needle Ioop wheel
frame,the bladesofburrwheelsperform thisfunction whereason Iatch needleweft
knitting machines and warp knitting machines,Ioop formation is nota function of
thesinkers.
@ A second and m ore com mon function ofsinkers on m odern m achines is to hold
down the oId Ioopsata lowerIevelon the needle stem sthan the new Ioopswhich
are being form ed and preventthe old loopsfrom being fifted asthe needfes rise to
clearthem from theirhooks.The protruding nib or nose ofthe sinkerispositioned
overthe sinkerloopsofthe oId Ioopspreventing them from rising withthe needles.
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Loop formingSinker Holding- down Sinker Knocking- overSinker .

345
On tricot warp knitting machines and single bed weft knitting m achines,a slot or
throatis cutto hold and controlthe oId loop.The sole function ofthe sinkerm ay be
as a web holderor stitch com b as on the Raschelwarp knitting machine in which
case only the underside ofthe nose performsthe function.

On latch needle weftknitting m achinesthe holding-down sinkershave a rectangular

gaP CUton theiruppersurface remote from the nose into which the sinkercam race
fitsto positivelycontrolthe sinker'sm ovem ent.

Hoiding-down sinkers enable tighter structures with im proved appearance to be

obtained, the minim um draw-off tension is reduced, higher knitting speeds are
possible and kni
tting can be com menced on em pty needles.

Holding-dow n sinkers may be unnecessary when knitting with two needle beds as
the second bed restrainsthe fabricIoopswhilstthe othersetofneedlesmove.

* The third function ofthe sinker- as a knock-oversurface - where its uppersudace

orbellysupportsthe oId loop asthe new loop isdraw nthrough it.

On tricot warp knitting m achines the sinkerbelly is specially shaped to assistwith

Ianding aswellasknock-over.

On Iatch needle machinesthe verge oruppersurface ofthe trick- plate serves as

the knock- oversudace.
The Jack:
Thejackisasecondaryweftknitting eiementwhich may be used to provideflexibility ofIatch
needle selection and movem ent.itisplaced below and in the sam e trickasthe needle and has
itsown operating buttand cam system .The needle may thusbe controlled directly by itsbutt
andcam system orindirectlybythemovementofthejack.
M ethodsofYarn Feeding:
There are two methodsofyarn feeding.Yarn feeding involveseithermoving the yarn pastthe
needlesorm oving the needlespasta stationary yarn feed posi
tion.
W hen the yarn m ovespastthe needles,the fabric willbe stationary because the Ioopshang
from the needles.Thisarrangem entexistson aIIwarp knitting machinesand on weftknitting
m achinesw ith straightbedsorcircularmachineswith stationarycylinderand dials.On straight
machinesofboth weftand warp type the yarn carrierorguide hasa reciprocating traversing
movementwhichtakes i ttowardsand away from a suitably- placed yarn supply.On stationary
cylinderand dialm achines,how ever,the yarn supply packages m ustrotate in orderto keep
w ith the continuously revolving yarn feeds.Because the Iatch needle bedsofthese flatand
circularweftknittingmachinesarestationary,itisnecessarytoreciprocatethecam - carriages l
1
 346
and revolve the cam - boxes so thatthe needle buttsofthe stationary trickspassthrough and
the needles are thus reciprocated into a knitting action at the exact mom ent when the
traversingfeed suppliesa new yarn.

M ost circular weft knitting m achines have revolving needle cylinders and stationary cams,
feeders and yarn packages.ln thiscase, the fabrictube mustrevolve with the needles asm ust
thefabric rollersand take - up m echanism .

M ethodsofForm ingYarn into Needle Loops:

There are three methodsofform ingthe newsy- fed yarn intothe shape ofaneedse loop:
* M ethod - a:
By sinking the yarn into the space between adjacent needles using Ioop forming
sinkers or other elements w hich approach from the beard side. The action of a
straightbarframe isillustrated buta sim ilaraction occurs on otherbearded needle
weft knitting machines.The distance SLofthe following figure which the catch of
the sinkerm oves pastthe hookside ofthe needle is approximately halfthe stitch
length.

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M ethod-a Method -b M ethod -c
* M ethod - b:
By causing latch needlesto draw theirown needle Ioopsdown through the oid loops
asthey descend one ata tim e down the stitch cam . This method isemployed on aII
Iatch needle weftknitting m achines.The distancq SL ofthe above figure which the
head ofthe Iatch needle descendsbelow the knock- oversurface, isapproximately
halfthe stitch Iength.
M ethod- t:
By causinga warp yarnguideto warpthe yarn loop around the needle. The lapping
movem entofthe guide isproduced from the com bination oftwo separate motions,
a swinging m otion which occursbetween the needlesfrom the frontofthe maçhine
to the hook side and return and a lateralshogging ofthe guide parallelwith the
needle baron the hooksideand also the frontofthe machine. The swi !ion
nging mnt
isfixed butthe direction and extentofthe shogging motion m ay orm ay notbe
 347 varied from a pattern m echanism .This method is em ployed on allwarp knitting
m achinesand forwrap patterning on w eftknitting macbines.The length ofyarn per
stitch unitisgenerally determ ined bytbe rate ofwarp yarn feed.

Knitting Action orLoop orStitch Form ation on Spring-Bearded Needles:

toop orstitch formation on a single - needle bed weftknitting m achine with spring - bearded
needlesconsistsofthefollowing stages:

1. Yarnfeeding
2. Yarn sinking orkinking
3. Underlapping
4. Pressing
5. Landing
6. Joiningand casting-off
7. Clearing
'
Tbe essence ofthesestagesconsistsinthe following operations:

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KnittingAction orknitting cycle on Spring-bearded needles
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1 348
.
Yarnfeeding(a):ThenewlyfedyarnisIaidunderthethroatsofkinkingsinkers.

2. Yarnsinking(b):The sinkersfalldown betweenthe needles,withtheyarn heldinthe

sinkerthroats.Depth ofsinking determ inesthe Ioop length, i.e,the yarn Iength used to
form a knitted Ioop.

3. UnderIapping (c):Theyarn Iaid on the needle stemsiswithdrawn bythe sinkersin

direction ofneedle hooksand underthe needle beards.

4. Pressing(d):Now,theneedlebeardisimmersedintheneedlegroovebyapresserdisc.
In thiswaythe fed yarn isclosed in the needle hook.

Landing (e):Theknittedfabricrestingon the needlestemsattheneedle bed isnow

pushed by cast-off sinkers tow ards the pressed needle beards, and the fabric loops
(calledoIdIoops)Iandonthebeards.

6. Joining and Casting-off(f):Afterpassing the presserdisc,the cast-offsinkers push

furtherthe knitted fabrictowardsthe tips ofthe needles. Atthe same tim e the kinking
sinkers Ieave the kinked yarn and the cast-offsinkerspush the oId Ioopsoffthe needles
on to the kinked lengthsofyarn.

Clearing (a):Atthisstage the newlyformed loopsare pushed backalongthe needle

stem s,towards the needle bed;the knitted fabric enlarged by a new course ofkni
tted
Ioops,is drawn down by m eans of a take-down mechanism , and the process ofIoop
form ation m ay be started again.

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Consecutive stagesofIoop formation on spring-bearded needîes

349
Knitting Action ortoop orStitch Form ation on tatth Needles:
!
The loop orstitch form ing processin a single needle bed m achine is illustrated in thefoilowing
figure.The loop form ing processisdivided into nine operations:
7
1. Clearing
2. Yarn laying orfeeding
3. Underlappingoryarn drawing
4. Pressing
5. tanding
6. Joining
7. Casting-offorknocking-over
8. Loop forming and sinking,and
'
9. Loop draw - off
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Knitting Action orknitting cycle on latch needles

1. Clearing (a):The processofstitch formation isstarted bytheclearingoperation.Itsaim

'
isto draw the o1d Ioopsbehind the needle Iatch.Clearing is effected during needle lift.
The old loop isretained bythe beak ofthe sinkershifted to the cylindercentre so asto
avoid its dispiacem ent together with the needle.At the time of ciearing,the sinker
remainsim mobile.Clearing iscom pleted whenthe needle reachesitsupperposition.
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2. Yarn Iaying orfeeding (b):In the course ofneedle downward motion,the hooktakes
hold ofyarn com ing from the yarn guide and effects it's laying.Atthe momentw hen
laying isstarted,the sinkerbeak m ustretreata Iittle from the cylindercentre so as not
to furtherim pede the loop form ing process.

3. Underlappingoryarndrawing(c):FurthermovementofyarnjustIaidanditsforwarding
under the needle hook is called under lapping or draw ing. Actually, drawing is
perform ed sim ultaneously with the yarn Iaying when the needle startsto m ove down.

4. Pressing (c):The aim ofpressing isto close the needle hook with the yarn Iaid in it.
W hen the needle Iowers,its Iatch contactsthe oId Ioop Iying nearthe knock- offplane
and retained from lowering by the sinkerchin.The o1d Ioop interacts with the Iatch and
closesit.

5. Landing (d):The essenceofthi.

soperationconsistsinshiftingthe oId Iooponthe closed
Iatch. The Ianding operation'''in Iatch needle machine begins simultaneously w ith
pressing.

6. Joining (d):At joining,the new yarn comes in contact with the oId Ioop.Joining is
accom plished sim ultaneously w ith the beginningofcasting- off.

7. Casting-offorknocking-over(e):Thecasting-offoperation consists in the retreatofthe

oId Ioop from the needle hook.

8. Loop formingand sinking (e & g):Loopform ingconsistsin drawingthe yarngrasped by

the needle through the old Ioop retained by the sinker chin.The Iower the needle
m oves in respectto the knock- off plane at kinking,the Iongeristhe form ed lèop and
the lessthe stitch density.

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Consecutive stagesofIoop form ation on Iatch needles

351
9. Loop draw-off(f):The aim ofthisoperation isto draw theoId loop behind the needle
back.Draw-offofnew Ioopsiseffected by sinkerthroats.Atthe sam e time,exercising
theiraction on the knitted fabric,the chinsofsinkers withdraw the oId Ioopsfrom the
knitting zone.The machine take-down mechanism promotesthisoperation.

Loopdraw-offiscompleted when the apexon the interiorside ofthe hookhead reaches

the knock-off plane Ievel,which corresponds to the initialposition for the described
Ioopform ingprocess.
Knitting Action or toop or Stitch Form ation on a W arp Knitting m achine
equipped with Com pound Needles:
The Ioop forming process on single - barwarp knitting m achinesw ith com pound needles may
be divided into ten operations:
1. Clearing
2. Overlapping oryarn Iaying
3. Underlapping
4. Pressing
5. Landing- over
6. Joiningormeshing
7. Sinking
8. Casting- off
9. Loop - forming and
10.Draw - off
The operationsare described asfollows:
1. Clearing (b):The stem ofthe compound needle lifts from the bottom posi
tion.The
newly formed Ioop is under the needle hook.The guide bar is racking over one or
severalneedlespacings(dependingonthekind ofinterlacing)behind the needles,and
occupies the initialposition to form the nextIoop course.The sinkers retain with their
nibs,the knitted fabric from Iifting togetherwith the needles.On furtherrotati
on ofthe
m achinethe needlescome to occupy the initialposition forwarp yarn laying.

2. Overlapping oryarn Iaying (c- g):The needle stem risesand the guide barstartsits
m otion, intersecting the Iine of needles.At the m oment when the guide bar passes
betweenthe needlesthehooksmustreachthebottom hal
foftheguideneedlehole(d).
In the farthest position from the needles, the guide bar m akes a rack for yarn
overlapping,usually forone needle spacing.Figure fillustratesthe position ofthe guide
needle in relation to the needles in the return sw inging ofthe guide bars.On further
rotation of the main shaft, the needle stem starts m oving downward and yarn
overlapping is term inated. The direction of sinker and sliding Iatch motion in
overlapping isshow n by arrowsinfigure cto g.
 '
352

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Knitting Action orknitting cycle on com pound needles

3. Underlapping(g):Theneedlesstem continuesitsdescent.Theguideneedlehasalready
intersected the Iine ofneedlesand pursuesits m otion.The new ly overlapped yarn does
notm ove togetherw ith the needle stem being retained by the upperedge ofthe sinker
nib.The com bined motionsofthe guide needles and needle stem s bring the new yarns
under the hooks.In underlapping,the sinker starts m oving backward to the m achine
centre.
353
4. Pressing (h):The needle continuesitsdownward motion having risen to its highest )
position,the sliding Iatch overlapsthe needle hook so thatthe hooktip engagesinto the )
groove in the upperpartofthe Iatch.The sinkercontinuesitsm otion and,with i tsbelly, ,
bringstbe old loop along tbe sliding latch to the closed hookofthe needle.

5. Landing- over(h):Thesinkercontinuesitstraveland,with itsbelly,bringsthe oId loop

on tbe siiding latch.The guide needle continues to retreat.The sliding latch together
w ith the stem m oves downwards.

6. Joining ormeshing (i):The needle stem with the sliding Iatch continuesthe downward
m otion.On the descentofthe needle head to the Ievelofthe upperedge ofthe sinker
belly,the oId loop joinsthe new warp yarn which isunderthe needle hook.The guide
needle continuesto m ove away from the m achine centre.

Sinking(l,j):Thisoperation (i.e.bendingthe new warpyarnwhich isunderthe needle

hook)iseffected byfurtherneedle Iowering.
8. Casting-of'f(i):The needle stem with the sliding latch Iowersbelow the upperedge of
the sinkerbelly.The old Ioop with the sliding latch is cast on to the new ly form ed loop
w hich isunderthe needle hook.

9. Loopforming(i):Theneedlecontinuestomovedownward.
10.Draw - off(j):Draw - offiscarried outonfurtherrotation ofthe machine'smain shak
and needle Iift.Asthe needle Iifts,the yarn m ay be drawn from the newly form ed Ioop
to the guide.
 W EFT KNIU ING M ACHINES

M ainfeaturesofa knitting m achine:

A knitting machine is thus an apparatus forapplying m echanicalmovem ent,either hand or
power derived, to primary knitting elements, in order to convert yarn into kni tted Ioop
structures.The m achine incorporatesand co - ordinatesthe action ofa num berofmechanism s
and devices,each performing specific functions thatcontribute towardsthe efficiency ofthe
knittingaction.

The main featuresofa knitting machine are listed below:

@ Frame:The frame,normally free - standing and eithercircularor rectilinearaccording

to needle bed shape, provides the support for the majority of the machines
mechanisms.
* Powersupply:The machine controland drive system co -ordinatesthe powerforthe
drive ofthe devicesand mechanisms.
* Yarn supply or feeding: The yarn supply consists of the yarn package or beam
accomm odation,tensioning devices,yarnfeed controland yarn feed carriersorguides.
* Knitting action:The knitting system includesthe knitting elem ents,theirhousing,drive
and control, as wellas associated pattern selection and garm ent - Iength control
devices(ifequipped).
@ Fabric Take - away:The fabric take away mechanism includesfabrictensioning,wind -
up and accom modation devices.
* Quality control:The quality control system includes stop motions, fault detectors,
automaticoilersand Iintrem ovalsystems.

M achines may range from high - production,Iimited - capability modelsto versatile,multi

-
purpose modelshaving extensive patterningcapabilities.The m ore complexthe structure
being knitted,the Iowerthe knitting speed and efficiency.The sim plest of the knitting
machines would be hand - powered and m anipulated whereas power- driven m achines
may be fully autom atically- program med and controlled from acomputersystem .

Classification ofweftknitting m achines:

W eftknittingm achinesare divided intothe severalwaysasfollows:

A. Accordingto the frame design and needle bed arrangementorconstruction

1. Circularknitting machine
ll. Flatknitting m achine
355
B. According to the num berofneedle bed ornum berofneedle setused
1. Single Jersey knitting m achine
II. Double Jersey knitting m achine

C. According to the end productofthe weftknitting m achine

1. Fabric m achine
II. Garm entIength m achine
D. According to the basic structure ofthe w eftknitting
1. PlainorSinglejerseycircularknittingm achine
II. Rib CircularorFlatknitting m achine
111. Interlock circularknitting nhachine
IV. Links-linksorPurlflatorcircularknitting m achine
E. According to the typesofneedle used
1. Knitting m achine equipped w ith Latch needle
a. Circularknitting m achine
One needle bed
Plain,Single-jerseyjacquard,Pifeand Sliverknitmachine
Two needle beds(Dial-cylindermachine)
Rib,lnterlock,Double-jerseyjacquard macbine
Double cylinder
Purlknitting m achine
b. Flat-bed knitting m achine
One needle bed
Dom estic type

Tw o needle beds
Vee-bed,Flat purlknitting m achine
Knitting m achine equipped w ith Spring Bearded needle
a. Circularknitting m achine
O ne needle bed
Sinkerw heel,Loop w heelfram e
b. Straightbarfram e
One needle bed and Two needle beds
Cotton'sPatentorFully-fashioned m achine
FlatKnitting M achine:
Generalstructureofa Flatknitting machine:

The Fram e:
-
The needle beds
-
Conceptofmachine gauge
- The carriage and yarn guides
- Feedingtheyarn
-
The take-down device
-
Selectingthe needles
-Selection ofhigh and Iow butts
* M ain Features:
Flatknitting machine hastwo stationary needle beds
Latch needlesare used
Angularcamsofa bi-directionalcam system isused
The cam system isattached to the underside ofa carriage,w hichwith
itsselected yarn carriers.
The carriage traversesin a reciprocating manneracrossthe machine
width
There isa separate cam system foreach needle bed
Thetwo cam system sare Iinked togetherby a bridge,which passes
acrossfrom one needle bed to the other.
Normally m achine gauge is3to 18 needlesperinch and m achine
width up to 79 inches.
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357
AdvantagesofFlatknitting machine:
The flat machine isthe mostversatile ofweftknitting m achines,itsstitch potential
includes needle selection on one orboth beds,racked stitches,needle-outdesi gns,
striping,tubularknitting,changesofknitting width and Iooptransfer.
A wide range ofyarn counts may be knitted permachine gauge including a ium ber
ofends ofyarn in one knitting system,the stitch Iength range is wide and there is
the possibility ofchangingthe m achine gauge.
* The operation and supervision ofthe machinesofthe sim plertype is relatively Iess
arduoustbanforotherweftknitting machines.
* The number of garm ents or panels simultaneously knitted across the m achine is
dependent upon itsknitting width,yarn carrierarrangem ent,yarn path and package
accomm odation.

UsesofFlatknitting machines:
Articlesknitted on flat machines range from trim m ings,edgingsand collarsto garment
panels and integrally knitted garments.The common products:jumpers,pullovers,
cardigans,dresses,suits,trouser suits,hats,scarves,accessories,ribs for straight-bar
machines(fullyfashionedmachines).Cleaningclothes,three-dimensionalandfashioned
productsfortechnicalapplications,multiaxialm achinesare underdevelopment.

ClassificationsofFlatmachines:
M achines range from hand propelled and manipulated m odels to fully-autom ated
electronically controlled power driven machines. The four classes of flat knitting
m achinesare:

a) TheVee-bedflatwhichisbyfartheiargestclass;
b) FlatbedpurlmachineswhichemploydoubleendedordoubleheadedIatchneedles
c) Machineshaving asingle bed ofneedleswhich include mostdomesticmodelsand
the few hand m anipulated intarsia m achines
d) Theuni-directionalmulti-carriagemachinesmadebyonemanufacturer,

a) Vee-bedFlatknittingmachine:
Vee-bed flatknitting m achinesare widely used forthe production ofsweater,collar-
cuff, etc. This machine describe in details in the following chapter of sweater
knitting.
'

b)FlatPurlknittingmachine:
(
Flat purlorIinks-links m achine with double-headed Iatch needles are Iesscom mon (
than Vee- bed typesto which they aresim ilarin m ethod ofoperation. k
j
L
 e' :
: ! t m

358
* They share with Vee-bed type very good patterning scope, increasing shaping
potentialand relatively Iow productivity.
End-usesand m achinetypesshow slightly lessdiversity than Vee-bed equipmentbut
hand operated typesand circular-flatpurlm achinesexist.

c)DomesticSinglebedFlatmachine:
* These machinesare no longerproduced forindustrialuse.
The needles are actuated by cams mounted in a carriage traversed by hand.
Patterning and abilityto shapethe fabricdepend upon manualoperations.
A typicalm achine hasa36 inch working widthw ith 5to 6 needlesperinch.

Circularknitting m achine;
The term circular covers aII those weft knitting m achines whose needle beds are
arranged in circularcylindersand / ordials,including latch,spring bearded and very
occasionally com pound needle m achinery, producing a wide range offabric structures,
garm ents,hosiery and otherarticlesin avariety ofdiam etersand m achinegauges.

Featuresofa Circularknitting machine:

Thecomm on featuresofa circularknitting machine asfollows:

* Circularknittingmachinenormallyhasrotating(clockwise)cylindricalneedle bed (s).

* On circuiar knitting machines latch and com pound needles are used. 0ne seldom
finds bearded needles or other needle types. Norm ally one ortwo sets of Latch
needlesare used.
@ Forsingle-jerseymachine holdingdownsinkersare used,onebetween everyneedle
space.
* Norm allystationary angularcam systemsare used forneedle and sinker.
* Latch needlecylinderandsinkerring(forsingle-jerseymachine)/dial(fordouble-
jersey rib and interlock machine) revolve through the stationary knitting cam
system .
@ Forsingle-jersey machine,sinkertrickring which issimplyand directlyattached to
the out6ide top ofthe needle cylinderthus causing the sinkersto revolve in unison
with the needles.
Needle retaining spring isalso used
* Stationaryyarn feedersare situated atregularintervalsaround the circumference of
the rotating cylinder,
* Yarn is supplied from cones,placed eitheron an integraloverhead bobbin stand or
on a freestanding creelthrough tensioners, stop m otiohsand yarn guide eyesdow n
to the yarn feederguides.
359
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(b)

knitting machlne,b-Needles are ptaced

'
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lonsofd1.ajandcylinderneedles.
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to 30 'lnches.U1:1to 60 inch dl
The follow ingfeaturesofa modern circularfabric producing machinethatensure th
high quality fabricis knitted at speed w ith the m inim um ofsupervision:
* The top and bottom stop m otions are spring-loaded yarn supports that pi&
dow nw ards when the yarn end breaks oritstension isincreased.Thisaction releaï
the surplus yarn to the feeder, thus preventing a press-off, and sim ultaneou
com pletes a circuit w hich stops the m achine and illum inates an indicator warn

* l
Various
ight. spring-loaded detector points are carefully positioned around the cylind
according to theirparticularfunction.A pointeris tripped to stop the m achine i
fault orm alfunctioning elem entsuch as a yarn slub,fabric lum p,needle head,ja

* spoon,
Thetape positivefeedprovidesthreedifferentspeeds(courselengths)and isdri
etc.

* and ccan
The be adj
ylinder ustedefcrom
needl am t
shetdr
ys emi
ve arr
for angemen
each feedt.
is contained in a single replace;
sectionand having an exterioradjustmentforthestitchcam slide.
* The autom atic lubrication system .
*
@ Star
Thet,cstop
am and
-driveninching
fabricbut
w itons.
nding dow n m echanism , which revolves w ith the fj

tube.
 OveraIIview ofa M odern Circularknittingm achine

* The revolution counters for each of the three shifts and a pre-set counter for
stoppingthemachineoncompletionofaspecificfabricIength(incourses).
@ Normally side creelisused.
* Lint bloweris used.This reducejthe incidence of knitted-in Iint slubs,to improve
quality when using open-end spun yarns.lt also reduces cross-contam ination by
fibresfrom othermachines.

ProductsofCircularknitting m achine:

Fabric machines:rolls offabric with the following end-uses:jackets,ladi

es'tops,spods
and T-shirts, casual wear, suits, dresses, swim wear, bath robes,
dressing gowns, track suits, jogging suits, furnishing, upholstery,
automotive and technicalfabrics,household fabrics.
Garmentblank machines:Underwear,T-shirts,jumpers,pullovers,cardigans,dresses,
suits, trouser suits, vests, briefs, thermal wear, cleaning cloths, 'C
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361
classifitatidnofiirtularknittingmathines:
There are
- three typesofcircularknitting m achines .

a) Revolvingtylinderlattbneedlemachines:
They produce mostweftknitted fabrics.They are oftwo main types-

1. OpentoporSinkçrtoporSinglejerseymachines'
lI. Dialand cylindermachine
Open top machineshaveone setofneedlesusuallyarranged in the cylinder.
Except in the case ofcertain effed fabric m achines such as pelerine,cylinderànd
dialmachinesare ofeitherthe rib orinterlock type.
M achinesofboth typesm ay orm aynothave patterning capabilities.

b) Revolvingcylinderbeardedneedlesingle-jerseyfabritmathine:
There are two types ofcircularbearded needle single-jersey fabric machines still
manufactured,
The SinkerW heelm achine orFrench orTerrottype machine.
The Loop wheelframe orEnglish type m achine.

Both havethe following featuresin com m on:

@ Needlesare fixed in needle bed.
* Revolving needle bed
* Ancillary elem entsm ovingyarn and Ioopsalongthe needle stem s.
Fabrictube knitted with itstechnicalbackfacing outwards.
* Lessnumberoffeedersaccom m odates.
* Com parativel y Iow productivity com pensated by an ability to produce unusual
and superiorquality knitted structures.

c) CirculargarmentIengthmachines:
* They are generally of body-width size or larger having a cylinder and dial
arrangem entora double cylinder.
@ They are of the sm all-diam eter hosiery type with either a single cylinder, a
cylinderand dialordouble cylinders.

FabricM achine:
The fabricmachine hasthe following main features:
* Circular m achines,knitting tubular fabric in a continuous uninterrupted Iength of
constantwidth.
 362
Large diameter,Iatchneedlemachines,knitfabricathigh speed(also known asyard
goodsorpiecegoodsmachines).
The fabric is m anually cut away from the machine; usually in rollform , after a
convenientIength hasbeen knitted.
Mostfabric isknitted on circularmachines,eithersingle-cylinder(single-jersey)or
cylinderand dial(double-jersey),oft'
he revolving needle cylindertype,because of
theirhigh speed and productive efficiency.
* Sinkerw heeland loop wheelframes could knit high quality special ty fabrics, with
bearded needles,although circular machines em ploying bearded needles are now
obsolete.The production ratesofthese machineswere uncom petitive.
Unlessused in tubularbody-width,the fabrictube requiressplitting into open width.
@ The fabric is finished on continuous finishing equipment and is cut-and-sewn into
garm ents,oritis used forhousehold and technicalfabrics.
* The productivi ty, versatility and patterning facilities of fabric m achines vary
considerably.
* Generally cam settingsand needle set-outsare notaltered duringthe knitting ofthe
fabric.

Garm ent-length m achines:

The garm ent-length machine hasthe following main features:

* They include straightbarframes,mostflats,hosiery,Ieg wears and glove m achines,

and circulargarmentmachinesincluding sweaterstrip m achines. .
They knitting garment-length sequences,which have a tim ing orcounting device to
initiate an additional garment-length programming (collectively termed ''the
machine control/
')mechanism.This co-ordinates the knitting action to produce a
garment-length structuralrepeat sequence in a wale-wise direction.The garm ent
width may ormaynotvarywith inthe garm entIength.
Theyare coarsergauge m achine thanfabric machines.
ltautomayically initiatesany alteration to the otherfacilitieson the machine needed
to knita garm ent-length construction sequence instead ofa continuousfabric.
The m achine controlmay have to initiate correctly-tim ed changes in som e oraIIof
thefollowing:
Cam-settings,needle set-outs,feedersand machine speeds.

Itmustbe ableto override and cancelthe effectofthe patterning m echanism in rib

bordersandbeeasilyadjustablefordifferentgarmentsizes. .
The fabric take-down m echanism m ust be more sophisticated than forcontinuous
fabricknitting.
* Thistake-dow n m echanism hasto adaptto varying rates ofproduction dtlring the
knittingofthe sequence and,on som e m achinesbe able to assistboth in the setting
363
up on em pty needles and the take-away of separate garments or pieces on
com pletion ofthe sequence.
* Garm entsm ay be knitted to size eitherin tubularoropen-width;in the lattercase
more than one garm ent panelmay be knitted sim ultaneously across the knitting
bed.
@ Large-diametercircularm achinesand wide Vee-bed flat machinescan knitgarment
blanksthatarelattersplitintotwoormoregarmentwidths(blanket-widthknitting).
* They produce knitwear, outerwear and underwear. Underwear may be knitted
eitherin garm ent-length orfabric form,w hereas knitwearis normally in garm ent-
Iength form, w hich is a generic term applied to most weft knitted outerwear
garments such as pullovers,jumpers,cardigans and sweaters,usually knitted in
machine gauges coarserthan E14.Jersey wear is a generic nam e applied to weft
knittedfabric(single-jersey,doublejersey).ltiscutandmade-upfrom fabricusually
knittedonlargecircularmachines(26*or30*diameter),althoughthereareIarger
and smallerdiameterm achinesused.Generally,gaugesarefinerthan E14.
Plain orSingledersey CircularLatch Needle Knitting M achine:
Description ofthe m achine:
Plainfabricisasinglejerseyfabricand isproduced byonesetofneedle.Mostofsingle-jersey
fabric is produced on circular machines whose latch needle cylinder and sinker ring revolve
through the stationary knitting cam system s, which together w i th their yarn feeders are
situated atregularintervalsaroundthe circum ference ofthecylinder.
The yarn is supplied from cones,placed eitheron an integraloverhead bobbin stand oron a
free- standingcreel,through tensioners,stop motionsand guide eyesdown to the yarn feeder
guides.The fabric,in tube form ,isdrawn downwardsfrom insidethe needle cylinderbytension
rollers and is wound onto the fabric batching rollerofthe w inding down frame.The winding
down m echanism revolves in unison with the cylinder and fabric tube and is rack - Iever
operated via cam -followersrunning onthe undersideofa profiled cam ring.
Asthe sinkercam - plate is mounted outside on the needle circle,the centre ofthe cylinderis
open and the m achine isreferred to asan open top orsinkertop m achine.Com pared with a rib
machine,a plain m achine is simplerand m ore econom icalwith a potentialofm ore feeders,
higherrunning speeds and the possibility of knitting a widerrange of yarn counts.The most
populardiameteris26''givingan approximatefinished fabricwidth of60''to 70''.
n2
An approximatel
y suitable countm ay be obtained usingthe form ula Ne= F-.,where Ne= cotton
-
18
countorEnglish system and G = gauge in npi.Forfinegaugesa heavierand strongercountm ay
be necessary.
Thefollowingfigureshowsacross-sectionofthe knittinghead alIofwhosestationarypartsare
shaded.
 1. Yarn feederguide which isassociated with i
tsoWn setofknittingcams.
2. Latch needle
3. Holding - down sinker,one between every needle space
4. Needlecylinder(inthiscase,revolvingclockwise)
5 Cylinderdriving wheel

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6. Cylinderdrivinggear
7. Sinkeroperating cam sw hich form a raised trackoperating inthe recessofthe sinker
8. Sinkercam - cap
9. Sinker trick ring which is sim ply and directly attached to the outside top ofthe
needle cylinderthuscausing the sinkersto revolve in unison with the needles
10.Needle retaining spring
11.Needle- operating camswhich,likethe sinkercam sare stationary
12.Cam - box
13.Cam - plate
14.Head plate
15.Cylinderdriving pinion attached to the main drivingshaft.
Cam system :
The cam system consistsofneedle cam system and sinkercam system .The following figure
show sthe arrangem entand r.elationship betw een the needle cam sand sinkercam sasthe . ',
365
elem entspassthrough in a Iek to rightdirection with the Ietters indicating the positionsofthe
elem entsatthe variouspointsinthe knittingcycle.
The needle cam race consistsofthefollowings,
1. Theclearing cam orraising cam
2. Stitch orIowering cam
3. Upthrow cam
4. Guardcam ofclearingcam (1)
5. Return cam and
6. Guardcam ofreturncam (5)
Stitch cam (2)and upthrow cam (3)are verticallyadjustabletogetherforalteration of
stitch Iength.

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The sinkercam race consistsofthe followings,

7. The race cam
8. The sinker- withdrawing cam and
9. The sinker- return cam

Thesinker- returncam isadjustableinaccordancewiththestitchlength.

The arrangementofthe knittingelem ents:
The following figuresshow the arrangem entofthe knitting elementsandtheircombined action
duringstitch formation ona plaincircularknittingmachine.Thefigure (a)showsaperspective
ofa cylindercam ofa plain circularknitting machine asseenfrom outside;Figure (b)isa
persped ive ofthe related sinkercam asseen from above.ln both the figures im portantneedle
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a cam track 5,is responsible forits verticalmovem entneeded forstitch formation. The tam
segments 6 and 7 are fixed to a stationary cylindercam covering 8 and form the cam track.
During the rotary movement of the cylinder the needle obtains its vertical movement
dependingontheshapeofthecam trackinfigure(a).A sinkerring9 isplacedonthetoppart
ofthe needle cylinder3', itrotateswith the cylinder.Holding-down orknocking-pversinkers 11
are housed in radialgrooves10 and theycrosswiththe cylinderneedles.

Figure - a Fi
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Position - 1 Restposition, Position - 2 :Tucking - in position,Position- 3 Clearing posi
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Position- 4 :Yarn presenting position, Position- 5 :Cast- on position,Position- 6:Knock- overposition

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367
These sinkers obtained their m ovem ents for stitch form ation by m eans of the sinker cam
segment 12,which is fixed to a stationaw sinkercam ring 13.In the construction shown,the
sinkercam ring 13 is Ioosely housed on the sinkerring 99the holding fixture prevents itfrom
turning round.The sinkerthroat 15 ofthe holding-dow n orknocking-over sinker holds down
the fabric when the needle is moved upwards.The stitchesare knocked overatthe knock-over
edge 16.Thefeeder17 presentsthe yarnto the needles.

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Position - 1:The rest position is shown in the following figure.The top edge ofthe
needle head ison levelwitb the knock- overedge ofthe holding - down orknocking-
oversinker.The latterhasbeen m oved towardsthe cylindercentre to such an extent,
thatitsthroatholdsdown the sinkerloop ofthe kinked yarn Ioop,presentinthe needle
head.
Position -2:Thisposition isshow n in the figure below.The needle has been m oved
upwardsfrom i tsrestposition,wherebythe fabricwasheld down in the sinkerthroat.
 r176
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The oId Ioop has opened the needle Iatch and Iies on it. The arrangem entofthe #arrt')y
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feederpreventstheclosing ofthe Iatch w hen the needle ism ovedfurtherup cl l .

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restsinthisposition.

Position - 3:From the tucking-in position the needle has now been moved into its
highestposition.Since the fabrichad been held down bythe throatofthesinker, the oId
Ioop slideson the needle stem to a position beneath the Iatch. The yarn feederprevents
aclosing ofthe Iatch.The sinkerremainsatrest.

Position - 4:The needle is moved down from the clearing position. Justbeforé the old
Ioop begins to close the Iatch the new yarn m ust be Iaid into the needle head by the
yarn feeder.In orderthatthe Iatch can be closed by a furtherdownward m ovementof
the needle, yarn feeding m ust be completed im mediately after crossing the yarn
presenting position.In the figure,the sinkerbegins moving towardsthe rightand away
from the cylinder centre, since the fabric no Ionger needs to be held by the sinker
throat.The verticalposition ofthe needle isthe same in the yarn presenting position
and the tucking-in position.The fundam entaldifference, however,isthatinthe tucking-
in position the oId Ioop from the previous row Iies on the needle Iatch, butis beneath
the Iatch forstitch formation inthe yarn presenting position.
* Position - 5:From the yarn presenting position the needle ism oved furtherdownwards
by meansofthe take-down segment18along with the counterguide segm ent19, figure
(a).Now theneedl
e latchisclosedbytheoIdIoopandthenew yarnisheld intheclosed
needle head.The sinkerhasbeen m oved into itsextreme rightposition, so thatthe oId
Ioop Iieson the knock-overedge and the new yarncan be pulled through the old Ioop.

* Position - 6:The needle is moved furtherdow iwards by meansofthe take-down cam

segment 18 and the counterguide segment19,fi
gure (a)and itpullsthe new yarn
through the old Ioop.Thisisnow knocked overasa new stitch. Atthe same time a Ioop
isform ed by the new yarn.The take-down segment 18 and the counterguide segm ent
19 can be shifted diagonally and be exactly setto given valuesw i
th the help ofa scale.
Thusitispossibleto preciselyadjusttheIengthofthenewlyformedIoop .

SinkerTim ing:
The mostforward position ofthe sinkerduringthe knitting cycle isknown asthe push pointand
itsrelationshipto the needlesisknown asthe sinkertiming.

Ifthesinkercam ring isadjusted so thatthe sinkersare advancedto the pointwherethey rob

yarn from the new stitches being formed, a lighter-weight fabric with oversized sinker lpops
and smallerneedle Ioopsisproduced.
lfthe ring ismoved in the opposite direction atighter, heavierfabric isproduced having sm aller
sinkerIoopsand Iargerneedle Ioops.Thetim ing isnorm allysetbetween thesetwo extremom
369
Rib CircularKnitting M achine:
Destription ofthe machine:
In thism achinegroup there isone setofneedleson thecircumference ofaverticalcylinderand
a second setof needles,arranged perpendicularto the first setand mounted on a horizontal
dial.On m ostofthe circularknitting machinesthe cylinderand dialrotate,w hereas the cams
with yarn feederguidesare stationary.
The followingfigure showsa cross-sectionalview ofthe region containingthe knitting elem ents
ofa rib (double knit)circularknitting machine.The set-up ofthe cylinder3 with itsknitting.
elements1to9isthesameaswithplaincircularknittingmachines.lnahorilontal(rib)dial10
grooves11 are m illed in.The latch needles12are housed and guided in these grooves.The dial
needle 12 obtainsits motion forstitch formation througb its butt 13,which extendsinto a cam
track 14.Thiscam track 14 isformed by the cam parts 15 and 17,which in turn are fixed to a
dialcam plate 18.During the rotation ofthe cylinder and the dialthe cylinder needle 1 is
moved vertically and tbe dialneedle 12 is m oved horizontally,corresponding to the shape of
the cam trackinthe cylinderand dialcams.
ln agauge rangefrom 5to 20 needleperinch(npi),anapproximatelysuitablecountmaybe
G2
obtained usingtheformulaNe= u ,whereNe=cottoncountorEnglishsystem andG =npi.
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Needle gatingorsetting orCoordination betw een cylinderand dialgrooves:
Depending on the coordination betweenthe cylindergroove and the (rib)dialgroove one
differentiates between the ribsettingforthe production ofdoubleknitfabricsand the interlock
settingfortheproductionofdoubleknitlocked fabrics(interlockfabrics).
* Rib gating:The follow ing figure showsthissetting in a frontview and in a top view.Thè
grooves1 to 6 ofthe dial(Y)and the grooves1to 6 ofthecylinder(Z)are alternately
arranged or gated. W ith this arrangement the cylinder and dial needles cross one
another.In any given working point(feeder)aIlthe cylinderand dialneedlescan be
used.The majority of circular knitting machines work with a rib setting.They are
generally called rib m achines;those of them in the gauge range E14 to E20 are also
called fine rib machines.
* Interlotk gating:Frontand top views of this setting or gating are show n in thesfigure
below,whereasfigure (with needles)illustratesitatanangle.Infigurethe grooves1to
6ofthedial(Y)arealigneddirectlyoppositetothegrooves1to 6 ofthe cylinder(Z).As
such,thecylinderand bialneedlesare also directlyoneoppositetothe other,figure
(with needles).Therefore atanygiven working point(feeder),cylinderand dialneedles
opposite to one anothercan neverwork atthe same tim e,because they would-collide
while being cleared,figure (withneedles).Related to aworkingpoint(feeder),itisthus
norm alusagein interlocksettingto work with
Dialneedlesin grooves1,3,5,...
Cylinderneedlesin grooves2,4,6,...
Dialneedlesin grooves 2,4,6,...
Cylinderneedlesin grooves 1,3,5,...
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Wo rkingwi thaninterlocksettingthereforerequirestwosortsofneedl esi nthecylinder l
and in the dial,and these have to be controlled and cleared independently.One sortof '
.
needle is normally prejent in the grooves 1,3,5,.. and the other needle sort in the
grooves2,4,6,...However,otherneedle combinationsare also possible.

Infigure (with needles)theneedletypeszland zkinthe cylinder(Z)andtheneedle

types yk and ylin the dial(Y)have differently arranged needle butts.The distance
betweenneedleheadandneedlebutt(workinglength)isnotthesame.0nealsorefers
to a shortdialneedle yk and a Iong dialneedle ylorto a shortcylinderneedle zkand a
Iongcylinderneedlezl.The needle arrangementinfigure(with needle)issuch,thata
Iong cylinderneedle zlisdirectly opposite to a shortdialneedle yk and a shortcylinder
needle zk is directly opposite to a Iong dialneedle yI.As a result,the short dialand
cylinderneedlesare gated towardsone another,and similarl y the Iong dialand cylinder
needles.Atanygiven working point(feeder)one can work eitherwith aIItheshort
needlesorw ith aIIthe Iong needles.Correspondingly,one also refersto a shortorto a
Iongfeeder.Double knit(rechts- rechts)interlockmachinesare normally builtasrib
m achineswith finergauges.
Conversionfrom Ribto Interlock gating:

As a rule rib machines can be converted into interlock m achines when they have atIeasttwo
different needl: types both in the cylinder and in the dial,whereby these needles can be
independently controlled.A clutch in the drive forthe cylinder and the dialis used to turn
eitherthe cylinderorthe dialoverhalfa needle pi tch,so thatthe cylinderand dialneedlesare
directly opposite to one another.The working procedure atany given feederis now the same
asin the usualinterlocksetting.Theoretically,interlock machinescan also be converted into rib
m achines in the same manner.Interlock machinesare howevernorm ally in a finergauge range.
W hen cylinderand dialneedlescrossone anotherin rib setting,there would be very Iittlespace
inbetween,andthiscould Ieadtostrainanddamageofyarns.Generallydoubleknit(rechts-
rechts)circularknittingmachineswithaninterlocksettinghavegaugesfinerthan224.
Needle Tim ing orCoordination betw een cylinderand dialcam s:
Needle tim ing isthe position ofthe dialneedle knock-overpointrelativeto the cylinderneedle
knock-over point measured as a distance between the knock-over points ofthe two lowering
cams,i.e.thecylinderanddialsti
tch cams,in needles.Collectivetimingadjustmentisachieved
by m oving the dialcam plate clockwise or anti-clockwise relative to the cylinder, individual
adjustmentatparticularfeedersasrequiredisobtainedbymovingorexchangingthestitchcam
profile.Depending on the coordination between the cylinderand dialcam s,one differentiates
betweensynchronizedtiming(alsoknownaspoint,jacquardor2x2timing)anddelayedtiming
(alsoreferredtoasriborinterlocktiming).
Needle timing influence the appearance,the quality and propertiesofthe fabric produced on a
rib circularknitting m achine.
 '
372
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Synthronized timing:
The cylinderand the dialneedles knock-overtheirknitted Ioopsatthe sam etim e. ltisthe term
used when the two positionscoincidi withtheyarn being pulled in an alternating mannerin
two directionsbytbe needlesthuscreating a hi
gh tension during loop form ation.
In thiscase the importantthingsthat''the knocking-overdepth ofthe cylinderneedles isequal
tothe knocking-overdepthofthe dialneedles.

. N ZKzz .
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Synchronized tim ing Delayedtim ing

W hen this tim ing is used the cylinderand dialneedles are pulled in the sam e position. The
knocking-over position is attained at the same point by the cylinder and dial needles.
Synchronizedtimingcanbeused onallmachinesandfoiaIIrib and interlockknittedstrudures
except:
* Thosewith Iaid-in yarns
* Sim ultaneoustuckingatcylinderand dialneedles
* Riband interlockbased pile fabrics.
373
Structures knitted using synchronized tim ing w illbe loose and consistofuneven stitches.
The following figures illustrate the phasesofstitch orIoop form ation on a rib circularknitting
machine workingwith synchronized tim ing.
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Pos.7 Cdlt-on position
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Delayed timing: , . ,;

Thedialneedlesknock-overtheirknittedIoopsIaterthanthecorrespondingcylinderneéàles.
?
W ith delayed timingthe dialknock-overoccursafteraboutfourcylindernee'
dleshave drain'
loops and are rising slightly to relieve the strain.The dialIoops are thus com posed bf the
extended Ioopsdrawnoverthedialneedle stemsduiing cylinderknock-oker,plusa little yain
robbed from the cylinderloops.The dialIoops are thus largerthan the cylinderIoopsand the
fabricistighterandhasbettérrijidity,itisalsoheavierandwiderandIessstrainisproducedon
theyarn.Sotheadvantigesofusingdelayedtimingasfollows:
Tightstructure
* Evenlyformqd stitches
* èoodrigidity
* Heavierand widerfabric
@ Lessstrain on theyarn during the sti
tch form ation
Longerdialstitchescom pared to cylinderstitches.
The knocking-overdepth ofthe cylinderneedle m ustbe ktimesthe knocking-overdepth ofthe
(ji1,Irl(,t?($I(, l!,#1(,rtq1:cz1L.;!..............1L.6;.
Ribjacquardorbroad ribscannotbe produced in delayedtimingbecausethere willnotalways
be cylipderneedles knitting eitherside ofthe dialneedlesfrom which to draw yarn.Although
'
dialknock-overis delayed,it is actually achieved by advancing the tim ing ofthe cylinder
kpock-over.
r

W hen thistiming isset,the dialneedles knockovertheirIoops Iaterthan the cylinderneedles

Iying opposite to them .Based on the synchronous tim ing,the dialcamplate is moved in the
direction ofrotation ofthe machine overa distance equaling aboutfive to six needle pitches.
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Pos.5 Cast-on position ofcvlinderneedle
Pos.5 Knock-overm sït/cm ofcvlinderneedle
' . Pos. 7 Càst-on position 0/dialneedl*
- .-.- ' Pos.8 Knock-overposition ofdialneedle
375
The bove figure showsa cylinderand adialcam setfordelayed timing.The knock-overpointof
the dialneedles,position'8, is shifted in the direction of rotation ofthe machine overthe
distance correspondingto the delayed tim ing,in relationto the knockoverpointofthe cylinder
needles,position 6.On a circularknitting machine setfordelayed timing onlysuch fabrictypes
can be produced,where alIthe cylinder needles work in each feeder.Iffabrics are produced
using only everysecond cylinderneedle,knitting can be carried outin an interm ediate position.
Forthis purpose the knock-overpointofthe dialneedles is shifted overjusttwo orthree
needle pitches with regard to the knock-overpointofthe cylinderneedles.Asa rule,knitting
with delayed tim ing results in fabrics with a more even loop appearance as com pared to
synchronoustiming.
Thefollow ing figuresshow thevariousstitch form ation phasesofa rib circularknitting m achine
with delayed tim ing.They differto some extentascom paredto synchronoustiming.
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Stitch orIoop form ation ofRib circularknitting m achine with delayed timing
Posi
tion - 1:The rest position for the cylinder and dialneedles.The heads of both these
needlesare inthe areaofthe corresponding knock-overedgesofthe cylinderand the dial.
Position - 2:The dialand cylinderneedles move more orlesssimultaneously into theirtucking
positions,ascan beseen in the abovefigure,posi
tion 2.
Position- 3:Afterthelatchesofthe dialand cylinderneedleshave been opened in thetucking
position,the yarn feedercom esinto action in circum ferentialdirection;itstask here isto
 376
preventa premature closing ofthe Iatches.The cylinderand dialneedles attain theirclearing
positions,above figure,position 3, roughlyatthe sam etime.
Position - 4:The cylinderand dialneedlesare pulled backagain and they m ove into theiryarn
presenting positions.The newly presented yarn is Iaid in the open needle hooks ofboth the
needles,abovefigure,pqsition4.
Position - 5:Since the dialcams have been shifted in the direction ofrotation ofthe m achine
thecylinderneedlesare pulled earlierthanthe dialneedles. The cylinderneedle Ioop closesthe
latch and lieson the closed head ofthe cysinderneedle. The dialneedle is approximately in its
yarn presenting position,above figure,position 5. The yarn feederstops priorto the cast-on
position,so thatthe cylinderneedle Iatch can be closed.
Position - 6:The cylinderneedle ispulled furtheruntilitreachesitsIowestpointin the clearing
position,as shown in the above figure, position 6.The dialneedle is stillroughl
y in its yarn
presenting position.The newly presented yarn is pulled through the cylinder needle loop to
form a new Ioop.The oId loop is knocked over as a cylinderstitch. The Iength of this new
cylinderIoop determ inesthe Iength ofthe cylinderand dialsti tchesto be formed Iater, since
the dialneedle can obtain yarn only from the nei ghbouring cylinderIoops during knock-over.
Thefefore the drawing-in depth ofthe cylinderneedle issetsom ewhatIongerin delayed timing
ascom pared to synchronoustiming.
Position - 7:The dialneedle is rïow pulled back and itm oves into the cal on position,above
-

figure position 7;the loop lies on the closed Iatch of the dialneedle. From its knock-over
positionthe cylinderneedle now beginsto move upwardsin thedirection ofitsrestposition.
Position - 8:ln thisposition, the diasneedle attainsits knock-overposition, while the cylinder
needle is stillapproaching its rest position. Here the drawing-in depth ofthe dialneedle m ust
be sufficiently measured so thatthe dialneedle can form a Ioop outofthe yarn Iengthsofthe
cylinder Ioops, drawn in earlier by the neighbouring cylinder needles in their knock-over
positions,position 6.A closerexam ination revealsthat, while being pulled back,the dialneedle
drawsin more yarnfrom the cylinderIoop placed contrary to the direction ofmachine rotation
,
as com pared to the other neighbouring cylinder Ioop, since the Iatter has already given up a
partofitsyarn reserve to the previouslyformeddialIoop.
Due to thedelayed knock-overofthe dialneedle one obtainsmore uniform stitch Iengths, since
the given yarn length,determ ined by the drawing-in depth ofthe cylinder needle, is evenly
distributed overseveralstitches. Thisresultsin a m ore even appearance ofthe fabric. Afterthe
knock-overpositionthedialneedle isguided into itsrestposition.
Advanted tim ing:
This isreverse ofdelayed tim ing in thatthe cylinderIoopsrob from the dialproducing tighter
dialIoops,advancementcan only be aboutone needle, thistype oftim ing issometimes used in
theproduction offigured ripple doublejerseyfabricswhere selected cylinderneedlescan rob
from the aIIknittingdialneedles.
377
lnterlock CircularKnitting M achine:
M ain featuresofInterlock m achine:
lntérlock isproduced mainly on specialcylinderand dialcircularmachinesand on some double-
system Vee-bed flatmachines.An interlockmachine m ustfulfillthefollowing requirements:
lnterlock gating,the needlesintwo bedsm ustbe exactlyopposite to each otherso only
one ofthetwo can knitatanyfeeder.
Two separate cam systems in each bed,each controllinghalfthe needlesin an alternate
sequence,one cam system controls knitting at one feederand the other at the next
feeder.
* The needlesare setoutalternately,one controlled from one cam system the nextfrom
the other,diagonaland notopposite needlesin each bed knittogether.
The conventionalinterlock machine has needles oftwo differentIengths,Iong needles knitin
one camztrack and shortneedleskni t in a track nearerto the needle heads.Long needle cams
are arranged forknitting atthe firstfeederand shortneedle cam s atthe second feeder.The
needles are set-outalternately in qach bed with long needlesopposite to shortneedles.Atthe
firstfeederlong needles in cylinderand dialknit,and atthe second feedershortneedles knit
together, needles not knitting at a feederfollow a run-through track.On modern interlock
m achinesthe needlesare ofthe same length.
The knitting action orStitch formation ortoopform ation ofCircularInterlock M athine:
A very popularvariantofa circulartwo needle-bed m achine is the interlock machine.ln the
interlock m achines,the consecutive loop-forming process is effected w i
th distribution.ln this
case,the needlesofboth beds(systems)operateconsecutivelyand then afteracertaindelay
on the passive needle bed (dial).The active needle bed isthat which receivesthe yarn for
forming loopsfrom the yarn carrier.
The following figure illustratesthe loop forming process in the interlock m achine where short
cylinderneedlesare designated with 1,2,3,and so on;the long cylinderneedlesare designated
with 1',2/,3'and so on;shor' t dialneedlesw i
th 1,11,11!and so on;long dialneedleswith 1',11',111'
and so on;old loopswith C and the new thread with N.
Upon reaching its extreme top position forclearing,the cylinderneedle 7 starts moving down,
as itm ustrecei
ve the yarn which is being laid.In the course ofthisoperation,the loopsofthe
cylinderand the dialneedlesshiftfrom the needle Iatchesonto theirstems.
ThedialneedleVIl,whichhaseffectedclearing,retreatsbackwardsjustenoughto bringtheoId
loop w hicb itcarriesunderitshook.The needle 8 receives a new Ioop,while the needle VI1
rem ainsatdwell.The needle 9 isshown inthe m om entw hen pressing iseffected and needle
10duringtheoperationsofjoining,casting-offand atthebegihningofIoopforming.Thenew
1%:
Ioop
.
formed ofoncom ingyarn lieson the stem ofthe dialneedlesX and Xl.Atthe sametimeof
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The needle XIçffects Ianding over and the needles 12 and 13 Iift,and as a result,the loops
formed by these needles are released.The needles X6land Xl4Ithus acquire the possibility of
form ing new loopsbyrobbing the yarn from the released Ioops.So,forinstance,the needle XII
startsform ing a new Ioop by reducing the new Ioop ofthe needle 12.The needle 13 and 14
continue theirupward m otion.W hile the needlesXlll,XIV from theirIoops,the needles 15 and
XV have already formed new loops.A fullIoop course on the interlock machine isform ed by
two knittingfeeders.

lnterlotk Cam System:

The cam system consists of cylinder needle cam system and dialneedle cam system .The
following figure showsthe necessary cylinderand dialneedle cam mingJto produce one course .

ofordinary interlockfabric which is actually the work oftwo knitting feeders.ln this example
the dialhas a swing tuck cam which willproduce tucking ifswung out ofthe cam -track and
knittingifin action.
379
fylinder<am system :The cylinderneedle cam system consistsofthe followings,
* A,isa clearing cam which liftsthe needle to clearthe oId Ioops.
B and C,are the stitch and guard cams respectively and are vertically adjustable for
varying stitch length.
* D,isa upthrow cam,to raise cylinderneedlew hilstdialneedle knocksover.
* Eand F,are theguard cams,to com plete the track.
* G and H,provide the trackforthe idling needles.
Dialtam system :The dialneedle cam system consistsofthefollowings,

. 1 a 6
'
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.
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Odd feeder Even feeder

* 1,isa raising cam to the tuckposition only.

* 2and3,aretheadjustabledialknock-overcams.
4,isa guard cam to completethe track.
* 5,isan auxiliary knock-overcam to preventthe dialneedle re-enteringoId loop.
6 and 7,provide the trackforthe idling needles.
8, is a swing type clearing cam,w hich may occupy the knitting position as shown at
feeder1 orthetuckposition asshown atfeeder2.
Interlock thus requires eight cam system s or locks in orderto produce one com plete course,
two cam system sforeach feederin each needle bed.Basic cylinderand dialmachinesand flat-
m achineshavingthisarrangem entare often referred to aseight-lockm achines.
 380
Links-tinksorPurlKnitting M achine
stitchformation orIoop formation on a purlknitting m achine:
Links isthe Germ an word forIeftand itindicatesthatthere are Ieftorreverse Ioopsvisible on
each side ofthe fabric.In a similarmanner,the German term forrib is rechts-rechts (right-
right).
The following figuresshow the m ain loop-forming elem entsare two headed Iatch needlesand
needle sliders.

L
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In flatIinks-linksm achines,the double headed Iatch needlesare arranged in slotsform ed either
by grinding orby inserting tricks cand d in the following figure (a)into specialslotsofthe
needle bedsa and b.The needlesmay passfrom the slotofone needle bed into the slotofthe
other,astheseslotsaredisposedoneoppositetheother.Th&ribsofthepartitionscanddhave
teeth D and Jwhichform a knock-overbar.
Two sliders M and N correspond to each needfe.The slider M can engage the needle's Ieft
head, while the slider N can engage the right head of the needle, and displace it in a
longitudinaldirection.Thefigure(a)showsthatthe sliderN isengagedwiththe needle'sright
head.On the movementofthe needle from rightto left,the needle Iatch opens and the loop is
transferredtothemiddleoftheneedle,asshowninthefigure(b).
On the forward m ovementofthe sliders,theirheads raise the bossesL and R and both sliders
disengage with the needle.The sliderwhich isfirstto begin its backward m otion Iowers and
engagesthe needle head.Asshown in tbe figure (c),the sliderM,upon engagementwith the
needle'slefthead,movesthe needle in the direction ofthe arrow es while the sliderN remains
free.
The yarn Y is Iaid on the right head ofthe needle.At the tim e ofyarn Iaying onto the needle,
the sam e conditions m ust be satisfied as when knitting in single-bar m achines,i.e.the yarn
m ust get underthe needle hook atyarn draw ing and must not be intersected by the needle
latch at the moment of pressing.On the movement ofthe needle along the arrow el in the
figure(d),theold IoopO isretained bythe knock-overteeth and closesthe needle latch.The
following figures(c)and (d)illustrate the operationsofyarn laying,underlapping,ordrawing
and pressing onthe needle'srighthead.
381
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TheoperationsofIanding,joining,casting-offandIoopformationarecarried outbythefurther
motion ofthe needle alongthe arrow elin the abovefigure (e).Afteranew loop cisformed
the slider M starts moving from Ieftto right in the direction ofthe arrow e2,displacing the
needle in the sam e direction.The hook ofthe sliderM then disengages from the needle's Ieft
hook in the above figures(f),(g),(h),and simultaneously clearing the Ioop c in respectto the
needle's righthead takes place in figure (h).On furtherdisplacementofthe sliderN in the
direction ofthe arrow ez,i
tengagesthe needlesrighthead in figure (i).lnthiscase,thenew
loop willbe form ed bythe needle'sIefthead,and itwillcastoffitsoId Ioop to the Ieftside ofits
Waje.
Thus,whenthe loop-formingprocessiseffected bytheIeftheadsoftheneedlej,the Ioopsari
castoffto the Ieftside,w hile when the loop-forming process is effected by the right heads-
the loopsare castoffto the rightside,owingto which apurlstitch isobtained.
To avoid breakage ofneedles attheirtransferfrom one needle bed to the other,th'
e machinej
are provided with Iatch openerswhich isnotshown in theabove figure.
If,afterthe form ation ofa course ofloopsin one needle bed,the follow ing course ofIoopsis
form ed onthe otherneedle bed,a reversejerseyisobtainedwitha repeatofRH=2 (RH:1
heightoftherepeat).Iftwo coursesofloopsareformedonthesame needlebed,andthenext
 382
two othercourseson the otherneedle bed,then a reverse stitch isobtained in which two face
coursesalternate with two reverse courses.The repeatofthisknitwillbe RH= 4.
Links-unksCam System:
The cam system sofa flatIinks-linksm achine are illustrated in the following figure.Theyconsist
ofthe following cams:the pointers7 and 7'by m eans ofwhich the sliders are directed to the
big centralcam s9 and 9';thetop orclearil ng m ovable centralcams 13 and 13'serving to effect
clearing and needle transferfrom one needle bed to tbe other;the guide cams 6,6'and 10,10'
bringing the sliders in operation position;the stationary top centralcam s 15 and 15',Iim iting
the upward movem entofthe slidersand Ioweringthem afterthe Iift;the switch cams8,11and
8'#11'andthe bridgesP and P'.
The bridge hasthe following parts:cams forraising the sliders2 and 2';the Iowering cams 14
and 14/,which pressthe slidersatthe momentoftheirengagementwith the needles;the Iatch
openers 1,1/and4,4';the big bosses3 and 3',im pedingthe needle's independentIifting atthe
m omentoftheirengagementand disengagem ent with the sliders;the sm allbosses5,12 and
5',12',supporting the needlesatthe m omentwhen the latch openerscome in action.
7r 5 ,

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The headsofslidersin both needle bedsIiftatdifferentm oments:the receiving slidèrsare the

firstto rise and thefirstto Iower.Correspondingly thesectionsofthe bridge 2,2'and 14,14'as '
.
we llasthe clearing cams(centralcams)13,13y are somewhatdisplaced in relàtion to each ' jg
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383
BASIC W EFT KNIU ED STRUW URES
AIIweft knitted structures are classified into fourbasicgroupsaccording to the arrangem ent
ofIoops in theircoursesand wales.Fourprimary structures plain,rib,purland interlock are
the base structuresfrom which aIIw eftknitted fabrics are derived.The m ain propertiesof
these structuresare described in thisarea.

The plain knitstructuresorplain fabric:

The sim plest and most basic structure is the ''plain knit' which is also called ''single knit''.
Plain is a knit structure fam ily,which is produced by the needles ofonly one set of needle
w ith aI1 the loops interm eshed in the sam e direction. Although the plain knit fam ily
encom passesa greatnum berof structures aIIproduced on a single needle bed,i tsgeneral
characteristicsare described asfollows:

a. Appearante:The fabric is unbalanced,because each side ofthe fabric exhibits a

different appearance.W ithin each side,the Ioops on aIIcourses and wales are
identical.Each side ofthe fabric ism ade ofa single type ofIoop i.e.eitherface or
back(reverse).Thetopand bottom ofeach loop occursonthefabricbackand
thecentre(Iegs)oftheIoopappearsonthefabricface.Sothefaceofthefabricis
smooth and showsthe side Iim bsofthe Ioopsasa seriesofinterlocking ''V''s.The
reverse isrough and looksIike colum nsofinterlacing sem icircles.
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plain/singlejerseystructure(Face) Plain/Singlejerseystrudure(Back)
b Extensibility:The fabric isstretchable although notalwayselastic.Usually,the
fabriccan be stretched m uch m ore in the w idth then in the Iength.The fabric is
extensible in a course w ise direction and in a w ale w ise direction.However,the
degree ofextensibility is differentwhen pulled top to bottom from w hen pulled '
 384
side to side.The course wise extension is appfoxim ately twice that of the w ale
wise extension due to the degree of constraint im posed on each Ioop by its
intermeshing.The Ioop pulled vertically extends by half its Iength X 1, w hile the
loop pulled horizontally extends by its w hole length, 1.The degree of recovery
from stretch is not a property ofthe construction but depends on the nature of
the raw m aterialand yarn construction. It norm ally has a potentialrecovery of
40% in width afterstretching.

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Plain/Singlejerseystructure(Face) Plain/Singlejerseystructure(Back)
Edge curling:This fabric curls atthe edge w hen the fabric aftercut in relax state.
lt has a tendency to curltow ards the back atthe sides and towards the front at
the top and bottom .The difference in construction between the two facescauses
stress in the stiucture so thatthe fabrictendsto curl. The I
ooparms(face)exerta
Iength wise stressthatcurlsthe top and bottom edges ofthe fabric tow ards the
face.The needle and sinkerIoopsw hich are on a horizontalplain, pullthe sidesof
the fabric and curlthem tow ards the reverse side ofthe fabric. Pressing orother
heat/ waterprocessesare used to minim ize oreliminate such curling which is
caused by the directionality ofthe Ioop form ation.

d. Unroving:The plain knit structure can be easily unravelled from the edge w hich
was knitted Iast.Thisselvedge isthe top edge when the fabric is held upright, as
produced on the knitting m achine. ln contrastto otherknitfam ilies,the plain knit
construction is sym m etricaland can also be unravelled from the edge knitted
first.This edge isatthe bottom w hen the fabric is held upright. So the plain fabric
can be unroved (unravelled)from eitherend.The ability ofthe structure to
unravelfrom bothedgesisdemonstratedinfigure(Raz.52).Nitethatthisability
is lim ited to the m ost basic structures ofthe plain fam ily when no specialSoop
typesare incorporated.
e. Laddering:Ifa stitch is dropped during the knitting orata laterstage, a chain
reaction m ay occurin w hich the follow ing Ioops in the sam , wale w illdrop in
385
succession and a 'Iadder''w iilform .It isa fault but we considerit'ps properties.
W e mending (repair) it by manually with single needle. Since the fabric is
sym m etricalit m ight laddervertically towardsthe bottom orthe top.lt mustbe
appreciated that the tendency of the structure to curl, unraveland Iadder is
greater if the fabric is slack.The unraveling and Iaddering tendencies are also
m ore severe when the fabricism ade ofsm ooth yarns.
This structure has the m axim um covering power.Plain fabric is tbe com m onest weft
knitted fabric and is produced by widely differentsortsofknitting m achinery in aIIform s
from circularfabric piece goodsto fully-fashioned panels.Itisthe base structure ofladies
hosiery,fully-fashioned knitwearandsinglejerseyfabric.
End usesofplain knitstructures:
Plain knit structures are used for basic T-shirt under garm ents, m en's vest, Iadies
hosiery,fuljy-fashioned knitwearetc.
End use depends on some factors such as materialused;yarn types and yarn count/
lineardensity;m achine gauge;fabricthicknessand weight;typesoffinishing etc.

Notation ofplain knitstructure:

The following figure shows the sym bols ofone popularm ethod used in many countries
around the world.In thissystem an ''x''sym bolrepresentsa face loop and an '/0'/isused
to representa reverse loop.

X X X X X 2 * * * 0 0 0 0 0 2 0. 0. o.
x X X X X
1 * * *
0 0 0 0 0 1 - O. 0. 0.
. - .- .e

Face loop Reverse orbackloop

The Rib Structure orRib Fabric:

Rib,also called ''Double-knit''isthe second fam ily ofknitstructures.Rib requires two setsof
inbetw een each other so that walesof face stitches and wales of back
needles Operating
stitches are knitted on each side ofthe fabric. Rib fabrits are knitted on m achineswith two
These needles are arrahged in such a W3Y aSto allow them to intermesh
sets of needles.
when raised,
and thisneedle arrangem entiscalled rib gaiting.Flatm achinesw ith two setsof
needlesarranged in thisway are usually called ''V''bedsbecause from the side they Iook Iike
an inverted ''V'' The needle beds are called the front and the back beds.Circularmachines
with two sets of needles have a dial and cylinder. The cylinder needles are arranged
vertically round the m achine and are the equivalentofthe flatm achine'sfrontbed.The dial
needles are arranged horizontally inside the cylinder and are the equivalent of the flat
m achine'sback bed.
 386
M any types of rib structures can be produced according to the arrangement of active
needlesinthefrontandbackneedlebeds.Thesimplestribstructureisthe1x1rib. To knit
this structure, aIIthe needles in both needle beds are active.The arrangement of the
needles, each positioned in between two from the opposi te bed and a sequential
movement,ensure thatthe Ioops are produced alternately,one towards the frontand one
towardsthe back.W hen every third needle is inactive and is positioned between two active
needleson the opposite bed the 2x2 rib fabricisformed.
Thegeneralcharacteristicsofthe rib structure family are asfollows:
a. Appearante:Same appearance in both sides ofthe rib fabric.80th sides ofthe
fabric w illshow face loops since the fabric is produced on the needles of both
needle beds. Taken off the needles, the fabric contracts im mediately in a
widthwise direction.The rearorbackIoopsw hich can normally seen between the
frontwaleswhen the fabric is extended,willbe hidden.The fabric Iooksasifitis
madeonlyoffaceIoopson both sides,hencesuch namesasright/right,Double
face orDouble knit.Each wale in thefabric isuni
form i.e.m ade ofa singletype of
Ioop,eitherface orreverse.On each side ofthe fabricthere are face and reverse
wales.The arrangementisalternate in 1x1 rib and different in various otherrib
structures.Thefabricusuallybeingsymmetricalon bothsides,isnotsubjectedto
unbalanced stresses.
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1x1Ribstructure(Faceside) 1x1Ribstructure(Backside)
Extensibility:The 1x1 rib is an elastic structure with good widthways recovery
afterithasbeen stretched because the face loop walesm ove overand in frontof
the reverse Ioop wales.The rib fabric is very elastic and springy in the width
direction due to the tendency ofthe yarn to straighten and resume its previous
shape. This special property of the rib structure in the width direction is
frequently used to form the elastic bands in garm ents.In a sim ilarway to plain
knits,rib structuresare stretchable ratherthen elastic inthe length direction.The
amount of possible stretch,however,is quite Iim' ited. Extensionsofup to 120%
can be obtained along the course,with normalconstructions.Along the wale,rib
fabricbehavesvery m uch Iike plain fabric,with very Iimited extensibility.
387
Otherconstructionsofrib are possible and are w idely used,such astwo walesof
face loops alternating with tw o wales of back Ioopsto form 2x2 rib.On the sam e
basis there a/e 3x3, 2x1, 3x2 rib etc. As the num ber of wales in each rib
increases,the elasticity decreases because the num berofchangeoversfrom back
to front dim inishes.Over 3x3 rib the fabric m ore and m ore behaves Iike plain
fabric,even curling in favour of the dom inant rib.Such structures are know n as
''broad ribs''
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1x1Ribstructure (Faceside) 1x1 Ribstructure (Backside)

Edge curling:The fabric being in m any cases sym m etricalon b0th faces is not
exposed to unbalanced stressand therefore doesnotcurl,itIiesflat,w hen cut.

d. Unroving:Rib structures can easily be unravelled from the edge knitted Iast i.e.
the top when the fabric is held upright as produced on the knitting m achine.Rib
structures how ever,cannotbe unravelled from the edge knitted firsti.e.from the
bottom .The arm softhe connecting Ioopsenterthe Ioops above them from both
sides.Any attem ptto pullthe yarn causes the connecting Ioops to tighten and
blocks unraveiling.Because ribs cannotbe unroved from the end knitted firstand
because of their elasticity,they are particularly suited to the edge of garm ents
such asthe tops ofsocks,cuffsand the waistedge ofgarm ents.

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produced of sm ooth yarns, w hen the loops are Iarge and when the fabric is: ')#
stretched. In rib structures,drop stitches can only run tow ardsthe edge knitted L jy
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other direction since connecting loops in rib are anchored. Such a property
reinforcesthe argum entforusing ribson the extrem itiesofgarm ents.

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2x2 Rib structure
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W eight and thickness: Rib structures are bulkier and heavier then plain knit
structures made ofa sim ilar yarn thickness on m achines ofa sim ilargauge.The
w idth of a 1xl rib fabric is appr:xim ately halfthe width of a plain stitch fabric
w hen knitted w ith the sam e Ièngth ofyarn in the Ioop and the sam e num berof
Ioopsin acourse.On theotherhand,thickness,weighiand extensibility ofthe rib
structure are approxim ately tw ice thàt of the correspohding plain fabric.After
rem oving from the m achine a 1x1 rib fabric shrinks in w idth so that the front
Ioops cover the back ones.This phenom enon is accom painied by a thickness
) increase to approxim ately twice thatt :ain knit.fabric.
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End usesofrib structures:
W ide range ofuses,waistbands,cuffsand collarsare typicalapplications,togetherwith
w hole garm entsofa fitting nature.Rib fabrics are used w here portionsofgarm ents are
expected to cling to the shape ofthe hum an form and yet be capable ofstretching when
required.Cotton rib knitted fabric, bottom of the sw eater,skirt belt,various types of
fancy borders,underwears,sw eatersetc.
?Notation ofRib structures:

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3The
89PurlKnitStructuresorPurlFabrics: !
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The third family of knitstructures isthe purlknit.As with rib structures,it requiresthe 1
participation ofboth needle bedsforthe productionofthe Ioops.TheGerman nameLinks/ '
Links,which can betranslated asLeft/LeftorReverse/Reverse,iswidely used even in
English speaking countries.

Purlfabricsareknitted onmachineswithspecialequipment(onesetofneedles),whichare
double-ended latch needles and special devices of drive them , allow ing Ioops to be
interm eshed in two directions.Purlfabrics are characterized by the factthatthey have face
and reverse Ioops in the sam e wale.This type of structure can only be achieved on purl
m achines or by rib loop transfer. Rib m achines w illknit purl structures if Ioop transfer
between the beds is possible.Loops on the frontbed can be transferred to needleson the
backbedandviceversatoproduceiaceandreverseIoopsinthesamewale.

Onapurlmachine,thetricks(theslotsinwhichtheneedlesareIocated)ofthetwoneedle
beds are directly opposite and in the sam e plane.This allows the double-ended needles to
be transferred across from one needle bed to the other,enabling fabrics to be m ade that
have face and reverse loopsin the same wale.

There are two types ofpurlm achine - Flat purls,the needle bedsofthese machines are set
on the same plane instead of being in an inverted ''V''form ation and circularpurls,which
have tw o superim posed cylinderone above the otherso thatthe needles move in a vertical
direction,both typesofm achines are capable ofproducing garm ent Iength orotherarticle
sequences.

The knitting procedure oftheflatpurlknitting machine,called a ''Links/Links''machine is

described below :

As can be observed,there is one setofneedlesforboth needle bedsand the procedure isas

follows:

Theneedle ispositioned inthefrontneedle bed inwhich ithasjustformedaface

Ioop.
The needle slidesthrough the Ioop tow ard the rearneedle bed.
A reverse Ioop is produced by the otherneedle head through the previous face
Ioop w ithin the same w ale.
The needle slidesthrough the Ioop tow ard the frontneedle bed.

The popularity ofthe purlflatkni tting machine has been reduced during the lastfew years,
as the sophisticated ''V''bed flat knitting m achines developed.However,a Iarge num berof
purlflatknitting m achinescan stillbe found on production Iinesaround the world.
 390
To produce a purlknitstructure on a ''V''bed flat knitting m achine, a loop transferability is
required.The sim plest1x1purlstructure isproduced accordingto the follow ing procedure:
A course isknitted on the frontneedle bed while the rearbed remainsidle.
AIltheloopsaremechanicallytakenfrom the needlesofthefrontneedlebed and
transferred to the empty needlesofthe rearbed.
111. A course ofreverse loops is now knitted by the needles ofthe rearbed through
the trpnsferred loops.
IV. AIIthe Ioops are now transferred from the rear needles to the front needles,
w hich in the nextcycle knitthrough them .
Not allIoops have to be transferred after the com pletion of each course. The 2x2 purl
structure is produced when two coursesare knitted on each needle bed before the transfer
operation.

W hen the knitting machine issophisticated enough to handle both Ioop transferand needle
selection,the varietyofpossible purlstructuresisunlim ited.

Although the purlknitfam ily includes m any different structures, the generalcharacteristics
can be sum marized asfollows:

a. Appearance:Each wale can be m ade up of a com bination offace and reverse

Ioops.Each course can be made up ofa combination offace and reverse Ioops.
Basicpurlknitstructuressuch as1x1 or2x1, contractin the Iength direction.The
face loops are covered so the needle and connection arches typicalof reverse
Ioopsshow on both sides.The popularGerman term ''Links/ Links'' meaning
''Left/Left''or''Reverse/Reverse''l isbasedonthisfabricappearance .

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1x1Purlstructure(Faceside) 1x1Purlstructure(Backside)
b. Extensibiliw :Fabricm ade ofthe above basicpurlstrucfureshave, dueto
contraction,ahorizontalribelectwhichmakvsthem elasticihiàklength
-
dired ion.Thisis an advantage, especially w hen com pared w ith the very lim ited
Iengthw ise extensibility ofplain orrib strud ures. Thefabri
tiststrétcliible in1he
391
w idth as w ith aIIIoop-based structures.Due to the contracting tendency of the
struciuie ii Iength,the fabriciselastic in thisdirection which isunusualforother
knitstruçture fam ilies.This flexibility in length and width m akesthe purlknitideal
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fàr baby wear where elongation and expansion are required due to the fast
,

growingrateofinfantsandtosimplifytjqdressingprocess.
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I.X1PUrlStrudufe(FaCeSide) 1x1Purlstrqcture(Backside)
ç. Edge curling:The fabric is usually balanced and does not tend to curl.This
how everdependson the arrangem entofthe loops on the face and reverse side
ofthe fabric.An unbalanced arrangementcan resuit in a certain amount of
curling.
d. Unroving:Purlknit structures can easiiy be unraveled frpm the edge knitted Iast
i.e.the top edge ofthe fabric when held upright,as producet on the knitting
machine Basic lxl,2x1 and otherpurlstructures in w hich'eachcourseismade
.
of only one type of Ioop,behave like plain knits when .unravelliqg is concerned.
They can be upravelled from both ends. l '

e.
Laddering: A dropped stitch can easily start a chain reaction 9nd produce a
''Ladéer''in the fabric.As in allknit structures,the'àroppeé stitch can run
downwards when the fabric is held upright.Basic strudures Iike lxl,2x2 etc.
behave as plain knits wbere laddering is concerned and stitches can run in them
eitherupwardsordownwards.

f. W eightand thickness:The fabric isvery bulky and softto the touch.Purlknitsare

vsually'bulkierthen plain knits produced from the sam e yarn thickness and on
the sam e m achine gauge.lthasexcellenttherm alinsulation properties.
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Purlfabrics are widely used forbaby wearchildren's clothing,sweater,knitwear,thick and

heavy outer'wear, undergarmentsetc.

Notation of1x1 purlknitstructure:

OOO 3* * *
xxX 2*
O O O 1* W * -
The Interlock Structures orInterlock Fab'
rics:
Interlock is another 1x1 rib variant structure which is produced on specially designed
machines.These machines possesstwo sets ofneedles (shortand Iong needles)in both
cylinderand dialand atIeasttwo feeders.Fornorm alinterlock,the needles in both cylinder
and dialare arranged to be alternately long and short,and at the odd feeders the long
needlesare selected to knit and atthe even feeders,the shortneedles are selected to knit.
Ateachfeedera1x1ribstructuresknittedatadjacentfeedersinterlaceeachotherandform
adouble 1x1rib fabric.So interlockfabriclsproduced bytwo 1x1 rib structure interlaceto
each other.

Interlock hasthe technicalface of plain fabric on both sides,but its sm ooth surface cannot
be stretched outto revealthe reverse m eshed Ioop w ales because the wales on each side
are eyactly opposite to each otherand are Iocked together.
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1x1lnterlockstructure(Faceside) 1x1lnterlockstructure(Backside)
Basic interlockisa balanced,smooth,stable structure thatliesflatwithoutcurl.Like 1x1 rib,
itw illnotunrovefrom the end knitted first,butitisthicker,heavierand narrowerthan rib of
equivalent gauge,and requiresa finer,better,m ore expensive yarn.It also possesses good
recovery properties.

W hen two di fferent-coloured yarns are used, horizontalstripes are produced if the sam e
colour is knitted at two consecutive feeders,and verticalstripes if odd feeders knit one
colourand even feedersknitthe othercolour.The num berofinterlockpattern rowsperinch
isoften double the machine gauge in needlesperinch.

Notation ofInterlock structures:

@ * @ * @ @

@ @ * @

1x1 Interlock structure

Eightlock isa double-faced interlock based fabric thatusually repeatsoverfourwales.ltisa

2x2 version ofinterlock that may be produced using an arrangem entoftwo Iong and two
shortneedles,provided aIlthe trickjare fully cutthrough to accom modate them and knock-
overbitsare fitted to the vergesto assistwith Ioop formation on adjacentneedlesin the
same bed.
@ @ @ @ *
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buttpositions,eachhavingitsowncamsystem.ThisinvolvedatotalofeightIocks,fourforî,
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It is a well-balanced, uniform structure w i th a softer, fuller handle, greater widthwise
relaxation,and m ore elasticity than interlock fabric.Sim ple geom etric designs w ith a four
wale w ide repeat com posed of every two loops of identicalcolour,can be achieved with
carefularrangem entofyarns.
Com parison betw een basitstructuresofw eftknitted fabric:
Struttur plain 1x1 Rib - 1x1 Purl 1x1 lnterlotk
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V-shapeson face, like face ofplain. ofplain. ofplain.
arcson back
Extensibility
tengthwise Moderate(10-20%) M oderate Very bigh M oderate
Widthwise High(30-50%) Vewhigh(50-100%) High Moderate
Area Moderate-high High vew high Moderate
Thickness Thickerand M uch thickerand Very m uch Very m uch
and warm erthan warm erthan thickerand thickerand
W armth plainwoven pfainwoven warmerthan warmerthan
made from sam e plain woven plain woven
yarn
Unfoving Eitherend Onlyfrom end Eitherend Onlyfrom end
knitted Iast knitted last
Curling Tendencyto curl No tendencyto No tendencyto No tendency
curl curl to curl
End-uses Ladies'stockings, Socks,cuffs, Children's Underwear,
fine cardigans, waistbands, clothing, shirts,suits,
men'sand ladies' collars,m en's knitwear,thick trousersuits,
shirts,dresses, outerwear, and heavy sportswear,
base fabricfor knitw ear, outerwear. dresses.
coating. underwear.
395
ldentifieationofSinglejerseyand Doublejerseyfabric:
Weftknittedfabricsmaybeapproximatelydividedintosingleordoublejersey(double-knit)
according to w hetherthey were knitted w ith one ortwo setsofneedles.

Singlejerseyfabricshavethefollowingfeatures-
AIlface Ioopsare in one side and alIback loopsare in otherside.
* Both sidesare should be differentappearance.

Doublejerseyfabricshavethefollowingfeatures-

* Bothsidesofthefabriccontainonlyfaceloops(basicribandinterlockfab/ics)oronly
backloops(basicpurlfabri
.c)orcombinationoffaceandbackIoops.
* Both sites are same appearance forbasicand balanced structure,butdifferenton
otherstructures.
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As mentioned in the previouschapter,the basic structure fam ifieswere lntroduced as elhg
constructed ofonly one type ofknitted Ioop.In reality however,most knitted strudures
contain,in addition to the standard knitIoops.The standard loop isa flexible form ationrcan
easily change its shape under small Ioads and is responsible for the strètchabte
characteristicsofthefabric.
A knitted loop stitch is produced w hen ateach yarn feed,a needle receives a new loop and
knocks-overthe oId Ioop which isheld from the previous knitting cycle,so thatthe oId loop
now becomesaneedle loopofndrrhalconfiguration.
Other types of stitch may be produced on each of the four needle arrangem ent base
structuresby varyingthetiming ofthe intermeshingsequenceotthe old and new Ioops.
These stitches m ay be deliberptely selected as part of the design of the weft and warp
.

knitted structure or they m ay be produced accidentally by a malfunction of the knitting

action so thattheyoccurasfabricfaul ts.
W hen these stitches are deliberately selected,a preponderance of knitted Ioop stitches is
necessary within the structure in orderto m aintain its requisite physicalproperties.Apart
from the knitted Ioop stitch,the two m ostcom monly-produced stitchesare the floatorm iss
stitch and the tuck stitch.Each is produced with a 'held loop'and shows its ow n particular
Ioop m ostclearly on the reverse side ofthe stitch asthe Iim bsofthe held loop coveritfrom
view on the face. ' -

To simplify explanations,a1Iknitstructure familieswere described asbeing made only of

basic loops.In reality however,otherloop types existwhich,togetherwith the sim ple one,
combine to enhance the patterning potentialand the variet'y ofknitted garments.

The held Ioop:

A heldioopisanoldknitloopwhichtheneedlehasretainedandnotreleasedandknocked-
ov:ratthenextyarnfeed.A held loopcan onlyberetained byaneedleforallmitèdnul ber
ofknitting cyclesbefore itiscast-offand a new loopdrawn thrèùgh,ètherwis: the tension
on the yarn in the loop becomesexcessive even though there isatehdencylo rob extra yarn
fröm adjarentloopsinthesame course. ' '
 1
397 1
1
The Iim bsofthe held Ioop are often elongated asthey extend from its base interm eshing in
one course to where its head is finally interm eshed a num ber of courses higher in the r
h
structure,alongside itin adjacentwalesthere maybe normally-knitted Ioopsateach course. !
So the size ofthe held Ioop isbiggerthan the norm alknitloop and held Ioop isproduced at E
the sam e tim e when tuck and m iss loop w illbe produced.
Held Ioops are obtained by changing orobviating som e operations from the usualcycle of
loop formation.

On knitting m achines equipped w ith Iatch needlesthree m ethodsare used in orderto obtain
the held Ioops

a. Tucking on the Iatch - withoutcast-offoperation in Ioop form ing cycle

b. Tucking in the hook- w ithoutclearing operation in Ioop form ing cycle.
W ith switching a needle outofaction fora Ipop form ing cycle.

a. W hentuckorheldstitchformationisperformedwithoutcast-off(figure-a),joining,
casting-off and sinking are excluded from the Ioop form ation cycle. In this case,the
needles4 and 7 knitthe loops3 and 6,w hile the needle 5 pedorm saIlthe operations
upto joining,and stops.Then anew yarn 2isfed in itshookand thiswillbe thetuck
Ioop.The oId Ioop 1 rem ainson the closed Iatch and thisw illbe the held Ioop.

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Held loop form ation on the latch needles

After the needle 5 is lifted for clearing, in the following Ioop form ation cycle it
receives a new yarh and knits a Ioop from it,casting-offupon it the oId held Ioop 1
andthetuckIpop 2.
b.W hentuckstitchformationispedormedwithoutcleàringoperation(figure-b)the
selected needle isIifted forincom plete clearing.Afterclearing on needles4 and 7 has
been perform ed,thesesneedlesare fed with the yarn 3 from w hichthey knitnorm al
Ioops.Atthe sametim etheselected needle isIiftedjustenoughfortheoId Ioe lto
open its Iatch butthe Ioop 1 rem ainson the opened Iatch. Having been fed w ith the
yarn 3 the needle 5 doesnot knita loop, asthere w ilîbe no pressing,Ianding and
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furtheroperations;the held Ioop 1 and the tuck loop from yarn 3 are in the hook of
needle 5.ln this m ethod controlofheld Ioop length is possible,as the operation of
sinking isperform ed by the needle holdingthe Ioop 1.
Hesd loop formation by switching a selected needle outofaction caG be performed
by two methods.One ofthem isbased on simple leaving the needle idle in lowest
positionforone (ortwo,three)Ioopformationcycle;The othermethod consistsin
leaving the needle in its top m ost position for the rest of Ioop form ation cycle in
question(figure-c).lnthiscycle,theneedles4and7knittheIoops3and6from the
fed yarn,perform ing aIInecessary opvrations. In the nextcycle the needle resting in
itstop m ostposition form sa new Ioop.
ln both cases,the yarn ofwhich Ioops 3 and 6 are m ade, rem ains in form ofa Iong
floating linkbetween Ioops3 and 6)the Iong Iink(afloat)isIaid onthe held Ioop 1 .

The processofproducing held Ioopsisdescribed w ith the term ''m issing''.

The FloatStitch orLoop:

The float stitch which is also called a 'm iss'or 'wegt'stitch is a variation ofthe basic loop
structure.It is created in the fabric when a needle is inactive. The previous Ioop is held
within the hook,the yarn fed from the yarn carrierfailsto reach the needle and so skipsover
it.
A float stitch is com posed of a held loop, one or m ore float loops and knitted loops.It is
produced when a needle holding itsoId loopsfailsto receive the new yarn w hich passes asa
floatIoop,to the back ofthe needle and to the reverse side ofthe resultant stitch, joi ning
togetherthe two nearestneedle Ioopsknitted from it. The floatsti tch showsthe m issed yarn
floatingfreelyonthe reversesideofthe heldIoop whichisthetechnicalbackofsinglejersey
structures,butisthe inside ofrib and interlock structures.
The followingfigure showsthe effectcreated on the face ofthe fabricby a knitting sequence
called ''missinf'.Asthe schematic illustratîon shows,the main effectis created bytwo
elem entsi.e.an enlarged knitted Ioop and a straightelementofyarn.

' C A

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. Feed 2

, Feed 1
SingleTuck StitcbG
. . . Feed3
. . Feed2
. * . Feed 1

Face side ofSingle M issorFloatStitch

 '
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Assuggestedbyitsname,themissstitcheffectiscreatedwhenoneoftheknittedIoopsis )
m issed during the production sequence.The deform ed Ioop isthe resultofa needle which :
has notparticipated in one sequence of Ioop form ation.lt has retained its Ioop longerthen i
the restofthe needles.
A following m acro photograph, show s the actual configuration of the m iss stitch. The
deformed,stretched loop,tendsto rob some yarn from itsadjacent loopsand so reduces
them in size.
In som e cases,the excessive pullon the yarn in the stretched Ioop m ay pullthe yarn from
Ioopswhich are even fartheraway from the m issstitch.
The e#ect of the m iss stitch Iooks different from the reverse side of the structure, as
illustrated in the following figure.On this side the straight segm entofyarn is visible on the
surface.

Floatormlsslœ p

HeldMplch

Backside ofSingle M issorFloatStitch

The Ioop form ation ofa floatstitch:

The following seriesofdiagramsshow tbe form ing procedure ofa m issorfloatstitch.

1. Only two ofthe needlesascend to clearing position and clearthe Iatches.The needle
in the centre failsto ascend and remains in the Iowerposition while holding onto its
Ioop.

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 400
2. Theyarn carriertravels across the m achine feeding new yarn into the hooks ofthe
active needles.

3. Active needles descend to knockoverand form new Ioops.The needle in the centre
createsthe 'm iss''effectby retaining itsIoop.
The connecting yarn between the newly form ed loops sim ply passes behind it.The
elongated Ioop form ation iscalled a ''held''Ioop.

The notation ofthe floatstitch:

The inactive needle and the unformed Ioop are shown in notation systems by em pty spaces.
W hen the fabric isillustrated in squares,the appropriate square isleft blankasillustrated in
the following figure.The notation in this figure is ofthe structure presented in the above
figure.These structuresare produced on a knitting m achine w ith one needle bed only.The
two comm on notation systems in squares are shown as used in the English speaking
countries(a)andinGermany(b).

W hen the needle notation system is used,the yarn issim ply drawn as skipping the inactive
needles,muchthesameasin actualpractice.The illustrationinthe abovefigure(right)isof
the same structure asin the previous above figure.Itisdrawn to demonstrate the m issstitch
effect,asproduced on aVee-bed flatknitting machine with tw o needle beds.

W hile the notation in squares represents the structure in a pictorial mode,the needle
potation system represents the knitting sequence, course by course,as produced by the
machine.

The propertiesand usesofthe floatorm issstitch:

The practice of m issing certain needles during the knitting procedure is widely used in the
flatknittingtrade.The varioususesand the Ioop propertiesexploi ted are:

. Knitting plain knits.W hen the raising cam s ofone needle bed are com pletely
w ithdraw n to m issallthe needles,the m achine knits with the otherneedle bed only.
ltproduces a plain knitstructure,asillustrated in aIlnotatioh system in the follow ing
figure.The m issing procedure can be carried outon the frontneedle bed so the rear
needlebedisactive (a)orontherearneedlebed leavingthefrontactive(b).The
401
blank squares in the English and Germ an systemsare the inacti
ve (m issing)needles
ofthe inactive needle beds.
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

r% rN Gh MN MN

l II II a

* Knitting a variety ofrib structures.Besidesthe 1x1 rib,aIIotherrib structures require

someoftheneedlestomiss.The2x2(inGerman2:1)inthefollowingfigure(a)isthe
m ost popular rib structure for garm ents elasticated w elts.As can be observed from
the illustration,in each needle bed tw o needlesare active and one m isses.In another
ribstructureshowninthefigure(b),thecombinationofactiveandmissingneedlesis
different. '

O 0 0 O O 0 0
O 0 0 O O 0 0
''xI l ,'x '-% I I ..
'% '-h l I I .-% ,-w
'-x l I ''x ''% I I '-v n I I l n ''x
I I 1 I b
I I a II

Note that in notation in squares,the 2x2 rib is not m arked w ith tw o face Ioops and
tw o reverse Ioops.lnstead,it is m arked asproduced on the m achine i.e.the inactive
m issing needlesappearasblanksquares.
@ Im provem ent of the fabric's w idthwise stability. A m issed Ioop, creates a short
connection between two adjacentwalesand eliminatesthe accordion effectofthe
rib.Straight segm ents ofyarn form ed in the fabric,ensure that the stretchability of
the structure isreduced.The resultisa m uch m ore stable construction.

@ Decrease of fabric width. Short connections between the w ales, as show n in the
previous paragraph, affect the fabric w idth.A large num ber of m iss stitches in a
course reducesthe fabricw idth considerably.

@ The production ofjacquard structures.The main use ofmiss stitches,in a selected

fashiön,isforthe creation ofjacquardfabrics.
Alm osttw o hundred years ago,Joseph M arie Jacquard,the son ofa weaving m aster
from Lyon, France, invented the patterning m çchanism equipped w ith punched
cards,that m ade his nam e im m ortal.Today, every elaborately coloured patterned
effect in knitting and in weaving, bear his nam e. The original invention and
perforated cards have Iong since been replaced.
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a. One yarn knits on selected needlesw hile otherneedles m iss.
b. The second yarn then knits on otherselected needles w hich were m issed during
the previousoperation.
The operation continues untilaIIthe needles in the course have been knitted w ith
one ofthe yarns.
d. The following courses are knitted in the sam e way according to the design.

A segment of a two colour jacquard design is illustrated in the following figure

show ing that each ofthe yarns m isses where the other knits.The Iong segm ents of
yarn created by the yarn m issesare call''floats'
'.They are presenton the reverse side
ofthe fabric and can in som e cases cause snagging problems w hen the garment is
W orn.

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m issing sequence can be used asa patterning effect on the fabric.The m iss stitches
have to be arranged accqrding to a predeterm ined design to create such a pattern.
To increase the size and boldness ofthe deform ation,the m issing sequence can be
repeated as shown in the follow ing figure. The sam e needle is m issed for two
consecutive courses,the held Ioop is stretched even m ore and the deform ation is
greater.
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403
The repeated m issed sequence is lim ited by the properties oftbe yarn form ing tbe
held Ioop.TheIoad isplacedonthisyarnand thenumberofmissespossibledepeqds
on itstensile properties.

* M arking ofgarm ents.The differentappearance ofthe m issed Ioop can be used for
the m arking of cutting Iines.Arm holes or a ''V''neck Iines can be defined the on
garm ents,during the knitting process.
On iongerproduction lines,garm ents can be code m arked in a hidden place to allow
machine recognition andtrouble shootingduring Iaterproduction processes.

The TuckLoop orSlitch:

The tuck stitches are the knitted structures in which certain Ioops are intermeshed w ith
elem ents oftw o kinds:tuckloop and held loops.Tuckstitchescan be weftand warp knitted,
andareproducedonmachknesequippedwithanyknowntypesofneedles. .
A tuck stitch is com posed of a held loop,one or m ore tuck Ioops,and knitted Ioops.It is
produced w hen a needle holding its Ioop also receivesthe new loop which becom es a tuck
Ioop because it is not intermeshed through the oId Ioop,but is tucked in behind it on the
reverse side ofthe stitch.

Itsside Iim bsaretherefore notrestricted attheirfeetby the head ofan oId Ioop so thatthey
can open outwardstowardsthe two adjoining needle loopsformed inthe same course.The
tuck loop thusassum es an inverted 'V'or'U'- shaped configuration.Tuck stitch structures
show afaintdiagonalIineeffectontheiisudace. '

ln analysis,a ttlck stitch is identified by the fact that its head is released as a hum p shape
im m ediately the needle loop aboveiti swithdrawn,whereasaknittedloopwouldrequireto
be separatel y w ithdrawn and a m iss stitch would always be floating freely on the technical
back.

The following figure showsastitch created bya knitting sequence called ''Tuckinf'.The
effect is created by an enlarged knitted loop with a segm ent ofyarn tucked behind it.A
com parison w ith figure ofthe m issstitch,reveals a sim ilarityto the floatstitch construction.
The stretched loop appearsin botb m issstitcb and tuck stitches.

The tuck stitch is form ed, as suggested by its nam e, w hen the yarn is tucked into the
structure by the needle,instead of being form ed into a loop.The stretched deformed loop
originated as a norm alknitted loop w hich was held by the tucking needle w hile the other
needlesknitted an additionalcourse.
 404

. Feed 3

Feed 2

Feed 1

Single TuckStitch F
. * . Feed 3
. . Feed 2
. @ . Feed 1

Face side ofSingle TuckStitch

A following macro photograph showsthe actualyarn configuration ofthe ttlck stitch effect.
Aswith the niiss stitch,the deformed stretched Ioop,robs some yarn from the aàjacent
Ioopsthusreducingthem in size.
An im portant features of the tuck stitch is that the tucked yarn is placed behind the
stretchedfaceloop,asshownagain inthe abovefigure,drqwnfrom the reverse side.Thisis
im portant when a yarn should not appear on the fabric face,as further explained in next
tropics.

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Backside ofSingle TuckStitch

TheTutk stitth form ation:

In the series of following diagram s,the form ing procedure of a tuck stitch is shown.The
differentstepsin the sequence are:

1. The previouslyformed Ioop is in the hookofthe needle which now startsto ascend.

2. The needle'sascentisstopped shortofclearing ppsition w ith the Ioop stillplaced on

the needlesIatch.
405

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3. A new yarn is fed into the descending needle.Since the new yarn is not pulled
through the previous Ioop, it does not acquire a Ioop shape. Instead, it is sim ply
placed inthe hooksenclosure togetherwiththe previousloop.The adjacentneedles
have form ed new loops during this sequence, so the previous Ioop held by the
tucking needle is now stretched and deform ed.

4. The needle now ascendsto clearing position and both previousIoop and tucked yarn
drop underthe latch.

5. The descending needle isfed w ith a yarn.The previousIoop togetherwith the tucked
yarn slide underthe Iatch,close itand slide overthe hook.
6. The new yarn ispulled into knockoverpositièn ahd form s a new loop.Note thatthe
tuckedyarnishookedbetweentheiwoknittedloops.

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Tuckinginthehook (withoutclearingoperation)

''Tucking in the hookd',described above,isthe m odern way oftuckstitch formation.

anotherw ay forform ing a tuck stitch,as described in the following seriesofdiagrams.
sequence,called ''Tucking onthe Iatch''lisdescribed asfollows:
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Atclearing position,the previous Ioop is dropped underthe Iatch.A new yarn isfed S
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3. The descentisstopped shortofknockoverposi tion w ith the previousIoop.stillon the '
outside ofthe Iatch.The new yarn has notbeen pulled into the previous Ioop and has
notacquired a Ioop shape.
4. The needle ascends again to clearing position.Both the previous Ioop and the yarn
w ithin the hook drop under the latch.A new yarn is now fed into the descending
needle.

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5. The previous Ioop and yarn slide under the Iatch,close it and slide outside of the
hook.The new ly fed yarn is in the hook'senclosure.

6. The needle is pulied into knockover position w hile form ing a new loop through the
previous one.The yarn fed into the hook during the previous cycle assum es a tuck
form ation identicalto the one described above.

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 E(

407 )
The sequence oftuck form ing ''on the latch''by restricting the m ovementto knockover,is
notasreliable as the ''tucking in the hook''.Loopsm ay accidentally slip offthe latch during (
the shortened descent and a norm alloop m ay form instead ofa tuck stitch.The m ethod is '
used in oldermachinesw hich are restricted by theirraising camsarrangements.
Forobtaining a tuck stitch on spring-bearded needles,the mostwidely used m ethod consists
in obviating the operation of pressing.'Seleded needles are not presied during loop
form ati6n,and underthe notpressed needle hookboth the newlyfed yarn and the oId loop
are slid.The notpressed needle do.
esnotpedorm the operation ofold Ioop casting-off!

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Formanufacturing the tuck stitches,knitting machines with spring-bearded needles require

specialpressers.In some kni
tting machines with spring-dearded needlesspecialpattern .
pressers are used.The needles have theirindividualpressers w hich can be switched in for ;
pressing or sw itched off for tucking.The best exam ple of such m achines are the Cotton
Patent m achines;their pressers are m ade of a series of segm ents individually driven for
knitting ortucking. q
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nwarp-knittingmachineswithspring-bearded needlesmovinginunison(tricotmachines),
so called ''cutpressers''are em ployed which are m ade ofa steelorplastic barwith cut-outs i
atthepressipgedge. The cut-outscan be covered inorderto controlthe processoftucking-1 j
compound needlesform tuckorheld s
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The notation ofthe tuckstitth:
A tuck stitch can be sim ulated in the various notation systems as shown în the fodlowing
figure.In one notation system in squares (a),the tuck sti tch issymbolized bya largedot
regardless ofthe needle bed in which it isform ed.lfa dot is m arked in a wale of a front
needle,then itisproduced bysuch a needle.

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Th@ German standard notation system insquares(b),usesa 'V'andan inverted 'V'shapeto
sym bolizethe tuckstitches.A 'V'm arksa fronttuckand a '
A'm arksa reartuck.

W hen the needle notation system is used,the yarn is m arked as fed into the needle but
withoutformingaloop.The aboverightfigure isthenotationofthetuckeffectdrawn inthe
'previousfigure.
The Propertiesand Use ofthe TuckStitch:

Tuckstitchesare widely used in the production ofVee-bed flatknitted garm entsasw ellas in
the production ofcutand sew knitwearfrol circularknitting machine.They are used for
thefollow ing reasons:
a. Fabric patterning.The differentappearance ofthe tuckstitch,in com parison w ith the
regular standard Ioop background, can be used for patterning. The stretched
efongated held loop relaxes on Ieaving the knitting zone,forming a sm allbuckle on
the face ofthe fabric.W hen tuckstitchesare arranged on the garm entaccording to a
plan,a design is form ed.This however requires a needle selection system on the
knitting m achine.
To increase the effect,a needle can tuck for consecutive knitting sequences.The
illustration in the following figure shows the arrangem ent of the yarn after two
consecutive tucking operations.The held Ioop isfurtherstretched and the needle has
gathered three yarnswithin the hookbefore clearing.Consecutive tucking operations
and the shrinking forces applied by the held Ioop, can 'create Iarge knobs on the
fabricplain.
The num berofconsecutive tucking operationsis restricted by the tensile strength of
theyarnsinthe held Ioop.Itisalso Iim ited by the size ofthe needle'shook in relation
to the collective thicknessoftbe yarn ends.W hiIe in olderm achine typesfour
 409
consekutive tucks have been possible,m odern equipm entcan produce up to eightor
even ten such consecutive sequences.

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Tuckingfortwoconsecutive courses Tuckingoverfouradjacentplain needles

Each side ofthe head of a tuck Ioop is held by a sinkerIoop from the course above.
W hen tucking occursacrosstwo ormore adjacentneedles,the head ofthe tuck loop
w illfloat freely across betw een these two sinker loops, after which a sloping side
Iimb will occur. Dependent upon structural fineness, tucking over six adjacent
needles is usuallythe m axim um unitbefore snagging becom es a problem .
b. Increasing fabric w eight and thickness.The tuck yarn is added to the standard loop
without a knitting sequence and no new loop is produced.A large num ber of tuck
stitchescan thusadd to the w eightand thicknessofthe fabric.
Such a structure is the ''cardigan'',illustrated in the follow ing notation figure.W hile
the front needle bed knits, the needles of the back bed tuck. In the follow ing
sequence,the procedure is reversed.In this way,one course is produced every two
knitting cycles and the fabric advances only one course spacing w hile containing two
yarn ends.
The cardigan fabricis therefore very heavy,bulky,insulating and issuitable for heavy
outerw eargarm ents.
Tucks on rear need le bed

Tuoks o n #ront noed le bed

lncreasing fabric w idth.The principle described above also shows w hy fabric w idth
increases as a result of a Iarge num ber of tucks. This increase is caused by the
presence ofm ore yarn in the structure,and the restrictive forcesapplied by the tuck
coursesto the tendency ofthe rib to contract.
d. Insertion ofproblem atic yarns. NotaIIyarns are able to be form ed into the shape ofa
loop due to theirm echanicalpropel ies.W ith tucking procedures,such yarns can
 410
inserted into the fabric w ith only a m inim um of bending stresses show s in the
follow ing figure. Note that w hile the centralneedle tucks, the rest of the needles
m iss.The fabric does notadvance and the Ioop ofthe tucking needle is notstretched.
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Every knitting m achine is restricted by the thickness of the yarn w hich can be
processed and turned into a fabric.Contrary to popular belief, the thickness ofthe
yarn isnotIim ited by the size ofthe hook.
lt is lim i
ted by the size ofthe trick in the needle bed,into w hich it is pulled in the
knockover position. Tucked yarns need not pulled into knockover position, as
described before.Yarns w hich are m uch too thick for regular knitting can thus be
inserted in the fabric by tucking.
e. Shortening of jacquard floats. As described in prekious part, Iong floats can be
formed on the reverse side of the fabric as a result of a jacquard patterning
sequence.Thesefloatscan easily be pulled by such objectsasa ringorawristwatch,
resulting in loop distortion on the fabric face and dam age to the garm eny. To reduce
the size of such floats, Iessening the danger of snagging, tucks can be introduced
along the float.ln this respect,the tuck construction hastw o advantages:

No loopisfoimed so noyarn inwasted.

The tucked yarn is placed behind the face loop and doesnot interfere with
the design.

Thereverse side ofajacquard structurewith Iongfloatsisillustrated in the following

figure with a tuck stitch introduced into one floatto show itsadvantages.
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f. Garm ent m arking.The different appearance ofthe tuck stitch, in com parison w ith
the standard loop background,can be used to mark cutting Iines in the garment
411
during the knitting process.Furtherm ore,the knitting m achine can code mark the
garm entin an obscure place to allow m achine identification forquality controlduring
laterproduction stages.

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Successivetucksand floatson the sam e rib needle

The Drop orPress-o/ R itch:

Dropped stitches are usually associated with knitting failures. They can however be
em ployed to pattern a fabric,ifused according to a controlfed procedure.

The form ation ofa Dropped stitch:

Thefollowing figuresshow the procedure by which a stitch isdropped.The stagesare:

t. The needle ascendsto knitting position in which the Ioop withinthehook clearsthe
latch.

2. No yarn isfed to the needle w hich then descends.The Ioop slides underthe Iatch,
closesitand slidesoverthe needle'shook.

3. The needle ispulled into knockoverposition and the loop dropsfrom it.

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The notation ofthe dropped stitch:
A dropped stitch has no specialnotation sym boland is shown sim ply as a knitting needle.
Som etimes however,the yarn sim ulated in tbe needle notation system isdraw n asa broken
line to suggestthatcontraw to norm alprocedure no yarn isbeingfed.
 412
Knit l I I I I

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The Propertiesand Usesofthe Dropped Stitches:
A drop stitch fault willresult ifa needle releases its oId loop without receiving a new one,
som etim es yhis technique is used to achieve a press-off on all needles in a set between
garm ent Iength sequences.A drop stitch orpress-off stitch is used very occasionally in flat
knitting to causê certain loops in a plain structure to be m uch Iargerthan the rest.
Knitting takes place on ohly one bed ofneedlesand selected needles in the otherbed pick-
up loops which are im mediately pressed-offby notreceivihg a new yarn.The yarn from the
pressed-offIoopsflowsinto theadjacentloopsintheotherbed makingthem larger,giving
theimpressionofamuchcoarserjauge.
Dropstitchwalesaresometimesusedtoprovideaguidefortilecuttingoperation.Asecure
structure isonly produced when aneedle retainsitsoId Iooh ifitdoesnotreceive a new
Ioop.
Previous chapters have show n that a dropped stitch creates a ''Ladder'' in the fabric by
creating a chain reaction in the wale.To controlthe procedure and to be able to stop the
Iadderataspecified point,aspecialwaleneedsto beformed.
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The patterning procedure with dropp/d stitchesstartswith anew walebeing introduced
intbthefabricbkaneedlewhichpreviouslkwasinactive.SeveralknittingsequencesIater,
the sam e needle isprogram m ed to drop itsstitch.The chain reaction w hich develops,runs
downthewaleand stopsatitsroot.Theloopsadjacenttotheladderincreaseinsize,as
shown in the above figure.
413
DESIGNS O F W EFT KN IU ED FA BRICS

As m entioned in the previous chapter there are only four knit structure fam ilies, the
com bination ofw hich m akes aIIthe knitted fabricsand garm ents produced in w eftknitting.
To sim plify explanations,aIIthe basic weftknit structure families were described as being
made onlyofbasic knitIoops.In reality however,otherloop typesexistwhich,togetherwith
the sim ple one, com bine to enhance the patterning potentialand the variety of knitted
fabricsand garments.

AlIthe knitstructures excluding the basic structures are m ade ofa com bination ofthe three
Ioop structures described previous chapteri.e.the standard knit Ioop,the m issed and the
tucked stitch.W hen tuck or m iss Ioop or both tuck and m iss loop are com bined with the
standard knitloop in case ofplain orsingle jersey structure then itiscalled derivativesof
singlejersey structures.Similarlythere isIotofrib based structuresi.e.called derivativesof
rib structure,interlock based structure i.e.called derivatives of interlock structure and purl
based structure i.e.called derivativesofpurlstructure.

Decorationorornamentatipnofplain knitorsinglejersey fabrics:

A single jersey fabric is ornamented withoutdeviating from the true principles ofplain
structure asfollows:
* The yarn vary in colour,raw m aterial,types ofconstruction and in thickness.As
the fabric consists of yarn and yarn is m ade up of fibres or filam ents the
ornamentation can start from the fibre, filam ent stages. Fibre dyeing, yarn
dyeing,fabric dyeing are some ofthe m eans by w hich attractive colours can be
provided to fibres,yarns,filam entsorfabricsto enhance the beautyofthe fabric.

* Threads of different coiours are com bined in stripe form .lf different dyed or
contrasting colours are used atdifferentfeeds by supplying packages ofcoloured
yarn on a m ul
ti-feed machine ofa single jerseystructure,avarietyofhorizontal
stripes can be obtained on the sudace of the knitted fabric. For casualT-shirt
garm entssuch horizontalcoloured stripesare com m only used.

* By usiig fancy yarns.Instead of sim ple regular single yarn.fancy yarn such as
slub,knop,m élange,Ioop,crepe yarn etc.can be carefully knitted in the fabricto
give som e interesting results.
 414
* By using differenttwisted yarns(such as hard twisted yarn is produced crepon
effect).Instaplefibreyarns,twistisgivento agroupoffibresinSorZdirection
to form the yarn.If som e courses are knitted w ith S-twist follow ed by som e
courses of Z-tw ist then a zig-zag path of wale Iines is created on the fabric
surface.
@ In platedsingle-jerseyknitfabricthecharacteristicsofone yarn arevisible onthe
surface com posed ofthe face loop stitchesw hilstthe characteristicsofthe other
yarn are visible on the reverse sudace com posed ofthe back stitches.Som etim es
back side is considered as face side,if coloured orfancy yarn pattern appears
attractive from the reverse side.Itiscom m on practice forsweater.
* Byusingextremelyfinegaugeforfineryarnorcoarsegauge(sweater)forcoarser
Yarn.
Forchildren garm entstwo orfourcolourbrightprintsofanim als,birds,boys,girls
orsom e Ietters orfunny m essages are printed which attractthe custom ers.For
knitgoodstransferprinting ispopular,although blockprinting isused.

SingleJersey Derivatives:

Thestructuralmodificationsareusedto averygreatextentin designing plain-knitstructures

by modi fying the order of knitting.The plain knit strud ures can be m odified with the
following alternatives.

Knitloop and m issIoop

KnitIoop and tuck loop
KnitLoop,m issIoop and tuckIoop.

The following figure illustrates the notations of som e sim ple tuck and float stitch single
jerseyfabrics.
1. Cross M issDesign:

Cross miss is a miss-knitsingle jersey strudure.So one set of needle is used to

produce this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on two courses.
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

2 . . . .
1 * * * *

I
Firstcourse:Kniton aIIodd num berneedlesand misson alIeven num ber
needles.
415
Second course: M iss on aIl odd num ber needles and knit on alIeven
num berneedles.

2. Birds Eye orDouble CrossM iss Design:

Birdseye isa knit-misssinglejerseystructure.So one setofneedle isusedto produce

this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on four courses. Knitting
sequence fora repeatasfollow s:

First course:Knit on aIlodd num ber needlesand m iss on aIIeven num ber
needles.
Second course: Knit on aII odd num ber needles and m iss on aII even
num berneedles.Sim ilarasfirstcourse.
Third course:M isson aIIodd num berneedlesand kniton aI1even num ber
needles.
Fourth course: M iss on aII odd num ber needles and knit on aIIeven
num berneedles.Sim ilarasthird course.

3. W eftLotknitDesign:

W eft Iocknit is a knit-miss single jersey structure.So one set ofneedle is used to
produce this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on four courses.
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:

4 . . . .
3 . . .
2 . . * *
1 . . * *

Firstcourse:Kniton aIIneedles.
Second course: M iss on alI odd num ber needles and knit on aII even
num berneedles.
Third course:Sim ilarasfirstcourse knit on aIIneedles.
Fourth course: Knit on aII odd num ber needles and m iss on aIl even
num berneedles.
 416
4. M ock Rib Design:
M ockrib isa knit-misssinglejerseystructure.So onesetofneedle isused to produce
this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on two courses. Knitting
sequence fora repeatasfollows:

2 * @ * œ * e
1. * * * @ * *
Q @ @ * * * @
1 * * * @ * @

Firstcourse:M isson firstthree needles and knit on second or nextthree

needles.
Second course:Itisjustopposite ofthe firstcourse i.e.knitonfirstthree
needles and m isson second three needles.
5. Single ErossTuck Design:
Single crosstuckisa knit-tucksinglejerseystructure.So one setofneedle isused to
produce this structurç.The repeat of the structure completes on two courses.
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

2 . * *
1 . . e

Firstcourse:Kniton alIodd num ber needles and tuck on aIIeven num ber
needles.
Second course:It isopposite oftbe firstcourse i.e.tuck on aIIodd num ber
needlesand kniton aIIeven num bernéedles.

6. Double CrossTutk orPolo Pique Design:

Polo pique is a knit-tuck single jersey structure.So one set of needle is used to
produce this structure. It is a very popular structure to produce cut and sew knit
wear.Thê prom inency of the design appears on the back side of the fabric.The
repeatofthe structure com pletes on fourcourses.Knitting sequence fora repeatas
follows:
First course:Knit on alIodd num berneedlesand tuck on alleven num ber
needles.
Second course:Knit on aIIodd number needles and tuck on alI-even
num berneedles,which issim ilarasthe firstcourse.
Third course:Tuck on aIIodd num berneedles and kniton aIIeven num ber
needles.
417
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Notation diagram Backside Face side

Fourth course: Tuck on aII odd num ber needles and knit on aII even
num berneedles,w hich issim ilarasthe previousthird course.

Back side Face side Back side Face side

Pique Lacoste Heavyorjumbo Pique

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Back side Face side

Lycra pique fabric

7. Single Lacoste orFred Perry Design:

Single lacoste is a knit-tuck single jersey structure.So one setofneedle is used to
produce this structure.Itis also a very popularstructure to produce cutand sew knit
w ear.The prom inency of the design appears on the back side of the fabric. The
repeat ofthe structure com pletes on fourcourses.Knitting sequence fora repeat as
follow s:
 418
Firstcourse:Knit on aIIodd num ber needles and tuck on aIleven num ber
needles.
Second course:Kniton aIIneedles.
Third course:Tuck on aIIodd num berneedles and kniton aIIeven num ber
needles,w hich isopposite ofthe firstcourse.
Fourth course:Sim ilarassecond course kniton aIIneedles.

4 . . . .
3 . . . .
2 * *
j. * * *
Notation diagram Faceside

Back side
Single Lacoste 100% polyester(filament)single Iacoste
. Double Lacoste Design:
Double Iacoste isa tuck-knitsingle jersey structure.So one setofneedle isused to
produce tbis structure.ltisalso a very popularstructure to produce cutand sew knit
wear.The prom inency ofthis design near to the single Iacoste fabric. The repeat of
the structure com pleteson six courses. Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:

Firstcourse:Kniton aIIodd num berneedles and tuck on aIIeven num ber

needles.
Second course:Sam e as first course i.e.Knit on aIIodd num ber needles
and tuck on aIleven num berneedles.
Third course:Kniton alIneedles.
Fourth course: Tuck on a1l odd num ber needles and knit on all even
num berneedles,w hich isopposite ofthe firstcourse.
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.... v. w .K.... .?
.,.s..r.t. ,g.v.#. .. .. x
..
...m- - .;..w.
e.- ......--. .
-.. .., ..-. ,a...-. .-- ,.. .
. .-
a. .
41: 41: 4:: .'* * ' ' ' b: ''' . 'A'#'# ' ' '
* * * *<'.-. w w.-....- v. . '''.m .Q'.- .'. ''
' '. 4' ., z. k> œ * l: '# ...a. N . * # '4' '
u,
. ...-..
x...-.... ...*..- v'>.
x.,=.. ... ......
x..
> ...>w
..a-
>.......hK 'p'.
.*<*, ...
.N..
w.w.,.... ,4'...xt.:.
',*N..+.
1K'
V-yt.AwaV.
e t? + ëN*.w#z*:t'
. ..#x
.w'b'p '
.. . . . ,.... - .
.. , . .. , ...h..e....-k. .a.....'w.,,
. .< w . . .. .. .@L.. ..
sz. .....4.. . hq...'....)+.*x
.t ..*' @'
...as.,'. ...'..,.:..
. . . . ..!.
. .v
......... ...-..,.. ..wc....--...... A. . . x <
.
.... e., i. w
? .A +.w ..ê%,.x.., *. w!* ./4..*
, . % w' . . . ,fw.
.
o : .p-. . . v..- .y.. - . .-. x-v<,.
-.
-..' - . - r..l# . jl. ' ...%.+ *
,
x .. . $ * w v .w,. .. 4 ..w%'
1 f. .'. *.* +' ''q '
c
'

* ..'
e ...., '#' '
e. .
e'.'!z. A'.
1..*
otatlon Ia ra ac S1 e Face sl e
'
*. . * .
Flt course: a e as Ou Course I.e. UC On a O nu er nee es 1
an nl 'tOn a even nu ernee es. '
IXt Course: I 1araS12 lr Course nItOn 3 nee eS. .
1
)
1 1

&

. 1
!

ac sl e Face sl e ac sl e Face sl e
Double Lacoste fabric

9. Sim ple Crepe Design:

'

Itmay be tuck-knitorm issknitsingle jersey structure.So one setofneedleisusedtçk

produce this structure. The repeat of the structure com pletes on four côursest
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

4 . . . .
3 * * *
2 * * -
1 e * e

Firstcourse:Tuck on firstneedle and kniton aIIrest ofthe needles.

Second course:Tuck on second needle and kniton a11restofthe needles.
Third course:Tuck on fourth needle and kniton aIIrestofthe needles.
Fourth course:Tuck on third needle and kniton aIIrestofthe needles.
 .
.. .
zt
gyy,1q)b(l
q
jjj(
.
. j
;
!
'y
:
.
)
s.
>.
;
-10.CellularBlisterorPopcorn Design:
p ..
-s .

-
.

) .jJ-
.f
.
-
'
:
r
@
'-
%
2f..
J
1'.
Jâ-)
)
.
:
#.,'
x',
f)
8
.
-
.' . -.l
,-ryzltyhï t
lj
ii
ô
ë
I
ài
$ Itisatuck-knitsinglejerseystructure.So one setofneedle isused to produce this 177
51 .

structure.The prominency ofthe design appearsonthe backside ofthe fabric.The

repeatofthe structure com pletes on eightcourses.Knitting sequence fora repeat as
follows:
k First course'
.Tuck on first tw o needles and knit on second or next tw o
needles.
Second course' .Sim ilarasfirstcourse.
Third course:Sim ilarasfirstcourse.
8 e * . . r wNvy
7 . . k .kw. %
.
+ ke
. .. -. .+
6 . . :
x%
ç.Y. , û*'
. .5. ' .
5 * * * *
4 * - * - %
3 - . * *
2 . . . -
1 * œ * * 4 . . . <.
Notation diagram Back side
Fourth course:Sim ilarasfirstcourse i.e.Tuck on firsttw o needles and knit
on nexttwo needles.
Fifth course:Knit on first two needles and tuck on second or next two
needles.
Sixth course:Sim ilarasfifth course.
Seventh course:Sim ilarasfifth course.
Eighth course:Sim ilarasfifth course i.e.Kniton firsttwo needles and tuck
on second tw o needles.

11.Tw illEffects:
Itmaybe tuck-knitorm iss-knitorknit-tuck-m isssinglejerseystructure.So one setof
needle is used to produce this structure.The prom inency of the design appears on
the back side of the fabric.The m ain features of this structure is thatthe diagonal
Iine (twillIine)appearsonthefabricsurface Iike aswoventwillfabric.Therepeatof
the structure com pletes on severalcourses.The follow ing figures show the knitting
sequence fora repeat:

4 . . . . 4 . . . .
3 M. . . 3 . . 3 . . . .
2 . . . 2 .k .. . .
2 <* * '-
.
--
.

1 n 1 . . . 1 * @ @ @
 t
è-
421 7
z
Double Jersey Derivativesbased on Rib Structure: :?
.à

A generic nam e applied to a range of knitted fabrics made on a rib or interlock basis,th !7
construction ofwhich is often designed to reduce the naturalextensibility ofthe structure?
The term is generally confined to fabrics knitted on m achines af E10 gauge or finer and ''
maybeclassifiedaseithernon-jacquard orjacquarddoublejersey.
1. Double Piqué: i
?
Doublepiqué isadoublejerseyfabricmade onarib basis,usingaselectionofknitted,
loops and floats.The two m ost im portant sequences are known as Swiss doubleè
piqué and French double piqué respectively,and the knitting sequencesforeach are'
shown in the followingfigure.Double piqué is also known aswevenit,rodier,andC
overnit.

. * @ * @ @
(.
.j. . . .
4 @ @ @ * 4 . . . . .
@ @ @ @ @ . . . . 4 .
3 @ * @ @ * . . . 4 . .

. @ w @ * : . , .
2
. (g-
* @ * @ @- - @ . @
i
. . . . i
. . . . . . j
1 . . . . . 1 . . . . . j
,

Sw issDouble Pique French Double Pique i

E

a) SwissDoublePique:Knittingsequenceforarepeatasfollows-
!
Firstcourse:Cylinderneedles- allare produce knitloop. )
Dialneedles- odd num berneedlesproduce knitIoop and even;
numberneedle producemissloop. j
Second course:Cylinderneedles- allare produce m issloop. )
Dialneedles- same asfirstcourse. 1
Third course:Cylinderneedles- sam e asfirstcourse. )
Dialneedles- odd numberneedlesproducemissIoopand)
even numberneedle produce knitIoop. t
Fourthcourse:Cylinderneedles- aIIare producemissIoop.
Dialneedles- sam e asthird course.

b) FrenchDoublePique:Knittingsequenceforarepeatasfollows-
Firstcourse:Cylinderneedles- aIIare produce knitIoop
 Dial needles - odd num ber needles produce m iss
even num berneedle produce knitIoop.
Second course:Cylinderneedles- aI1are produce m issloop.
Dialneedles- odd num berneedlesproduce knitIoop and even
num berneedle produce m iss loop.
Third course:Cylinderneedles- sam e asfirstcourse.
Dialneedles- sam e as second course.
Fourth course:Cylinderneedles- aIIare produce m iss Ioop.
Dialneedles- sam e asfirstcourse.

'. HalfCardigan Rib orRoyalRib:

Itis a rib based structure in w hich a great num beroftuck stitchesare added to m ake
the fabsic heavy,w ide and soft.From the below notation diagram itisclearthattwo
knitting sequences are required to produce one repeatofthistype offabric.

A specialeffectis produced w hen one halfofthe cardigan repeat is substituted fora

regular1 x 1 rib structure.The new fabric iscalled a ''HalfCardigan' 'and is produced
according to the knitting notation system illustrated in the follow ing figure.One side
of the fabric, in this case the reverse side, is produced w ith tuck stitc' hes and
therefore Iooks Iike a ''Cardigan''.The loops ofthe otherside acquire a very rounded
and attractive shape w hich isvery typicalforthisstructure.

'
vt/vv #.,,y
-h
o,
î,t
,,
î
1

kyh
c:
/t-'
pkp qyy. ks
.k,(,
l ,

'
//// -

!
0 .
.

?k,
'
c n,r,.0s
'
A' tî
qf
'
..
ucw'ï
?k
/
?
'u
,
-
s
'
r
-
,
,,j ,ëïqj-ss.
co
ht-
,
, . . v 1) î$ g y1. ,/

The Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s-

Firstcourse:regular1x1 rib structure.
Second course:tuck Ioop form ed by the aI1needles of one bed and knit
loop formed by the aIIneedlesofotherbed.

3 FullCardigan Rib orPolka Rib:

lt isanothervariation ofthe 1x1 rib structure.ln thiscase,even m ore tuck stitches are
introduced which m akesthe fabricw ider,heavier,bulkierand Iessflexible then the half
cardigan orthe usual1x1 rib.Contrary to the previous exam ple the fullcardigan is
sym m etric on both sides. From the below notation diagram it is clearthat
423
tw o yarns are inserted into the fabric in orderto com plete one fullcourse i.e.Ioops t .

on the one needle bed and Ioopson the otherneedle bed.

7

The two courses w hich m ake the ''Cardigan'' repeat are illustrated in the above
needle notation system .The Knitting sequence fora repeat asfollows- k '

- Firstcourse:tuck Ioop form ed by the aIIneedlesofback bed and knitIoop

form ed by the alIneedlesoffrontbed. '
- 'Second course:tuck Ioop form ed by tbe allneedles offront bed and knit
Ioop form ed by the aIIneedlesofback bed.
Because of the Iarge num ber of tuck stitches,both Cardigan and Half Cardigan are
very bulky, in com parison w ith other knit structures. They are som etim es very
fashicnable and are used forheavy outerw earsuch as sw eater. ë
. ,
. . , .

4. HalfM ilano Rib:

1

A w eft-knitted rib-based fabric,consisting ofone row of1x1 rib and one row ofplain )
knitting made on qitherset of needles.The appearance and characteristics of the
fabricare related tothe ratio ofthe course Iengthsoffirst(1)and second (2).The
Knittingsequence fora repeatasfollows- )
(
-
Firstcourse:regular1x1ribstructure. )
- Second course; plain structure, all needle of one bed is active and all't .

needles ofotherbed is inactive. :'

2 r.
3 6.7 t-
.) l'o-) 4-.;
-- 3 )
t'
. '
o * @ * @ j

1 . . . . . .
:
)
ï

s MilanoRib: (
)
A w eft-knitted rib-based fabric.Each com plete repeatofthe structure consistof
thtee com ponents knitted in the sequences show n to give on'e row of1x1 rib and
. E .
one row ofplain tubularknitting,the tw o com ponentparts oftubularknitting usuall4
being sim ilar.The appearance and characteristics ofthe fabricsare related to th '
l
i
,
 424
ratio of the course Iengths of two rows.The Knitting sequence for a repeat as
follows-
Firstcourse:regular1x1 rib structure.
Second course: plain structure, aII needle of one bed is active and aII
needlesofotherbed isinactive.
Thirdcourse:reverseofsecbndcourse.

3 (.
-5. f.
-5o f.
-s*'f.
-5@:.
-3
* @

* e + @ e
2 . . . . .
* e * e o

1 @ * * o @
Rom a Rib:
A weft-knitted rib-based structure.Each complete repeatofthe structure cohsistof
two com ponents knitted in the sequencesshown to give one row of1x1 rib and one
row ofplain knitting.The Knitting sequencefora repeatasfollows-

Firstcourse:regular1x1 rib structure.

Second course:plain structure,alIneedle offroni bed is active and aII
needlesofbackbed isinactive.

2s2/W
'////
7. Latoste Piqué:
Basicallyitisaderivativesofsinglejersey structure.ThisIacoste piqué isproduced by
using a selection ofknitted loops and tuckr
loop..Itcan b: produced on rib based
màchine,butitshould be rememberthatforthe prpduction ofthisfabricone bed is
.

active.andotherbed isinactive.Inthe following fijure thefrontbed isactive and

bickbedisinactive.TbeKnittingsequencêfor4repeatasfollows-

Firstcourse:aIlneedlesoffrontbed m akej knitIoop.

Second course:odd num ber needles of front bed m akes knit loops and
even num berneedlesofsame bed m akestuck Ioops.
Third course:sam e asfirstcourse.
potirth course:odd numberneedlesoffront bed makestuck Ioops and
even num berneedlesofsame bed m akesknitIoops.
( .'
425
l I l
1
I I I
2
l I l l
3
I I I I
4 V - W -V - C-
8. Gaberdine or2 x 2 Tw illFabric:
Gabardine is a sim ple 2x2 twilldouble-blister fabric which is usefulfor
men'sIeisurew ear.It hasa fourneedle width repeat,w ith the dialneedlesall
thebackingateverythird (ground)feed.ThefollowingIeftfigureshowsa
fabric.
12 * * * *
* * * *

11 * * e *
* e * *

10 * e *
+ e * e

9 e * * *
œ œ * e

8 e * e *
e o * *
* *
7 œ * * * 6 * *
* * + +

6 * * * * * *
œ œ e e 5 * *
5 o *. e * * *
* * o
4 * *
4 * e e e
œ + * * * *
3 * *
3 o e . e
e e e e
* e
2 e * o * 2 . .
œ œ * e % e
$% B A B * *
1 e e e 1 . .
e e e œ
1 2 a 4 t- s
Gaberdine or2 x 2 TwillFabric Poplin Fabric

9. Poplin Fabrie:
Poplin isa flatterstructure.lt is used forthe sam e purpose ofgabardine fabric.It
type ofsingle blister with a two needle w idth repeat.The above right figure
the notation diagram ofa poplin fabric.
 426
10.Blisterfabric:
A three-dimensionalreliefeffectfabric generally m ade on a rib basis.There are two
typesofblisterfabric,such assingle blisterand double blisterfabric.
Single blister:I
t issom etim esterm ed three-m issblister because each dial
needle m issesthree feeders afterknitting.Ithasone blisterfeedercourse
between each ground feedercourse.
Double blister:lt has two blister feeder courses betw een each ground
feedercourse.Thisproduces a m ore pronounced blisterrelief,with twice
as m any courses of blisterIoops to ground Ioops.It is heavierand has a
slowerrate ofproduction than single blister.It issom etimesterm ed five-
m iss blister.Blister Ioops at two successive feeders m ay not necessarily
occur on the sam e needles.They m ay be in one orm ore colours w ith a
self-colourora one ortwo-cojourground.AIIblisterstructuresshow only
the ground Ioopson the back.
' '

nib gating Ground(*) ::' A A A A A A

Ground (*) A A A A A A ,stfeeder
! IlIIIll
D IIlI II Cj jj jj jjj
1stfeeder Blister(D1
C ll II #l l 2ndfee '' 1IlIIlIIIlIII
er
C Il lI lI 1
D lIlIlIl1IIlI Blister(D) ''
l1I!IIIlllIII
2ndfeedeC
r I ll ll ll 3rd feeder
Cjll Il lI I
Ground (*) B B B B B B Ground (*) B BB B B8
D !lIll l t' IIIIllI
3rd feeder 4thfeede
C
rll lIl lll
C Il II.II1 Blister(D)
oi IIIIllIIlIllI
5th fna--r
Bl
i
ster(D) n IlIIllIIlIII C II llI Il
4thfeede
Cr lI ll ll l
.
Bl
ister(E!)
E'
III1IlIIlIIlI
6th fte er
Firsttwo ro- ofpattern graph
(:: Il lIl I1
Firsttwo rowsofpattern graph

zrwï'
.:t*
-:tl1 21t1--'
:7'
11-111

Single blisterfabric Double blisterfabric

427
11.ReliefFabric:
A patterned rib-based fabric,the surface ofw hich exhibits a chasacteristics relief or
blistereffectin w hich the num berofIoopj in the reliefportion isgreaterthan in the
surrounding area on the effectside and on the reverse side.The reliefarea m ay be of
a different colourfrom the m ain ground and the ground m ay aljo be patterned.Two
m ain typesofstructure are recognized:single relieforthree-m iss blisterand double
relieforfive-m iss blister.The Iatterhas a greaterpreponderance ofIoopson the face
ofthe fabric in the reliefareasthan the form er.Also know n asblisterfabric orcloqué
fabric.
6 @' * * e
@. * * *

5 * * * *
* * * *
4 @ * * @
@ * * @. * * * *
4 e @ * *
* * * *
3 @ @ @ @ @ œ * *

* * * @
3 . . . . ''
2 . . . . * + *' @

@ * * @
2 . . . .
1 . . . . * * *

1 . @ . *

Single ReliefFabric Double Relieffabric

Non-lacquard Double lersey StructuresorDerivativesofInterlock Structure:

lt produced mainly on the modified interlock machine.Various modifications to the basic
interlock machine have been necessary in orderto produce the new structures.Originally
only alternate tricks were fully cut through to accommodate long neédles so that mock
eight-lock wasachieved by knitting norm alinterlock with every third dialneedle removed,
now alItricksmay be cutthrough and insertsplaced in tricksundershortneedles.
M ost interlock variation structures have six or eight feeder repeat sequences as only
alternateneedlesin one bed are in adion in a course.
1. Single Pique orErossTutk Interlock Structure:
Itw asone ofthe first to be produced,by placing tuck cam s in the dialatevery third
feeder.The tuck stitchesthrow the fabric out approxim ately 15% w iderthan normal
interlock to a satisfactory finished w idth of over 60'/! they break up the sudace
unifprmityand helpto maskfeederstripinessbuttheyalsp iqcrepsefabricweight.
Single pique isa tuck-knitinterlockstructure.So interlocknqedle gating system is
..

used to produce this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder,Iong

 428
needles facing shortneedles and vice-versa.The repeat ofthe structure com pletes
on sixfeeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:
First feeder:Knit on allshort cylinder needles and tuck on aI1short dial
needles.
Second feeder:Kniton allIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton alIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Knit on aIIlong cylinder needles and tuck on alIIong dial
needles.
Fifth feeder:Kniton al1shortcylinderand dialneedles.
Sixth feeder:Kniton alllong cylinderand dialneedles.

6 * * * *
e o * e *

5 * *
* *
*
e
*
'
* e * *
4 * * * *
* * * e *

g . . . . .
+ * * * *

2 * * * * *
* * * * *

1 * e' * * *

2. TexiPique Strud ure:

lt is widerand bulkierand shows the sam e pique effecton both sides of the fabric.
Texipique is atuck-knit interlock structure.So interlock needle gating system is used
to produce this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder,Iong needles
facing short needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on six
feeders.Knitting sequence fora repeat asfollows:

6 * œ *
* œ * e

5 * * * e
+ * œ

* e
4 * * *

* * *
3 * . . .
o * * *
2 . . . .
+ e + *

j. * * * *
429
First feeder:Tuck on aIIshortcylinder needles and tuck on alIshort dial
needles.
Second feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIlshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Tuck .on allIong cylinder needles and tuck on alIlong dial
needles.
Fifth feeder:Kniton alIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Sixth feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.

3. Cross M iss Structure:

lt is the knit m iss equivalentofsingle pique but it is narrow erand Iighterin w eight.
Cross m iss isa m iss-knitinterlock structure.So interlock needle gating system isused
to produce this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder,Iong needles
facing short needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on six
feeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

6 * *
* * * *

5 * * e *
* *
+ * * *
4 * * * *
* * œ *
3 * . . .
* * * *
2 . . . .
* * * *

1 *' * *

First feeder:Knit on aIIshort cylinder needles only and aI1dialneedles

rem ain idle.
Second feeder:Kniton allIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Knit on aIIlong cylinder needles only and aIldialneedles
rem ain idle.
Fifth feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Sixth feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.

4. Piquette Structure:
Itisa reversible knit m iss structure w ith a Iightcord effect.Piquette isalso a m iss-knit
interlock structure.So interlock needle gating system is used to produce this
structure.Long and shortneedles in dialand cylinder,Iong needlesfacing short
 . 'ty:J4.'F.
. . '... ....
. z.
J7%
''.:é
.;L..
.. ...
. ..
;.
(
.ki
j
' 54
.
w *
y5x:jj
u
z.r.'..s.s
m' sl'
i'l
needlesand vice-versa.The repeat ofthe structure com pletes on sIxfeeders.Kn1 Ing ,1
..R.
.Q5
'. . .''k
!
sequence fora repeatasfollows: - . Yry
. ..F
,.j;..
.k '
sa
.l'r..
7'.
r'L-
4
* * * * *
6 * * * * *

5 . . . &. ..
.
* e * * *

* * * * *
4 * * * * @
* * e e *
3 . . . . .
e * * e +
2 . . . . .
* * o * e
1 . . . . .

Firstfeeder:Kniton allshortcylinderand dialneedles.

Second feeder:Knit on aIIlong dialneedles only and aIlcylinder needles
rem ain idle.
Third feeder:Knit on aIIshort cylinder needles only and aIldialneedles
remain idle.
Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIlong cylinderand dialneedles.
Fifth feeder:Knit on aIlshort dialneedles only and aIIcylinder needles
rem ain idle.
Sixth feeder:Knit on aIIIong cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.

5. Pin Tuck Strud ure:

PinTuck isa tuck-knitinterlockstructure.So interlock needle gating system is used to

produce this structure. Long and short needles in dialand cylinder, Iong needles
facing short needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on six
feedersalso.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

Firstfeeder:Kniton allshortcylinderand dialneedles

Second feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles
Fifth feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand tuckon aIIshortdialneedles.
Sixth feeder:Kniton alllong cylinderand tuck on aIlIong dialneedles.
431
6 . . . .
* *

5 * * * *
* e *
* + *
4 * * e *
o *
3 * * * *
e * * *
2 . . .
e * * e

1 * * *
6. BourreletStructure:
A nonjacquard doublejerseyfabricmadeonan interlockbasiswhich ischaracterized
by horizontalridgesonthe effectside (the surface ofthefabricintended to be used
outermostonagarmentorotherconstruction).Theknittingsequenceisgenerallya
num berofcourses of interlock,follow ed by a num berof courses knitted on one set
ofneedlesonly.
Bourreletfabrics have pronounced horizontalcords at regular intervals produced by
knitting excess courses on the cylinder needles, the cord courses m ay be in a
different colour to the ground courses.There m ay be half, m ore than half,or Iess
than halfthe totalnum beroffeeders knitting the cord courses.Interlock ratherthan
rib base bourrelet is usuall
y preferred because it provides a softer,sm oother more
regularsurface with Iesselasticity butitrequirestwo feeders percord row.
Bourrelet is a m iss-knit interlock structure.So interlock needle gating system isused
to produce this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder,long needles
facing short needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on ten
feeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

Firstfeeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.

Second feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fifth feeder:Knit on aIIshort cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
Sixth feeder: Knit on aIIlong cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
Seventh feeder:Kniton alIshortcylinderneedles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
Eighth feeder:Knit on aIIIong cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
 10 * * * *
* * * *

9 *
*
*
*
*
e
*
e

* * * *
8 * e * *

* * * *
e e * œi

* * * *
* * * *

* * * *
* * * *

* * * *
4 . . .
* * * e
* * * *

* * *
* * *

* * *

1 + * *

Ninth feeder:Knit on alIshortcylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles

rem ain idle.
Tenth feeder:Knit on aIIIong cylinder needles only and .aIldialneedles
rem ain idle.
7. Jersey Cord Structure:
Jersey cord is an exam ple of a M iss bourrelet.So it is a m iss-knit interlock structure.
Interlock needle gating system is used to produce this structure. Long and short
needles in dialand cylinder,Iong needles facing short needles and vice-versa.The
repeatofthe structure com pletes on eightfeeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatas
follows:
Firstfeeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Second feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Fifth feeder:Knit on aIIshort cylinder needles only and alIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
Sixth feeder:Knit on aIllong cylinder needles only and aIIdial needles
rem ain idle. '
Seventh feeder:Kniton a1Ishortcylinderneedles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
Eighth feeder:Knit on aIIIong cylinder needles only and alldialneedles
rem ain idle.
433
8 e * * *
e œ e *

7 * e * *
o * *
e * * *
6 * * * *
* * œ *
5 * * + *
e * o *
4 * * * *
* e * *
3 . . . .
* e * *

2 . . . .
* * * *

1 * * * œ

8. superRom a Strutture:
Superrom a is an exam ple ofa tuck bourrelet,this one som etim esterm ed horizontal
ripplefabrics,tend to be heavierand to have a Iesspronounced cord than the jersey
cord,w hich are term ed 'Ottom ans' in the USA.lt is a tuck-knit interlock structure.
Interlock needle gating system is used to produce this structure. Long and short
needles in dialand cylinder, Iong needles facing short needles and vice-versa.The
repeat ofthe structure com pleteson eightfeeders.Knitting sequence fora repeat as
follow s:
8 . . . .
e e e *

7 . * * *
e * * +

6 * * *
* * œ *

5 * * * *
* * *
* * * *
4 * * e *
* * * e
3 * * * *
* * * *
2 . . .
* * * *

1 * * * .

Firstfeeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.

Second feeder:Kniton aIlIong cylinderand dialneedles.
 434
Third feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.
Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Fifth feeder:Knit on al1short cylinder needles and tuck on allshort dial
needles.
Sixth feeder: Knit on aIIIong cylinder needles and tuck on aII Iong dial
needles.
Seventh feeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderneedlesand tuck on aIIshortdial
needles.
Eighth feeder:Knit on aIIIong cylinderneedles and tuck on aIIIong dial
needles.
9. Punto di-Rom a R rud ure:
lthasreplaced double pique asthe mostpopularnon-jacquard doublejerseyfabric,
i
t belongsto a group ofstructuresw hich are reversible and have a tubularsequence
of dialonly and cylinderonly knit.It has an acceptable weight and finishes with a
width ofabout70 inches.
It is a interlock bsaed structure.Interlock needle gating system is used to produce
this structure.Long and short needles in dialand cylinder, Iong needles facing short
needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on four feeders.
l
Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:
.

Firstfeeder:Kniton aIIshor'tcylinderand dialneedles.

Second feeder:Kniton aIlIong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Kniton aIIboth Iong and shortdialneedles and aIIcylinder
needlesrem ain idle.
Fourth feeder:Kni t on alIboth shortand long cylinderneedles and aIIdial
needles remain idle.

4 * œ * * *

'
3
k

l
j
-10.Eortina Structure:
!
..
t.

Cbrtina isthe six feederversion ofpunto dirom a,produced on interlock cam m ing
k
w ith run-through cam s w here m issipg is required.So it is a m issknit interlock
) structure.lnterlock needle gating system is used to produce this structure. Long and
shortneedles in dialand cylinder,Iong needles facing shortneedles and vice-versa

!.
(
 t
i
,
435
The repeatofthe structure com pletes on six feeders.Knitting sequence fora repea
asfollows: )'
6 * @ * *
@' @ * *

@ @ * *
* * * @
* @ @ *

. . . 0.
@ * * @
1
.
@ @ @ * l
@ @ @ @
1
1
# @ * @ i
1
'
. . p . . (
!
1

Firstfeeder:Kniton aIIshortcylinderand dialneedles.

Second feeder:Kniton aIIlong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Knit on alIshort dialneedles only and aIIcylinder needles j
rem ain idle.
Fourth feeder:Knit on aIlIong dialneedles only and aIIcylinder needles
rem ain idle.
Fifth feeder:Knit on a1lshort cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
Sixth feeder: Knit on aIllong cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle.
11. Six course Punto di-Rom a Structure:
lt is a m iss-knit interlock structure. So interlock needle gating system is used to
produce this structure. Long and short needles in dialand cylinder, long needles
facing short needles and vice-versa.The repeat of the structure com pletes on six
feeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollows:

Firstfeeder:Kniton aIlshortcylinderand dialneedles.

Second feeder:Knit on alllong cylinderand dialneedles.
Third feeder:Knit on aIlshort cylinder needles only and aIldialneedles
rem ain idle.
Fourth feeder:Knit on aIlIong cylinder needles only and aIIdialneedles
rem ain idle. '
Fifth feeder: Knit on aIIshort dialneedles only and alIcylinder needles
rem ain idle.
Sixth feeder: Knit on alIlong dial needles only and aIIcylinder needles
rem ain idle.
 436
* * * *
* * * *

5 * G* * U*
* * * *
* * + *
* * * *
* * * *
3 + * * *

* * *

2 . . . ö.
* * * *
1 . . .

12.Everm onte Structure:

It has a row oftuck stitcheson one side after each tubular course w hich produces a
slightripple effect. It isa tuck-knitinterlock structure. Interlock needle gating system
is used to produce this structure. Long and short needles in dialand cylinder long
,
needles facing short needles and vice-versa. The repeat of the structure com pletes
on eightfeeders.Knitting sequence fora repeatasfollow s:

First feeder:Knit on aIlshort cylinder needles and tuck on alIshort dial

needles.
Second feeder:Knit on alIIong cylinder needles and tuck on aIIIong dial
needles.
Third feeder:Knit on aI1b0th Iong and short dialneedles and aIIcylinder
needlesrem ain idle.

8 . .
x. . .
e .N t- .. '
* * * e

7 . . . .
+ * * *

6 * * . .
+ * * *
* * * *
* * * œ

4 * * * *
* * e *

. . (.
3p :.
:7'
* e * *
* * e *
* * *

* * * +
* * * *
437 Fourth feeder:Kniton aIIboth shortand long cylinderneedles and alldial
needles rem ain idle.
Fifth feeder:Tuck on alIshortcylinder needles and knit on a!Isbortdial
needles.
Sixth feeder:Tuck on aIIIong cylinder needles and knit on aIIIong dial
needles.
Seventh feeder:Kniton allboth shortand long cylinderneedlesand aIl
dialneedlesremain idle.
Eighth feeder:Kniton aIlboth Iong and shortdialneedles and a1Icylinder
needles rem ain idle.

W eftknitted Jacquard Design:

W eftknitted jacquard designs are builtup from face Ioopsin selected colours on a base
fabric of either single jersey, 1x1 rib,or Iinks-links (purl).The face Ioop needles are
individually selected,usually each only once perpattern row,to rise and take one yarn from
a sequence ofdifferentcoloured yarn feedson a knitorm issbasis.

ln two-colourjacquard,certain needleswillbe selected to knitcolourA from thefirstfeed

and,at the next feed,there willbe a negati ve selection w ith the rem aining needles being
selected to knitcolour B.The face Ioops oftw o feed courses thuscom bine to produce one
com plete row offace pattern Ioops.

ln tbree-colourjacquard,each needle willbe selected to knit once apd miss twice ata
sequence offeeds,so thatthree feedercoursesw illproduce one design row .The greaterthe
num ber of colours in a design row,the Iowerthe rate ofproductivity in design rows per
machine revolution ortraverse,assum ing striping isnotem ployed.

I
fstriping isemployed withjacquard selection,differentcolourscan beselected atdifferent
design rows so thatthere are more colours in the totaldesign than in one design row .For
exam ple,a four-feed m achine w ith four-colour striping at each feed could knitfourcolours
'
perdesign row buthave a totalofsixteen coloursin the design depth.
?
Single Jersey Jacquard design: 1
j
. ç
A patterned single-jersey weftknitted fabric,usuallvmade from two ormoreyarnsofj
differing colourortexture to give a construction thatconsistsessentialjyofknitted and float
Ioops, but may incorporate tuck loops.The surface pattern is derived from the chosen
arrangem entofthe yarnsand ofthe knitted and floatIoops.

The inclusion oftuck Ioops into the construction elim inates Iong Iengths offloating threads
from the backofthe fabric.

r
 438
Single-jerseytuckjacquard- A patterned single-jerseyweftknittedfabricusually m ade from
two or more yarns differing in colourortexture in construction thatconsists ofknitted and
tuck loops.The surface pattern is derived from a chosen arrangem entofthe yarn and ofthe
knitted and tuck Ioops.
r
''
.. fr
-m',
hI$
!
't'
-x;
''
! e f:
A - , +
, '

yj#
The floatsofsinglejersey jacquàrd to some extent reduce the Iateralextensibility of the
garm ents and when continuous filam entyarns âre used in gaugesofE 18(npi)orIess,the
floatson the technicalback can create problems ofsnagging. Single-cylindersock m achines
may knit1x1floatstitchjacquard,odd needlesbeing selected forknitand misswhilsteven
needles knitatevery feed,thus reducing thecoloured yarn floats on the technicalback to a
single wale.The clarity ofthe coloured pattern area isonly slightly im paired.
The following squared diagram illustratespartofa three-colourjacquard design,each face
stitch being represented by a square. Using the running thread notation, provide a
representationofthedesignforsingle-jerseyknit/missjacquard.
Fa>
et tern
r@w:
8 - Face wales
'
*

IE c B B A A ' B IB d.
m c A C B e c A c

c IA c B c Ic IB Ic A
I AI-
1
1i
AI C1a,
(. 1,
I
' B.'c AlAj
. 11 ,. 11 1
Faw'',h 091* 0
12 @ * * * * * * * O

11 X * * * * * * * * B
10 @ @ * * * * * * A

9
g m * @ * *' * @ * @ B
7 * * * * * * * * X
* * *' * @ * * @

5 S * * * * * * * * 8
4 @ * * * * @ * * A

3 @ @ * * * * * *
I @ @ * * @ * @ * B
. *. @ * * * * * A

Single-jerseyknit/missjacquard
439
Accordion Fabric:
lt is a single-jersey jacquard fabric.A weft knitted plain-based fabric,showing a figured
design in two or more colours,thatis produced by knitting and m issing,and in which
loopsare introduced to elim inate Iong Iengthsoffloatingthread atthe back.

In accordion fabrics,the longfloatsarq held ln placeonthe technicalback bytucksti

tches.
They were originally developed using knit and m iss pattern wheel selection, needles
required to tuck(ifnotselected to knit)were providedwith an extrabuttin linewithatuck
cam placed im mediately afterthe pattern wheelselection.
'

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There are three types of accordion fabrics,such as - straight accordion fabric,alternate

accordion fabric and selected accordion fabrics.

Straightaccordion fabric;

In straight accordion fabrics,every odd needle w as ofthistype,so every odd needle

tucked when not selected to knit. The follow ing figure show s a repeat of
representation oftwo pattern rowsforthe straightaccordion fabrics.

11 A C B C c B C, A
1 A A C B B C A A

Feeds
6 . . . . . . C
. o O
6 .(I . @ . . @ B
O O O
4 * *. . . . . A
O O O
3 * @ * . . c
O O O
2 I * . . + @ B
O O O
@ @ . *. * . A
O O
O = odd needles
Straightaccordionfabric(Tuckingonnon-knittingodd needles)
 440
Alternate accordion fabric:

Alternative accordion providesa betterdistribution oftuck stitches, odd needleshad

a tuck buttposition in Iine w ith cam s nlace/i at odd feeders and even needles had
anotherbuttposition forcam s ateven feeders.W ith both these types of accordion,
tuck stitches can occurclose togethercausing distortion offace Ioops and allowing
unselected coloursto 'grin'(adefectinacompoundstructuree.g.adoublec10th in
which one fabric can be seen through or'grinning through'the other, as a result of
bad cover.The term can be applied to com pound woven and knitted structures
includingpilefabrics)throughbetweenadjacentwalesonto theface.Thefollowing
figure shows a repeat of the representation of two pattern rows for the alternate
accordion fabrics.
=
11 A c a c c tB tc. x i
1 A A C B B C A A

6 * @ . * * * * C
E
5 11 * @ * * * B
O O O
4 @ * @ * * A
E E E
O . . @ . @ C
O O
2 1 @ * * * *
E E
1 @ . @ @ . * A
0 O

O =oddneedlesand E= even.needles
Alternate accordion fabric
'

(Tuckingonoddneedlesatoddfeedersandevenneedlesatevenfeederswhennonknitting)
.
(:

selected accordion fabric:

The selective accordion fabric is the third type of accordion. It is mostw idely used
butit requires a three-step pattern wheelorotherselection device which can select
the tuck Ioops so thatthey are carefully distributed to create the m inim um ofstitch
distortion on the face of the design. The following figure shows a repeat of the
representation oftwo pattern rowsforthe selected accordion fabrics.
441
Ix A C B c c B c A

I x A c B e c 1x 1A I

6 . * . @ . @ . . c

5 11 . @ @ o * . . B
4 . . . @ . @ A

3 . . @. . @ . C
2 I . *' . @. . . . B
1 . . . . @ . . A

Selected accordion fabric

(Tuckingonlyoncarefullyselectednon-knittingneedles)

Double Jersey lacquard Design:

It produced on the rib jacquard machine.Rib jacquard isa patterned rit-basedfabricthe
surface of which is essentially flat and exhibits a figure or design in differing colour or
texture.The patterned surface is derived from the chosen arrangem ent of yarns,and of
knitted and m iss orfloatIoops.The back ofthe fabric m-ay be eitherplain, striped,birdseye
orIadderbacking.

Rib jacquard desighsare achieved by cylinderneedle selection.The dialneedles knitthe

backing and elim inatefloatsthatoccurwhen cylinderneedlesonly are selected to m iss.Tuck
stitches are therefore unnecessary.On circular knitting m achines,the selection is on the
cylinder needles onl y and the dialneedles knitthe backing Ioops,whereas on flat
m achinesboth beds may have selection facilities.

1. Reverse lacquard fabric:

A rib-based fabric in w hich the design on the effectside is reversed on the other
by alternation ofthetwo com ponentthreadsbetween thetwo sides.

; * @ * * @ @
@ @ . @. *. @

1 i p * * * @
* * @ @ @. @
 442
2. Striped Backing fora Tw o ColourRib Jacquard Fabric:

The reverse side of a rib jacquard fabric characterized by successive courses of

horizontal stripes of each of the yarns used to form the pattern. The effect is
obtained by knitting on aIIthe needles in the set opposite to that used to form the
pattern.

. . . . . . colourB
* @ * * * *

s.!
' .k,. w
/-k7'' '-'k2%
:
--
,k . - -w. ColourA
* * * @ * *

3. Three colourrib Jacquard withStriped backing:

W ith horizontally striped backing, ajl dial needles w ill knit at every feeder thus
producing an unbalanced structure w ith m ore backing row s of stitches than pattern
rows.ln the case ofthree-colourjacquard,there willbe threetim esasmany backing
rowsasface pattern row s.Thistype ofbacking ensures thatthe m axim um yarn floats
are only across one needle space and there isthus little IossofIatçralextensibility- a
prerequisite for garm ent Iength and hosiery knitting.The follow ing figure show s a
representationoftwo pattern rowsasribjacquard with horizontally-striped backing.

a A c B c c B c lA
1 A A C B B C jA A

& * * * * e * *

* * * * * e *

* e @ * e * * *
B
* * * *

* e * * + + * A
e * * * *

* * o e e œ * +

* e * e

e * * * * * .
B
I
* * o * e

* e * * œ * * A
* * * * *

Ribjacquard with horizontallystriped backing

 443
The followingfigureshowsa representation oftwo pattern rowsasribjacquard with
horizontally-striped backing.

:II A C a C c V- - U-=
B ; c. i A
-
>- ol-
I A A C 8 B C )A t!-A .- -

F
C
6 * + . o .
*' *. + o @ o o .
B
5 * e * e o œ
E .
* *' e œ @ * > o
A
4 * + + + + .
@ * * o
o
C
*. e' @ e e @

* e * * @. @ *

+ @ @ + . .
1
* œ @. @. e .
A
j * + . . . . .
* *. o @ . . >

Ribjacquard with verticallystriped backing

4. Birdseye Backing fora Three ColourRib Jacquard Fabric:

The reverse side ofa rib jacquard fabric characterized by courses in which knitted
and floatloopsofone colouralternate w ith knitted and floatIoops ofanother w ithin
,
and betw een successive courses. Fordoubl e jersey fabrics,birdseye ortwillbacking
is preferred as this is a m ore stable structure w hich is better balanced and has a
pleasing,scram bled-colourappearance on the backing side. It is achieved by knitting
the backing on alternate needles only and arranging foreach colourto be knitted by
odd backing needles at one feed and even needles atthe next. The optim um num ber
ofcolours is usually three.
 444

6 . . . . . ColourC
@ * @ @

s . . . . Z.
-7 coIourB
* @ * *

4 . . . . . colourA
@ * @ F

a . . . . ., colourc
@ @ @ *

. G @ . @ Cojour:
.

* @ @ @

@ @ * @ * ColourA
@ @ @ * '

Birdseye backingforathree colourribjacquard fabric

445
Thefollowingfigure showsarepresentation oftwo pattern rowsasribjacquard with
birdseye backing.
'

r A C B C c B c A

1 A A C jB B C A jA
Fe : E
c
6 @ @ * * @ o . @

* * @ * @ @ @ @

O B
5 * @ o . . . . .
11
#'
@ * * @ @ @ @

E A
4 * @ @ . . . . .

@ * * @ @ . .

O c

* * @ @ @ .

E B

* * @ * @
D A
1 * @ . . . . . .

* @ @ @ @ . . .

O =odddial(backingneedles)andE=evendial(backingneedles)
Ribjacquard with birdseye backing
 446
SW EATER KNIU ING
(FuIIyFashionedKnitwear)

ln traditionalgarment produdion,rectangularflatknitted panels are cut to the required shapes,

which are then sewn together.W hen a panelhasto be cutaccording to a m arker,the amountof
wasteisconsiderable and profitsare reduced.

Fuily fashioning is the process whereby portions of a garment are shaped at the selvedges by
progressively increasing or decreasing the num ber of Ioops in the width of the fabric. Such
narrowing and widening produces the shape of a piece of garment that would otherwise be
generated bycutting.Sweaterisatypicalfullyfashion knitwear. '
The advantagesofthe fashioning protessare:

A considerable decrease in waste in the subsequent produdion stages.W ben the raw
materials used in the knitting operation are expensi ve Iike Lam bswool, Angora or
Cashmere,theprocessismoreattractive.There isIittleorno cuttingwaste.
A reductionofsome ofthe produdion stationssuchasmarking,gradingand cutting.The
Iabourcost in each country define the importance ofthis point.In areas where higher
wagesare paid the processbecomem oreattractive.
* Thequalityofafashioned garmentedge ism uch betterthena cutedge.The edgesofthe
garmentpiecesaresealedandnotIiabletofraying,socanbejoined bysimplenon-bulky
Seams.W ith the corred making-up equipment,this method produces a higher class
garment.
* The shape ofthe panelis more accurate when produced during the knitting operation '
ratherthen being cutIater.

The disadvantagesofthe fashioning processare:

A reduced machine productivity due to the need to transferIoopsfrom one needle bed
to tbe other.
The finalshape ofthé garmenthasto be designed before the knitting procedure can be
started.Thisistoo com plicated formanyknitterswho are notprepared to be involved in
these operations.
* A SomewhathigherIevelofdesigning skillshasto be exercised.Thefashioningprocedure
hasto beadded totheregularpatterningofthe fabric.
* The making-up operation ofa fashioned garment requires a differenttype Df sewing
machineto achieve ahigherqualityproduct.
Fullyfashioned garm entsare usuallyassociatedwith knitted outerwearofaparticularclassicaltype
and with a particulartype ofm achinery:the 'straightbar'or'Cotton'sPatent'knitting m achine.
447
However,knitted underwearism ade on afuily fashioned basis, asthough the quantity isnow very
smallcompared tothatmade in the 19thcentury.
M en'sheavy rib sweatersare also fully fashioned on hand flatknitting machines, asare fine gauge
Iadiessuitsand dresses.
lncreasingly the fashioning capabilitiesofmodern electronicallycontrolled V-bed flatmachinesare
being used formakingfullyfashioned garmentswith scopeforembellishmentusingawide range of
patternings.Such ause,with savingsofmateria!and m aking up costs, willincreasingly feature asa
develppmentofthestitch shaped industry.
Thischaptermainly discusswith the sweaterknittingtechnology. TheVee-bedflatknitting machine
iswidelyused to produce sweaterpart.
ThefeaturesofaVee-bed flatknitting i-e.sweaterknitting machine:
The mainfeaturesofaVee- bed flatknitting machine areIisted below:
* Num ericall
y these are the mostimportantindustrialknitting machines.
* The needles,m ounted in bedsopposed in an inverted 'fV''formation, are operated by
camsin areciprocatingcarriage.

AutomaticVee-bed flatknittingm achine

@ The hand flat machine is stillwidely used but most modern machines are powered.
M achinesare udiltwith 1.5to 20 needlesperinch inwidthsfrom afew inchesto 76 inch.
@ Many are employed to produce collars and rib trim mingsforgarments made on other
machines,butbecauseofthealmostunlimitedpatterningscopeavailablewithjacquard
flatmachinesconsiderable numbersare used forthe productionofpatterned fabricsand
garment Iengths.Automatic narrowing has been common on these machinesforsome
time and modelsare now being offeredwithfullfashioningcapability.
TheirmaindisadvantageisIow productivity compared with othertypes.
 w M ost have a single knitting head orsection butversions with 2 t 448
o 6 sections arranged
side byside areproduced.
* Afrangémvptof1 sections back to back allowsknitting to take place i
n one direction
using 15 or.more carriagesthattraverse overthefrontsection and return overthe back
one:the resulting machine isthusa hybrid circularflatm achine. -

' The M anualSweaterknitting m achine:

Themanualsweaterknitting machine consistsofthefollowingparts: !
t

Themanualsweaterknitting(flatknittiùg)machineismadeupbyaframe carring the base;this

st
:
ructuresupjortsaIItheneedle bedsand motionsnecessaryfortheknitting
sideofthemachine there isaspoolrackforstoringthe yarnspools process.In the rear .
.

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M anualsweaterknittingm achine Yarn passagef

rom package to yarn carrier
Theyarnunwoundfrom thespoolispickedupbythefeedingsyst
feè
, di
ngtension and a thread guide em:atensioner,whichadjuststhe
'
, driven by the machine carriage, which providesthe needleWith .
yarn atthepropertime.
Th'
e tensionerism ade up byaspring load flexible arm , thatIowerswhenthe yarntension increases
-

tofeed abiggerquantityofyarn, and Iiftsup whenthe tension decreases '

,
.

The needle bed:

(The following figuresshow the needle bed and the moti q)
onsofa manualsweaterknitting m achine.
y
Theneedlesaccommodatedinsidethegroovesoftheneedlebedcanbeei
therin'
akni
tti
h g orin ak''pp' ,r
lj)'tqê
)
2
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.
,
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non-kni tting position and are moved b f' a
y specialsprings,which isshown in the aböveyari pasjag#'r
fi
gur..'Placed between the grooves in the upperpartofth )-''1':tBr
'
. . . ikj
r -'
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e needle bed,the knotkyoe rz' .

r*k partofthetrickwall)actassupportsfortheyarnfedduringthestitchformie n.'

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449

The needle bed

A spring securing barand aneedlesecuring barare also attached tothe needle bed to keep needles
and springsin acorrectslidingposi
tion.

Thetarriage:

The following figure shows the schematic diagram of the carriage of manualsweater knitting
machine.ItismadeupoftwometalplatesIinkedbyastiffbridge(P);theplatesworkindiyiduall
y
and simultaneousl
y on thefrontandtherearneedlebeds.

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Needlebed and carriageofa manualsweaterkni

tting machine
The carriagecarriesoutadouble function and can be used:
* To selectthe needlesand makethem raise orIowerto form thestitch;
* To selectand drive thethread guideswhichfeedtheneedles.
Theplatesincludecam locks(F)bearingthedriveandcontrolsystemsoftheneedles,i.e.thecams.
Whenthecarriagemovesright-wardsorIeft-wards,thethreadguides(B),(C),(D),(E)areIocked
l
450
k
ri
ndividually bythe corresponding pistons (A)onthe upperpartofthe bridge, that are manually
'
driven.
7Brushesare also mounted on the carriage to ensure a sm00th needle Iatch opening and granta
correctfeeding oftheyarn,which isshown inthefollowingfigure. Aswith alIyarn carriers,the yarn
carrierrepresented below iscom posed ofthefollowingelem ents:
A - istheblockwhich guidestheyarn carrieron itsguidingbar;
l
.
r . B - isthesupport;
C- is the feeder holder,fixed with a hinge to enable the yarn carriers to pass one
anotherand
D - isthefeeder.

The Cam-loeks:
The cam-locks are a cam system which givesthe necessary working information to the individual
needles;they include afixed part,working assupport, and movable cams,which can bedivided into
raisingcamsand Iowering orknock-overcams.The rai sing cam includesatuckingcam and a Iooping
Can3.
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Cam boxesofa Sw eaterKnitting m achine

451
The fixed ormovable camsform a sym metricalchannelwhere the needle buttslides;the needle
movesdownward and upward inthe groove to form the stitch.The di
fferentpartsofthe camsare
chamfered;theirprofilesarecurvilinearto m akethe needlemovesmoothly.

The angle ofinclination ofthe cams rangesbetween 400and 500;these valuesgrantan optimum 7
running of the needle and avoid high pressures between metal parts during the motion and
excessivq tensionsontheyarnduringthe downward stroke ofthe needle.Thecarriageallowsthree
differentworkwaysaccordingtothe needle stroke and to the positionsofthe raisingcam :

@ Knit stitch - when the needle carries out a complete stroke,reaching the maxim um
heightontheIoopingplane.
* Tuck stitch - whenthe needle reachesthetucking piane and receivesa new yarn while
stillholdingitsformerIoop,thusformingtwo loopsin theone needle hook.
@ M issorfloatstitch - when the needle isnotknitting and remainsoutofthe knock-over
plane. l

High-buttand Low-buttneedles: r
(

The latch needle can have two differentbuttheightswbich make itahigh-butneedle oraIow-butt
needle.The assembly of high-butt needles and Iow-butt needles on the knitting machine allows
di
fferentselection and differentmanufacturing workways,accordingto the positionsofthetucking)
and Ioopingcams. :

Higb-bzttzeedk è
')

The knitting action orLoop-form ingprocessonSweaterknitting machine: )r

'
)
.
Theloopformingprocessinasweater(twobedflat)knittingmachinei
sillustratedinthefollowi7
figure.Itcomprisesthefollowingoperations: ,
'
(
* Clearing(ontheneedles1to3) )
* YarnIaying(ontheneedle8) :
@ Yarndrawing
* '
Pressing '
* Landing(ontheneedfe9)
@ Joining(notshowninthedrawing) t
@ Casting-off )
* Loopforming(ontheneedle10)and :
)
i
'
* Drawingoff(ontheneedle11) ,
)'
('
 452
Atthe tim eofclearing,the needlesm ove overadistance suffi cientto m ake theold Ioop passfrom
the latch onto the stem . W hen thisoccurs,theold Ioopsare retained from Iifting togetherwi
ththe
needlesbythe actionoftheforce thatdraws-offthe knittedfabric.

Asthe needles move down, they grasp the new yarn in consecutive order. To obtain casting ofold
Ioops C in the following figure on the new yarn, it is necessary that the needles be sufficiently
Iowered in relation to the knocking-over plane. The amount ofneedle lowering in relation to the
knocking-overplane(sinkingdepth)determinesthesizeofformedknittingIoops
' .

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Allthe movements necessary to accomplish the loop-forming processare imparted to the needl
es
bythe camsastheyexercisetheiraction onthe needle butts.

FabricTake-down:

Knitted fabricsrequire a specialsystem to take them down while they are formed on the knitting
machine.On manualflatknittingm achines, afterthefirststrokeofthe carriage, asteelreed isfitted
into thecourse;the reed ishooked usinga steelwire, which i5shown in thefollowingfigure.

O O

' Fabrictake-dow n reed orSet-up com b W eightholder

(
Oncethemanufacturingcyclecomesto an end the steelwire isremoved andthe reed released. The
;machine and the reed must have the same gauge;the holes in the Iower part of the reed
accommodate the weight-holder hooks to increase the tension on the fabric according to the
specificneeds.
r
453 l
l
Production ofdifferenlFabricson Sw eaterknitting m achine: ê
.
The descriptions which follow, relative to different types of classic fabrics,embrace the basic /
.
j
knowledge of every knitter.These descriptions are often illustrated by photostaken on a hand y
machine,asthistype ofmachine isthe mostsuitable fordescribingthe basi csofknitting. t ï
i
The set-up: 1
The description ofthe principle of the formation of a stitch,shows thatthe needl e carries the '
,
thread ora first stitch and explainshow the latch needle makes a second stitch.The studyofthe t
set-up mustenableone to understand how the firstthread isjaid inthe hooksofthe needles. '
.
)
:!
The startm ade by a set-up.The yarn isfed to the needles by the yarn carrier,passesfrom one :
: ..
needleto the other,i.e.from frontto backthenfrom backtofront.Thisisthe firstrow ofthewelt- y
asingle row ofyarn- and can be representedgraphically asfollows: '
f
l -----Y-e-
g!l'.
?.----.
- J
Y arn
(
t

î
.
'
)
To putthisfirst row in the hooksofthe needles,i
tsufficesto putthe raising camsfrontand back
i t
'
nto action,to adjusttheIoweringcamsonanaverage posi
tionandto passthecarriageentraining'
theyarn carrier.Checktheopening ofthe latchesofaIIthe needles. '
.
l

Thefollowingstepsare carried outforthe set-up;thoseareshown in thefigure below; y

i
* Step- 1:Thefirstrow ofthewelt.The yarn passesalternatelyonthefrontand back. t
,
'
.
-
:7..
* Step- 2:Overtheset-up row from below and between the needle-bedstheset-up comb
isintroduced andthenthrough theeyeletsofthe set-upcomb,thewire. )
(r.
* Step- 3:The comb isthussuspended on theset-up row. :
)
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Step - 1 Step- 2 Step- 3 '7'
Theset-up row isgenerallyfollowed bya wel
t- oftencomposed oftwo orseveralrowsoftubular , :
)
kni
tting.The set-up andthecircularrowsconstitutethewelt.Each knittedarticle,unlessitiscut, t
8

)
 454
commences by a welt.Butthe utilization ofautomatic flat machinesimpedesthe use ofa set-up
comb becausethe variousarticles knitted follow one anotherwithoutstopping the machine. In this
case,they are separated onefrom the other, bya draw-thread orbypartialpress-off.
So thatthe firstrow ofthe weltiscorrectlv executed, itis importantthatthe yarn,in passingfrom
0ne needle tothe other,passesalso from frontto backand backto front. In effect,ifthisisnotso,
thefirstrow isimperfect.
Tubularfabric:
Thisisalso called circularknitting. Itcan be made on circularmachineswith one needle-bed oron
flat machines with two needle-beds. ln this Iatter case the tubularfabric knits a flattube which
takes itscircularform afterknitting. The following description givestubularknitting made on flat
machineswithtwo needle-beds.Theflatmachineshave, in regard to circularmachinesforinstance,
the im portantadvantage ofbeingableto producetubularfabricofany diameter, dueto the simple
factthatoneputsinto actionthe needleson anywidth.
ltcan be interesting,in certain cases,-especially fortrimmings- to not connectthe selvedges of
the fabricofthe frontto thatofthe back, thusproducingtubularfabricopen atone orboth sides.
To do this,knittwo rows on the back needl e-bed, then two rowson the front needle-bed, and so
on.Now the Iiason willonly be effected atone side, atthe rightorthe Ieft,depending on whether
the starthas been done from the rightorthe Ieft. To obtain circularknitting open b0th sides,one
mustnaturally use two yarn carriers,one on the back knitting alwayswith the needlesofthe back
needle-bed and the otheron the frontfeedingthe frontneedles. In thismannerthe thread ofeach
yarn carrierfeedsalwaysthe needlesofthe same needle-bed and the two piecesoffabric are not
joinedto one another.Theordinaryweltofan article isknitted generallywith 2, 4,or 6 rows of
tubularknitting,which ensuresasound edge. In effect,tubularfabricisnotveryelastic.
Thetubularfabriciscomposedofthejoiningupoftwo piecesofknittingonone needle-bed, one
piece madeonthe frontneedle-bed andtheotheronthe backneedl q-bed. Theyareconnected one
to the other by a common thread which passes from one needle-bed to the otherat the two
selvedges.ThisIiason isnotvisible in the fabric, the gap between the needle-bedsis designed so
thatthe interstitchattheselvedgesisequalto the otherinter-stitches.

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455
The following figuresillustrate the cam platesofa hand sweaterknitting machine arranged fortheLS
production oftubularfabric.Two raising cams,one atthe front,one atthe back,are outofaction.'
Thus when the carriage travelsfrom leftto right,the back needles only willform a stitch.On the
otberhand,when the carriage goesfrom ri ghtto left,only the frontneedlesform a stitch.ln this(
manner,the Iowering cams A and B are always inactive.They musttherefore be fixed ata highert
position than the othertwo so asto avoid any tension onthe stitches.In the following rigbtcorner
figureofcam -boxesthe clearing orraising cam 1'and 2setfortubularfabric. )
ï
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r 'xx '
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R .. #X 4,'.
ç Z '' *' )
B '- -. . .

' ' ---.-....-..

...
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, â sy J Xx? .
'

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Single bedfabric: '

.
:2
Thisisalso calledjerseyfabricin spite oftheterm often being used todescribeaIIsortsofothe
fabricsindifferenttextures,generall
yinfinestitches,butwherethesolecommonpointisthesingtî
colour.ASin thecaseoftubularfabric,the quali
tyofthe single bed fabricdependsprincipallyonth
shape and polish ofthejacksofthe needle-bed,aswellasthe accurate setting ofthe loweri
cams.These mustbesetatexactlythe same height,i.e.on the samedivision.lrregularsetting oft '
lowering camscausesthe rowsto be shortand long.The fabric,in consequence,shows horizontL' '
.

stripes. .i
. (E.
Single bed fabric,which isshown inthefollowingfigure,isthe expression em ployed forknitting
one needle-bed only,generally on the back.Its characteristics are the same asthose fortubul
knitting:Iight,Iittleelasticity,and stitchesformedveryuniformly. .
t. ' '. '.
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A fabricon one needle-bed isalmostalwayspreceded by apieceofribfabricm ade on two needl.

bedswith anordinarywelt.To passto the single bedfabric,allthe stitchesofone needle-bed mu .
'

456
betransferred byahooktotheneedlesoftheotherneedle-bed Generally from frontto back.
.

. Various proceduresofthe transferofstitches are described in the following section. Itis however
' possible to commence kni
tting on one needle-bed withouta rib wel t. lnthiscase,a set-up comb is
placed betweenthe needle-beds,ashigh aspossible,in such a mannerthatthe eyeletsrestagainst
thejacksoftheneedlebed which willproducethe knitting.In knittingthe firstrow ofthesingle bed
-

fabric,the needlespassbetween the eyeletsofthe set-upcomb, and the yarn taken istrapped.The
aboverightcornerfigureshowstheset-up comb, with itswire,canbe used tocommence single bed
fabricwithouta welt.
Rib fabrics:
1x1rib:
Contraryto circularfabric orfabric on one needle-bed, aIIrib fabricsare made simul
taneousl
y on
the two needle-beds.Thusthe yarn passingfrom one needleto the otherpassesequallyfrom front
to backand backto front,asfortheset-up row . Itisowingto m achinesfitted withtwo needle-beds
and to ribfabricsthusproduced.

1x1rib hasthe same appearancé on both sides.ltisavery el asticfabricin i

tswidth. Itselasticity not
only dependsonthe texture ofthe fabric, butisalso influenced by the stitch lengthand the type of
yarn.1x1 rib is characterized by the factthatal1the needlesofboth needle-bedsare in action. A11
the raising cam swilltherefore be inworkand aIIthe Iowering camsm ustbe setexactlyon the same
division.
Cardigan R itch orFullCardigan R itcb:
Cardigan stitch isafabricoftucks.The tuck rendersthe stitch doubled. Thatiswhy tuckfabricsare
often described by the terms ''double stitch fabric''or ''multi-sti
tch fabric'' when the tuck is
repeated.There are two waysofm aking atuck, such as- tucking in the hook and tucking on the
latch.
The generalappearance ofcardigan stitch is sim ilarto thatof1x1 rib. The two sides are identical.
However,the colum ns of stitches are wider apart.On the other hand, cardigan stitch can be
recognized by the tucks,which between the colum n ofthe stitches, show smallloops.Cardigan
stitchfabricisthicker,heavier.than 1x1 rib.
Thefollowingleftfigure showsthe row ofcardi ganstitch. Thetuckison the back.The descriptions
whichfollow,concerningtuckstitches(cardiganstitch,halfcardigan,nopps,repeatedtucks)relate
 '
ï
)
457 !
n
.
7
)7
to cardigan cam plates.The cardigan stitch is knitted on aIIthe needles.The stitchestucked a
produced on the backand frontneedle-bedsalike.The drawingsofthe followingfiguresrepresen
thecam platesofhand sweaterknitting machinesand the raisingcamsare setforthe produdiono .

cardigan Gtitch. '

)
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. 3 2 2 2
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ln cardigan stitch the lowering cam s can aIIbe set on the same division.However,to ensure a
normalappearance to the fabric,the tuck mustbe generallyand asm uch aspossible,shorterthan
the stitch.'-rhe Iowering cams Nos.2 and 4 in the above figure willthus be setto aboutthe 'flush
jack'position,whereasthe loweringcamsNos.1and 3occupyanormalpositionofformation.The
above m iddle figure showsthe carriage passes from Ieftto right- the back needles form a stitch
and the frontneedlesform atuck.The above rightfigure showsthe carri age passing from rightto
Ieft- the back needles make a tuck,whereasthe front needles,previously tucked,form a doubl e
stitch.
Thefollowingfi guresshow thecamboxesofthe manualsweaterknitting machine.Inthe Ieftcorner
figure,the stitch cams6/and 7 setfortucking.In the m iddle figure,the cam setting forcontinuous
tucking in one needlebed.In the rightcornerfigure,thecam setting forfullcardigan stitch.

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Thisfabric resultsfrom a combination of1x1 rib and cardigan.ltisobtained by al
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1x1rib with a row ofcardigan stitch. Thus,onesetofneedlesformsindividualstitchesateach ro: )
whereasthe otherformsdouble stitches.The camsofthe cam plate represented atthe below à
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W henthe carriage travelsfrom rightto Ieft,thefrontand back needlesm ake a complete ascension
and form a single stitch.Thisisthe 1x1 rib row.W hen the carriage travelsfrom leftto right,the
back needles make a second single stitch,whereas those of the front make a tuck.This is the
cardigan row.The lowering cam No.4 - which determinesthe Iength ofthe tuck- willbe placed a
little higherthanthe otherone.
The rightsideofthefabricwith the single stitches.Itpresentsthischaracteristicthatthe stitchesof
one row predom inate whereasthose ofthe following row are almostinvisible.The predominating
stitchesare relati
velyIargecom paredwith thoseofthe precedingrow.Theygive thefabricacertain
appearance ofpearlstitch,whichsometimesthefabriciscalled.
Needledrop design:
The expression ''rib fabrics''denotesfabricsin rib (executed on two needle-beds)by meansof
needle-bedswithneedlesoutofaction,oridle.Themostcommonofthese-rib2/3andrib1/2-
aremainl yusedforthebottom borderofapullover,ajacket,orforthe cuffofasleeve,thatisfor
a1Ithe partsofanarticlewhich mustbeclosefitting.Asitsname indicates,the 2/3 rib iskni tted
wi
th a needle field comprising 2 needles in 3 in action.ln otherwords,one needle in 3 is out of
action.lnthesameway,in1/2rib,1needlein2i sinaction.
ThefollowingIeftandmiddlefiguresshow the2in3rib(2/3).The2/3ribisverycommonlyknown
as2x2 rib,wiich isa classicexample ofarib fabric.On each needle-bed 2 needlesin3 are in action.
Theinactive needle issituated in thecentre ofthe needlesin actiononthe opposingneedle-bed.
459
Ribfabricscannaturallybe insinglestitchesortuckstitches,injustthesamewayasribonaI1the
needles.Thus,the2/3ribcanbe2/3cardigan or2/3halfcardigan.Ribsaregenerallyveryelasticin
theirwidth,especially when in single Stitches.Thiselasticity isthe resultofthe spacesmade bythe
inactive needleswhich thusgivespaceto the closingupoftheribs.
The inactive needlecan be:
@ A Iow butt,orshort.The rib willbe knitted on the high buttneedlesorthe long needles
only.M ostknittingmachinesare equippedwiththesetwo sortsofneedles.
Outofaction.Thissolutionisusedformachineswithoutjacquardandfi
ttedwithneedles
having a single heightofbutt.In thiscase,the inactive needle ispushed downwardsto
the base of the needle-bed.lts butt occupies a position which is below the bottom
raisingcams.
The 1/2rib iscomposedofaneedle inacti
on alternatingwith aneedleoutofaction.The2/4ribis
composed of2 needlesin action alternating with 2needlesoutofaction,Thesetwo kindsofrib are
also very popular.Theirelasticityiseven greaterthan with 2/3 rib,The above rightcornerfi
gure
show therib1in2(1/2)andthebelow leftcornerfigureshow therib2in4(2/4).

To passform a rib to 1x1rib,itisnecessarybetween the twoto make 2 rowsoftubularfabricon aII

the needles.Ifnot,unsightlyholeswillappearbetweenthe rib and the 1x1 rib on aIItheneedles.
Rib2/3followedby1x1ribwith,betweenthetwo,2rowsoftubularfabriconalltheneedles,which
is shown in the above middle figure.The same sample withoutthe two tubularrowsshowssmall
holesbetweenthe2/3ribandthe1x1rib,whichisshownintheaboverightcornerfigure.
Needle-bed Racking:
Duringthe processofIoop formation,the needle-bedsare stationary and the tricksofone are set
between the tricksofthe other.Thisisthe knitting position,and the needlesofb0th bedsare able
to knitsim ultaneousl y.0ne ofthe needle bedscan be driven sideways a shortdistance. to change
the relative positioning ofthe needles.In thisrespect,the needle-bedsofflatknitting machinesare
notstationary.AlIflat knitting machines are provided with a needle-bed racking system which is
used forshi fting onebed in relation to the otherby meansofaSpecialcam placed onthe machine's
side,whilstatthe sametim e maintairlingthe needle-bed gap.
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Racking can occurin both directions.Thisracking movementi5measured by needle spaces,i.e.the

bed can be moved numberofneedles,The needle-bed can also take different positions:racking
overhalfneedleorfullneedle.
The above leftcornerfi gure showsthe normalposition ofthe needle-beds.The firstslotatthe Ieft
isofthe frontneedle-bed.Atthe right,the Iastslotisofthe back needle-bed.The backneedle-bed
isdisplacedthree slots,which isshown intheabove middlefigure.0ne saysthatithasbeen racked
three needles.
The displacement of the needle-bed is generally provoked by the rotation ofthe racking wheel,
shaped in steps each ofwhich corresponds to the gauge of the machine.This rotation can be
controlled by hand orautomaticall
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lim ited in a very precise manner to ensure that the crossing of the needles in ascension is
maintained.
Theracking iscarried outforeitherofthefollowing reasons:
* To positionthetricksalmostin alignment.Thisisneededto aliow needlesofone needle
bed to penetrate the transferspringsofthe needles atthe opposite bed and facili tate
Ioop transfer.Looptransferand transferpositionare describedinthe foilowing section.
* Oneofthe needlebedscan bemoved afew needlesto one side and stillbe positioned in
a knitting arrangement.The needles ofone bed are between the needles ofthe other.
Thisiscarriedoutto assistthe transportation oftransferred Ioopsto a new location orto
distortthe regularverticalarrangementsofthewales.
Notethatthe rackingofthe needle bedscan take placeonlywhen aIIthe needlesare in the resting
position.This time is between the completion of one machine knitting cycle and before the
commencem entofthe next.Any attemptto rack the needle bed while some ofthe needlesare in
theclearing position and the needlesare intermeshed,willresultin mechanicaldamage.
The racking motion allowsthe creation ofinclined patterns (right-hand orIeft-hand)on the knit
fabric.Thefollowingfiguresshow thefabricsproduced bythe racking System .
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A Ioopthatisdisplacedafterbeingformedso thatitcombineswithan adjacentIoop,orsothatit)

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Thetransferofafullorpartofaneedle IooporsinkerIoop onto anadjacentneedle,eitherinthe7
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transferiscalled Ioop
'transferstitches. :

ObjectsofIooptransfer: .
TheobjectofIooptransferisto achieveshaping,produceadesign,orchangethesti
tchstructure.r
Transferring isused togenerate holesinthe fabrictoform Iace-like effects.Transferring can be used ,
to produce structuraleffects by inclining wales ofboth plain and rib fabrics.Thisis also used to
produce cables by exchanging two ormore groupsofwaleswith one another.In adài tion,Ioopi
transferis used in Iadies'stockings,when producing the double-thickness,pl ain fabric,in-turned .
welt.ltalso used in running-on and doubling rib loop fabriconto the needlesofa straightbarframe
to form the rib border ofa garment part.Loop transferis used when running the Ioops oftwo 2
separatefabricsonto the pointsofa IinkingmachineforIinkingthesefabricstogether. ;'
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Loop transferby hand-controlled pointsisa tediousand skilled operation,butautom atic Ioopj .

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@ Fittingthe transferneedle 1 on the hook ofthe knitting needle to be putoutofaction,
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needlehook(f)ontheopenIatch.

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Transferofa backstitchtothefrontisshown inthefollowingphoto (1).TheIefthandmanoeuvres
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To passto single bed,alIthe needlesofone needle-bed mustbe transferred to the needlesoft''
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appropriate to the gauge.The descriptionsand illustrationsoftheabove rightcornerfigurefa).
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possible,thistransfermustbe preceded by aIastrow ofstitchesa Ii
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Chain Stitch:when partial,itisexecuted during the knitting.Itis also done by transferofstitches

withthe narrowing noint,asindicated bythefollowingfigures(1)tofigure(4).
@ Figure - 1:Overthe secticn where the chain stitch willbe made, transferthe Stitches
from the frontto the back needles,On the front,Ieave or put back into action aI!the
needles.Knitone row ofrib and press-offon thefrontthe loopsthusformed.
* Figure - 2:Take the Iastbutone stitch with the narrowing handle and transferiton to
the Selvedge needle.Pushthisup untilthe end oftheIatch isbetweentwo stitches.
* Figure - 3:Lowerthe selvedge needle and draw outthe narrowing point. The transfer
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Figure - 4:W ith the narrowing handle,putthis new stitch on to the needle which has
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 465
#
The chain sti
tch preventsthe stitchesfrom running. Atthe end ofan article itisoften done offthv'
è.
, '
m achine by meansofa Iatch needse which doesthe work ofthe narrowing point. v

K However,inthel
nitweari.e.SweaterIndustry,linking machinesavoid the need fora chain stitch and also stop the)
stitchesfrom running. )
The doubling operation forribsoffully-fashioned articles:Certain typesofframesused in knitwearr
automaticallyproducearticlesentirelyshaped(fully-fashioned)inplainjerseystitchfabric Buttheyi .
cannot knit the ribs at the same time, as they have only one row ofneedles. The users of such),
fram es mustuse flat knitting m achines with two needle- bedsto prodace the ribswhich are thenl
transferredto the needlesofthe fram ebymeansofaspecialtransferbar. ( .

t.
?:
Furthermore, experience has shown that, to m eet the m aking tlp needs, the ribs must have 4( ,
greater numberofstitches than forthe article itself. In consequence,atthe end ofthe ribs, th
numberofstitches is reduced.Thisopqration, called doubjing can be executed by hand, when th '
rib is picked on, or automatically on a stitch transfer machine, incorporating the possibility
transferring the stitches ofthe Iow butt needles only. In the previous ri
ghtfigure,the illustratio
showsaborderknitted in 1x1rib transferred to plain fabricafterdoubling. In effect,certain stitche) .

(encircled)have beendoubled bysti

tchtransfer.Itisinthiswaythatthe numberofstitchesoftb
ribisadjustedtothoseofthearticleknitted inplain. :
J'
Although itisslightly visible, the doubled stitch doesnotunfavourablyaffectthe appearance ofth
fabric.The change between the rib and the plain is quite natural, there being no join thatis$
obvious with fabricswith sewn-on welts. Finally,the automatic doubling is more rapid and mor:
.
unifofm thandoublingmadebyhand. è
,

The following figures show the execution ofa few classic sam pleswith stitch transfer. 2/3i.
e.2x
rib borderand following reversejerseystructure isshown in the following Ieftcornerfigure. Tb'
finishedshapeofthe1x1ribto2/3(2x2)ribto1x1ribfabricsamplecanberepresentedassho j
.
)
'
at the following middle figure.Knitted in fine gauges, it is used forthe manufacture of ves .

(underwear).Thefollowingri ghtcornerfigureshowstheclose-upvi ew ofthisfabric. )

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2/3ribandplainback 1x1rib-2/3rib- 1x1rib t

2
k 466
( AutomaticIoop transfer:
The process ofautomatic Ioop transferson V-bed knitting machines and the working mechanism
taking part in loop transfers are shown in the following figures. For Ioop transfer an auxiliary
elementm ustbe broughtinaction and itisthetransferunit. The Iatch needlehasa recess,'a'which
accommodates the transferunit forIoop transfér.The process of Ioop transferis fulfilled in the
followingsteps:
@ needleSelectionforIooptransfer(a);
risingtheneedletosuchapositionthattheIoopremainsontheopenIatch(a);
* thetransferunit1Iowersontotheneedlerecess(b);
@ the needle rise,coupled with thetransferunit,and thetransferunittakesoverthe Ioop
(c);
* therisingtransferunitreleasestheneedlewhi
chIowersintotheneedlebed (d& e);
now,the transfer unit is shifted by one needle spacing to the needle which is to take
overtheIoopcarriedbythetransferunit(e);
@ new needietakesthetransferredIoopover(e& f).
'

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Loop transferringdevice ''. .
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z-narrow ing carriage, k
QX (e) k
3-latchopeners) ux y)
Autom aticloop transferring process

Loop transferonbearded needles:

Onspring-beardedneedles(e.g.CottonPatentmachines)removalandtransferofIoopsare
performedbymeansoftransferneedles(transferpoints)whichareattachedtospecialbars.Sucha
transferneedleconsistsofa stem 1,agroove 2,atip 3 and a butt4.ln thetransferneedle groove
 .

167
: '
'
;
the hook ofthe spring-bearded needle is hiding during pressing by Ioop transfer.The tip oft''
.1
. .
transferneedleentersinthegrooveofthe knitting needlespressed. .
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Loop transferon a cotton'spatentm achine

a)Transferneedle positioned in frontofa knitting needle,b)&c)Needle pressing,d)&e)Loop ,
removal,f)&g)Separationofneedles;transferneedlerack,h)Clearing,i)Needlepressing,j)Loop
transferontoaknittingpeedle,k)Secondseparationofneedles,1)Transferneedleretreat.
The Ioop transferisperformed in thefollowingten steps: î
1, oositioning thetransferneedle in frontofthe selected spring-bearded needle;
2. nressing thespring-bearded needle in thegrooveofthetransferneedle;
3. loop rem ovalfrom thespring-bearded needleontothetransferneedle;
4 separation ofneedles; '

y
 468
5. transferneedle rack;
6. clearing;
i. pressing;
8. Ioop removalfrom thetransferneedle onto spring-bearded needle;
9. separation ofneedles;
lo.transferneedleoutofaction.
s

Fabric narrowing and widening are performed wi

th identicalinteraction ofloop form ing elements
andtranjferqeedles.
HalfIoop transferorPartlv Ioontransfer:
Forobtainingthe Iace effects(Iaceholes)byIooptransferwithoutIoop removalfrom the spring -

bearded needles,pointsortransferneedleswith a cut-outare used, The Ioop transferin thiscase

com prisesthesam eonerations,butatthe firstpressingtheneedie hookisnotpressed bythe point
asshown inthe figure.Asa result, the loop transferprocessiseffected withoutIoop removalbythe
points.

Thesequenceofoperationsatthetransferofahalf-loopisillustratedinthefollowingfi
gure(a-f) .

Sequenceofoperationsin half-loop transfer

rhe above right figure shows the position of the needle and transferpoint with cutout at first
-

ressing.
469
toop transferon knitting mathineswith Iatch needles:
The processofloop transferon circularkni tting machineswith Iatch needlesiscarried outbyusin!
needles ofvariousspecialdesign.M ost Iargely used in practice are two methods ofIoop transfef
from one needle bed ofthe knitting machinetoanother,

Thefirstmethod makesuse ofIatch needleswith a spreader.Betweenthe spreaderand the needl:

stem there isadearance.

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epIreaderti
oop, p,
( 6-dialneedle.
(a) /37

Looptransferusing Iatch needleswith spreader

The second method involvesIatch needleswith side recessesand shoulders.The needle shoulde
stretchesthe loop broughtto the levelofthe head ofthe Ioop receiving needle in opposite needl
bed,thuspreparingtheIoopto piercing bythereceivingneedle.

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7N
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dialneedlebending AL Jk '' 1 z

Loop transferin1x1rib
$z
mV
* .-1
--
joop transferatneedlebending
r
i
l
470
The sequenceofIooptransferoperationsisasfollows:
)
p * Needle selection forloop transfer
* Bending the Ioop transferring needles towards their receiving counterparts with
recesses,in the otherneedle bed - in circularknitting machines,or- in V-bed knitting
machines- racking oneoftheneedlebedsfor0.5needle spacing
* Bringing the loopson selected needlestothe I evelofneedlesinthe opposite needlebed
* Puttingthetransferred Ioopsonthe hooksofreceiving needles
* Casting-offthe Ioopsfrom the needlestransferring the loopsonto the headsofreceiving
needles
* Openingthe latchesofneedleswhich have cast-offtheirIoops
@ Bringing theneedlesintotheirinitialposi
tion.
The propertiesand useofthe Transferred Stitch:
tooptransferiswidely used inflatknittingforvariousreasons,Some ofwhich are described below:
1. Changing from rib to plain: Often, garments are produced with a rib wel t, which
provides elastic properties, and then continues as a plain construction to reduce
thickness and weight.In these cases,allthe loops participating in the production ofthe
rib weltare transferred to one needle bed.The plain knitstructure continuesto kniton
thissingle bed.
2. Knitting purlknits:To knitpurlknitstructurescontaining face and back Ioopswithin the
same wales,Ioopsshould betransferred betweenfrontand rearneedles.
3. Patterning:Transferred Ioopsare widely used in fabri
c patterning.W ale distortion isone
example,in which certain walesare m oved from needle to needle which then continue
to knit through them .The verticallines of the wales are thus distorted.The most
common exam ple ofthis pattern procedure is the ''Cable''illustrated in the following
figure.Some walesarehighlighted to clarifytheeffect.

I I
a I I

I lI I I l
j NINI ININI I

I l I I II
C

Changingfrom rib to plain Cable Design

471
4. Shaping:Sophisticated knitting machinesare able to shape the garmentratherthan tp
'

produce only rectangular panels. Panel shaping requires needle selection and
(
transferring ability, in which loops are transferred inward atthe edges, to facili
tatf
narrowing.Since the Ioops are transferred from one needle bed to the other,which ij
'
then racked to allow the return procedure, the efficiency and productivity of th#
machineisreduced.Theprofitabilityoftheprocessshouldbeconsideredbyweighint
togetherthe raw materialcostsandthereduction incuttingoperations,agiinstthi
knitting efficiencyand productivity. r
i
T 1
ypesofTransferStitches: 1

Therearefourmaintypesoftransferstitches:
:f?
- .

1. Plain needle I
oop transferstitches- Itis produced by transference ofa Ioop from o '
needleto anotherinthe same bed.
2. Fancylacingstitches- Itisproduced bymodificationoftheplainIodpstitch.
3. Rib loop transferstitches- Itisproduced bytransferring a Ioop from one needle bedt
theother.
4 SinkerIooptransferstitches.
)
openw orkweftknitted fabrics: r
'
Thestitch variantisobtained bytransferofneedle Ioopsonthe neighbouring needlesorb?trans
ofsinkerIoopsonone ortwo needlesofthewal estowhich thetransferred sinkerIoop belongs.
ThisvariantStitchesobtqined by needle Iooptransferareoftencalled Iace stitcheswhilstsinkerIo!
transferproducesthe pelerine sti tches.Thesestitchescan bq obtained ina plain stitch ora ribsti
knitted fabric. The Iace stitches and pelerine stitches are employed to obtain openwork des.7
effectsorto impartnew propertiestotheknittedfabrics. T
F
* Lace stitches: )
ln designsthe plain Ioop transferstitches is termed a Iace sti
tch whereas in selve
jhapingitistermedfashioning.Lacestitchescanbeproducedonweftknittingmachiq'
with spring bearded needlesand latch needles.Forobtaining a lace effect,theloopsc
betransferred into neighbouringwaleseitherbyremovingthe Ioopsofneedlejonwhi
they have beenformed orwithoutremovingthem from those needles. k
@ Pelerinestitches(sinkerIooptransferstitches): j
ThesinkerIoopscan also be transferred onto both needlesproducingthe Ioop wales
transferred sinkerIoop belongsto.Felerine stitchescan also be obtained in plain sti
and rib stitch knitted fabrics.The structure ofa fabricwith pelerine stitchesobtained
transferofsinkerIoops onto a single needle oronto two needles.Pelerine stitches
also be obtained by transferoftwo,three orfoursinkerIoopsIying one above anot
in two,threeorfourconsecutive Ioop courses. '
 /' xN'.
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A 8 C k sC

LaceStitch(PlainIooptransfersti
tch) FancyIacingstitch

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B C A 6

Rib Iooptransferstitch PelerineStitch(SinkerIooptransferstitch)

Protessofproducingthe pelerine stitthes:
One ofthe needle beds- the dialorthe cylinderis equipped with Iatch needles;the otherneedle
bedisequippedwi thtransferjackswithbutts,nibs,shoul
dersand bends.Transferjacksinpairsare
used,wi th right-hand bend and left-hand bend,Onejackisused incaseofsinkerIooptransferon
oneneedlelleftorrightrespectively),ortwojacksareusedforsinkerlooptransferontwo needles
tleftandright).
Processofknittingthe pelerinestitches:

Theprocessofknittingpelerine(nipp)stitchesiscarried outinthefollowingsequence:
@ selectionofsinkersltransferjack)forlooptransfer;
* advancingthe transferjack nibsto the Iine ofknock - overplane ofthe needses in
oppositeneedlebed(fig.b);
* graspingthesinkerIoop 'H'bytransferjacknib,andbringingthesinkerIooptothe Ievel
ofneedlehooksinoppositeneedlebed(fig.c);
* transferthe sinkerl
oop 'H'on the needlesofthe opposi te needle bed (fig.d);these
'needlesarepartly protruding from theirgrooves;
473
' /z Fs ,z'. zc

f Z 5V 9 Y K C' '- Sn
u u == /y
2 4 x
/ .

(a) r& (d)

knitting process ofthe pelerine sti

tches

@ retreatofthejackstotheirini
tialpositions;thesinkerIoopisIaid ontheopenIatchesof
the protruding needlesoftheoppositeneedle bed;
@ bringing the needleswithsinkerloopto theirinitialpositions.

TransferofsinkerIoopscan be perform ed in one,two,three orfourconsecutive Ioop courses,on

the sam eneedles.

Fancy Iacing stitches:

The bearded needle sinkerwheelmachine produced the Iargestrangeoffancy Iacing stitches.Some

are unique to itand havethe term 'ajour'in theirdescription,which implièsa sequence ofsamples.
Ajourf-orknupf-alsotermedfiletIace,weftknittednetandknottedstitch-squareaperturesin
an all-over effectthat is popular for m en's athletic underwear.On an E16 fine gauge m achine,
1/18'scottonor2/70deniernylonmightbeused.A courseoflongloopsisknittedandthetwoside
Iim bsofevery second needle Ioop 'B'are spread sidewaysonto the needle Ioops'A'.The second i
s
knitted w ith ashortstitch length andtuckingoccurson needles'B'to m ake theaperture wider.

Anotherstitch,known asajourB,hasa twisted transferred Ioop,produced by deflectingthe beard

ofthe receiving needle acrossinto the eye ofthedelivering needle so that,asthe Ioop ispressed-off
from the deliveringneedle,i ttwistsover.Theeffectisachieved by usingtoothed lacingwheelswith
the upper wheel's teeth coupling two beards together;these teeth are arranged according to
pattern requirements.

Purlstitch fabric:

Thefollow ing sam ple illustratesthe purelybasicfabricofpurlstitch m achines.ltcom prisesrowsof

A A A A A A A A fk A A è 1st row :pl

ajnattherear
I I '1 I II

l II I
2nd row : Plain atthe front
 - 474
stitches,knitted alternately,back and fronton aIIthe needles.Thus,aftereach row ofstitches,aII
the needlespassto the opposite needle-bed to knitthe nextrow ofstitches.80th sidesofthe fabric
are obviouslyidentical.
M ossstitch:

The sti
tch formation chartofmossstitch is illustrated in below.In this case uneven needle means
odd numberneedle.In each row,aIIthe needlespassfrom frontto backorbacktofront,depending
on whetherthey are even orodd (uneven).Moss stitch fabric isidenticalfrontand back.Itis
particularly used forknittingarticlesofa layette.

I I l I
1str0w :rib 1/1,wi
tj uneven needles
I l att1e rearan1 evenneetlesatthe
front.

I I l I 2nd row :rib 1/1,with uneven needles

atthe frcnt ant even needles at the
I I I I rear,

Double mossstitch:
Thisfabricisavariation ofthe precedingsam ple.The stitch formationchartisillustrated in below.

I I ! l l I'
l l l l 1 l l 1stand 2nd row :rib 1/1,wi th uneven
needles at the rear and even needles
1 1 I 1 i I al the tront.
l l I l I 1

l 1 I I l I I)
l I l l 3rd and 4th row :rib 1/1,with uneven
needles at the frontand even needles
I l 1 1 'l I Ztthe reaf.
I I I I I Il

Tucked m ossstitch:

This fabric is also a variation ofthe preceding sam ple.The stitch formation char'
t is illustrated in
below.
475
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Plain and PurlR itch:

Asindicated before,purlstitch machinesgenerallypermittheexecution ofthe majorityofbasic
fabrics,in plain orin rib,with singleortucked stitches.In addition,asthe needlescanpassfrom one
needle-bed to the other,purlstitch fabrics increase the variety ofthe sampling ofthese mgchines.
The sam ples below, in purlstitch and plain, illustrate one of these sampling possibili ties.The
followingthree samplescom posedofplainand purlstitcheshave been knittedon ahand machine.
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Links-linksknit:
Links-linksknitsare based on the conceptofsuperimposi tion,onthesam ecolumn ofplain stitches
and purlsti tches.These structured stitches were originaily made on specialmachines featuring
groovedflatand coinciding needle beds,equipped with specialdouble-hookneedles.Today,thanks
to easier stitch transfer options,these structured stitches can be made quickly and safely on
standardflatknitting machines.
The characteristic appearance of Iinks-linksdesignsconsists in presenting alternated areas ofpurl
stitchesand plain stitches,often arranged so asto create a design motif.A classicexample ofIinks-
Iinks structured stitches is that shown in the (above middle figure)illustration,that is,the
chequered design.
 476
Plaited fabricson purlstitth machines:
Flaiting isoften utisized on puristitch machines.This follows the same principle as plaiting. In rib
fabrics,the plaited yarn does notappear.ltremains contained atthe interiorofthe fabric. On the
otherhand,in plain on one needle-bej,the plaited yarn appearson 0ne side, i.e.atthe front.0ne
canthusobtainplainfabricsin differentcolours,depending onwhetherthey areseen atthe backor
thefront.

Fabrics in purlstitch are eminently suitabie for this possibility, because they aqe com posed, in
principle,ofa succession of rows knitted in plain, eitherat the front or the back.The plaiting
enablesthereforetheseplainrowstobeintwocolours.Thetwosamplesattheabove(middleand
rightfigures)areofidenticaltexture,buttherightoneisplaited.
Cable design:
Other classic knitting structures that can be made thanks to stitch transfer are cables. ln cable
designsthe verticalwales cross each other,have alwaysbeen very popularin the sweaterknitting
trade.The basic conceptconsistsin producing a seriesofplain stitch colum nson a purlsti tch base.
Aftera numberofrows,some ofthe stitches, correspondingto halfthe stitch columnsin question,
are transferred on the otherstitch colum ns,while the sti
tches ofthe latterare transferred to the
previousstitch columns.The stitchesarethuscrossed overand produce the classiccable effect.

The cables can be ofvarioussizes.A large numberofvariations exist, from ''two needle cable''in
which two walescrosseach other,to ''twelve needles cable''where six needlesswitch placeswith
anothergroup ofsixto form averywide design effect.The principleofwalecrossing isillustrated in
asimplifiedIoopconfi
gurationdiagram (below rightcornerfigure)inwhicha''fourneedlescable''is
drawn.The mostcommon and classic cable design isthe ''six needlescable'?which isshown in the
following leftcornerfigure.Thissize ofcabie ispopujarbecause althoughthe effectisdearitisstill
in proportion with a garment.The only Iim it to this size is determined by the displacement
achievablebythemachine aIIin onego.
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477
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x neede ca e design AranorDiamon esign

Aran orDiam ond design:

Anothervery comm on knitting structure made according to the same conceptasthe cable isthe
aran.The procedures used are similarto those ofthe cable.The only difference isthatthe arms
determ ined by the moving stitch columnsare diverging ratherthan converging asisthe case ofthe
cable.
An exam ple of diam ond effect made using the aran technique is shown in the above right
illustration,though naturally,the branchesofthevariousarmsofthe cablesand aranscan be much
moreimaginative and complex.

TheW elt:
A welt is an attractive and secure edge of a knitted article that helps to prevent laddering or
unrovingofastructure.I tisformed eitherduringthe knitting sequence (usuallyatthe start,and
paralleltothecourses)orasaIaterseamingoperationduringmaking-up.Seamedwelts,whichare
made afterthe knittingprocess,mayoccurinany position inthe fabric.

Typesofwelt:

There arethe differentfollowingtypesofwel t:

The inturned welt:A weltconsisting ofa double fold ofplain fabricm ade on a circular
stocking machine.SinkerIoopsfrom one ofthe firstfew coursesare retained while the
welt fabric is knitted and are Iater intermeshed with afternate needie Ioops of a
subsequentcourse.The inturned weltisused particularlyformanufacturing ladies'hose
and sports sockson circularmachinesand some knitwearon cottons patentmachines.
Jacksorhookscollectthe sinkerIoopsofthethird course orthe set- up course and hold
them,drawingthefabricaway untilsufficienthasbeen knittedforthe double- thickness
welt.
 478
* The turned welt:A weltthatconsistsofa double fold ofplain fabric and is m ade on a
straight - bar knitting machine. AIIor al ternate sinker loops of the first course are
retained whilethe weltfabric is knitted and Iaterintermeshed with the needle Ioopsofa
subsequentcourse.
* Reverse welt:A rollweltin which the plain coursesare interm eshed towardsthe reverse
side ofthe fabric.Thisweltisused particularly forstockingswith turnovertops.
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Turned welton Turned welton bearded needle Accordion welttop

latch needle
* Accordion welt top:An accordion top,welt and m ock rib,can be produced on single-
cylinder half-hose and sock m achines, and on other m achines using a single set of
needles in a tubulararrangem ent.Elastom eric yarn is Iaid-in to odd.needles only fora
few coursesso thatwhen the firstplain course isknitted by the textile yarn,the straight
contracted elastomeric yarn Iies through its sinkerIoops,form ing a neat rolledge.The
elastom ericyarn isthen usually inlaid on a two-tuck two-m issora one-and-one basisat
each course or alternate courses for a num ber of courses.As the elastom eric yarn
reiaxes, it causes alternate wales to be displaced into a mock rib configuration.
Som etimes,the second course oftextile yarn isknitted only on alternate needles.
* Rib welt:M ost fully-fashioned and stitch-shaped underw earand outerwear garm ents,
half-hose,and sockshave ribbed borderscontaining a weltsequence thatis produced by
causing the sets ofneedlesto act independently ofeach otherafterthe 1x1 rib set-up
course.W hen the rib borderisto be knitted in 2x2 rib,the needle bed iseithershogged
to form a skeleton 1x1rib needle arrangementoritisknitted on a normal1x1 rib needle
set-outfollowed by rib loop transferto achieve 2x2 rib forthe border.
Three typesofweltare possible when needlesare arranged in 1x1 rib set-out.These are:
1.The TubularorFrench welt
2.The RollorEnglishw elt
3.The Racked w elt
1.The TubularorFrench W elt:A weltm ade on a rib basis,in w hich the num berofcourses
w ith loops interm eshed in one direction is equalto the num berofcoursesw ith Ioop
479
interm eshed in the otherdirection.In m aking such a welton a 1x1 rib,the firstand Iast
courses are knitted on both sets of needles and the intermediate courses consist of an
equalnum ber of plain courses on each set of needles.The tubular welt is the m ost
popular welt because it is a balanced structure that is reversible, Iies flat, can be
extended to any depth and is elastic.Its only disadvantage isthat itcan becom e baggy
during washing and wear unless knitted tightly. Apart from old cottons patent Rib
Fram es, most garm ent-length knitting machines can knit this welt. The split welt is
actually a tubular welt knitted at the end ofthe garment sequence instead of at the
beginning.It is used asan open tube fora collarorstolling,to fitoverthe cutedge ofa
garmentto which itisthen Iinked by a through stitch.
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Tubularwelt Rollwelt Racked welt

2. TheRollorEnglishW elt:
A weltm ade on a rib basis,in which aIIthe courses ofIoops exceptthe firstand lastare
interm eshed in the same direction towardsthe face side ofthe fabric.In m aking such a
welt on 1x1 rib,the first and last courses are knitted on both sets of needles and the
interm ediate coursesare knitted on only one setofneedles.The rollweltis produced by
knitting approximatel y fourcourses on one set ofneedlesonl y whilstcontinuing to hold
the setting-up course of Ioops on the other set ofneedles.ltis bulkierand Iess elastic
than the tubularw elt and has the disadvantage ofIong held Ioops.This welt is knitted
particularly on half-hose and Iinks-linksgarment-length circularm achines.A reverse roll
weltis knitted forsleeveswith turn-back cuffsand forturn-overtop socks.To obtain this
welt,theoppositesetofneedles(thebottom setofneedlesonhal
f-hosemachines)are
caused to hold theirIoops so that the rollofthe welt appears on the otherside ofthe
structure,butitison theface when the fabricisfolded over.
3. The Racked W elt:
The racked weltisneatand inconspicuous,ratherIike the set-up course ofhand knitting
in appearance,and isfavoured forcollarsand othertrim m ings.It isnotaselastic asthe
other two welts and is norm ally only knitted on V-bed flat knitting machines. It is
produced by racking the needle bed by one needle space afterthe set-up course and
retaining thisarrangem ent.
 480
Garm entpanelseparation:
Knitted articles are often produced separatel y on single-cylinder machines, Cottons Patent
machinesand some flatmachines.Othersare knitted in continuous string formation on many flat
andcircularrib and purlmachinesbecause fabrictensioning isdependentona continuousI ength of
fabricbetweentheneedlesandthetake-down rollers.Also,there would be a dangeroflatchesnot
being open atthe startofa new garmentSequence.Ifthestring ofgarmentsisseparated bycutting,
there isa dangerofeitherthe welt being damaged orofunwanted yarn not being removed.For
these reasons,some form ofseparation course isusuall
y provided,normally in the form ofa draw
threadcourse,precedingthe firstcourse ofthe new garment.
Although the ''hand flat'' or manualsweater knitting machine can be re-threaded before the
production ofeach panel,acontinuousproduction isalso possible.A Specialyarn can be knitted at
the end ofeach panelsothefollowingpanelcan u$e itinstead ofthecomb.
ln productswhich are Iaterfinished through a wet process,a dissolving thread can be inserted
betAeen panels.Separation isachieved withoutthe need foranaddi ti
onalworking stage.W hen no
wet process is planned orthe panels are to be separated at anotherstage,the dissolving yarn
technique cannot be used.For these paneltypes,there is two principalmethods of separating
fabrics- separation bya draw-thread andseparation bypress-off- are dealtwi
thbelow.
Separation bydraw-thread:
The draw thread isusually asmoothstrong yarn thatmay be knitted asaslack,plaintubularcourse
to facilitate easy removal.ltappears between the end ofthe piece and the com mencem entofthe
nextpiece,atthe end ofthe protecting rows.The tubular draw thread course does not unrove
accidentally during wetprocessing.The draw-thread mustbe followed by the set-up èfthe next
piece(set-upandwelt).Toseparatethetwopieces,thethread mustbecutand drawnout.To
facilitate thisIatteroperation,the draw-thread mustbe knitted ata slacktension.The draw-thread
isparticularly convenientforfabricswhere the needle arrangementisthe same atthe end ofone
piece and the beginning ofthe next.Forexam ple,to separate articlescom mencing and finishing in
1x1rib,toseparateribsknittedin2/3rib,etc.

The separatingprocessisschematicallyshown in above,intbefoitowingstages:

481
@ The draw thread,knitted accordingto the specialroutine,iscutattheselvedges.
Itiseasily pulled outthroughoné selvedge.
@ The panelsare separated.
The separating sequence differs according to the knitting structure at the end ofthe completed
paneland the rib construction ofthe next.Only some com mon proceduresareshownin thebelow.
A separating draw thread isshown in thefollowing leftcornerfigure.I tis inserted between a panel
finishing in a 1x1 construction and a panelstarting with a 1x1 rib.The sequence is based on the
principle ofknitting the draw thread in a plain construction.Itiseasierto pulloutIater.To change
from 1x1ribtoaplainconstruction,twodi
fferentm/thodscanbeused:
@ AIIloopscan betransferred to one needle bed.
One needle-bed can be activated to pressitsIoopsoff.
The manualm achineisnotalwaysequipped totransferIoopsautom atically and manuaitransferring
is time consuming. It is naturalthat the press-off technique is preferred.A press-off Sequence
should be wellcontrolled and prepared to avoid Iaddering which isusuall
y associated with dropped
stitches.

A draw threadfrom 1x1to 1x1 A draw threadfrom 2x2to2x2

Separation bypress-off:
Anothermethod isthe press-offdraw thread construction,which,although more expensive in time
andyarn,tendsto be m ore popular.Thecourseprecedingthe startofthe new garmentisknitted in
1x1 rib and then one setofneedlespresses-offits Ioops,leaving a single plain course ofextra Iong
draw thread Ioops that can be quickly and easily removed.Priorto the press-offcourse,Iocking
courses are produced by knitting three ormore addi tionalcourses,only on the setofneedlesthat
are to press-off.These help to reducetension in the structtbre afterpressing-offand thusreducethe
possibilityofIadderingback.
The draw-thread monopolises a yarn carrier which could be of greater advantage forsomething
else.Onthe otherhand,itcannotbe used forseparating two fabricswhen someofthe needlesare
elimi
by prnat
essed.
-of
f.Forexampl
e between 1x1riband 2/3rib.Inthesecases,thepiecesmustbeseparated '(
'
t
i
1
ï
.
 482
Theseparation Ny press-offconsistsofpressingoffallorpartofthe stitchesofone needle-bed.To
avoid thestitchesrunningto the bottom ofthe preceding piece,the press-offisalwayspreceded by
few rowsofsingle bedfabric.
o separate the two pieces,one m ustcut, then draw outthe thread ofthe slack row. This can be
adewith asmoothandstrongthread (mercerized cotton,nylon,etc)tofacilitatetheseparation .
fthe pieces.
he separation by press-offenablesthe needle arrangement to be modified between the end of
3ne piece and the commencementofthefollowing piece. Changefrom 1x1ri bto 2/3rib bypress-
ffofalltheneedles.Thisisthe mostcomm on change, usedfora11machineswithoutsti tch transfer
rjacquard.This method is idealbetween two fabrics during which certain needles must be
'
liininated.From 1x1ribto2/3ribor1/2 ri6etc.
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Two articlesin 1x1 rib areseparated A draw thread from lxlto 2x2
bypress-off
kpopularalternative to a draw-thread, employed on half-hose and spck machines, is to knit a
umberofcourses in a soluble yarn such as algi.tate.The socks are separated by cutting, and the
mainingcoursesofyarn are dissolved away duringfinishing to Ieavea neatedgetothewelt.
ostgarment-length machines using two needle beds have a butt arrangementoftwo Iong, one
ortforeach bed,enabling 2x2 rib knitting afterpressing offthe loopsofa 1x1 rib set-outand
?commencementofknittingononl y Iong buttsoneach bed in turn.
aping during knitting:
1 addition to facilities for garment-length sequence kni tting, weft knitting provides unique
portunities for width-wise shaping during knitting, with the sequence being initiated and co-
dinatedfrom the samecentralcontrolmechanism' .

erearethreem ethodsofwidth shaping asfollows:

* varying thenum berofneedlesin action inthe knitting width,
* changingthe knittingconstruction, and
* alteringthe stiychlength.
483 h
J.
Shapeformation(Fashioning): '
.:
;

Shaping byfully fashioning involvesthe movem entofasm ajlnumberofIoopsatthe selvedgeoft

fabric.Such movem ent reduces or increases the totalnumberof loops being knitted.The ter
used intheindustryforsuch movementsare narrowing and widening,and collectivelyfashioning.t.t .

(.
To alter the shape of the panel?the courses are widened by increasing the number of knitti'
l
needlesornarrowed by elim inating needlesatthe selvedges.The two operationsrequire differe
knitting procedures.

TheW idenings: .
W idening is the process of increasing the width ofthe knitted fabric produced,by increasing t
numberofworking needles.
To widen the width of a knitted piece,gradually needles are added - thus stitches - at t '
selvedges.Generally,widening isdone needle by needle.Specialcasesinvolve two needlesaton
being put into action. The angle at the widened selvedge depends on the frequency of t
widenings in relation tt)the rows of knitting.Thus,widenings ofone needle every two rows
stitchesismore rapid than wideningsofone needle everyfourrows. :
To increase the width ofthe piece knitted by a stitch,itissu#icientto add a needle in adionatt
selvedge.The wideningofa rib fabric requires,naturally,2 supplementaryneedles,one atthe fro
the otherattheback,which isshown inthefollowingIeftfigure.

' (
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1Es
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ln orderto im prove the appearance ofthe selvedges,the widening,ona hand machine,can,24. .

done by a narrowing handle.Thisinvolvesfirstlyputtinga needle into actionfrontand back.Th

take the stitch orsti
tchesofthe selvedge on anarrowing handlewith one ormore points,move'
) ..

handlea needletowardsthe exteriorofthe fabricand hookonthestitchestotheselvedgenee .

)). ,
To avoid theformationofsmallholes,hook upthe Iastbutonestitchthathasbeenformed
)?
theempty needle,by meansofthe narrowing pointorworkhook.The above rightfigure show q %j '
(
#;
)'
,
.
)'
i
 484
sample in 1x1 rib,has been widened as perthe method explained now by means of a 6-point
,
narrowing handle.The widening done in this way takes mtlch Ionger, but give a m ore regul
ar
appearance to the selvedges. '
In widening,the movementoutwardscreates a space adjacentto the innermost needle ofthe
group,where anew wale maystart. The em ptyspace?followed bythe tuckIoop formed atthe next
knitted course, Ieaves a hole in the fabric. It is usualin com mercialpractice to fillthis hole by
moving a previously knitted Ioop to commence the new wale. Such holesrestrictthe wideningsto
single needleonly.

Onflatkni
yy
j
yj
yj
-
yj
yyV A single widening A single wideningwith filling in
ttingmachines(e.g.V-bed knittingmachine)wideningcanbeperformedintwoways:
byputtinginactiontheborderneedles(oneneedleoneitherside, inaIoopcpurse)and
respectivelyextendingthe working racge ofthe yarncarrier;
* bytransferringtheborderloopsontkaneedlesjustputinaction(oneneedlefrom either
sideinaloopcourse)andextendingtheworkingrangeoftheyarncarrier(foroneortwo
needlesjustputinaction,oneitherside, inaIoopcourse).
Anotherway ofwidening isperformed asfollows:
Onlyone selvedge ofthepanelcan be widened with eachstrokeofthecarriage.
W hen a specialtwin carriage machine isused, two coursesare knitted in each carriage
Stroke.
No transferoperationsare required forwidening and the course is increased sim ply by
adding new active needlesto thepanel.
4. The newlyactivated needlesare introduced on the Sidefrom whichthe carriage startsits
traverse.W hen the carriage travelsfrom rightto Ieft, needlescan be introduced atthe
ri
ghtselvedge.Inthisway, the new I oopsare secured in the needle'shook.
5. To complete one cycle ofwidening on b0th sidesofthe panel, the carriage hasto travel
oncein each directionthusknittingfouscourses.
 l
485 1
The Narrowings: 1
.

This is the reverse ofwhattakes place in widening i.e.narrowing isthe processoflessening the
width ofknittedfabricproduced,bydecreasingthe num berofworking knitting needles.
bystitchtransferwitha narrowing handle.To avoid doubling the
Narrowingsbyhand areexecuted
Iaststitch ofthe selvedge,anarrowing handlewith severalnarrowing pointsisused.Thenarrowing
handle with severalpointsisused in the sam e mannerasa narrowing handle with one point.The
narrowing handle takes as many stitches as there are points, and transfers these one needle
towardsthe centre ofthe piece.The extreme selvedge needle losesitsstitch and can be putoutof
action.The stitch doubled by the narrowing is towards the interior of the piece.The use of a
narrowing handle with severalpointsgivesthe article a highlyfinished appearance.The selvedge
stitches remain parallel.This appearance characterizes narrowed articles,which is shown in the
followingleftfigure.Thefollowing rightfigure showsthesingle bed knitting,in 12 gauge,narrowed
bymeansofa6-pointnarrowing handleof3stitchesatonce.

The following Ieftfigure showsthe 1x1 rib in 12 gauge narrowed on a typicalautomaticm achine,
firstin double system (1 transferevery 4 rowsofstitches),and then in single system (1transfer
every2 rowsofstitches).Thefollowingrightfigureshowsthesideofcollarkni tted in1x1ribin12
gauge and narrowedon the same automaticmachine.

K K
 486
W hennarrowing,theinnermostIoopofthegroupbeingmovedcombineswiththeIoopadjacentto
it.Thefigure representstwo loopsbeing movedbyone loop space, thuslosingone loopattheedge.
Itis possible on plain fabricto movethe edge Ioops more than one needle space, Iosing m ore than
one loop atthe edge.ln the fully fashioned industry these are known as 'needle narrowings'e.g.
two needle narrowings where the outer group are moved in two needles, Such mul ti-loop
narrowings produce smallpuckers where the Ioops combine. The num berof Ioops in the group
being movedvariesfrom threeto seven.

A Single Needle Narrowing

W ith finerfabricstendingto involve more Ioopsthancoarserfabrics.

Onflatknittingmachines(e.g.V-bedknittingmachine)narrowingcanbeperformedintwoways:
by putting outofaction the bordering needles and casting offtheirIoops;atthe same
timetheworking range oftheyarn carriershould respectivelybe decreased;
by transferring the loops ofthe needles to be put outofaction, on the neighbouring
needses,in order to prevent unraveling of the loops;the working range of the yarn
carriershould respectivelybedecreased.
Anotherwayofnarrowingisperformed asfoilows:
To decrease the size ofthe course and the widih ofthe panel,needles have to be
deactivated atthe selvedges. The Ioops held by these needles cannot be pressed-off
(ladderscanbeformed).lnstead,theseIoopshaveto betransferredinwardstoactive
needles.
Loops cannot be transferred from needle to needle on the same bed. The operati on
involvesthe transferofIoops to the opposite bed;racking and then transferring them
backtoadjacentneedles.Theprocedureisfurthercomplicatedbytheneedtotransferin
oppositedirectionsateach selvedge.
487
Narrowing of both selvedges can be performed after each stroke of the carriage
regardlessofitsdirection.lfthe panelissymmetrical,identicaloperationsare performed
foreachselvedge.
Fashioning isnotrestricted to plain fabric only;rib fabricsare increasinglythe subjectsoffully
fashioning.Particularly suitableforshaping inthiswayare thecardiganfabricscontainingtuckIoops
and broad ribs. .
Shaping CalculationorFashioning FrequenciesCalculation:
Exam ple no.1:
The measurementsforthe complete panelare required to calculate the widening / narrowing
procedure.The following figure shows the measurements of a front panelas designed for the
garment.These m easurements are to be used as an exam ple forthe planning ofthe fashioning
operation.
Thepanelmeasurementshaveto be translated into walesand courses.
* Thisiscarried outaccordingto the courseand wale qualityofthe fabricto be knitted by
the knittingmachine.

29 cm 2 2û /, 1ê
y' cm
z

11 cm 55

15 cm 1û cm 12û 59

12 cm 9û

'x %
x X
Ni cm -29
40 cm 16û
Panelmeasurementsconverted into wales& courses
M easurementsofagarmentpanel

* For this example, the fabric quality is 4 wales per centimeter and 5 courses per
centimeter(plain kniton 6 gauge).Theconverted measurementsare presented inthe
fi
gurealso.
* W hen thegarm entisproduced,the elasticborderisknitted first.Itcan be adaptedfrom
the standard programmesin the data bank.Asthe firstfashioning process,the knitting
width has to be widened from 160 wales to 180 wales.20 widening operations are
required(180- 160=20),or10operationsoneachselvedgeofthepanel. J
,
(
i
 488
* The widening hasto be completed during the knitting of90 courses. l fthese available
courses are divided by the numberof widening operations, the resultis 9,One extra
needle hasto be included in the knitting operation every 9 courses, on the rightand on
theleft.
* Afterthe widening operation, the paneliskni tted on the same num berofneedlesfor10
centimetersor50 courses.
* The narrowing procedure followsand the numberofactive needleshave to be reduced
from 180 to 80.The narrowing takes place on both sidesofthe panelin asingle routine.
Trajitionally,two needlesoneach side are eliminated each time so the width isreduced
byfourwales.The numberofoperationsis 180- 80 = 25
.
4
* Narrowing should be completed within 65 courses. These available coursesare divided
bythe numberofnarrowingoperations. 25 operationsare required so 15operationsare
carried outafterevery 3coursesand 10 operationsafterevery2 courses.
* Afterthenarrowing operations, the panelisknitted on thesame numberofneedlesfor2
centimetersor10 courses.

Fullyfashioned panel
A fully-fashioned panel,produced on a modern flatknitting machine, is shown in the above figure.
In additiontothe fashioningtechniques, the panelisdesigned with protruding elements.
Exampleno.i:
Msing the detailsshown in the figure below asan example, the following sequence is necessary in
rderto calculatetherequired fashioningfrequenciesfrom thedimensionsofagarmentpart:
* Convertthe Iength dimensionsin each sectionto totalnum berofcoursesby multipl ying
the length measurementby the coursesperinch. Thus,7 x 20 = 140;4 x 20'= 80;5 x 20
= 100 courses.
 ::
7
'.
t'
yJ'
.
489
Convertthewidthdimensionsatthestartofeachsectiontototalnumbersofneedlesb?
è
m ultiplying thewidth measurementbythe walesperinch.Thus,16x 16 = 256, .18 x 16 k,
'
)
q
!
288)8 x 16 = 128 needles. .
Calculate the totalnumber of needles increased or decreased from one section toè
anotherbytakingonetotalfrom the next.
Divide the totalsobtained by 2 in orderto obtain the increase ordecrease ofneedlesat
one selvedge.Thus,288 - 256 z:an increase of32 needles.32 + 2 = 16 single needle
widenings;288- 128 =160, .160 + 2= 80 needles,80+ 2=40doubleneedle narrowings.
)
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M easurem entsofagarmentpanel

* There are 16 single-needle widenings occurring during the knitting of 140 courses;
assum ing the first fasbioning occurs in the first course, there willbe 16 - 1 = 15
fashionings in 140 - 1 = 139 courses;139 + 15 = 9 with a remainder of4.Thtls 4
fashioningsmustoccurat10 course intervalsand the remaining11at9 courseintervals.
* Forty double-needle narrowings occur during 100 courses, again assum ing the first
fashioning occurs in the first course;99 + 39 = 2 wi th a remainder of 21.Thus 21
fashionings occur at 3 course intervals and the remaining 18 fashionings occur at 2
courseintervals.
Example no.3:
To calculate and plan the widehing /narrowing operations,the measurementsforthe complete
panel are required. In the following figure the measurements of a sleeve are presented, in
centimeters,to beused asan example.
* The nextstage isto translate the panelmeasurementsinto walesandcourses,accordin!
tothequalityofthefabricthatisknitted bythe machinewiththe requiredyarn.
 49c
* Assum ingforthisexam pie thatthe fabricquality is4 walespercentim eterand 6 courses
per centim eter, the converted measurem ents are calculated and presented in the
following second figure.
@ Afterthe knitting of the elastic border,the first fashioning process is required and the
knitting width hasto be w idened from 72 w alesto 128 overthe period of 192 courses.
128 - 72 = 56 single widening operations are required or56 +.2 =-28 on each side dfthe
panel.

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M easurementsofagarmentpanel Panelm easurementsconverted into wales& courses

Ifthe available 192 courses are divided by the fourcourses required foreach widening
operation, tbe result is 48 cycles out of wbich only 28 are required. The twenty
unnecessary cyclesare spread am ong the required 28 so thatthe procedure isasfollows:
20wideningroutinesaftereach 8courses(eachtwo sequences).
8widening routinesaftereach4courses(eachsequence)
* After the w idening operation, tbe sleeve is knitted at the sam e width for two
centim etersor12 courses.
* The narrowing procedure follows and the num berofactive needles have to be reduced
from 128 to 32over144 courses.
* The narrow ing takes place on both sides of the paneland is carried out in a single
routine.Usually two needleson each side are elim inated so that each tim e the width is
reduced by fourwales.
128- 32
* The required num berofoperationsis = 24 .
4
491
W hen the available 144 courses are divided by the shortest sequence between
narrowingoperati
bns(2coursesoronecarriagestroke)theresultis144+2=72.
Sinceonly24operationsarerequired,eachcantakeplaceafter3sequences(72+24)=3
or:
* 24narrowingoperationseachafter6courses(threecarriagestrokes).
To com plete the sleeve,the same width is keptforan additional10 centim eters or60
EOUCSES.

Linking operation:
A method ofjoiningtogetherthe edgesofa pieceoffabricorfabricsbyasingleordoublechain-
stitch on a Iinking machine,in which one ormore ofthe piecesoffabricisrun on to the pointson a
Ioop-to-pointbasisand istherefore stitched through adjacentneedle foops.W here none ofthe
pieces offabric are run on to the points on a Ioop-to-point basis,this is referred to as random
linking.Thejoiningtogetheroftwoedges,usuallyknitted selvedgesisalsocalledcupseaming.The
edgesto bejoinedare positivelyfed toa sewing pointbytwo cup-likewheels.Cup seamershave
been used almostexclusivelyforthe assemblyoffully fashioned knitwear.
Linking machine,straightorcircular,provided with grooved pointsspaced to recei
ve Ioops, which
arethenjoinedtogetherbychain-stitch.
unking machine:
Linking machines have a common basic construction that consists ofa circular '/dial'?containing
grooved pointsthatface radially outwards,which is Shown in the following figure.ltison to these
pointsthatthe fabric is placed.The diameterofthe dialvariesaccordingto the particularmak: of
the machine,and the spacing ofthe pointsvaries between differentgauges ofthe machine. The
gauge isstillspecified in imperialmeasure aspoints perinch ofcircumference. Forknitweargauges
areavaijablefrom 3.5points/inchto24points/inch.
The points rem ain static except in the Sense that the dial revolves relative to the Iooping
mechanism.The Iooping mechanism consistsoftwo moving parts:the needle andthe Iooper. These
are carried in a supporting arm mounted internall
y on the dialplate, so thatthe I
ooping elements
are presented in the vicinity ofthe points.Two variations ofthe machine exist, one where the
needle entersthe workfrom the inside ofthe dial,and the otherwherethe needle entersthe work
from outside the dialand the Iooperworksonthe inside.
Principleofstitchformation:
To cöm plicate matters,two form sofneedle exist:an eyed needle sim ilarto those found on other
seam ingmachinesand ahooked needlesim ilartothatusedforhandcrochetwork.
Printipleofstitch fofm ingattion onlinking m achine equippedwith eyed needle:
Eyed needle;the needle isusually mounted sothatitentersthe workfrom the outside, slidingalong
thegroove ofa particularpoint.In doing so i
tcarriesthethread with it.Oncethrough the fabricit
 492
entersthe previouslyformed Ioop held by the Iooper,which isshown inthe followingfigure-a.The
IooperwithdrawsIeaving the previouslyformed Ioop on the needle,which isshown inthe following
figure-b.Asfheneedlestartstowithdraw,thethreadistrappedatthe baseoftheneedle,causing
theloop formed on the looperside ofthefabricto bellout,which isshown in thefollowingfigure-c.
The loopernow entersthis loop and holds itwhile the needle withdraws,which isshown in the
following fi
gure-d.The dialnow advancesone pointspace and thewhole cycle beginsagain,which
îsshown in the following figure-e.The chain isformed on the side ofthe fabricfacingthe inside of
thedial,î.e.onthe Iooperside.

1
2
3
(a)

1
,
3
#=
(t))

23 r,+
Yarn stand
zA (c)

Tensiondevice-w. 2
points
.- 3
Needle----' zr ---Dial
Work pfessefz
td) 4+
worktray
.. .

Footcontrol
(e)

Generalview ofaIinkingmachine StitchformingactionofaconventionalneedleIinking

machineformingsinglechainstitch

Principle ofstitth forming adion on Iinking machine equipped with hooked needle:
Hooked needle;the crochethookisusuallym ounted onthe inside ofthe dialand entersthe work
alongthe groove in the point,asdescribed before,butin the opposite direction.Thethread is
presented tothe needle bya yarn carrier.Thisisatube onComplettmachines,and a smallring on
t
493
M athbirk machinery.The thread entersthe hook ofthe needle which withdraws dragging a loop
through the fabric and through the previouslyformed Ioop.The needle retainsthe loop on i
tsstem
asthedialm oveson one pointand the cycle startsagain.

The chainingagaintakesplaceonthe inside ofthedial.BothtypesofIoopforming principlesexistin

reversed versions, with inside mounted conventional needles and outside mounted crochet
needles.Usesand advantagesare claimed foreach version.For both needle types entering from
outside the dial,there is a tendency forthe work to be pushed back on the points,requiring Iess
presserplate control.

Thread controliseffected by two principalmethods:a tension device usually ofthe spring loaded
disctype,and a yarn take up device thatcontrolsslackness in the thread between the disctension
and the stitch formingzone.M ostIinkersalso have fitted ayarn trapping devicethatactswhenthe
needle iswithdrawingon the conventionalneedletype.Linkersare used in the making up ofknitted
outerwearinoperationswherea Ioop forIoop seam isrequired orwhere aseam ispreciselyIocated
down a particularwale.

Exam plesofloop forloop seams are closing the shoulderseams ofsome typesoffully fashioned
garm entsorclosingthe toe on socks.An exam ple ofwale seamingforprecision isthe attachingofa
pocketto thefrontpanelofa cardigan.

Byfarthe commonestuse ofIinking machinesisforattaching neck ribsto knitwear.Theoperatorof

themachine sitsonaseatpositionedso thatthedialisjustbelow eyelevel.The dialand thearm
are freeto rotatearound the centralsupportpillar,making iteasierforthe operatorto progressthe
work on to the points.Sometimes two operatives run on work to the same dial,working on
opposite sidesofthe machine.The bulkofthe garmentbeing seamed hangsdown from the points,
usually into an annularcup-shaped supporttray.The driveto the machine isdirectand notthrough
a clutch,a footswitch turning the motoron and off.Speed ofsti tching is also controlled by a foot
pedal.
 494
KNIU ED FABRIC FAULTS

Faults in circularknitting production can be caused in various ways and qui

te a few ofthem
cannotbe related tojustone cause.The following explanationsare expected to be helpfulin
tryingto Iocate the causesofthese faul
tseasier.

Reasonsoffabricfaults:
Yarn m anufacturingfaults
Fabricm anufacturing faults
Fabricprocessingfaults- dyeing,printing orfinishing faults

Sourcesoffabricfaults:
Thesourcesoffaul
tscouldbe(incircularknittingmachine,80%faultscomesfrom yarn)
Faultsin yarn and the yarn package
Yarn feeding and yarn feed regulator
M achinesetting and pattern defects
M achine m aintenance
Climaticconditionsin the knitting plant

Fabricfaults:
Knitted fabricfaultsare very different in nature and appearance and are often superimposed.
The mostcomm onfaultsare:
Broken ends,holesorcracks
Drop stitch
C10thfall-outorpressed-offsti
tches
Snagging orsnags
Tuckordouble loop prstitches
Bunching-up
Verticalstripes
Horizontalstripes
Soilstripes
Colourflyorcolouredtinges
Distorted stitchesordeformed ortilted Ioops

Holes:
Holesare the resultofcracksoryarn breakages.During stitch form ation the yarn had already
broken in the region ofthe needle hook.Depending on the knitted structure,yarn count,
495
m achine gauge and course density,the holes have differentsizes.This size can therefore only
be estimated ifthe com parable finalappearanceofa com parable fabricisknown.

Hole onthefrontside Hole on the backside

Possible causes:
a) Yarnparameters
* High yarn irregularity
* lncorrectyarn inputtension setting,yarn running-intension istoo high
* Poorly Iubricated yarns
@ W eak placesin yarn,which breakduring stitch formation
* Knots,slubsetc.
* Yarn istoo dry.
b) Iftheyarn istrappedbetweenthecheektaperandtheclosingIatch
yarn dam age
-

Tob smallstitches
- di
fficulty in casting-offofthe stitches
d) Relation between cylinderand dialIoop notcorrect;yarn feederbadly set;
defective knitting elem ents.

Drop stitches:

These are the result of a defective needle.They also occurw hen a yarn is not properly fed
during stitch form ation,i.e., not properly Iaid-in the needle hooks.These are the unlinked
knitted Ioops.
Possible causes:

a) Inaccurate insertionoftheyarn intotheneedlehook;

* Closed Iatch - a wale ofdropped stitcheswillbe produced untilthe Iatch
isopened eitherbythe operatorordue to m achine vibration.
b) Brokenneedlehook;
c) Due to high yarn twist and Iow fabrictake-down-tension the kni
tted Ioop
could falloutofthe hook;
 496

i: .
; .

.. .. #.?
.

.pn
,4A
4 .
, , ,

Drop sti
tchesonthe frontside Drop stitcheson the backside

d) Impropersettingoftheyarnfeed anglei.e.badlysetyarnfeeder
@ The yarn is not caught by the needle hook,Exam ple - Iow yarn tension
and high yarn vibrations
e) Yarnfeederwronglythreaded-in;
f) DialIoopIength notproperly relatedto cylinderIoop Iength;the Ioopjumps
outofthe needle hook;
g) Badtake-up;
h) Verydrymaterial;
i) lnsufficientyarntension.
C10th fall-outorPressed-offstitches:
Itisan area consisting ofdropstitchesIyingside byside.Theycan occureitherwhen ayari is
Iaid-out orw hen itbreaks withoutany im mediate connection.C10th fall-out can occuraftera
drop stitch especially when an empty needle with closed Iatch runs into the yarn feeder and
rem ovestheyarn outofthe hooksofthefollowing needles.
'

.
w . * ,....*jup.
.. .
. .#.
;.. xx.'xe..e . .
-<. . . y.,
,e 'r.xgh

i .'' s '
. ;li.
j :1
.1
.r
'
.4
'.
9.!-
' . ..
-.
..
, . -.
. .
. .
v
. .
.. xw. '6., .
.
4'...(.'4.j
*'.pj*12
x' ..
..
..'.
aa X
x*.
'
. .L
+.4:.

. . . - '
.
u.
k. .k.,4
?. <4. 1
ltF .
j.k
j-
,.
,.;.R'#
!r.
...
.
t
'
v.
i t,A ' y'
#
.
.
. .
. u. . .
. *. .''1'e .
.
.
.
, o .. . qz ..& .
ut$!#
J:'eké.4 .

C10th fall-out C10th fall-outon frontside C10th fall-outon back side

Possible causes:
a) Yarn breaksbeforetheyarnfeeder
b) Yarnpackagewindingfaults,poorpackagebuildup;
c) FibrefIy blodttheyarnguides,feedersetc.
497
Needle m arksorVelicalstripes:
Verticalstripescan beobservedasIongitudinalgapsinthefabric.Thespacebetweenadjacent
wales isirregularand the closed appearance ofthe fabric is broken up in an unsightly manner.
j
)
t
Verticalstripes and gaps in the fabric are often the result of a m eager setting,i.e.,the yarn
countselected is too fine forthe machine gauge orthe sti
tch size (course density)is not
correct. Needles are bent, damaged,do not move uniform ly sm ooth, com e from different
suppliersorare differently constructed.

Verticalstripes Tuck Ioops

Possible causes:
a) Twistedorbentneedlehooks;
b) StiffIatchesand needles;
c) IncorrectclosingofthehookbytheIatch;
d) Heavilyrunningneedles;
e) Damageddialandcylinder;
f) Damaged needleIatchand needlehooks;
g) Damagesonotherknittingelements.

HorizontalStripes:

These are caused by unevenness in the courses; they traverse horizontally and repeat
themselvesregularl
y orirregularly.

Possible causes:
a) Deflectorindialcam broughtintotuckposition.
b) Deflectornot completely switched off.Needle can stillgrip the yarn and
formsa tuckIoop.
c) Yarnfeederbadlyset.
d) Differencesintheyarnrunning-intension.
e) CoulieringnotconstantatalIfeeders.
f) Jerkyimpulsefrom fabrictake-up.
 HorizontalStripe on face side HorizontalStripe on back side

Barre'ness:

Barre'nessisthe periodiclateralirregularities

StructuralBarre'ness:
Possiblecauses:
-
lndividual yarns differ with respect to count, properties or
structure;
Differentcourse Iengthsin feeders.

ColourBarre'ness:
Possible causes:
Knittipg ofyarnswhichdifferin colour;
Yarnsdye differentlyduring piece dyeing.

Shadow Barfe'ness:
Shadow like changesin the appearance ofthefabric. Very di
fficult
to detectand done by reflected Iight.

Bunching-up orThickand Thin Plates:

Visible knots in the fabric are referred to as bunching up. Tbey appearas beads and turn up
irregularl
y in the fabric.Can build up resulting in a ''cloudy''appearance. M ore irregularthe
9arn,m ore pronounced isthe''cloudy' 'appearance.
Possibletauses:

a) Thickandthinplacesintheyarn;
b) Fabrictake-uptooweak.
 Bunching-upon frontside Bunching-up on back side

Snags:
Snags m ainly occur while processing filament yarns.The tendency towards snagging can be
reduced by using yarns with a coarsersingle filamentcount,lessercrim p elasticity and bigher
twist.

During knitting aIImechanicalinfluences,caused by rough surfaces on yarn guide elements,

yarn feeders,needles,fabric take-up,etc.have to be avoided.Even after knitting some snags
can appearespeciall y during fabric setting,if its storage and furtherprocessing has notbeen
undertaken carefully.

Tuck orDouble stitches:

These occurdue to badly knitted or non-knitted Ioops.They are unintentionaltuck Ioops or
floats,also showing up asthick places orsm allbeads in the fabric.Atfirstinstance they may
also appearasa shadow w henthefabricisobserved againstIight.

!. . .. . v
. ) . .. .

$'
yj. .
. . . ' .
..
. '
.

i . . E . .
. . , g . .

Tuck stripe and knothole on frontside Tuck stripe and knothole on back side
 5O0
Possiblecauses:

a) Fabric take-up is too weak,i.e.,fabric take-up is insufficient,must be

readjusted,hasaonesideddragonthefabricorisnotcontinuous.
b) Thedialissettoo high.Thedialneedlesdonotsupportthefabric,whichis
thuspulled up.
c) Thecoursedensityorcoulieringisnotsetcorrectly.
The loopsare too tight,e.g.with interlock.These loopsare notrem oved from the needles.

Soilstripe:
Soilstripes can appear botb in the direction ofwales as wellas courses. Soilstripes in the
direction ofthe wales are solely caused by the knitting machine. In mostcases they are so-
called needle stripes;they occur when individualneedles have been replaced or when the
workingofm echanicalorautom aticoiling orgreasingdevicesisdefective.

Stripesorsoiled placesin the direction ofthe courseswere already presentusuallyin the yarn,
ifnotcaused bya standing course asa resultofmachinestoppage.

ColourFly:
'
Colour fIy consists of single fibres, bunches of fibres or yarn pieces in varying colours. It
additionallysticksontheyarn oriskpitted intothefabricand isvery difficultto remove.

W y
Unsettledfabricappearanceon frontside Unsettledfabricappearanceon backside
501
CALCULATIO N RELATED TO W EFT KNIU ING

The function oftextile arithm etic isto record ordetermine aIIinterrelationshipswhich can be
recorded in figure form .The calculations Iisted below willexplain operations in produdion
controland on circular knitting m achines.At the sam e tim e,the calculations willserve as a
basisforcosting and costaccounting.
The equations for calculating the various m achine param eters, such as system count and
density i.e.feeding system,kni tting speed and m achine rpm,performance factorand efficiency
level,w illfirstofallbe discussed below.

System count:
By a knitting system (functionalunit),we understand on circular knitting machines a cam
system ora num ber ofcam systems w ith yarn feed,arranged in such a way thata course is
formed on aIIneedles in one cylinder revolution.ln the case ofindividualneedle selection or
selected choice,they arethe partcoursesequivalentto a fullcourse.
Influencing variableson the num beroffunctionalunits:
The variablesinfluencingthe num beroffunctionalunitsare

Cylinderdiam eter
* Thecircularknittingmachineoperatingprinciple(singlejersey,rib,purl)
* Possibilities(plainandstructuredknits,jacquardfabrics),andalso
* M achine gauge.

System densityornumberofsystems/inchofnominaltylinderdiameter:
*,

System densi
ty(SD)describesthenumberofsystem /inchofnominalcylinderdiameter.
No.ofsystems
System density(SD)=Nominalcylinderdiameter,d(inch)

Example:
Ifthe system countis96 and the nom inalcylinderdiameteris30'',then
No.ofsystem s 96
System density(SD)= = =3.2Systems/inch.
Nominalcylinderdiameter,d(inch) 30
Oncircularknittingmachinestoday,system densityIiesbetween0.4and4.8systems/inchof
cylinderdiam eter,depending on the machine m odel.
 502
Knitting speed and m achine rpm :
Cylinderoperating speed on a circularkni
tting m achine isalso indicated asperipheralspeed.By
this, we understand the distance in m covered in 1 second from a point on the outer
circumference ofa disk.The peripheralspeed is indicated in m/sec.and designated tV'.
Peripheraispeed dependson

* Themachineoperatingprinciple(singlejersey,rib,purl)
@ Themachinepatterningunits(jacquardordraw courseunit)
* The type and construction ofthe circularfabric to be produced (e.g.
singleordoublesidedfabric),and
* The type and propertiesofthe yarn to be processed (e.g.carded or
combedyarn,naturalorman-madefibreyarns)
The knitting speed isindividuallyadjustable,and mustbeadaptedtotheindividualinfluencing
variablesfrom case to case.
n .d .n
'
V =3937 X 60 m/sec.
.

W here,n = 3.14
d = cylinderdiam eterin inch
n = cylinderrpm
39.37 = conversion factorfrom inch to meter
60 = conversionfactorfrom mins.to secs.
Example:
Ifthe cylinderdiameteris302and the cylinderrpm is35then
A.d .n 3.14 x 30 x 3s
Theknittingspeed,V=3937 X 60 =
. 39.37 X 60
=1.396 m/sec.

CircularmachineknittingspeedsgenerallyIieinarangebetween0.8and1.8m/sec.
The above equation can be sim plified to som e extent ifthe constantdim ensions likent39.37
and 60 are com bined asone factor.
3.14
Factor= = 0.00133
39.37 X 60

% V=0.00133xdxn m/sec.
.

For calculating machine rpm from the kni

tting speed,the above equation is transposed as
follows:
Th v
e machine rpm,n =
0.00133 x d
503
Exam ple:
Iftheknittingspeedis1.63m/secandthecylinderdiameteris26*,then
V 1.63
The m achine rpm,n = = = 47.137 2$47 rpm
0.00133 x d 0.00133 x 26

Speed fad ororperform ance num ber:

W ith the aid ofthe speed factorSF orthe perform ance number L,circular knitting m achines
with differentsystem countsand operating speedscan be com pared in productivityterm s.The
performance num berLiscalculated in accordancewilhthe above equation asfollows:

courses/min.
A circularkni
tting machine with 72 systems(no.offeeder)and an rpm of25 permin.has
therefore a perforrnance numberof
L=72x25= 1800 courses/min.
The performance number 'L'indicates therefore the theoreticalnumberof courses/min.
produced bythe circularknitting machine.

SF=L=n.S courses/min.
O SF
r, n= perm in.
S

Example:

IftheSpeedfactor,SFis2520courses/minand system countiae.no.offeederis84,then

SF 2520
n= = = 30 rpm.
S 84

Perform ance and efficiency:

Perform ance orefficiency plays a decisive role in producing peëect productivity calculations
and costaccounting data foraIlm achinesused in warp and weftknitting.By performance,we
understand actualoutput expressed as a % of theoretical output. Pedormance NE is also
expressed bytheGreek Ietterp.
Actualoutput
Performance,NE = x 100 %
Theoreticaloutput

Due to various influencing variables,performance is al

w ays lessthan 100% orexpressed as a
decimal,Iessthan 1.
 5O4
Production calculation:
It has been expounded in the sections above that the output of a circular knitting m achine
depends on a series ofdifferent influencing variables.A wealth of machine data and data on
thefabricto be produced isrequired forcal'culating production capacity.

In this respectthe cylinderdiameterd in inch,the gauge E,the system count S,the machine
rpm n,and the efficiency Ievelq ofthe circularknitting m achine m ustbe known.The follow ing
data onthefabricto be produced m ustalso be available:

* Theconstruction(e.g.single-jersey,rib,purletc.)
* Thecoursedensityorcourses/cm,and
* Theweightperunitareaingm /m 2.
M achine output:

The machine capacity orperformance in running m/hris calculated in accordance with the
followingequation:
M achinecapacity,L=
Speedofmachine in rpm X No.ofsystem orfeedersonthe machineX efficiencyX 60 minutes
No.offeedersorsystem spercourseX coursespercm .X 100

Example:
Calculate the Iength in meters ofa plain,single sided orsingle-jersey fabric knitted at 20
courses/ cm.on a 30''diameter22-gauge circularmachine having 108 feeds.The machine
operatesfor8 hoursat36 rpm at87% efficiel
ncy.

M achine capacity i.e.thetotalIength ofthefabricin metres

Speed ofm achine in rpm X No.ofsystem orfeederson the m achine X efficiencyX 60 m inutes
=
No.offeedersorsystem spercourseXcoursespercm .X l00

36 X 108 X 87 X 60 X 8
=
1 X 20 x 100 X 10O

= 811.82 m etres
Exam ple:
Calculate the Iength in meters ofa plain,single sided or single-jersey fabric knitted at 16
courses/ cm.on a 26*diameter28-gauge circularmachine having 104 feeds.The machine
operatesfor8 hoursat29 rpm at95 % efficiency.
Machine capacity i.e.thetotalIength ofthe fabricin metres
Speed ofm achine in rpm X No.ofsystem orfeederson them achine X efficiencyX 60 m inutes
=
No.offeedersorsystem spercourse X courses percm .X 100
505
29 X 104 X 95 X 60 X8
=
1 X 16 X 100 X100

= 859.56 metres
Fabricw idth:

Thefabricwidth(WB)inmetreiscalculatedinaccordancewiththefollowingequation:
F Cylinderdiam eter in inch X A X m achine gauge
abricwidth,W B = W ales percm .X 100

Exam ple:
Ifthe cylinderdiam eteris30*,machine gauge is32andthe walespercm .is14,then
30 X 3.14 X 32
The Fabric W idth,W B = 14 X 100 = 2.153 metres.

Production capacity:

Iftheproductioncapacity Pofacircularkni
ttingmachineisto becalculated in kg/hr.,itcanbe
calculated in accordance withthefollow ingequation:
Production capaci
ty, P= RunningIengthinmetreperhourX FabricwidthinmetreXWei
ghtinGSM Kg/hr.
looo
Exam ple:
Ifthe production in running m etres perhouris63.76,fabricwidth is1.76 metresand the fabric
weightis160gm/m2,then
Yh0 ProdUction C3P3CitY, P= LXWBXWei
100g0htinGSM =63.76Xy1.
76X160 =17.95 Kg/hr.
xc

Production exam ple:

* Plain circularknitting m achine:
Valuesofcircularknitting machine: Valuesofarticle:
M achine diameter30* Structure:plain(Single-jersey)
Gauge E28 Yarn:cottonNm50/1(Ne29.6/1)
Num beroffeeders96 Coursedensity18courses/cm.
M achine speed 35 rpm Walesdensity13wales/cm.
M achine efficiency 85% Fabricweight125gm/m2
M n X SX 60 X'R
achine performance Lin metre perhour= f
eeders/courseXcoursesXcm X100
35 X 96 X 60 X 0.85
= 1X 18 X 100 =95.2m/hr.
 506
Fabricwidth,W B in metre = WdpX A X E = 30 X 3.14 X 28 = 2.03 m
cm X 100 13 X 100

M achine performance in Kg perhour= LXWBXWei

loghtinGSM = 95.2X1
on 2.
003
00X 125 = 24.157Kg/hr.
Example:

* Interlockcircularknitting m achine:
An interlock fabric comprising, in the sim plest case,two part courses.These part courses
com plement each other to make a fullcourse,and therefore two system s br feeders are
required forproducing one course.
Thefollowing datawere assumed forthe interlockfabrîcproduction:
Exam ple- 1:
Valuesoftircularknitting m achine: Valuesofartide:
M achine diam eter30'' Structure:plain interlock
Gauge E28 Yarn:polyesterdtex76/1
Numberoffeeders96 Coursedensity17courses/cm.
M achine speed 31 rpm Walesdensity14wales/cm.
M achine efficiency85% Fabricweight100gm/m2
M achine performance Lin m etreperhour= n X SX 60XTt
feeders/course X courses/cm X 100
31 X 96 X 60 X 0.85
2 X 17X 100 =44.64 m/hr.
Fabricw idth W B in metre = d X '
7V X E= 30 X 3.14 X 28 = 1.88 m
,
wpcm X 100 14 X 100

M achine pedormance in Kgperhour= LXW BXWeightinGSM = 44. 64X 1.88X 100

100c . looc =8.39Kg/hr.
lxample- 2:
Valuesoftircularknitting m athine: Valuesofarticle:
M achinediam eter30'' Structure:plain interlock
Gauge E42 ' Yarn:polyesterfilamentyarndtex50f88/1
Numberoffeeders108 Coursedensity19courses/cm.
M achinespeed 31 rpm W alesdensity23wales/cm.
M achine efficiency 87% Fabricweight100gm/m2
M achine pedorm ance Lin m etre perhour= n xsx6oxn
feeders/courseXcourses/cm X100
31 X 108 X 60 X 0.87
= 2x19x100 =45.99 m/hr.
507
Fabricwidth, W B in metre = dx'
n-xE = 30x3.14X42 = 1.72 m
w pcm x 100 23 x 1o0

L X W B X W eight in GSM 44.99 X 1.72 X 10O

MachineperformanceinKgperhour= 1000
= 1000
=7.91Kg/hr.
* Jacquard circularknitting m achine:
A two-colourjacquardfabricisto beproduced,andthefollowing machineandfabricdatawere
assumed:
Exam ple - 1:
Valuesofcircularknitting m athine: Valuesofarticle:
M achine diameter26'' Structure: two colour jacquard (two part
Gauge E 20 coursesforonecourse)
Num beroffeeders60 Yarn:cotton yarn Nm 50/1 (80%),polyester
M achine speed 27 rpm filamentyarndtex67f14(20%)
M achine efficiency80% Coursèdensity10.5courses/cm.
W alesdensity16wales/cm.
Fabricweight90gm/m2
n x sx 6ox n
M achine pedorm ance Lin m etre perhour=
feeders/course Xcourses/cm X 1O0
27 X 60 X 60 X 0.80
= 2x105X l00 .
=37 m/hr.
dX W X E 26 X 3.14 X 20
Fabricwidth,W B in m etre = W pcm X 100 = 16 X 100
= 1.02 m

V achine pedofmance in Kg perhour= LXWBXWeightinGSM = 37X1.

02X90= 3.396Kg/hr.
. 1000 1000
Exam ple- 2:
Valuesofcircularknitting machine: Valuesofarticle:
M achine diameter30'' Structure:threecolourjacquard
Gauge E20 Yarn:polyesterdtex150/1
Num beroffeeders96 Coursedensity12courses/cm.
M achine speed 23 rpm Walesdensity11wales/cm.
M achine efficiency80% Fabricweight180gm/m2
n x sx 60x n
M achine performance Lin m etre perhour=feeders/courseXcourses/cm X100

= 23 X396X X1260X100
X 0.80
=29.44 m/hr.
diW xE 30 X 3.14 X 20
Fabricw idth,W B in m etre = w pcm x 1o0 = 11 X l00
= 1.7 m
 508
MachineperformanceinKgperhour= LXWBXWeightinGSM =29.44X1.7X18O =9 Kg/hr .
1000 looc
Exam ple:

Calculatetheproductionofasingle-jerseycircularknitting machineinkg/hrfrom thefollowing

data:
Valuesofcircularknitting machine: Valuesofartide:
M achinediam eter30'' Structure:plain(Singlejersey)
Gauge E28 Yarn:cottonNm50/1(Ne29.6/1)
Numberoffeeders96 Stitch length0.25cm
M achinespeed 35 rpm
M achine efficiency 80%

ProductioninKg/hr=nXSX(WXdXEXsti
tchlengthi
ncm)X60XN.X0.4536
lcoxlookNex84cx0.9144
nXSX (dXEXsti
thchIengthincm.)X'
q. '
= Ne x 0.00001112598

35X96x(30X28X0.
25)X80
= x0.00001112598
29.6

= 21.22 Kg.
Exam ple:
Calculate the Iength offabric produced pershiftat 75% efficiency of a knitting m achine from
thefollowing particulars:
No.offeeders48
Fabricopen width 264 cm
Stitch densi
ty 15
M achine speed 20 rpm
M achine diameter30 cm
M achine gauge E 14

Fabricwidth = Totalno.
ofwal
es
W ales percm .

W alespercm . = Totalno.ofwales = dXW XE = 30X3.14X14 = 4.99 2 5

Fabric w idth WB 264

Againsti
tchdensity=wales/cm xcourses/cm
Courses/cm = Sti
tchdensi
ty = 15 =3
wales/cm. s

Lengthoffabricproduced perminute = coursesperminute = nXS = 20 X 48

COurSeS perCm CPCY
3 = 320 cm =3.2m
509
tength offabric produced pershiftat75% efficiency = 3.2 X 60 X 8 X 0.75 = 1152 m .

Exam ple:
Calculate the courses/cm ofafabric producing 1152 metresper8 hours shiftin a circular
knitting machinew iththefoll
owing particulars:
No.offeeders48
M achine speed 20 rpm
Efficiency 75%
courses perm inute X 60 X 8 X 0.75
Length offabricproduced pershiftat75% efficiency=
courses per cm
20 X 48 X 60 X 8 X 0.75
Courses/cm = 1152X 100 =3

W eightperunitarea and coverfactor:

W eight perunitarea offabric isan important property that isagain related to a hostofother
properties.The weightis determined by two factorsthatinteract:the loop size and the yarn
size.The effectofthe Ioop size issim ple to express:i
fthe size ofthe yarn remains constant,
then increase ofIoop size producesa decrease ofweightperunitarea.The effectisan inverse
rqtio.
Stitch density isthe most important one in defining knitted fabric properties and is directly
relatedto appearance,weightperuni tarea,thickness,drape and manyotherfactors.
The stitch Iength isthe absolute quantity of any knitted fabric and is directly related to the
stitch density. ln generalterm s,for any knitted fabric, as the Ioop size increases the Ioop
density decreases.Forsim ple fabricsthe relationship can be expressed in a single equation:

S =- K
12
W here S is the stitch density, I is the Ioop Iength and K is a constant for the particular
construction.A large amountofdata and research workhasbeen carri ed outrelating theabove
expression to the characteristics of plain fabric,and definite values of K have been proposed.
Forother constructions,while the proposition stillholds the situation is m ore complex and
furtherstudy isrequired.

Exam ple:
we know that, s= z6.and LetK=20
-

Fora loop length of0.4cm,sti 202= 125sti

tchdensityS= - tches/cm2
0.4

Length ofyarn in 1 cm 2offabric= 125 x 0.4 = 50 cm

 510
. ForaIooplengthof08 cm,stitch density S= lQ.,=31.25stitches/cmz
.
0.8
Length ofyarn in 1 cm 2offabric= 31.25 x 0.8= 25 cm
So double the Ioop size means halfthe weight per square unit.Usually in kni tted fabrics,for
fabricsofasimilarconstruction,asIoop Iength increasesso the size ofyarn increases.Yarn sizes
are them selvesexpressed notin term sofdiameterbutin weightperunitIength.
In a kni
tted fabric,to maintain cover,as the Iength of loop doubles so the diam eterofthe
thread mustdouble.
Coverisa sim ple ratio ofthe area ofa knitted fabriccovered byyarnto the area covered bythe
gaps in between Ioops.It can be demonstrated thatfora given knitted structure,ifthe cover
'
ratio ism aintained throtlgh a range offabricswith differentIoop Iengths,then those fabricsare
relatedincharacteristicsoftightness/Ioosenessandotherphysicalproperties.
ThisconceptofcoverIeadsto the property of'norm ality'ofa knitted fabric.A 'norm al'fabricis
one thatis neithertoo tightand stodgy nortoo Ioose and floppy.Lay observersgiven a range of
fabrics of differing loop size and yarn size make surprisingly similarjudgements on what
'norm ality'isin aknitted fabric intended fornorm alapparel.
There isa simple form ula that can be used to express 'coverfactor'ortightness factor,taking
into accountand abbreviatingdiam eterofyarn,length ofIoop and Ioop density.

Count in tex
Coverfactor(cf)= I
Fora particularvalue ofcoverfactorwe can obtain a range offabrics having sim ilarnormality
relationships. The calcul
ationforweight/m'involvescombiningtheequationforstitch density
and the equation forcoverfactor:
Weightingm of1m2offabric,ie. GSM = CPIX W PI
- N X 1(mm ) x 0.9158
e

G5M = CPIX W PI
N X I(cm )x 9.158
e

GSM = CPIX W P1
N X l(m m ) x 1.55
m

GSM =CPlxWPlxI(mm)xTexx0.00155
GSM =CPIxWPIxl(mm)xDenierx0.00017
GSM = Loops/cmzxl(cm )xtex
ln anotherform, 10

A 2 K
sIoopspercm =
12
511
K X tex
Therefore GSM = I(cm)X 10

AsTex = (cfx1)2
ThereforeGSM ofafabric= KX(cfxI)2
IX 10
Theconceptoftherelaxed stateforknittedfabricsiswellrecognizèdand documented.Quality'
controlmust ensure that before knitted garm ents are cut,the fabric is in a relaxed or near
relaxedcondi
tion,i.e.thatthere willbe Iittle shrinkage ofthe fabric/garmentwhen itisinthe
consumer's possession.Relaxation tests can be carried outon fabricas a routine procedure,or
as spot checks on suspect deliveries.There are British Standard procedures for relaxation
testingand some ofihe large retail/wholesalepurchasershave established testsoftheirown.
M osttest procedures involve agitation in aqueous solution followed by m easurement under
water,and/orspinningand tumble drying.They attemptto reproducetheconditionsunder
which the garmentw illbe Iaundered during usage.
Relation betw een Yarn Eountand M achine gauge:
Selection of m achine gauge depends upon yarn diameter.Yarn diameter also depends on
severalfactorssuch asyarn count,fibre type,yarn twist,yarn finishing etc.Generalpractice of
yarn countand machinegauge in differentindustriesin Bangladeshgiven below:

Yarncountused Machine gauge Yarn countused M achine aauge

16 18 28 22
18 20 28 25
20 20 28 28
20 24 30 22
24 22 30 24
24 24 30 28
26 20 30 34
26 22 34 28
26 24 34 28
26 28

The above values m ay differ,because it isthe resul

tsofa research work.There isa relation
betweenyarn intexand m achine gauge isgiven by aequation,
16so 1400
Forsingle-jersey,G = Tex and fordouble-jersey,G = Tex ,where G ismeasured in
needlespercm .
The yarn countto be used on a circularknitting m achine depends Iargelyon the pitch,and thus
onthe m achine gauge.Forany given machine gauge itcan Iie within a Iargerrange,because on
the sam e machine differentyarn counts can be used,depending on the knitted structure,the
desiredoptics(fabricappearance)andthefabricproperties.
 512
Thefollowing tablescontain practicalvaluesofthe average countofyarnto be used,depending
onthemachinegaugeandseveralfabrictypes.ThevaluesinNe(convertedfrom valuesinNm)
referto staplefibre yarnsandthose in dtexare related to filamentyarns.

YarncountandmachinegaugeforSingle-jersey Yarncountand machinegaugeforInterlock

vachinegaugcE Yarncotlnt Machine gauge E Yarn count
seedles/inch Ne dtex Needles/inch Ne dtex
s 2.5/2- 7.*12 660:2 - sbo.rz 5 2/14.0/2 - 2/21.5/2 800x1- 550x1
t$ 3.s?z'- 9.5/2 ssoxz - 4ooxz 6 2/18.0/2 - 2/23.5/2 660x1- 470:1
7 5.0/2 - 12.0/2 470:2 -aaoxa 7 2/21.5/2- 14.0/2 660x1- 400x1
8 0
,
7.O/2 - 14.0,r2
, sj,, . a s j,
4œ x2- 280X
2j o
.,.m . 0 . 00s . 0 q 2/2
,a
3.,
5y
/2
,-
.r18
,.j2
, 4j0
., ,x
y1
,-
.,
3,
30
,x1
g
10 10.5/2 - 10.5/1 280x2- 200:? 10 16.5/2- 12.0/1 330:1- 235:1
12 14.0/2 - 12.0/1 23bx2 - 150:2 12 21.5/2- 14.0/1 280x1 - 200:1
14 8.5/1 - :4.0/1 2O0x2- 236x1 14 12.0/1- 16.5/1 235x1- 167x1
15 10.5/1 - 16.5/1 15Ox2- 2O0x1 15 14.0/1- 19.'0/7 220x1- 160x1
16 12.0/1 - 19.021 250:1- 167x1 16 16.5/1- 21.6/1 200x1- 133x1
18 .14.0/1- 23.5/1 2O0x1- 15Ox1 18 21.5/1- 23.6/1 167x1- 110x1
20 18.0/1- 26.0/1 167:1- 122x1 20 23.5/1- 29.5/1 156:1- 100x)
22
24 21.5/1- 295/1 750:1- 1:0x1 22 28.5/1- 35.5/1 733x1 - 100x1
26 23.5.87- 35.5/1 14Ox1 - 7O0x1 24 33.0/1- 41.5/1 122x1 - 90x1
28 26.5/1 -41.5/1 122x1- 84x1 26 35.5/1-- 47.6/1 110x1- 84x1
30 29.6/G-47.5/1 110x1- 76x1 28 41.5/7- 63.0/1 10Ox1 - 76x1
32 3b.5/1-59.0/1
41 lOox1- 67x1 atj 47.5/1- 5:.(j/1
5a.()/?- 71.oj1 a( )xg- 67x1
,b/3- 71.0/1 84x1 - 55x1 a; 76x1- 5c:1

Yarn countand machine gaugeforFleecy Yarn countand machine gaugeforFine Rib

Machine gauge E Yarn count Machine gauge E Yarn count
Needles/inch Ne dtex Needles/inch Ne dtex
12 2.521- 95/1 720x2 -622:1 5 12.0/2 - 16.5/2 800x1- 550x1
14 3.5/1 - 12.0/1 620x2 -500:1 6 14.0/2 - 19.0/2 660x1- 400:1
15 4.711- 14.0/1 500:2 -420x1 7 16.5/2 -21.5/2 550:1- 330x1
16 6.0'/1- 16.5/1 833:1 -360:1 8 19.0/2 - 12 0/1 470:1- 280:1
18 7.O/1- 18,0/1 660x1- 3OOx1 9 21.5/2- 14.0/1 4OOx1- 235x1
2O 8.5/1- 20 0?'1 50Ox:- 280x: 10 12.0/1- 18.0/1 330x1- 20Ox1
22 1o.5/1- 23.5/3 360:q- 2OOx1 12 14.0/1- 20.0/1 280x1- 167:1
24 14.0,
,1- 26.o/: 3t)Ox1- 167:1 1
q4
s 16.5/1- 23.5/1
20 235:1- 150x1
26 q6.b/1- 29.j/: 2sox1- 15cx1 ,: ,0/1 - 29.5/
za syp- as.5,,, 1 2(mx:- ,22x1
28 q9 jo.yx:. qccx,
ac 2p.0/1- a5.5/: 2oox1- 7zzx, ga ra. .syg. 4.7.5/, jstlxq. goxj
.5,
'1- 41.5,q 1scx1- 1lox1 20 4,'s/g. sa,c/p jzzx: . ;sx1
,32
, 2a,s,
.1- 47.st1 :2zx1- 84.:1 22 4.,?.s/g. sa.oy) ,oox:. o. :yj
24 53.o/q - 71.0/1 8.4x1 - 55x1

Relation betw een Yarn countand GSM :

From the research work itistry to find the following equationsforthe selection ofyarn count
to get required GSM equationsvary forfabric types,fabric construction.List ofequationsare
tabulated below:
Nam eoffabrics Equations Nameoffabrics Equations
Single-jersey Ne=-0.141GSM +50.22 Single-jersey GSM =350.4-6.879Ne
Pique Ne=-0.146GSM +57.16 Lycrasingle-jersey GSM =354.56-4.9716 Ne
DoubleIacoste Ne= -0.167 GSM +64.36 Pique GSM = 386.44- 6.6737 Ne
1x1 Rib Ne=-0.123GSM + 54.57 1x1 Rib GSM =437.66- 7.9731Ne
Lycra 1k1Rib Ne= -0.119GSM + 59.12 Lycra 1x1Rib GSM =494.08 - 8.2839 Ne
Lycra2x2Rib Ne=-0.108GSM +56.62 Wcra2x2Rib GSM =519.05-9.1216Ne
lnterlock Ne= -0.206GSM + 80.56 Interlock GSM = 388.41- 4.778 Ne
513
Seledion ofyarn countforvariousGSM fordifferentfabrks:
Fabrics Plainor Pique 1x1Rib Wcra Wcra lnterlock
GSM Single-jersey 1x1Rib 2x2Rib
100 36.12 47.66 42.27 47.22 45.82 59.96
120 33.3 44.32 39.81 44.84 43.66 55.84
140 30.48 40.98 37.35 42.46 41.5 51.72
160 27.66 37.64 34.89 40.08 39.34 47.6
180 24.84 34.3 32.43 37.7 37.18 43.48
200 22.02 30.96 29.97 35.32 35.02 39,36
220 19.2 27.62 27.51 32.94 32.86 35.24
240 16.38 24.28 25.05 30.56 30.7 31.12

Relation among GSM,stitch Iengthandyarn countcan be deri

vedfrom the following equati
on:
1
GSM = Y , whenyarncountand stitch Iength b0th are variabl
es
afncount(Ne)XSti
tchlength
GSM K
= whereK isaconstant
Yarncount(Ne)xStitchIength
Yarncount(Ne)xStitchIengthxGSM =K
K
Stitch Iength=Y
arncount(Ne)xGSM
Constant'K'which can be derived asfolsows:
Fabrics ConstantKvalues
Single-jerseyorPlain 12068.509
Double Iacoste 14855.2
1x1 Rib 16431.497
2x1 Rib 19005.333
Interlock 24013.8

These values are get from a research work.It m ay be changed.For getting more accurate
resultsitneedsm ore data from differentindustry.
 514
W ARP KNIU ING PRINCIPLE

Introdud ion to W arp Knitted Fabrics:

W arp knitted fabric isformed from a yarn system called ''the warp''.AIIendssupplied from the
same warp sheetnormallyhave identicalIapping movementsbecause each is Iapped by a guide
attachedto the same guide bar.The warp yarns,afterforming Ioopsin one course,passinto
the fpllowing course,and,asa rule,the num berofIoopsformed in the course is the sam e as
the num berofyarnsin the warp.Due to this,Ioop formation in warp knitted fabricfeaturesthe
presenceofIinksJconnedingthe Ioopsintheadjacentcourses.Dependingonthemethodthe
warpyarnisIayedontheneedles,theloopsareofthefollowingtypes:OpenIoops(courses11
and1V),closedIoops(courses1and111),wi
thonesideIinks(coursesIand111)andwithtwo-side
Iinks(courses11andlV).

% #
** *X .
* @ * * @ @.
M z
z . . &. . .
J # . . .e. . . .
1 I E*)*o* . .y.k
5 2 J #
5 2 /'# I o l I I5/
(a) (D)

Beam s supply the warp sheets in parallel form to the guide bars w hose pattern control
determinesthetim ing and configuration ofthe Iapping m ovem ents in the form ofoverlapsand
ùnderlaps.The needles intermesh the new overlapsthrough the oId overlapsto form the
interm eshed loopstructure.

Part.ofthe yarn,between the Ioops which connect the wales together, is referred to asthe
underlap.Thetwosidesofthefabricarereferredtoasthetechnicalface(thesideonwhichthe
knitted Ioopsare pmminent)and the technicalback(the side on which the underlapsare
prominent).
515

W arp knitted curtainfabric

The Guides:
W arp guides are thin metalplatesdrilled with a hole in theirIowerend through which a warp
end maybe thréadedifrequired,theyareheldtdgetherattheirupperend ina metalIeadand
arespacedinittothesamegaugeasthemachine.TheIeadsinturnareattachedtoaguidebar
so that the guides hang dowp from it w ith each one occupying a posi
tion at rest midway
between two adjacent needles,in this position the warp thread cannot be received by the
needlesand itwillmerilyproduceastraightverticalfloat.
Sw in R
B

A e -k
h( -
Swiew N
Yo

The needlesonly receiye the warp thread in theirhooks i

fthe guide baroverlaps atrosstheir
hooks,oracrossthe side remote from theirhookswhenthe guide barunderlaps.AIIguidesin a .
conventionalguide barproduce an identicalIapping m ovementatthe sam etim e and therefore
have identicalrequirem entsofwarp,tension and rate offeed,although the threads may differ
in colourorcom position from each other.
 516
Overlap,that Iength of yarn in a warp knitted fabric that has been placed over the needle
during Ioopformation.
Underlap ,thatIength ofyarn in a warp knittedfabricthatçonnectstwo overlapsin consecutive
coursesk

The Guide Bar:

Abarrunningthefullwidthofamaciineandequipped:1thguidesthroughwhichthreadsare
passed sothattheIateralmotionsimpartedto theguide barsbythe patterncontrolàeviceare
transm itted to the threads.
Each end ofyarn from each warp is Iocated in the knitting zone by passipg through the eye ofa
guide.AIltheguidescontainingtheyarnsfedfrom asinglewarp,arecoqnededto aguide bar,
so thataIIofthem move uniformly with it. t
Theindividualguidesareusuallycastin1inchunits-whichinturnarefiitedontheguidebars.
The guidesswing between and around the needlesinorderto warp the yarn arùund them to
form a new loop.Theyalso shog side waysto connectthe walesinto afabric.

; l
5
2 .

Lead w ith guide needles Guide needles

Each guide bar is norm ally supplied with a warp sheet from its own beam shaft to suit its
requirementsofthreading and rate ofwarpfeed foritsparticularIapping m ovem ent.
occasionally,1wo partly-threaded guide bars m ay be supplied from the same full-threaded
beam provided they m ake Iapping movementsofthe sam e extentto each otherwh11stmoving
in opposite diredions.The m inim um num berofguide bars and warp sheets forcom mercially
acceptable structuresisusually two.
tapping m ovem entofthe Guide Bar:
Whentheneedlebarisobservedinplanview from above,itcanbeseenthattheguidesota
guide barare required to execute a compound Iapping movem entcomposed oftwo separately
derived motions.A swinging motion and ashogging m ovementad atrightanglesto each other
inorderfortheirthreadstoform overlapand underlappathswhicharejoinedtogetheraround
the needles.
 i
517 i
Theswingingmotionisin an arcfrom thefrontofthemachineto the hooksideandaIat t
returnswing.Itoccursbetweenadjacentneedlesandisafixed,collecti
veandautomaticadioi'
foraIIthe guide bars asthey pivoton a comm on rockershaft.It isderived in a sim ilarmanner)
-

to the needle and other element bar motions from the m ain cam-shaft and is adapted viar
Ievers, pivots and Iinkages.The two swinging m ovem ents produce the two side Iimbs when
combined with the overlap shog.W hen the overlap is om itted the guides swing idly between
adjacentneedlesand achievenousefulpurpose. 4
1
.
.
1
.

N 1
Guie œ ''.- - (
* pato
Guie Y a * drum
Rewrn > lx .
*
..'*
.
œ e *
* *- *
. @
@
Qe; a caj @
.
O o - r- .wz
. j
u
O o cbQl
O o o o yojj. . * 1
O a 2
sle w o sle w o
a= f. * 4 * 1

Swingingand Shogging mechanism ofthe Guide bar

The sideways shogging movement which occurs parallel to the needle bar produces the
underlapsand overlaps.The occurrence,timing,direction and extentofeach shog isseparately
controlled foreach guide barby itspatternchain Iinksorpatternwheelattached to a horizontal
pattern shaft driven from the m ain cam -shaft but set at right angles to it atone end ofthe
m achine.The guide bars are shogged independently sideways parallelto each other along
Iinearbearingswhich supportthem in the swingingfram e assem blyw hich iskeyed to the guide
barrocker-shaft.
A shogging m ovementcan occurwhen the guides have swung clearofthe needle headsonthe
back or front of the m achine.On the hook side it willproduce an overlap and on the side
rem ote from the hooks it willproduce an underlap.The tim ing ofthe shog during the 360
degreesofthe m ain cam-shaftrevolution willthusdeterm ine whetheran overlap orunderlap is
produced.

The Pattern M echanism :

The shogging movement is initiated by varying the radius ofthe continuously-turning pattern
shafteither in the form ofdifferent heights ofpattern Iinks which pass overa pattern drum
attached to the shaft,or in the form of carefully-shaped solid metalcircular cam s,termed
pattern wheelsorpattern disks,attached to it.
 s1à
An increase in heightfrom one Iink to the nextproducesa thrustagainstthe end ofthe guide
barshogging itpositivelyinto the m achine,a decrease willproduce a negative shog towardsthe
pattern shàftasthe result ofthe action ofa retqrn spring.A constant.height willproduce no
shogandtheguidàbarwillcontinuetoswingthroughthesame needle space.Theperipheryof
thepatternwheelorchaintrackisscannedbyarollerwhich isIinked byàflexibleball-jointed
push-rod to the end ofa guide bar,the underside ofthe rod nearthe roller'issupported on a
slide which movesfreely on a metalsurface asshogging occurs. .
'.

The drive forthe pattefn shaftisobtained from the main cam-shaftvia bevetgearsand a
universaljointtoaworm whichderivestheworm wheelofthe pattern shaft.The ratio ofcam-
shaftspeedtothepatternshaftspeed isusually16:1, therefore 1!
-th ofthe sudace of'
6 -
a:péttern
wheelwould representone course orknitting cycle.
The lateralmovement ofthe guide bars is generated by the patterning mechanism,which is
situated on the side ofthe machine.The patterning mechanism ofa tricot machine isdescribe
asfollows. '
Themechanism isdrivenbythemainshaft(1)viaabelt(2),worm (3)andaworm gear(4).The
patterndrum (6)ismountedontotheshaft(5)sothati
trotatesinaconstantratiotothespqed
ofthe main shaft.
A chain made of Iinks ofdifferent heights is placed on the pattern drum .W hile rotating,the
differentchainIinksmovetheroller(9)andslide(8)sothatthepushrod (7)movesthe.guide
barand displacesitIaterally.The rollerand pushroà are held againstthe pattern drum by
springs.
'

7 4
lo l * Link

8 *
% $ 3 :
5 .
6
.
%* * patterndrum
w
N
N -> .
w'
.
' oo
.
. @*NN

j '
N. o .I
2 .
xY '

A
Pattern disc

Patterninjmechanism ofatricptmachine
 (
1
519 l
l
A Iateralgatihgadjustmenttothepositionofthqguidesiscarriedoutbychangingthelengthof
thepushrodusingthebolt(10).Thepatterndrum withitspatternchaincanbeeasilyreplaced
bya patterp disk,preciselypre-cutforacertain design.Althoughthediskcan only be used for
one Iapping sequence, it has the advantage of a very accurate,smooth and high-speed
perform ance.

Pattern wheels provide accuracy and smooth running at high speeds but they are only
rconomicalfor Iong production runs of the comm on sim ple repeat structures; for fancy
structures,frequentchangesofpattern and Iong pattern repeats,the shogging movem entsare
obtained byassem bling achain ofre-usable pattern Iinks.
Ehain Iinks:
TheidenticallyY-shapedchai
.n l
inks#re sim ilarin appearance to atuningforkwiththe forkend
leading.The tailofthe preceding Iinkfits into the fork ofthe succeeding link and the Iinks are
held togetherby pins which are pushed through holes in the side ofthe forkand tail,the pins
pass through aIlthe tracksand chains and the endsfit into grookes in the serrated flangesof
the pattern drum so thatas the drum turnsthe chain Iinks are advanced in unison,in corred
timing.
The link isslightly arched to fit the surface ofthe pattern drum .ln orderto ensure that the
widersideoftheIinktakesthegreaterIoadwhenpushingtheguidebars, theforkside isthe
Ieading partofthe Iinkwhen connecting a chain.Linksare made to fita certain machine gauge.
To elim inate any confusion,the gauge isstamped on to the link,togetherwith the heightofthe
linkin needlespaces.

Tpensuresmoothoprration,theIeadingandtrailingedgesofthe Iinksaregroundto producea

slope.The angle '
and Iength of the ground edge m ust be very accurately set, so that the
shogging m ovementiscorrectlytimed.
TMo steepananylemovestheguidebarbeforetheswingtothehooksidehasbeencompleted.
A long angle causesthe guide barto move Iaterwhen the swing-backhatalready started.A
badly timed shogging movem ent mightcause the yarn to be cut between needlesand guides
and,in extreme cases,knitting elementscan be damaged.
A grinding gauge is usually supplied by the m achine manufad urerand the Iinks m ustonly be
ground accorhingto it.PatternIinksarealso availablewith preground edgestofitdifferent
chain arrangements.These Iinksare designated by Iettersindicatingtheground edge.
@ 'a'- isan unground link.
'b'- isa Iinkon whichtheforkisground.
* 'c'- indicatesa ground tail.
@ 'd'- meansthatboth forkand tailareground.
 520

* b c d
.>i
@7 .... . ..... .=

A profileofapatternchain
W ithdirecttransmissionoftheshoggingmovementfrom chainIinkstoguidebar,asdescribed,
the exactdistance shogged isthedifference in heightsbetween the two successie links.:This
method is em ployed on m ost high speed machines and on the ground guide bars of m any
m ulti-barRaschels.
Chain Iink numbering com mences with '0'height and every gqide 'bar chain sequepce m ust
containatIeastoneofthese'0'Iinksbecausewhentheguidebarisonthiqlinkitwillbeini:
nearestposition to the pattern mechanism,during thatparticularlapping movement.Triçpy
linksarenumbered0,1,2,3,4,5,etc.,andwtthdirectshogging,eachwillbesuccessivelyone
needlespacehigheryhanthepreviou!Iink so thaton a28gaugétricotmachine,a '2'Iihkwill '
be'
Zt
. . ;
28hinch(0.9mm)higherthan,av'l'Iinkwàichwillbez nchhigherthana.0,link.lfa,y,
. ,
âg
.thi ..
,

linkisplacedafterag0'link zonvlnee'
dlqspace shog awayfrom'the pattern:mechanism willbe
.

prpduced.lfa.0,Iink isplaced aftera .3,Iinkathree needle space sj)ogtowardstjlepattern

.

mechanism will-ôccur.If two Iinks èf the sam e height are placed next to,each other,for
ep mple '3'follpwed by a'3'ashogwillhotbe produced andthetuideswillremain between ''
' .
. ' . . . . ' .

the$àmenèedlesjaces. .. q
Itmustbeunderstoodthata heightofIink,forexample'0',doefnotrejreséntafi
xed positlon
between two needle spaces,itrepresentsthe nearestposition each guide in a particularguide
barapproachesthe pattern m echanism during thatlapping m ovement.W hen a guide bafison
a'0'link,aIIguidesinthatbarwillbqintheir'0'positioqbqtqachgwilloccqqyl q d,j
ffçrqn!jplçç . . '

between needlesacrossthewidth.Likewise,two guidesfrom dlfferentbat/?m?yoccupythe

samespacebetweentwoadjacentneedlesandyetbek
'
differen'Jthqightspfr-jé
E
.
;yhk jiattha'yoint.
('?w .'''.'.'!: .'=.' % '''
.
.x .
. .
.)g .. .
AchainnotationisaIistincorrectsequenceofchainlinknumbqrikpacediéiöknittihgiiy ,
,cles . ?.
,

foreachguidebarnecessarytoeproduceaparticularstiuctufe.TV differenci'C,it.emtwe
-
e n th e first '
... . . s -.!x vk.
..- . . . o

twoIinksisnormallytheoverlap.'ltmustberememberidthaitheliiksarejö.
inediigiiheriiià
closed IoopwiththestartingIinkforeachbarjoinedtoitsIastIink.Forthisreasèp,undèrlap
movemenistowardsIeftandrighttendto balanceeachother.
 J

521 7
è
.
The num beroflinks percourse isfixed foreach machine,a m inim um oftwo isusually required '
'
withtheovèrlapoccurringbetweenthesecondIinkofonecourseandthefirstIinkofthenext 1
.!
Ontricotmachines,athird intermediate Iink isoften used so thatthe underlapisalso spread i
between the second and third Iinksgiving itmore time and coinciding more closely with the 1
k l
nitting cycle requirem ents.
M odern Tricot m achines use 3 Iinks for each knitting sequence.This i
s because the guides
spend very Iittle time on the hook side of the needles during the overlap; a m uch Iarger
proportion ofthe knitting cycle isspentwhen they are on thefrontside.The 3 Iinkspercourse
movement distributes the tim e allocated foreach shogging movement in a betterway.One-
third foroverlap and two-thirdsforunderlap.
Itm ustalso be remembered thatthe overlap isin mostcasesonl y one needle space,while the
underlap shog consists som etimes ofseveralneedle spaces.The fact thatthere are two links
available forthe underlap allowsa Iong shogging m ovem entto be distributed between them .
The W arp Dmam s:
To ensure uniform conditions ofwarp feed and tension,the ends are supplied from flanged
beam s attached to shafts which turn to unwind the w arp sheet in parallelform ation.For
convenience ofhandling,a num berofbeam sm ay be attached to a beam shaftto achieve the
fullw idth ofwarp sheet,forexample,a warp sheet76 inchesw ide m ightbesupplied from afull
width beam,two beam seach 38 incheswide,orfourbeamseach 19 incheswide.

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Thewidthofthewarpsedion hasincreased inorderto

decrease the number of flanges and the contact
between flangesand yarn.Beam width can be up to 84
inches.
A m odern W arping m achine

a ,
sn j
++ 1x42' ++
.
++ 1xK'
:
++ 1X6S*
Differentbeam sectionsaccomm odated by a m odernw arpingm achine
 522
Lapping Diagram sand Chain Notations:
Lapping diagrams are drawn around horizontalrowsofpoints which represent needles in plan
view, usually assum ing the pattern mechanism to be on the right.As the guides position
themselves in the spaces between needles, the positions between the verticalcolum ns of
pointscan be given chain Iink num berscomm encing with '0'position w hich isto the rightofthe
righthand column ofpoints. '
Provided thedirection and extentofthe overlapsare correctly indicated in the Iapping diagram
and chain notation,the underlapsw illalwaysbe correctly positioned aseach extendsfrom the
end ofone overlap to the startofthe next.

é->
. . .
o U o u
1-o / 2-a /

O =Overlap and U = Underl

ap
* @ @ Overlap movements:1- 0,2- 3
a 2 t z c Underl
apmovements:0/2,3/1

Guide barlapping movem entnotation Chainnotation(2Iinkspercourse)

ln the lapping diagram,the firstoverlap willbe drawn in a curve overa pointfrom space 1 to
space 0and thesecond from space 2to space 3.The Iapping diagram iscompleted byjoining
theoverlapstogetherwith underlapsandthechain isnotatedas1- 0/2- 3/where'- '
representsanoverlap and '/'an underlap.W hereastheshogging movementsareproduced by
the transi
tion from one link to the next, the sw inging motionsoccurwhilstthe push-rod roller
oftheguide barisin thecentre ofa Iink so thatno shog isproduced.

W hen plotting aIappingdiagram,afew basicrulesm ustbe observed:

W henthefabric iscom posed ofmorethanone guide bar,the lapping movement
ofeach guide barmustbe represented separately byonethread
2. The Iapping diagram s ofaIIbars,knitting the fabric,m ust be plotted from the
sam e course,so thatthe relative lateralpositionofa1liskept.
3. The num bers allocated for the spaces between the needles m ust always
correspond to the position of the pattern m echanism . For machines w i th
patterning m echanisms on theirright side,which is m ore comm on,the spaces
mustbe numbered from rightto left asfortheaboveexample.Thespacesare
num bered from Ieftto right ifthe patterning mechanism is at the Iek of the
machine.
For multi-guide-bar machines wi th two patterning mechanism s,one on each
side,the Iapping movem ent ofeach guide barhasto be analyzed regarding the
position ofthe patterning mechanism operating it.
523
4. W hen mounting a chain on the pattern drqm,specialcare must be taken to
ensure that the position of the chain corresponds to the movement of the
knitting elements.lf the chain is placed one Iink forwards or backwards,the
guide barshogsitsunderlap on the hookside ofthe needle,wrapping morethan
one needle and causing,in some cases,damageto the knittingelements.
Single-needle orDouble-needle Overlaps:
Overlap m ovem ents are normally across only one needle space as a double needle overlap
wouldcause boththewarpthread andthe needlesto be subjected tothesevere strain oftwo
simultaneous adjacent knock overactions,whilst di
fferenttensions on the two Ioops in the
structure willadversely affect their appearance.The underlap between the double overlap
.

loops hasthe appearance ofasinkerIoop.Only in afew Raschelstructuresisthe double-needle

overlap used and here the needlesare lesseasily defleded and there are no knockoversinkers
overw hich to draw the Ioops.A single full-threaded guide barm aking a double-needle overlap
w illcause each needle to receivetwo overlapped threadsatthatcourse.
The greaterthe extentofthe underlap in needle spaces,the heavierthe fabric and the m ore
horizontalthe path ofthethread asitcrossesthe structure.

Basic Overlap orUnderlap Variations:

AIIguide barIapping movements are com posed of one or m ore ofthe follow ing five lapping
variations:

a) ClosedIap-anoverlapfollowedbyanunderlapintheoppositedirection.
b) OpenIap-anoverlapfollowedbyanunderlapinthesamedirection.
c) OpenIap- onlyoverlapsandnounderlaps.
d) Laying-in-onlyunderlapsandnooverlaps.
e) Miss-lapping-neitheroverlapsnorunderlaps.
0 U O . @ @ * @ @
* @ 0 U
@ @ * * @ .
O A* . O $1 * @
U o @ * @
* * U
* @
@ @ @ * @ @ * @
U 2 1 O 2 1 O
2' 1 O a , o O
.
1.;/j.,
a G 1/2-1 ë 1/1-2 0-0/2-2/1-1/3-3 1-1/1-1/1-1
a)ClosedIap b)OpenIap c)OpynIap d)Laying-in e)Miss-lapping

BasicLapping M ovem entsorBasitStitchesin W arp Knitting:

M ost warp knitted fabrics are produced by a few guide bars,each one knitting a sim ple and
basicIappingmovement,whicharedescribedinthefolloFing:
 524
1. PillarorChain R itch:
A pillarstitch w hich producesa verticalchain ofconsecutively knitted Ioopson the sam e
needle from the sam e yarn.The chains may be connected together by otheryarns or
they may be entirely separate from each other.

A pillarstitch isformedwhen a needle isbeing Iapped continuousl: bythe sameguide.

Since the guide bar does not Iap the adjacent needles, there are no sideways
connections and no fabric is formed.Forthe sam e reason,i
t is very difficultto form a
chain (pillar)construction on a tricot machine,unless at leastone more underlap
form ing guide baris em ployed.W ith no underlap to be held in the throat ofthe sinker,
the fabric rides up withthe needlesand doesnotclearthe hooks.

/
?$f
ï
-
)
? - C? '
(-
2 .

) -
.

.
(/ .
)l .
$o y
jI . j o
z
chainnotatiop:0- 1/1-0 chainnotati
on:0-1/0-1
Open-lap pillarstitch Closed-lap pillarstitch Back side ofopen-lap pillarsti
tch

W ith Raschilmachines,however,chain construdionscan very easily be produced due

to the dow nw ard pullofthe take-up mechanism .Different netfabrics,constructed of
chain Iapping movem ents,are produced in greatquantities by the Raschelindustry.
The pillarlapping movem entcan be open,closed orcan be a com bination ofclosed and
open Iaps.The m ore com m on open lap chain construction is form ed w hen the guide
Iapsthe needle alternately from the right and the Ieft.The chain notations, as derived
from figure are 0 - 1 forthe firstcourse and 1- 0 forthe next.
To produceaclosed lap pillar,theguide hasto lap the needle continuouslyin the same
direction and the chain notationsare 0 - 1foraIIcourses.A closed chain construd ion is
Iess com mon because the guide,w hile rotating around the needle in the sam e dired ion,
mayinsertan undesiredfalsetwistintotheyarn.

Constructions m ade w ith a com bination of closed and open Iaps, as well as
construdions ofonly closed Iaps,are usually produced in orderto achieve a certain
technologicalaim .
525
Having no sidew ays underlaps,the yarn consum ption ofa chaining guide baris relatively
very sm all.This,and the fact that the construction is very stable Iengthw ise,m akes it
very popularforthe production ofcertain fabrictypes.
Pillarconstruction can easily be unraveled from the end knitted last by pulling on a free
end of the yarn. Although usually a disadvantage,this characteristic is used in the
production ofIace edgingsasa m ethod ofseparating the bandsafterfinishing.

2. TritotR itch or1 and 1 O pping M ovem ent:

Tricotstitch is a stitch form ed ofone warp;the tricot Ioops are disposed in an alternate
orderin two adjacentwales.This tricot may be formed ofclosed,open oralternate
closed and open Ioops;the Iinks in tricotare seen on the back.

ThisIapping movementisformed bytheguide lapping alternatelytwoadjacentneedles.

It is also called a tricot lap,and the definition ''1 and 1''im plies an underlap of one
needle space and one overlapped needle.

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CX N X XU z , , ei x
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chainnotation:2-1/0-1 Chainnotation:1-2/1-0 @ zx v xv a
open land llapping Closed land 1 lapping Back side ofclosed 1 and 1
m ovem ent m ovem ent structure

Although a fabric is form ed by this Iapping m ovem ent it has as w ith m ost single-bar
fabrics,a restricted com m ercialvalue.As with pillarlapping,the 1 and 1 m ovementcan
be formed open or closed.The closed 1 and 1 structure is m ore popular.The chain
notationsfortheclosedlapconstructionare1-2/1-0andfortheopenone:2-1/0
- 1.Fortricotmachines,the chainreads1-2- 2/1-0 -0 and2- 1- 1/.0-1-1
respectively.

The guide bar producing a 1 and 1 Iapping m ovem ent consum es m ore yarn than a
chaining one,however,the am ount is stillrelatively sm all.The construction isflexible,
lightand very popularin the produdion oftwo guide barfabrics.

Tricot is a w arp-knitted fabric knitted w ith tw o fullsets ofw arp threads,each set . q
making,a 1 and 1 lapping m ovem entbutin opposite directions.Additionally the term is l
. l
1
!
 526
now used generically to cover aIItypes of w arp knitted fabric m ade on tricot w arp
knitting m achines.
3. Cord Stitth or2 and 1 tapping M ovem ent:
Itdiffersfrom tricotin the length oflinks.lt is knitted from a one warp system and the
loopsareformed byoneyarninturn in adjacentcourses,everytwowales(Rb=3,RH=
2).Intheatlasderivativesofthecordtype,theyarnsfrom Ioopsineveryotherwalein
one dired ion overseveralcourses,and then in the same order in the other direction.
The smallestrepeatofsuchan atlasinwidth iskbmi
n=5,and ofthe satintypeatlasRbmin
= 7,and so on;Rhminforan atlasofany type isequalto 4.
'
*

Rs=5
l=' ,=
/ l l œ *' 6 *
%
+ *' .
-- -
11
,.
- -1
.,
-. 1
.
- 'i1
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-1 :::
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t%:I
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' &
. . = * * * -
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!
* ; @ @ >-T
l $ * . k L 7 / pe
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N
l
N N< .a 2 o
l tr
:
i Ir
'?
u1
Chainnotation'
.3-2/0- 1
Open 2 and 1 Iapping m ovem entorCord stitch Closed 1ap Cord stitch
By increasing the underlap produced by the guide bar by one m ore needle,a 2 and 1
structure is produced.The Ionger shogging m ovem ent causes the yarn to lie m ore
horizontally in the fabric, thus increasing the widthw ise stability. The guide bar
consum esm ore yarn so thatthe fabric isheavierand hasa bettercovering factor.

e'
* < - ws1

j j * * . #

* .
. j

; z j o
'

Chainnotation:2-3/1-0 . - ej
Closed 2 and 1 Iapping m ovem entorCord stitch Back side ofclosed 2and 1 structure
As before,the Iapping m ovem ent can be open or closed,the closed one is the more
popular.Thechain notationsfortheclosed Iapstructureare2- 3/1-0 andforthe
openone3-2/0- 1.Fortricotkniiting,thechainreads2-3-2/1-0- 1and3-2-
1/0- 1- 2 respectively.
 i
'
.

527
The 2 and 1 Iapping movement is used in conjunction with the 1 and 1 Iap forthe
production ofthe m ostpopulartricotknitted fabric,nam ely Locknit.
4. LongerReciprotating tapping M ovem ents: 1
By increasingthe underlap shoggingmovementbyoneormore needlespace,a 3and 1 1
construction or satin stitch is form ed and as with the other structures, it can be ,
producedwithclosed(fig.a)oropen(fig.b)Iappingmovement. j
N- v V v Y

y , .
/' J

3-and-1 and4-and-1 lapping movem ents Backsideofclosed 3 and 1structure

Thechainnotationsforthe closed Iapstructure are 3- 4/ 1- 0 and forthe openone4

-
3/0- 1.
Satin stitch differsfrom tricotand cord in the Iength oflinks.Itisalso knitted from a one
warp system and the Ioopsare formed by one yarn in turn in adjacentcourses,every
threewales(% =49Rh=2).
M ore yarn is used with the produdion ofthis Iapping m ovem ent,w idthwise stability is
increased togetherwith fabricweightand coverfactor.W iththe construdion oftwo-or
m ore guide barfabrics,thisIapping m ovem entisusually used forone ofthree purposes:

a) Toincreasestability
b) When produced onthefrontguide bar,the long underlapsfloating onthe
technicalpackapplyabrightàndsmoothappearancetothefabric.
c) W henproduced bythefrontguidebar,the Iong underlapscan be brushed to
produce a pile effecton thefabric.
4 and 1 orlonger Iapping m ovem entsorvelvetstitches are produced forsim ilar
purposes.Velvetstitchalsocanbeproducedwithclosed(fig.c)oropen(fig.d)Iapping
movement.Thechainnotationsfortheclosed Iapstructureare4-5/1-0andforthe
open one 5 -4 /0 -1.The Iongerthe underlap,the greatertheweight,stabilityand
 528
density of the fabric.Velvet stitch differs from tricot, cord and satin in the Iength of
Iinks.It has Iarge Iink Iength'com pare to other. It is also knitted from one warp system
andthe loopsareformedbyoneyarn in turninadjacentcourses, everyfourwales,(Rb=
S;Rh=2).
5. AtlasStitrh orLapping M ovem ent:

Itis a stitch in which each yarn consecutively forms Ioops in a m ultitude ofadjacent
wales.ln atlasthere are loopswith single-side and double-side Iinks. The sm alleststitch
repeatis Rb= 3 in width,and in heightRh= 4.The graphicalrepresentation ofyarn Iaying
in this atlas is show n in figure.In high repeat m ul
ticourse atlas the Iinks connect the
adjacentwalesfirstin one direction,and then in the reverse direction (to the initial
wale).
Atlasstitch norm ally m eansTricotAtlas. TherearevarioustypesofAtlas-
TricotAtlas- 2 course TricotAtlas,3 course, 5 course TricotAtlas,etc.
Cord type Atlas
Satintype Atlas
VelvettypeAtlas.

The Iapping movem ents illustrated in figure are called atlas m ovements. The guide
moves to one side for a few knitting cycles,Iapping the needles on its w ay. After a
predeterm ined num berofcourses,the guide reverses.

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Chainnotation: 2- 3/2- 1/1-0/1-2
,.t
I11j,'
. ,p1i
. 11IIk
ConstrudionofaTwo course TricotAtlas BacksideofanAtlasstructure

Atlasmovementsl#l#erfrom one anotherbythe numberofcoursesin one repeatand

''$' .
.

bythetypeofIappihgùsed(openorclosed).A typicalatlasfabric(s-coursetricotatlas)
w ith a repeatof10 coursesisillustrated in figure.
529
@ * @ * @ @ @ * @
@ t @R1.5
* *--%* * 9.&%7 @ @ @ * @ *
@ @ @ * * * * @ * * * * * @ @
@ * @ @ @ @
@ * @ * * *T * *@* * *1* @ * * * * * * @
* * * * @ *+ * @ @ * * @ @ * @Tœ @
@œ% @
@ * * * * * *
* @ @ @ @ * * * @ @ @ @< *
* @ @ @ @ *:. @ * * @ @ *.3. @ @ * @ @ @ @ *
. F .N. 1.A. ,.o . . > .<.ç.é.1 .* . l.@. 9 *#*>*&@f*h #3*R@/*:
Chain notation'
. Chain notation'
. Chain notation'
.
4-5/3-2/1-0/2-3 6 -7/4- 3/1-0/3- 4 8-9/5-4/1-0/4-5
Cord type Atlas Satin type Atlas Velvet type Atlas
Loop inclination,w hich is very prom inent in a single-bar fabric, willtake a different
shape w hen an atlas m ovement is produced. W ith the production of a1Ipreviously
described fabrics,the loopsincline once to the leftand once to the rijht,according to
the alternate m ovement of the guide bar.W ith the production of atlas,however,the
guide barm ovesfora few courses in the sam e direction,so thatthe loopsincline during
those courses in the opposite direction. In this way,the Ioops incline to the same
direction fora few courses,thuscreating horizontalstripes on !he face ofthe fabric.
Those stripesofdifferentshading can be used forpatterning purposes.
Atlas Iapping is often used with the guide barsthreaded with coloured yarns.W i
th two
bars m oving in opposition, the threading arrangem ent produces, due to the atlas
movement diagonalordiamond shapes.
6. Two needle Overlap:
The guide can be shogged by two needle spaceson the hook side ofthe needle during
an overlap.ln this way,two needles are wrapped by each yarn and both willdraw the
Ioopssim ultaneously. '
ThisIapping m ovem entis usually produced in orderto add body and stabilityto a single-
guide-barfabric.

*f 'e
e ' * :.
é. 4e
* . y %@
*f f* j
* . # ..
l I 11 2 *
chainnotation'
.2-0/0-2 Zf- f* f,
Tw o-needle overlap construction Back side ofTwo-needle overlap strud ure
The factsth 530
attw o separate loops m ustbe draw n from a relatively sm allam
and that one ofthe tw o has no access to the guide'and w arp cau ountofyarn
placed on the yarns and the needles se a Iot ofstress to be
. Usually, when pr
oduci
ng a tw o-bar fabric, w ith
incorporated tw o n
eedleoverlap,the movementshould be produced by th
bar. The yarns of the front guide bars float freely on th e frontguide
necessary, e face of t he fabric and, if
can m ove m ore easily into the knitted Ioop.
Figure illustratesa construction in w hich chaining and two
needle overlap arecom bined.
As can be observed, each needle receives tw o yarns and horizontal c
between the wales onnections
are form ed. The fabric has erect Ioops, is relatively stable and
resem blestheappearanceoftwo-barfabrics.
The chain notations forthe structure in figure are 2 -
with 3 linkspercourse movement2- 0 - 0/0-2- 2.
0/0- 2 andfortricotmachine
531 W ARP KNIU ING M ACHINERY

Introdudionto W arpKnittingM achinery:

In the past,itwasusualto distinguish betw een Tricotand Raschel,by the needle used in each
machine type.Tricot machines were equipped with bearded needles,while Raschelm achines
only used (atch needles.
Wi th tbe produdion of modern warp knitting m achines, however, the compound needle
replaced the bearded needle in Tricot and penetrated into the Raschelsedor as well.The
classification of m achines by the needle type is,therefore,no Ionger possibde.An accurate
definition can be made by regarding the type ofsinkersw i th which the machine is equipped
andthe roletheyjlayinloopformation.
The sinkersused forTricotknitting machinescontrolthe fabricthroughoutthe kni tting cycle.
The fabric isheld in the throatsofthe sinkerswhile the needlesrise to clearand the new Ioops
are knocked overin-between them .
ln Raschelknitting however,the fabric is controlled by a high take-up tension and the sinkers
are only usedto ensure thatthe fabricstaysdown when the needlesrise.
ltisforthis reason,thatthe fabric produced on a Raschelmachine ispulled tightly downwards
from the knitting zone,at an angle of about 1600 to the backs of the needles. 0n Tricot
machines,high take-up tension isnotnecessary,andthe fabricispulled gentlyfrom the knitting
zone ata rightangleto the backofthe needles.

Tritotw arp knitting m achine:

 M ain FeaturesofTheTritotW arp Knitting M acbine: 532

Tricotwarp knittingmachineshavethefollowingimportantfeatures:
* In the past,Tricotm achinesmainlyem ployed bearded needleswith
T a presserbar.
ricot machines have a gauge expressed in needles per inch
and chain Iink
numbering0,1,2,3,4,etc., generally withthree Iinkspercourse.
Theirsinkers,whicharejoinedtoeachotheratthefrontandback, nevermove clear
ofthe needlesasthey combinethe fundionsofholding-down,knocking-over and
supporting the fabric loops.
The fabric is drawn-away towards the batching rolleralm ost at
right anglesto the
needle bar.
The warp beam s are accom modated in an inclined arc towards the back of the
machine wi th the top beam supplying tbe frontguide barand the boytom beam
supplying the backguidebar.
* The warp sheetspassoverthe top ofthe guide barrocker- shaftto theirtension rails
situated atthe frontofthe machine.
* M echanicalattention to the knitting elements is carried out at the front of the
m achine asthe beamspreventaccessto the back.
* Asallthe warp sheets are drawn overtherocker-shafttothefrontofthqmachine it
is easierto thread up the gui debarscoymencing with the backbar, otherwise the
frontwarp willobscurethisoperation.
@ The gui de bars are therefore numbered from the back towards the frontofthe
machine because ofthisthreading sequence.
* The conventi onaltricotbeam arrangem entgenerally restrittsthe m axim um number
ofbeam sand guide barsto fourbutthi sisnotofmajorimportanceasthemajority
oftricotm achinesem ployonly two guide bars.
The smallangle offabrictake-away and the type ofknitting action providesa
gentle
and Iow tension on the structure being knitted which is idealforthe high - speed
production ofsimplefine gauge (28 - 40 npi)close knitted plain and patterned
strudures, especially two guide bar structeres with both bars overlapping and
underlapping.

Knitting Elem entsofthe Tricotwarp knitting m athine:

The knittingelementsare Iocated onfourdifferentbarsand produce the rows ofstitcbes in a
pre-determined,precisely coordinated and simultaneou7
s series of movements Every knitting
.
elementhasi tsown corresponding movem ent.
533
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Nam e ofthe Bars: Kniu ing Elem ents:

1. Sinkerbar 1a.Enclosing knock-oversinkers
2. Compound needle bar 2a.Compound needle
3. Tongue orsliding Iatch bar 3a.Tongue orsliding Iatch
4. Guide bar 4a.Guide

The above knitting elem entsofthe tricotw arp knitting m achine are described asfollows,

* The Needle:
M odern Tricotw arp knitting m achines,apartfrom a smallnumber,are constructed
w ith com pound needles.The bearded needle,w hich untilrecently dom inated the
field oftricotknitting,can stillbe found running efficiently and reliably in thousands
ofm achines around the world.Its knitting action is,however,nonharm onic,and so
im posed m any Iim itationson the m achine builders.

k-
Com pound needle
Thecompound needleusedtodayiitheconstrudion ofTricotmachines.Theneedle
is m ade oftwo separate parts;the m ain part of the needle,which includes stem,
buttand hook,and the closing elem entw hich operates with a sliding up-and-down
m ovem entin a groove,cut into the stem ofthe m ain partofthe needle.
 The needles are set in tricks cut in the needle bed ofthe m achine 534
, F hi
le the closing
elem ents,being cast in units halfan inch long, are setin a jeparate bar
of th . The casting
e closing elem ents is required to ensure perfectly ac
them . curate spacing betw een
* The Sinker:
The sinker is a thin plate ofm etalw hich is placed betw e
en éaih needle.Thè sinkirs
are usually castin units, one inch Iong,w hich in turn are screwed into the sinkerbar
.

whilethebell
WW'
Different nam es are given to different parts of the sinker according to their
operation.The neb ofthe sinker(1)and throa!(2)are used to hold down the fabri
yofthesinker(3)isusedasaknocking-overplatform .
c
,
* Guides and Guide Bars:
Each end of yarn from each w arp is Iocated in the knittin
th g zone by passing through
e eye of a guide.Allthe guides containing the yarns fed from
connected to a guide b a single w arp.are
ar,so thatallofthem m ove uniform ly w ith it.
The individualguides are usually castin one inch unitsw hich inturn arefitted on tbe
guide bars.The guides sw ing between and around the ne
edles in orderto wrap the
yarn around them to form a new Ioop. They also shog sidew aysto conned the wales
into afabric.

# wa -a
 535
Tricot machines are produced witb 2,3, or 4 guide bars,an arrangement which
requires the sam e num ber of warps to be used.Tricot m achines with a larger
numberofguidebarsareproducedinverysmallnumbers.
The knitting cycle or Stitth form atibn of the Tricot W arp Knitting M achine
equipped with Bearded needles:
Following figures illustrate the stitch form ing processon a one-barwarp knitting m achine with
spring-beardedneedles:(a)clearingandbeginningofyarnIaying;(b)yarnlaying;(c)completion
ofyarn Iaying;(d)underlapping;(e)pressing;(f)Ianding;(g)joining;(h)casting-off;(i)Ioop
'
form ing and sinking.

* .

( NN
NN $ .
.

a)Clearing b)Yarnlaying c)CompletionofyarnIaying

1$ . .
. . . j;.s .
*
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S'
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1x
t .e'
. ..
n' .

d)Underlapping
ie)Pressing ..
f)Landing

. Ah
.

g)Joining h)Casting-off i)Loopformingand sinking

Stitchformation orkni
ttingactionofaTricotwarp kni
ttingmachineequipped withBearded needle

Eacb warpyarn,whenforming alIkindsofstitches,mustbe laid in one needle.Atthe beginning

ofthe Ioop form ing process,the guide barsw ingsfrom the backofthe needle to the frontof
the needle,whilethe needle stayatthe top mostposi tion.Asa result,each warp yarn passesin
aspacingbetweentwo adjacentneedlestothefrontfaceoftheneedlebed.Aftertheguidebar
 536
baspassed betweenthe needles,itshiftsoneneedlespacinginfrontofiheneedlesand pssses
againtothebackoftheneedlebedasshowninfigure(b).Asaresult,eachwarpyarnisIaidon
the needle hook.Yarn Iaying iscompleted w hen yarnsarrive onto the needle stem . Forthis,the
needlesIi
ftandtheyarnspassontotheirstems(figure-c).Onlythoseportionsoftheyatnwhich
run from the oId loopsto the guide needlesare laid on the needles. Forthis,atthe time ofbar
racking the centresofthe guide holes mustnotpassbelow the upperpointofthe needle head.

After the yarn has passed from the hook onto the needle stem (figure-c),the yarn is
underlapped, orbrought underthe needle hook. For this,the needles are Iowered so as to
bring the yarns under the needle hooks; the oId Ioop retained in the throat of sinker
approachestheneedlehook(figure-d).Astheyarnisunderlaphed,thetipsoftheneedlehooks
m ust be disposed between the sinker nibs;this ensures a reliable insertion ofthe new Ioop
undertheneedlehook.Further,thepresserpressestheneedlesandçloses(figure-e)theaccess
underthe hookto the old Ioop.

0n furtberlowering,the old Ioopsslip along the needles onto the hooks, i.e.the operation of
Ianding iscarried out.In orderto reduce needle hookdisplacem entalong the press, the sinkers
retreatandshiftupwardstheold loopsasshowninfigure(f).Theneedlescontinueto move
down untiltheoldIoopsjointhenew onesasshdwn infigure(g).The needlescontinuetheir
descent,while the sinkersagain shiftforward.The old and new Ioops enterthe sinkerthroats
(figure-h and i).Atthismoment,the sinkernibspassintothespacesbetweenthe adjacent'
warp yarn,atwhich casting-offand loop form ing take place.The needlesstartm oving upwards
and the sinkersprotrude stillm ore forward, and help the nqedle in executing Ioop forming and
draw-off.

Basic Knitting ad ibn of a Tricot W arp Knitting M àchine equipped w ith

Com pound needles:
The knitting action ofa Tricotwarp knittihg m achine equipped w ith compound needles9nd two
guidebarsisschematicallyillustratedinthèsevendiagramsofthefollowingfigure. One knitting
cycle being explained inthe seven stagesga'to 'g'. '
'

'a' can be regarded as the starting position, wità the neéàlesatthe knock-overjustafter
completing the production ofthe previouscourse. The sinkers move forward in orderto hold
thefabric in the throats.Atthe same tim e, theguidebarsshogsidewaystopositidntheguides
' ' .
. J . .
closetotheneedlestobewrappedduringthiscycle(00). .
In position 'b',the main parts ofthe needles stak to rise so thatthe needle hooks open. The
underlapshoggingmovementisnow completed(600). ,

Inposi
tion'c',theneedlesareintheclearingposiiionwiththepreviousIoopsIyingonthestem
oftheneedle.Theclosingelementsriseslightl
ybutdonothrotrudeoutofthegroovesofthe
needles.The sinkers move backwards to relax the hold on the fabric. The guide bars startto
swingtheguidesinbetweentheneedlesontothehookside(1200).
Position'd'illustratestheguidesintheextremityoftheswing.Theguidesofbothguidebars 1
are now shogged,usually one needle space,on the hooksi
deoftheneedlesthuscreatingan 1
overlap.Theclosingelementscontinuetheirupward movementinsidethe loops,restingonthe )
c .
needlestem (195).

''-*
a .
N

<> M o

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.v # @
z' 4. 4, y/ d) 4,
J' J ?/' .' 1' th
a) Knock-ove0r b)Holdingdown()of c)Swingthroughof0the d)'Overlappingofth0e
position -0 the fabric-60 guidebars-120 warpthreads-195

*-. . *

o u
*
- -

/
/ .-: / / -4 .. /e z
/ v l p'
e)Takingthewarpthreads- f)Closureoftheneedleand g)Startoftheknock-over-3450
2550 carw ingupofthe Ioop-3150

Sti
tchformationorkni
ttingactionofaTricotwarp knitting machineequipped withCompound needle
The swing-back and completion ofoverlapping is in posi
tion 'e'.Since the guides swing outof
the needle Iine,ina space adjacenttothe one entered,theyarn isIeftwrapped insidethe
needlehooks.Thesinkersmove in,totightentheholdonthefabric,whilethemainbodyofthe
needlestartstodescend(2550).
In position 'f',the needlescontinue to descend.The rate,however,in w hich the two parts of
the needle descend is notequal.The main bodyofthe needle isgaining on the closing elem ent,
so thatthe hook isbeing closed.The previousIoopsrestoutsidethe closed hookon the closing
element,while the newly wrapped yarn is trapped w ithin the closed hook.The sinkers now
m ove backwardsto position theirbellies underthe hooks.lnthe same position ofthe kni tting
cycle,theguidescan startthe new underlapshoggingmovement,which positionthem infront
0
oftheneedlestobewrappedduringthenextknittingcycle(315).
Figure 'g'showsthe laststep ofcurrent course production with the needles descending with
their respective closing elements into the knock-overposition.Tbe guide bars are now in the
midstoftheunderlapshoggingmovement(3450).
 538
Raschelw arp knitting m athine:

M ain Featuresofthe RaschelW arp Knitting M achine:

Raschelwarp knitting machineshavethefollow ing im portantfeatures:
@ Raschelmachinesused Iatch needlestogetherw ith a Iatchwire orblade.
Raschelmachineshave agaugeexpressed in needlespertwo inches(5 cm)sothat
forexample,a 36 gauge Raschelwillhave 18 needlesperinch.
Theirchain Iinksaie usually numbered in even numbers0,2,4,6,8 etc.,generally
with two linkspercourse.
Raschelsinkers only perform the function of holding down the loops whilst the
needlesrise.
Raschelsinkersare notjoined togetherby a lead acrosstheirends nearestto the
needle barso they can m ove away towardsthe back ofthe machine forthe restof
the knitting cycle.
@ The needle trick-plate verge actsasafabricsupportIedge and knock-oversurface.
* Thefabric isdrawn doWnwardsfrom the needlesalmostparallelto the needle barat
an angle of120 to 160 degreesby a seriesoftake-down rollers.
* The warp beamsare arranged above the needle barcentred overthe rockershaftso
thatwarp sheetspassdown to the guide barsoieitherside ofit.
@ The beam sare placed above the m achine so it is accessible at the frontforfabric
inspectionand atthe backformechanicalattentionto the knitting elements.
* The guide bars are threaded iommencing witb the middle bars and working
outwardsfrom eitherside ofth: rockershaft.
* Theguidebarsàrenumberedfrom thefrontofthemachine.
@ W ith the Raschelarrangement there is accomm odation for at least four 32 inch
diameterbeam sorIarge numbersofsmalldiameterpattern beam s.
* The accessibility ofthe Raschelmachine,itssim ple knitting ad ion and itsstrong and
efficienttake-dow n tension m akes itparticularly suitable forthe production of
539
coarse-gauge openwork structures em ploying pillar stitch and inlay Iapping
variations and partly-threaded guide bars which are difficultto knitand hold down
withthe tricotarrangementofsinkers.
* Additionalwarp threads may be supplied at the selvedges to ensure that these
needlesknitfabric,otherwise a progressive press-offofIoopsm ay occur.
Knitting Elem ents ofthe Raschelwarp knitting machine:
The knitting elementsofthe Raschelwarp knitting machine are described asfollow s,
2
Bue-
1

N- d*
@
Pr* t/#
SiO e N MO WIO

Trlek ptlw F.m--*.

The knittingelementsarrangementofaLatchneedle Raschelwarpknittingmachine

* The Needle:

M ost ofthe m odern Raschelknitting m achines builttoday use com pound needles.
M any m achines however,are stillequipped w ith latch needles. Com pound needles
are setasin Tricot machines,into tricks which are cutinto the needle bar, and both
main partandclosingelementare drivenseparatelyto openand closethe hook.

The Iatch needles,especially developed forthose m achines, are cast in units, one
inch long.The Iatch ofthe needle dependsforitsknittingoperation, on the yarn.

A Latch needle unit

 540
The loop w ithin the hook opensthe Iatch w hen the needle risesforclearing position
and closes itwhen the needle descends forknock-over.A broken end (thus an
emptyneedle)causestheIatchtostayclosed,sothatno loopscanbeformed.Such
a needle has to be m anually opened in order to allow Ioop form ation to resum e.
Raschelm achines are constructed in differentgauges ranging from 6 to 32 needles
perinch.
* Tritk Plate:
The Ioop form ation in a Raschelm achine,takes place on the upperedge ofthe trick
plate.This barcan be considered as a needle bed,sinçe the needles are placed in
trickscut into it.The top edge ofthe trick plate is designed to ensure perfectknock-
over operation w hich is of utm ost im portance when producing a fabric w ith Iong
underlaps.

A section oftheTrick Plate

* The Sinker:
The sinkers, Iike the latch needles, are cast in units, one inch Iong placed in the
spaces between the needles, they are used to ensure that the fabric stays dow n
while the needles rise to form theirnext knitting cycle.

= > .

RaschelSinkerunit
Itm ustbe rem em bered thatthe Raschelm achines depend greatly on fabric tension
created by thetakerup mechanism to ensure the clraring ofthe needles.The sinkers
ofRaschelm achines are,therefore,only ofsecondary im portance.
 541
* The tatth Guard:
A steel w ire stretched across the w hole w idth of the
m achine, parallelto the
needles,is used as a latch guard. W hen the Ioopsofthe fabric clearthe Iatches
Iatterhave so , the
m etimesthe tendencytoflickbackand closethehooksofth
e needles.

Latch guard
A closed hook does not receive a new yarn and causes a fault in the fabric
is placed o . The w i
re
f n the hook side ofthe needl
es so thatthe fl
icki
ng Iat chesare stopped and
orced dow n w hen the needlescontinue to ascend. '

* Guides and Guide Bars:

Raschelm achines are usually equipped with a Iarger

T num berofguide bars than the
ricot m achines.These bars, num bering in som e cases m ore than 70
greate , allow the
rpatterning capability ofthese m achines.

* *
N N *
* .
txp
w,Nw.t>Q ... x .
-% .w w.
..w .. ..p
'N *.N :

Pattern guide barw ith a guide finger Threeguide barsnestinginthesame

displacem entline
Two typesofguide bars are used in Raschelknitting.
The firsttype is similarto the
one used w ith Tricot knitting, w ith guides cast in one inch units
fully threaded and
used forthe construction ofthe ground fabric. In m ostcasesone,to three such guide
b
f ars are used.The second type ofguide bars are used to apply the pattern onto the
abric.These bars usually require only one thread foreach patterning repeat
only a few yar ,so that
nsare tbreaded acrossthe w hole w idth ofsuch a bar.
 542
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Pattern guide barsarranged in 13 displacem entIines Tube guide finger

To decrease the weight and to allow a greater num ber of pattern bars to be
assem bled, these bars are designed as narrow , light-weight strips of m etalonto
which individualguide fingersare attached.Holesare drilled and threaded into the
light-w eight guide bars at regular intervals, so that the individualguide fingers,
accom m odating theiryarns,can be fitted in any desired position.

These guide bars,although only partly threaded and containing only a few threads
each,are shogged individually according to the pattern.Each of them ,therefore,
must be mounted in a separate sliding bracket and driven by a separate pattern
chain.Being only partly threaded,they allow the m achine builderto set them atan
angle so thattheirguide eyes are setin the sam e displacem entIine.This principle is
called ''Nesting''and because the barsare setin groups(nests),each nestcan be
considered asone guide barforthe swinging m ovem ent.
Ascan be observed 52 patternguidebarsake placed in 13 displacementlinesand so
require a sw ing m ovem entsim ilarto 13 fully threaded guide bars.Before passing to
the next point,itis im portant to note that ''nesting''im poses restrictions on design.
The guidefingersofthe barsplaced in acomm on nestshould not,inany pointofthe
pattern,cross each other's path,oreven com e close enough to touch one another.
Allocating a crossing Iapping m ovem ent to tw o guide bars w ithin the sam e nest,
results in a dam age to guides and needles. Raschel m achines are som etim es
equipped with tube guide fingers which are especially designed to be used with
bulky and fancy yarns.
Twodifferenttypesofguidebarassembliesareillustrated inthefollowingfigures(a)
and (b).Figbre(a)showsthe knitting zone ofastandard Raschelmachine with six
fully threaded guide bars.Figure (b)shows a similar machine with three fully
threaded guide bars and six pattern bars in three displacem ent Iines.
543 '

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a) Kni
ttingzoneofaRaschelmachine b) Knitting zone of a Raschelmachine equipped
equipped with si
x gui
de bars wi
ththreeguidebarsand sixpatterngui
debars
To increase knitting speeds, som e m achines are so designed as to allow only the
front bars to com plete the overlap m ovem ent before the needles startto descend.
ln this case,alIotherguide bars are capable ofinlay only.
Basit knitting ad ion ofa single needle bar tatch needle Rasthelw arp knitting
m achine:
The movement of the knitting elements of a Raschelmachine is illustrated in the following
figures. It is im portant to note at this stage that Raschelm achines are buil
t with different
knitting m ovements, according to the spçcific requirements of the product. The following
explanation isonly one exampleofsuch a knitting action.

a) Theneedlesareatknock-overpositionjustafterthecompletionofthepreviousknitting
cycle.The sinkersmove forward to securethe fabricwhilstthe needle startsto rise from
knock-over.The guide barsnow producethe underlap movem ent.
b) The sinkersmovefurtherinand,inconjunction withthetake-uptension, secure the
fabric position.The needles rise through the previous loops to clearing position. The
flicking Iatches ofthe needles are stopped by tbe Iatch guard mounted on top ofthe
sinkers.The guide barscom pletetheirunderlap shogging movement.
c) The needlesdwellatclearingposition,with the previousIoopsrestingonthestems
underthe latches.The guide bars swing between the needlesyo the hook-side. The
sinkersstartto retreat.
d) Someoftheguidebarsareshoggedsidewayspedorm theoverlap, and then aIIguide
bars swing outbetween the needles. The needlesstartto descend while the sinkers are
attheirrearm ostposition.
e) Theguide barshave completedtheirswinging movement.Underlap movementnow
starts.The needles descend with the newly wrapped threads in their hooks. The
previousIoopsclosethe needle Iatches.
f) Underlap shogging movementcontinues.The needlesaresinking into the trickplate
with the previousloopssliding on the latch outside the closed hooks. Com pletion ofthe
knitting cycle.
 544

<N-w*==r Wl x
&

* !
(*) Holding low n (bl clearing (e) overj.
(uelm rllp)

1
(* R- '- - a. (@1 '- 01* 0. 1#1 K- kiro <-

TheKnihingadion ofa Eompound NeedleRasthelW arp KnittingM achine:

The knitting adion ofRaschelmachine equipped with compound needlesis differentfrom that
of a Tricot machine. In the following series of figures, the loop formation sequence of a
multibarRaschelmachine isdescribed and itisimportantto note the following points:

The sinkerbarisstationary,
The guide barsdo notsw ing,and
@ The swinging m ovem entis m ade by the needle bar,closing element barand trick
plate.
The sequence can be described asfollows:
a) Theneedlesareatknock-overposition,afterthecompletion ofthepreviouscourse.
Both parts ofthe needles,togetherwith the trick plate,swing towards the back ofthe
machine and position themselves under the sinkers.Underlap shogging m ovem ent is
now carried out.
b) The needlesrisethroughtheIoopsofthepreviouscourse.Theclosing elementsstay
downsothatthe hooksareopened.Thefabricstaysdownduetotake-uptensionandis
secured by the sinkers.
c) The needlesare in the clearing position with the previous Ioops resting on the stem.
Underlap shogging movem entisnow completed.
 545
d) Theneedlebar,closingelementbarandtrickplateswingtothefrontofthemachine, so
thatthe guides m ove in between the needles to the hook side. The ground guide bars
are now shogged sidewaysto produce the overlap.
e) Theneedlebar,closingelementsbarandtrickplateswingback, sothattheguidesmove
between the needles to the back. The needles can startto descend w hen the ground
bars are at the back.The closing elem ents stay up, so that the hooks are closed
,

'
trapping within them the newlyw rapped yarns.

Y:
.
. ww

'
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r
* .

Posi
tion - a Position- b Position- c Posi
tion- d
< A. v.

** ..
* @' .
Posi
tion - e Posi
tion- f Position -
g

f) Bothneedlesandclosingelementsdescendsimultaneouslyand maintainaclosedhook Theold .

loùpsslide outsioe the closing elements. Needle bar,closing elements and trickplate continue
theirswingingtowardsthesinker.Underlapshoggingm ovementcan now start.
g) Theneedl
esdraw thenewl
ywrapped IoopsthroughthepreviousIoops. The swing movementis
nearlyfini
shed andthe guide barscontinueto shogthe underlapIateralm ovement.

1.Overlap 2.Lapping 3. Landing 4. Knock-over

Knitting action ofcom pound needle warp knitting m achine

 546
> 0 FULW THREADED GUIDEBAR STRUC URESOR FABRICS

In ordertoreproduce awarp knitted fabric, itis necessary ' to obtain the information regarding
its production.M any differentdata item sare involved such as:

a) Information describing the kni

tting machine;numberofguide bars, machine gauge,
width ofthe needle bed and specialattachmentsused.
b) lnformationconcerningthetypeandcountoftheyarnthreadedineachguidebar .
c) Lappingmovementofeachbar.
d) Therun-inofeachbar.
e) Threadinginformationiftheguidebarsarenotfullyanduniformlythreadèd .
f) Fabricqualityandweight.
g) Thefinishingprocess.
The above-mentioned information varies widely fordifferent manufacturers and end- uses, so
that there is no pradicalIim it to the num ber of different fabrics that can be produced on
modernwarp knitting machines.
Tbe single-barstrlletures are not suitable formost comm ercialapplications. They are usually
very unstable dimensionally and some ofthem willeven spliteasily ifonl y slightly damaged
Furthermore, most single-bar strudures exhibit an unbalanced Ioop strudure and Ioop.
inclination isverypronounced.
The bulk ofthe fabrics, manufactured today on tricot machines, are construded by two fully
threaded guide bars,fed from two separate warps and producing a different basic Iapping
movem ent.The relative m ovementofthetwo guide barsin com bination with the m agnitude of
theshogging,determ inesthe appearance aswellasthe propertiesofthe fabrics.

TricotFabritorFuIITricotStrud ure:
The basic lapping movem ent oftwo fully threaded guide barsisthe so- called tricotordouble
tricot.ln figure theschematiclapping m ovem entisillustrated with both guide barsknitting the
sqme l-and-l Iapping m ovem ent in opposite diredions. sucha Iapping movementproducesa
Iight-weightfabricsince the underlapsare very short.
Although the fabric is com merciall
y very attradive, i
t is only seldom used due to a major
disadvantage;eachwaleofthisfabricisconnededonlytotheadjacentwales, sothatthefabric
s/litsveryeasilyi
fayarnisbrokenorastitchdropjed.
547
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Two-bartrscotztechnlcatface (bottom );technicatback (top).
Prov-ldl
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ng thatthe yarn tens'lon 'ln both guide bars is properly balanced,the fabric - as in all
fabnc
'softhl 'snature - exhibits ered Ioopsand the technicalface resem blesthe face ofa weft
knitted fabric.

@ @ @ @' * *

* @ * @ @

@ @ * @ @.

* @ * @ * @ @ *
2 1 0 2 1 0
FRONT * * * 9ACK* *
1m,1-2 1-2, 1-0

Thechain notationsforthe produd ionofthisfabric,asderivedfrom figureare:

Frontbar:1-0/ 1-2
Back bar:1-2/1-0
As alImodern tricotm achines are equipped with a pattern m echanism which usesthree chain
linksforeach knitted course,the chain notationsare:
Frontbar:1-0-0/1-2-2
Backbar;1-2-2/1-0-0
LotknitFabric:
The m ostwidely produced warp knitted fabric isprobably locknit.The lapping movementofi ts
two guide barsisillustrated in the following figure.W hile the back guide barshogs a l-and-l
lapping m ovem ent,asintricot,the frontguide barshogstwo needle spaces.
Thefree-floating underlaps,superimposed on thetechnicalback,contribute to a very pleasant.
è
touch and togetherw ith a considerable elasticity m ake the fabric m ostsuitable forIadiesk
' j
j
i
 Iingerie. In addition,being the Iighyest non-splitting fabric 548
, further hel
ps to m ake I
ockni
t the
mostpopularofallwarp knits.
The Iocknit construction tendsto contrad widthwis
finalwidth may o e on leaving the knitting zone, so that its
nlybe2/3oftheneedlebarwidth. Theamountofshrinkage depend s mainly
on knittingconditions, yarn type,yarntension,etc.

@ * * * * *

* @ @ * * *

V
1
* @. * @ @ * *

* @ * @ @ @ * * *
3 2 1 0 21 0
* FRONP * * *BAOK *
2 -3, 1 -0 1 -0,1 -2

There is also a tendency in tricotfabrics to curltowardsthq technicalbackatthe selvedges

.
This,however,doesnotrepresenta majorproblem, since mostofthese fabricsare made of
thermoplasticyarnsand are heat-setduringfinishing.

Asa trend ofthe lastfew years, locknitfabricsw hich were tradi

tionally prpduced on 28
machines, are becom ing more and m ore popularwhen knitted on 32 t gauge
The yarn consum ption ofthe two guide bars depend o 40 needles per inch.
type, and knitting condi s on fabric quality, machine gauge
tions. The chain notations for the production of Iocknit f , yarn
derived from fig ure are:
abrics, as

Frontbar:2- 3- 2I1-0-1
Backbar:1-0-0/1- 2-2

Reverse LotknitFabrit:
Thisfabric belongsto the othergroup oftwo fully threaded guide barfabrics
stable and stabl , namel y the semi-
b e structures.In thisgroup ofstructures, the Iongerunderlaps prodqced by the
ackguide barare locked underthe shortunderlaps ofthef
rontguide barand are restrided in
movem ent.ltis made with a longerunderlap on the back barand a sh
guide bar. Reverse Iocknit isconsidered only a sem i orterone on the front
-
stable fabric and stillshrinks considerably
on Ieaving the knittingzone.

he Iappingmovementsofb0th guide barsforthepfodudi

on ofreverse Iocknit are illustrated
n thqfigureand the chain notationsasderived from itare:

Frontbar:1-2-2/1-0-0
Backbar:1-0-1/2-3-2
 j
i
!
549
# # @ * 4 . *

@ @ . . @ @

ê @ . 4 :

# : @ # * * 4 : @ *
2 1 0 4 2 2 1 0
@ :FR*
œ T. @BjGK@ .
1-2,14 1-'
0', '2-:

SatinFabric(Three-NeedleStrudure):
A fabric with the same lapping movement on the back guide bar and an increased Iapping
m ovem ent on tbe front bar is called a satin fabric.The lapping m ovement ofthis fabric is
drafted schematically infigure and ascan be observed,the frontbarshogsone needlespace
longerthan in Iocknit.W hile the technicalface issimilarin appearance to Iocknit,the technical
back issmootherand shinierdueto theunderlapsofthefrontguide barwhich are longerand
m ore parallelto each other.
Like alIstructureswhicharemadewith Iongunderlapsonthqfrontguidebar,thisfabricshrinks
considerably imm ediately afterIeaving the needles.Atthe sam e time the fabric is elastic and
very comfortabletowear.

* * # * * # W *

* # * : # @ : # #

# # # # * : * # *

% * * * * * * * @
4
4 7 1 Q t I :
. . . F NT. . . jAcK .
1-0.3-4 1-2. 1-0

Chain notationsforthe produdion ofthree-needlesatin fabricare:

Frontbar:1-0-1/3-4- 3
Backbar:1-2-2/1-0-0
Sharkskin Fabric:
The sharkskin fabric isconstruded asa reverse version ofsatin.The loop structure showsthe
Iongerunderlapsofthe backguide barlocked underthe shortunderlapsofthefrontguide bar-!
These trapped underlaps restrictthe shrinking potentialoftbe fabric which istherefore more?
rigidandmorestablethanthosepreviouslydescribed. / '
i .

l
 550
* : : . : . * .

: # : @ * *

* . : . 4 4 #

42 #1:û @ :4 .2 .24 .û4

JBO/T BAC/
1-2.1-û 1.0, 2-4

The surface of the technical back is rough which is probably the reason for the name
'Sharkjkin''.The lapping movem entsare illustrated in figure and the chain notationsare:

Frontbar:1- 2-2/1-0-0
Backbar:1-0-1/3-4-3
Four-Needle Strudure:
Fabric with longerunderlapson the frontguide barare also manufadured. Such isthe four-
needle satin with a 4-and-1 Iapping movementas illustrated in figure. Asfortbree-needle satin,
thisfabric exhibits a very sm ooth and shiny technicalback due to the Iong parallelunderlaps.
Like allfabrics with free and Iong front barunderlaps , itshrinks on Ieaving the knitting zone
and çurlsatthe selvedgestowardsthetechnicalback.

*
'@ l* * *'
:* :@3 1 1 :
.

p # *6 @ @. @
Satin Structure Sharkskin'
F.
aùric
ltmustbe rememberedthatthe longerthe underlap floàting onrthe sorface ofthe technical
..

back theheavierthefabricandgreatertberiskofsnagging.jhechainhotationsofthisfabric:
Frontbar:4-5-3/1-0-2
Backbar:1-0-0/1-2-2
A 4-and-1 movement ofthe back guide bar produces even higherstability and decrease
shrinkageevenfurther.Thisfabricijcalled:fol-needlesharkskin andtheIappingmovementis
illustratedinfi
gure.Thechainnotationsoftii
sfabricare:
-

Frontbar:1-2-2/1-0-0
Backbar:1-0-2/4-5-3
551 W ARP KNIU ING M ACHINERY

Introdud ion to W arp Knitting M achinery:

In the past,itwas usualto distinguish between Tricotand Raschel
,by the needle used in each
m achine type.Tricotm achines were equipped with bearded needles,while Rascbelm achines
only used latch needles.
W ith the production of m odern warp knitting machines, however,the com pound needle
replaced the bearded needle in Tricot and penetrated into the Rascheîsector as well.The
classification of m achines by the needle type is,therefore,no Ionger possible.An accurate
definition can be m ade by regarding the type ofsinkers with which the machine is equipped
and the rolethey play in Ioopformation.
The sinkers used forTricotknitting machinesconlrolthe fabricthroughoutthe kni tting cycle.
The fabricisheld in the throatsofthe sinkerswhile the needlesrise to clearand the new loops
are knocked overin-between them .
In Raschelknitting however,the fabric iscontrolled by a high take-up tension and the sinkers
are only used to ensure thatthe fabricstaysdow nw hen the needlesrise.
ltisforthis reason,thatthe fabricproduced on a Rasche!machine ispulled tightly downwards
from the knitting zone, at an angle of about 1600 to the backs of the needles.0n Tricot
m achines,high take-uptension isnotnecessary,andthe fabricispulled gentlyfrom theknitting
zone ata rightangle to the backofthe needles.

Tritotwarp knitting m achine:

 * * * @ * @' * * *

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Pile FabricsorLoop raised Fabric:

Two-barfabricsare frequently produced offinished as pile fabricsin ordçrto improve their

appearance or their thermalproperties. A pile can be produced either by raising the Iong
underlapsofthe frontguide barorby producing pile loopsaccording to a Iapping m ovem entor
knitting conditions.

Forbrushed fabrics,the long underlapsproduced by the frontguide bar, are raised during the
finishing process by rollers covered with card-clothing. The metalcaid rollers raisç the pile
gradually and aftera few such stages, the pile isformed.A differentamountoffibrescan be
broken to form varying effed s.
'

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Brushed pile fabric Loop pile fabric
ltisalso possible to shearthe pileso thata veloureffed is produced. The Iapping m ovem entof
atypicalbrushedfabriccdnstrudion isillustrated intheabovefigure. In thisfabric,the Iapping
movementsofboth barsarecarried outin the same diredio:. In thisway the fibres raised out
ofthe long underlaps ofthe frontguide barcan be easily'pulled with no resistance from the
b
fackguide barunderlaps.Furthermore, thethreadsoftheback'guidrbarhelptoreducethe
abric width which occursanyway during this mechanicaltreatm ent. The density and heightof
pile can be increased by increasing the front guide bar underlaps to four, five or six needle
Spaces.
Greatquantities ofbrushed fabrics are m ade with triacetate yarns in the frontguide barand
polyam ide yarnsin the backguide bar.
AnothertypeofpilefabricisconstrudedwithIoop pile. One way to producethi stype offabric
is to ovedeed the yarn of the back warp, while knittiig a reverse locknitconstrudion. The
excess yarn protrudes between the underlaps ofthe front guide barand forms a pile on the
technical back. This method of pile Ioop production cannot be controlled so that the
distribution ofpile Ioopsm aynotbeeven.
 '
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(
553 '
..
)
.
SPECIAL KN IT FABRIC PRO DUW IO N
l)
-
)
,
Knio ed Pile Fabrits 7
l.
:

The production of pile knits has steadily grown in variety,im portance,and volume.They ar
construded as fleece, high pile, terry, and velour knits. Depending upon the type o '
construdion,theyare used firfurfabrics,rugs,and fashion apparelfabrics.
F
f
Fleete knitfabric:
, ).
Technically,fleece fabricsare nottruly ofa pile construction.Fleece fabricsare knitted so that,t
.

whenfinished,theywillhaveashortto medium napthathasasoft,pleasanthand,willprovide

warmth and body,aswellasmoisture wicking and absorption,ifdesired. '
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Face side Back side

Thekindsoffibresused aredependentupontheuseobjective.Theyareusedforsuchpurposes
asIiners,active sportswear,outerwear,and plush toys.
Fleece knits can be made on circular knit machines in any one of three di fferent types of
construdion.The m achinesm ay be complex,utilizing eitherspring orIatch needlesemploying F
sinker-top,dial
,cylinder,ordial
/cylindermechanisms.W iththisequipment,variouseffectscan
be produced.
 554
Three thread fleece:
0ne type of fleece knit construction is the three-yarn system, where three yarns are fed
sequentiallyfrom separate yarn positionsaround the cylinderofthe machine.The firstyarn is
the backing orfleece yarn.Thesecond and third yarnsarethe tie-in and ground yarnswhich are
fed successively in a plaiting relationship and knitted so that the fleece yarn is caught at
predetermined intervals between them .This results in the fleece yarn being floated on the
technicalback oftbe fabric and held in place by the wales of plaited tie-in and ground yarns.
The technique hidesthe fleece yarn from the technicalface so thatitwillbe exposed only on
the back.The fleece yarn,w hich may be coarse spun and Iow twist,can thussubsequently be
readilynapped and given othersudacefinishes.

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Schematicofthree-yarnfleececonstruction
Tw o thread fleece:
Anothertype of fleece knit is the two-yarn system .One yarn,which provides the ground or
bodyisknitted ineitherasingleordoublejerseyconstrudion.Thesecond yarn,which may be
coarserand heavierto accom m odate subsequent napping,isthe floating or inlay yarn thatis
tucked atpredeterm ined intervalson selected needles.This is the m ost produd ive m ethod of
makingfleece knits,butthereisadisadvantageof''grin-through''tothetechnicalface unlessit
iscamouflaged byknittingdesign effeds,such asadouble lay-in.
f # : # ' : 7 ' :
FACE YARN BINDER YARN

Ftm s .
X , ,
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FLEECY YARN
Schematicoftwo-yarn double lay-in fleece construd ion Structure ofpileknitshowingsliveryarn before raising
 555
F< <
1 GN

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1,

a e

1
n ree-thrwad fleecy knitting cyçle.

Three thread fleecy knitting cycle

Single thread fleece:

The third type offleece construction isthe one-yarn system . A single orplied yarn isknitted
according to a predeterm ined pattern ofknitand tuck com binationsthatwould provide floats
which are to be subsequently napped.Since the yarn mustbe strong enough and fine enough
forknitting purposes,the use of coarse, Iow twistyarns are precluded.The use ofonly fine
yarns as wellas the resulting additionalnapping and otherfinishing costs makes thistype of
fleece more expensive..
High Pile KnitrabricsorSliverKnitFabrits:
Both weftand warp knitting machines are used to produce imi tation furfabrics and rugs
utilizing acrylic,modacrylic, polypropylene,or nylon as determ ined to be appropriate forthe
end produd.The fabrics are similar in appearance to theiroriginalcounterparts but are more
flexible and have betterdrape.These fabrics are Iightweightand easy to care for. They usually
can be Iaundered and cold tum ble-dried, unless the garment construction requires dry-
cleaning.W hen the pile iscrushed ordistorted due to w ashing, packing,orstoring,itshould be
com bed orbrushed with a softormedium bristle brush.
'

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Feeding-in offibresinto selected needles High-pile circularknitting m achine

Thetechniquesforkni tting high pilefabricsare quite complex.The slowerand morecommon
m ethod usesa plain knitwith heavyyarn forthe background and a carded sliverforthe pile.As
the needles pullthe ground yarn to form Ioops,they catch and draw thesliverthrough,causing
thefibrestogetIocked into place asthestitch istightened.Produdionrunsfrom 5to 11yards
(4.5to 10m)perhour.
 557
51* t.*

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Sliverhigh pile m achine

The producti
on ofsliverorhigh-pile furry fabricson circularknitting machines is based on the
plain technique, using Iatch needles and holding-down/knocking-over sinkers Special .
equipment,a so-called carding device,is employed to feed-in fibres into the Iatch needles at
each knitting feeder.Normally each carding unit consists oftwo feed rollers forthe sliver, a
carding rollefand a doffer.The feed rollers draw in the sliverand present it to the carding
roller,w hich has a m uch higher surface speed in relation to the feed rollers. Asa resul
tihe
fibresarestretched (IaidmoreorIessIinear)andparallelised.Thedoffertakesoverthefibres
from the carding rollerand com bs them into the needles with specially shaped wires. Atthis
fibre combing pointthe needle isin cleared position.
For the production of coloured or strudure-patterned high-pile fabrics, or combinations
containing colourand structure,the needles at each com bing point are selected according to
the pattern in order to obtain fibres of the corresponding colour. lt can be seen that the
combed-in fibres are procqssed togetherwi th the ground yarn during Ioop formation. The
fibresprotrude from the fabricbase on the technicalIeftside.
A fastqrmethod usescircular-knitting units operating on a cut loop and ground-yarn principle.
Another technique is the cut-pile and ground-yarn m ethod on a Rachelmachine. High-pile
fabricscan also be m ade on double-knit equipmentto knit plain and Jacquard fleece with the
aid ofspecialdevicesincluding an inlayyarn carrier.

Plush Fabrics orKni/ed Terl Fabrics:

Kni
tted terryfabricsaremadeofavariation ofthejerseyknitconstrudionwheretwoyarnsare
fed simultaieously into the same needles.Thefabricis knitted by a plaiting techniquewhich
causesone yarn alwaysto appearon the face and the otheralwgyson the backofthe c10th. As
the fabric is knitted,the face yarn is pulled outby smalldevices to form the Ioop pile, Ieaving
the otheryarn to serve asthe ground. Knitted terfy isproduced in weightsranging insuitability
forrobesand beachwearto fashion apparel.
Circularknitted plush orterryisafabricwith yarn loopsprotrudingfrom thqfabricbaseononeoron
both fabric sides.M ostofthe plush fabricsproduced have one- sided Ioops.Plush can be
 ss8
produced on plain orrib circularknitting machines.The mostcommon method ofprodudion
usestheplaincircularknittingtechniquewithcombined holding-down/knocking-oversinkers
for making one sided plush fabrics.The Ioops are actually enlarged sinker loops and they
protrudefrom thefabricbase on the technicalIeftside.

Face side Back side

The mostim portantdem ands are a firm fixing ofthe plush Ioops in the fabric base and a very
uniform Ioop length.The more uniform the Ioop length is,the Iess materialis Iost when the
Ioopsare cutto produce cut-pile fabrics.Therefore the base fabric should not be too l oosely
stitched.On the technicalrightside a precise plating ofthe plush yarn through the ground yarn
isextremely im portantduring the cutting processforcut-pile fabrics.In usage thispre-requisite
isIargely responsible forthefirm nessofthe pile.
Single-sided plated plush orterry isa popularleisure and sportswearstructure found in both
fabricand sockform havingtheform fitting elasticity ofsinglejersey.The elongated jlush
sinkerIoopsshow as a pile between the waleson the technicalback asa resultofhaving been
form ed over a different surface to that ofthe norm alIength ground sinker Ioops with w hich
theyare plated.
Terry knits tend to be more flexible, softer,and m ore absorbent than woven terry c10th.
However,they are notassturdy ordurable.Theydo nothold theirshape aswelland they tend
to snag,causing the loop yarn to pulland trail.Should such a pulloccur,it should not be cut
because itwould cause a run.Rather,itshould be drawn throughto the backofthe material.
VelourKnitFabricorHenkelplush Fabrit:
Knitted velourfabricsare constructed in the sam e mannerasknitted terry.Afterthe materialis
knitted,the loop pile is sheared at a uniform heightand then brushed.So velouris achieved
during finishing by cropping orshearing the Ioops in both directions,to leave the individual
fibresexposed as asoftvelvety surface whilstthe ground Ioops remain intad .ltrequiresa fine
gauge strudure and involves a considerable Ioss of cropped yarn.The bearded needle sinker
w heelmachine has long been renowned forthis type offabric construdion.This produces a
soft suedelike surface thatis somewhat Iike thatofvelvet.However,knitted velour is softer
and has betterdrapability.lt is used for such fashion apparelas men's shirts and wom en's
dresses.
559
The Crochet W arp Knitting M achine

CrochetW arp Knitting M acbine

Featurespfa TypicalCrochetM achine:
0n crochet machines,the warp ch#ins are separate from the weft inlay and it is the Iatter
threads which join the chaining wales to each other The crochet galloon machine,
.
developed by Sand as
er and Graff and popularized by kholer, is essentially a highly versatile
Raschelwith the following uniquefeatures:

a) A single horizontalneedle barwhose simple reciprocating actioncan be usedto

operate indi
viduall
y tricked Iatch,carbine orembroideryneedles.

b) Therearenosinkers,insteadafixedhold-backbarisfi
ttedinfrontoftheknockover -

verge to preventthe fabricmoving outwith the needles.

c) The closed Iap pillarstitches and inlay threads are controlled and supplied as
separate warp and weftrespedively.Each needle is Iapped from below by itsow n
warp guide which is clipped to a bar whose autom atic one- needle overlap and
return underlap shog is fixed and is controlled from an eccentric cam whilst its
upwardsand downwardsswing isderived from a rockershaft.
 560
Weftthren

lnlay bars
Trick plate W ef'tu*

x.-.
,je o r
W arp w ide

:
lgabrit Plaixinqbar
:
:hold-bxk .
bar
1
- Fabrictake-- rolleo

Knitting Elem entsin a Crochetw arp knitting m achine

d) ThewarpyarnisoftenplacedIow atthefrontofthemachine.Theweftyarn,which
is often placed above and towards the back of the machine,supplies the carrier
tubes clipped to the spring-loaded inlay bars fitted above the needle bar and
shogged atthe rate ofone Iinkpercourse from pattern chainsaround a drum atone
end ofthe m achine.There are usually up to two warp guide bars and tfp to sixteen
weftinlay bars,which maybe mechanicall y oreled ronically controlled.
e) Specialattachmentsare availableforproducingfancyeffedssuch ascutand uncut
fringeedges,pile,braiding(equivalenttofall-plate)andsnailshelldesigns.
f) Veryapproximately,theknittingwidthsofcrochetmachinesmayvarybetween 16
and122inches(400 mm and 3100 mm),ingaugesoftenexpressedinneedlesper
centimeterbetween2and10(E5toE24)andmachinesrunatspeedsbetween200
and 350 coursesperm inute.
Needlesused in CrochetM athine:
* Thepatentortarbinebeardedneedle:It(Aneedlesimilarinshapetoabeardedneedle
butwith the beard shielded by a shoulderon the stem .The needle m ay only be Iapped
in one direction forthe yarn to pass underthe beard.A presseris not necessary asthe
needle isself-acting,the shoulderpassing the loop on to the beard.lt is mainly used in
crochet-typemachines)isused forfine struduresand hasasidewayscrimped beard
placed in a perm anently-pressed position.Although warp threads can only be fed into
the beardfrom the Ieft the old overlapsare automatically cleared and Ianded bythe
movementoftheneedle.ltisstillthe mostfrequentlyusedneedle,achievingspqedsup
to2500 rpm.Reduced machine speedand highniedlewearmakeitsuse uneconomical
forknitting single end cotton yarns.
561

Side Vi- Front View

Carbine needle

Em broidee or Lace needles:They are carbine needles with pointed heads that can
penetrate pre-woven structures to produce em broidery effects.The needles can be
arranged forcoarsergaugesorforfancy set-outs,when the floating inlay threads may
be cutto produce separated fringed edgings. '
* The tom pound needle:It patented by M iillerproduces less stress on the yarn during
Ioop formation so a widerrange ofyarnscan be used,and compound needlesIastup to
six tim esIongerthan bearded needles.
* Latch needles: It operate at uneconom ic speeds and have a short Iife due to Iatch
breakage.

The knitting ad ion ofThe CrothetM achine:

The knitting action or sti
tch formation to produce one éourse of Ioops on a crochet m achine
equipped with Iatch.needlesconsistsofthefollowing stages:
1. The weftinlay
2. Clearingthe warp overlap
3 The warp overlap wrap
4. W arp knock.overand underlap
The essence ofthese stagesconsistsin the following operations:
1. The weA inlay:
W hilstthe needle iswithdrawn into itstrick,during knock-6verofthe previousofwarp
overlaps,the weftinlay tube is lowered so that,asittraversesin an underlap shog,the
weftis Iaid below the Ievelofthe needle and on top ofthe warp thread which extends
from itshead to the warp guide.
2. Clearingthe warp overlap:
The wefttube risesslightly on com pletion ofitstraverse movementto allow the needle
to m ove outofi tstrickto clearitsoId warp overlap.
3. Thew arp overlap w rap:
The warp guide rises between the needles and autom atically overlaps from the Ieft.
Iowering itselfagainon the rightside ofitsneedle.
 562

- e 1.Theweftinl
ay

' 2.Clearing thewarp overlap

4
3.Thewarpoverlapwrap
<

4.W arpknock-overandunderlap

Knitting action ofa Crochetw arp knitting m achine

4. W arp knotk-overand underlap:
Theneedlenow retiresintoitstrickto knock-overtheold overlap, whilstthewarpguide
iscamm ed underitsneedle to the startposition foritsnextoverlapthuscompleting the
closed Iap pillar

Produd softhe CrothetM achine:

Crochet machines,w i th theirsim ple construction,ease ofpattern and width changing, and use
ofindividualyarn packagesorbeam sprovide the opportunityforshortrunson coarse-gauge or
fine-gauge fancy and open-work strud uresand edgingsortrimm ings, as wellasthe specialist
production ofwide fancy fabricsornarrow elastic Iaces.Crochetmachine finds wide spread
application in the production of various types of edgings or trim m ings, so it is sometim es
described as a 'Trimm ing m achine''.A range ofcrochet fabrics is illustrated in the following
figure.

DifferenttypesofCrochetFabrics
563
The Straight Bar Fram e

The m ain featuresofa Straightbarfram e:

The Straight barfram e is a specialtype of weftkni
tting machine.It has the following unique
features:
* Straightbarframesisa specifictype ofmachine having a verticalbarofbearded needles
w hose m ovem ent is controlled by circular engineering cam s attached to a revolving
cam -shaftin the base ofthe machine.
* The Iength ofthe machine isdivided into a numberofknitting heads (sectionsor
divisions)and each head iscapableofknittingaseparatebutidentically-dimensione'
d
fashion-shaped garmentpanel.
* The needles presstheir beards against a fixed pressing edge;Ioop formation priorto
intermeshing is achieved by individually horizontally-m oving Ioop-forming sinkers,and
knock-overoccursw henthe needlesdescend below the knock-overbits.
@ Ateitheredge ofeach knitting head,agroup ofrackably-controlled pointstransferloops
to fashion shape the garment panelat the selvedges by widening or narrowing the
knitting width.On com pletion ofthegarm entpanel ,itispressed-offthe needles.

Knitting m otionsofthe R raightbarfram e:

The three directionsofm otion required forthe knitting action are provided from two separate
sources.The rotary motion ofthe cam-shaftproducesthe verticaland horizontalm ovementof
the fashioning points and the needle bar.The sideways reciprocating movementforthe yarn
carriersand forintroducing the sinkersin seriatim sequence via the slurcock isobtained from a
coulierordraw cam attached to a shaftsetatrightanglesto the m ain cam-shaftatthe backof
the machine,which oscillatesa draw Iever.A vari pble draw ensuresthatthe stroke ofthe draw
is related to the varying knitting width thus more courses perm inute are knitted on narrower
w idths.Operatingspeedsofa hundred courses perm inute can be achieved.

The knitting head ofthe Straightbarfram e:

The following figure shows the cross-section of the knitting head containing the different
elements:
A. Bearded needle,having a cranked end forIocation in thetricked and drilled needle bar.
B. Sinker,onlyone betweeneveryotherneedlespace,withareinforced backanàatthe
front,a catch to sink the yarn around the needles,and a 'neb'to separate the oId and
.

new loopsuntilknock-over.
 564
C. Divider,occupying each rem aining space, usually having the sam e shaped frontas the
sinkerbutwith an extended tailatthe back.
D. Knocking-over Bit,one directly beneath each sinker and divider, having a 'throat'for
holdingtheIoopsand a'nose'forknocking-over.
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Knitting head ofaStraightbarfram e
E. Needle Bar,havinga compound horizontaland verticalmovement.
F. Striking Jack,fulcrum med atits Iowerend, each w ith its nose resting on a sinkerback
,
and a 'spring'exerting pressure on its'tail',
G. Catch Bar,extending the fullwidth ofthe knitting head, having forward and backward
,
aswellasverticalmovement.
H. Yarn carrier,which traversesin alternate directionsacrossthe head from one course to
the next,up to six carriersm ay be available. The carrieris connected to a reciprocating
carrierrailby friction and when the carrierisarrested by itscarrierstop, the carrierrail
completesitsfulltraverse,driven by the couliercam by punchingthrough the carrier
friction.
l& J. Falling Bar,isastop which cushionsthe advance ofthe sinkersand dividers.

Knihing ad ion ofa Plain R raightbarFram e:

The follow ing fi
guresshow the movement ofthe knitting elementsto produce one course of
loops:

a) ThreadIaying:
Thecarriermovesacrossthe knitting head Iaying the yarn on the nosesofthesinkers
and dividersand the beard side ofthe needles.
565
b) Sinking:
Theslurcock(oneforeachknittinghead)travellingbehindthecarrier,contactsthejacks
and isshapedso thateach jackin turn pushesitssinkerforwardsto kinka Ioop around
everytwo adjacentneedles.
c) Dividing:
The catchbarm ovesthe dividersforw ardscollectively,whilstthe needle bartipsslightly
outwardsto allow the double loopsto be divided into equalsized needle Ioopsaround
every needle.
d) Pressingande)Landing:
The needle bar descends placing the new loops inside the hooks of the beards.The
catch bar is now Iowered so that the sinkers as w ellas the dividers are collectively
controlled by itforthe restofthe knitting cycle.They now startto w ithdraw.The needle
bar m oves towards the sinker verge causing the beards to be pressed. A further
dow nward m ovem entofthe needle bar'Iands'the previouscourse of Ioops,resting on
the knocking-overbits,on to the closed beards.

h
j I .:
.

k'
. .

. /.

a)Layingthethread b)Sinkingtheloops c)DividingtheIoop

/ ' N w
-
- / Nxxwww
/ ''x . .'..
s , r
L)'h
ut

' '
..
. k N l
d)Pressing e)LandingtheIoops f)Knocking-overtheIoops

K nitting action orM ovementofthe knitting elem entsto produceone course ofloops

The drop-off:As the needle bar m oves away from the pressing-edge,the sinkers and
dividersw ithdraw so that the new ly-form ed course of Ioops drops offtheirnosesonto
the knocking-overbits.
f) Completionofknotk-over:
The needle bardescendsto its Iow estposi tion.Asthe headsdescend below the belly of
the knocking-overbits,the oId course ofloopsiscollectively knocked-over.
 566
Holding e ow n:Asthe sinkersand dividers move collectively forward to hold down the
fabric,the needle barrisesto the thread-laying position.The catch baris slightly raised
to releasethe sinkersforindividualmovementatthe startofthe nextcourse.
On coarsergauge m achines itis possible to accom modate sinkersw ith reinforced butts
between every needle space thuselim inating di viders and theirad ion.Some m achines
have selvedge dividerswith a Iowerforward ledge so that when the yarn carrierstops
overone dividerthe nextdividerinw ardsfrom itwillbe the lastto take thattraverse of
yarn whichwillslide into itsspecially-shaped lowerthroatand fbrm atightselvedge.

TheFashioning action ofthe Straightbar fram e:

The fashioning action or Ioop transfer for either narrowing or widening is pedorm ed in
followingsteps:

11- 1
(., 4., 1

1
.-, .-,
î(-*
-7
1
The Fashioning action oftheStraightbarfram e

a) Thefashioningpointsortransferneedlesdescendandtheneedlebartipsbackwardsto
clearthem .
567
b) The needle barmovestowardsthepointscausingthebeardsofneedlesengagedwith
pointsto be pressed and boxed orIocated inthe groovesofthe points.

c) The sinkersand dividers,which arecollectivelycontrolled bythecatchbar,retire,and

the needlesand points descend togetherbelow the knocking-overbits so thatthe Ioops
are cast-offonto the points.

d) The needlesand pointsnow riseand moveclearofeach otherso thatthepointscan

mak: the sideways'fashion rack'atthe selvedge ei
therbyone needle forwideningor
by one,two orfourneedlesfornarrow ing.
e) Theneedlesandpointsnow descendandtheneedlesboxwiththepointsagainsothey
receive the transferred Ioops.Asthe needlesand points descend below the sinkers,the
sinkersand di viders move forwardsto hold dow n the Ioops.
f) Oncetheneedleshave slid up intothe groovesofthe pointsto receivethe Ioops,the
points rise to their high inoperative position. The needle bar rises causing the
transferred Ioops to slip dow n onto the stem s and the cam shaftisshogged backto the
Ieftagain so thatknitting can restart.
 N etting or N et Fabrics 568

The m ain featuresofNetfabrics:

Netting is an open-mesh form offabric construction that is held together by knots orfused
thermoplasticyarnsateach pointw here the yarnscrossoneanother.There are severaltypesof
mesh;they are square,hexagonal,and octagonal.The range ofm esh sizes is from coarse and
open to fine and shear.Netting m ay be m ade ofany kind offibre and m ay be given a softor
stiffsizing.Netfabricsare relatively fragile and require care in handling and cleaning.Torn net
fabrics cannot be satisfactorily m ended because the repairwould be apparent.Ifthe sizing is
watersoluble,thefabricshould bedry-cleaned.

Early netswere m ade by hand-knotting yarnsateach pointofintersection to produce a specific

geom etric pattern.Priorto 1809,nets were made by hand,but in that year a new machine
produced knotted netsso Iike hand-knotted fabricsthatfew people could distinguish between
them.The com paratively large m esh ofknotted netsdoesnotslip,spread,ordistortduring use.
Knotted netsare used forham mocksand fishing nets.

A -Tulle,B-Net,C-Bobbinetfabric

In recent years most Ii ght weight nets have been constructed on either Tricot or Raschel
knitting m achines,so the yarns are only interlooped and not knotted.These knitted nets Iack
the stability ofthose constructed by knotting.Theirprimary use is in apparel,although some
are used asdecorative window hangings.

TypesofNets:
There is a variety of netting;som e are produced underspecific trademarks.Among the best
known standard fabrics are noted here.These nets are classified as bobbinet,fishnet, filet,
maline,ortulle.
569

* Bobbinet:Itisahexagonalmeshthatmaybeverythinandtransparent(bridalillusion)
orfairly coarse and opaque (casementcloth),depending on the yarn countofthe
m aterialused to produce it.M ost bobbinet sold in the United States is produced in
England and France.
* Tulle:itisa fine,stiffhexagonalnetm ade from silk ornylon yarns.Itisvery similarto
bobbinet but Iighter in weightthan bridalillusion;some references do notseparate
bobbinetand tulle.Itisgenerally used fortrim m ing oroverdraping ofdressgoods.
* Fishnet:Itisa coarse open-m esh construdion created by knotting the m esh in a m anner
similarto afisherm an'sknot.
@ Filet net is m ade with a square mesh,and m aline net,used in m illinery,isa fine,very
thin,diaphanous,open diam ond shape with hexagonalholes.
 570
Lace Fabrics

The main featuresofLace fabrit:

Lace isan open workfabricconsisting ofa networkofyarnsformed into intricate designs.Lace
m ay be hand orm achine made,and intricate patterns can be produced by eithertechnique.
Both narrow and wide Iace fabrics are available.The edges of the fabric m ay be straight or
curved.

It isan im portanttrim ming,foritisused fortable cloths,curtains,handkerchiefs,dresses,and

underwear.Lace consistsoftwo elem ents:

* The pattern,flower,orgroup,w hich forms the closer-worked and more solid portion,
and
* Theground orfilling,which servesto hold the patterntogether.

Partsoftate Construttion:
ln identifying various kindsofIace,referenceshave been m ade to theirdesigns.These patterns
.

are constructed ofdifferentparts,each having a particulardesignation.

* Bride,or Reseau:It is the fine yarn that form s the m esh which provides the sheer
ground(background)betweentheprominentpartsofthepattern.
@ Cordonnet:Itisthe heavyyarn thatoutlinesthe pattern.
* Picot:ltisadecorative Ioop used both in the pattern and on the edge ofthe lace.
* Toile:lt representsthe predom inant parts ofthe pattern made by braiding,knotting,
Iooping,ortw istingthe yarn.
571
UsesofLates:
Lace is a decorative fabric used in appareland hom e furnishings.Narrow Iaces are used for
trimsand insertions;wide Iacefabricsare used forcurtains,table cloths,and garments.
Laces are m ade in different widths for different uses. For exam ple, a narrow lace with a
scalloped edge is used fortrimm ing a baby's dress;a Iace w ith slitsoreyelets is so made that
ribbon m aybe runthrough it.
TherearesevenmajorusesofIaces:
1. All-over laces:An all-over Iace is a fabric upto 36''wide with the design or pattern
spread overthe w idth of the fabric and repeated in i ts Iength.M any kinds of design
motifsandcoloursareused.Thefabriccanbeproducedinwidthsofoveroneyard(1
m)thataredevoidofscallops.Thefabriciscutandsoldfrom theboltlikewovendress
goods.The dressm akercuts itto pattern and makes it up into formalevening,dinner,
and cocktaildressesand blouses.
2. Flouncing:Flouncing appliesto Iaces 18 to 36 inches wide w ith a plain edge atthe top
and a scalloped edge atthe bottom ofthe fabric.Itis used forwide ruffles orflounces.
Often these flouncesare arranged in tiersto form a skirt.
Galloon:A galloon is a Iace upto 18 inches wide with a scalloped edge at top and
bottom .It m ay be used as an insertion between two cutedges offabric,orit may be
applique'd to afabric in bandsorasa border.
4. Insertion:Insertion isa bandofIace sewn between two piecesoffabricoron asingle
piece of fabric at the straight top or bottom edges.A variety of insertion is footing,
which hasa straightedge attop and bottom butno pattern.Footing isoften used atthe
bodiceoratthe bottom hem ofaslip.
5. Beading:Beading has slotsthrough which ribbon may be run.These slotsmay be found
in edgingsorgalloonsbutare m uch more comm on in insertions.
6. Edging:An edging is a Iace neverm ore than 18''wide that is straight at the top and
scalloped atthe bottom .Itissewn to the edge ofa dress,gown,blouse,handkerchief,
orIingerie.
M edallion:A m edallion is a Iace in a single design that can be appliquéd to a fabric
ground forornamentation.It is som etimes used in the cornersofnapkins,ortowels or
asanornamentfpradress,blouse,orlingerie.
Quality and CareofLace:
The quality of Iace is determ ined by severalfactors.Ifit is m ade by hand,i
t isconsidered
better than m achine m ade. But the w orkm anship and the intricacy of the design are
important.The kind ofyarn (such asIinen versuscotton),the finenessofyarn,andthe
closenessofthe m esh are verysignificant.
The yarnsused in Iace are fairlytightl
y twisted to withstand the m anipulationsrequired to
produce the material,so m odern m achine-m ade Iace isIessdelicatethan itappears.Lace
 572
can snag easily. W hatever the quality, the construction of Iace requires som e care in
handling to prevent snagging and pattern distortion.The material is quite open; thus,
dim ensionalstability may be a problem in Iaundering and dry cleaning.Lace should either
be Iaundered by hand ordry cleaned,depending upon its nature.Ifit is to be Iaundered,
Iace should be either washed by hand squeezing suds through it without rubbing or by
putting itinto a mesh orc10th bag and machine washing atagentle cycle.Properly heat-set
nylon and polyesterIace can be handled with minimaldifficulty.Ironing orpressing should
be done carefully by placinga c10th overthe Iace to avoid tearing.

As was just indicated, Iace is important in both clothing and home furnishingsqThe
lnternationalFabricare Insti
tute suggests to consumers the following guide lines forthe
wearand care ofclothingcontaining Iace:

Lacessnagandteareasily;evenyourjewesrycan snagdelicate lace.Forthisreason,

extrem e care m ustbe used when wearing Iace.Lacesare difficultto m end and the
mend isusuallyvisible.
Lace clothing should have am ple side and underarm seam swhich are wellbound.
Narrow seamswillpulloutwith strain in wear.
3. Unfinished orm achine-stitched button holesfray readily.
4. Proted Iace,especially silk Iace,from perspiration,deodorant,and antiperspirant
dam age,asthism ay weaken the fibres.
5. Lace garmentsshould befolded and placed in drawersto relieve pointsofstrain.

TypesofIace:
The two main typesofIacesare ''real''orhandm ade,and machine m ade.Linenthread isusuall
y
usedforrealIace and also expensive Iaces,butcotton,rayon,nylon,silkorotheryarnsare now
usedforvariousqualitiesandtypesand also formachine Iace.

The form erissofter,m ore irregularin mesh and pattern,and more expensive.Handmade laces
are created by m anipulating asingle yarn orgroup ofyarnswith bobbins,needles,and hooksto
produceintricatestitchformations.ThemajorclassificationsofhandmadeIacesarebobbinIace
(pillow), needle point Iace, crocheted (including Duchesse), embroidered Iace, darned
(includingsomefiletIace),knotted,tatting.
Handmade Iaces have always been highly prized as trim m ing for appareland ' as decorative
piecesforthe home.Unusually beautifuland intricately designed Iaces are retained in families
as heirlooms and are displayed in museumsasworksofart.Today,such Iacesasneedle point,
bobbin,darned,crocheted,and knotted are duplicated so expertly by machine thatthe average
consumerisnotable to determine whethera Iace ism achine-m adeorhandm ade.
573
a) HandmadeLaceorRealLace:
1. Bobbin Lace:
Som etim es called pillow Iace,the Iace design is draw n either on a pillow or on a
paper that is placed overthe pillow .Sm all pegs or pins are stuck into the pillow
along the design,and a Iarge num ber of sm allbobbins of thread are m anipulated
around the pegs orpinsto produce the Iace.A num berofthreads,each on its own
bobbin,are interlaced by tw isting and plaiting around the pins to produce the m otif
in a m esh construction.Asthe Iace is com pleted,the pinsare pulled outand the Iace
is rem oved from the pillow .M aking pillow Iace requires great skilland dexterity,for
aj m any asthree hundred bobbins m ay be needed to m ake som e patterns.
'

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Chantilly lace Cluny Iace

There are severalvarieties of bobbin lace.Because ofitsexquisite Iarge,clothy design,

''duchesse''isthe queen ofthe bobbin laces.Duchesse Iace w as originally from Bruges,
Belgium .Ithasa tape Iike structure.Otherbobbin Iacesare Binche Iace,Chantilly lace,

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6 .*4: . .
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VaIorValenciennes Iace Torchon(Beggar's)Iace

ClunyIace,Honiton Iace,LilleIace,MalteseIace,Mechlin,Torchon(Beggar's)Iace,and
ValenciennesIace.
 574

Duchesse lace Binche Iace

2. Darned Lace:
It has a design darned by a chain stitch onto a m esh background.W hen m ade by
hand,the design ofdarned Iace is sew n w ith thread and needle passed in and outof
a m esh net.There are two principaltypes ofdarned Iace.

Filet Lace
Antique Lace - hasa darned Iace pattern pn a rectangularm esh ground.
Filet Lace - hasa darned Iace design on a square m esh ground.
3. Needle pointLace:
Thedesi gnforneedle pointisdrawn on parchmentstitchedto a backing ofstoutIinen,and the
lace ismade byfilling inthe patternwith button hole sti
tches.W hen the Iace iscompleted,the
parchm entisremoved.Needle pointIace ismade entirelyw ith a sew ing needle and thread.
A design is drawn on paper,thread isIaid overthe design,and the thread isthen sewn .

in place with button hole and blanket stitches.

575
The m otifs are of birds,flowers,and scrolls orspiraldecorations.There are several
typesofneedle-point Iace:

Alençon Lace Venetian pointLace

Alençon Lace - has a solid design with a cord out line on a sheer hexagonal
ground.Itisdelicate butdurable.
MilanLace-isatapelacewithaneedlepointmeshandaIoop(picot)edging.
Rose point Lace - is a Venetian needle point lace having a delicate floraland
scrollpattern w ith a cord outline.
Venetian Lace - has floral designs joined by irregularly placed connections
(brides)ofIoopsandloopededges.
4. Crocheted Lace:
W hen handmade,thisismadewith acrochethook,to form aseriesofIoops,each
one of w hich is finished w ith a fine stitch,w orking usually w ith specially twisted
cotton thread.Itoriginated in lreland as an im itation ofVenetian needle point.Itis a
comparativelyinexpensive heavylace.Irish crocheted Iace(notnecessarilymade in
Ireland) is typified by a rose or shamrock design that stands out from the
background.

U
X
5. Tatting Lace or Knotted Lace:
Irish Iace

This is m ade by tw isting and knotting thread by m eans of a sm allshuttle.W hen

m ade by pass in a shuttle in and out of Ioops in a thread, it is called tatting.It is
 576
identified by a circle Iike m otifand picots around the edge ofthe m otif.Clover Ieaf
and w heeldesignsare the m ostpopular,butotherpatternsare also m ade.

Tatting Lace
M acram é Lace - it differs from other Iaces in texture and appearance. It is
generallymade ofheavyyarn knotted into relatively large designs. The follow ing
figures show the basic m acram é knots and som e variations. Unlike m ost other
Iaces,itis used forsuch purposesasw om en'shats, hand bags,belts and vests.

HORIZONTALX tIBLE DIAGO/ALX tJBL.E VERTICALK tleke

HALF HITCH HALF HITCH HALFHITCH V EPHINEKNOT

&QUANEKNOT ALTERNATING SQUARE 9QUAREKNOT SINNET

KNOT'ATTERN

LARKSHEAD KK T
HAQFK* T

HALFKNOTSINNET FORMING
A NAD RALTw lW

FiletLace:charaderized by aflat,geom etricaldesign, thislace may be eithercrocheted

ordarned. Itis very com m on forhouse hold use,particularly fordoilies, runners
antim acassarset,and table cloths.It m ay also be used for dress trim m ing.
577

Carrickm across Breton

b) MathineMadeLace:
Nearly aIIthe Iaces classified as ''realIaces''can be duplicated by machine w ith slight
variationsand sim plifications.
M achinery for m aking Iooped net w as invented about1764.Butthe forerunner of the
present Iace machine,the bobbinet m achine,was patented by John Heathcote in the
earl
y 1800sand was Iaterm odified by severalotherinventors,one ofwhom wasJohn
Levers,Fhose name hascome down to usviathe Ieversmachinewe now use.ln 1813,
John Ieavers developed his firstIace m achine and by 1837 the principle ofthe Jacquard
Ioom punched card system w as incorporated into the Ieaver's machine.Since then,
severalotherlace m aking m achines have also com e into prom inence.

M any ofthe Iaces available today are produced on raschelknitting m achines orby
em broidering a sheerbase fabric.Knitted Iace ispredom inantin the m arket.The name
ofa Iace m ay derive from the city in w hich is originally produced orby design features
that characterize a particularstyle.Some ofthe more common names are Alençon,
Brussels,Chantilly,Cluny,Schiffli,Valenciennes,and Venetian.
A Iace pattern is usually identified ordescribed in term softhe ground m esh,the pattern
parts,the basicstitches,and the construd ion technique used.
 578
1. Leavers Lace:
The Ieavers lace m achine can produce the m ost intricate patternsfrom any type of
yarn into fabrics upto ten yards w ide.lt is a huge,com plex m achine that takes an
operatortw o to three w eeks to thread.Very thin, round, brass bobbins containing
up to 300 yds each are individually conveyed by carriages m oving back and forth
from one warp to another.As each bobbin is m oved to a predeterm ined position,it
sw ings betw een the w arp yarns and w raps its yarn around one w arp before it is
m oved to another.Since there are about 20 bobbins perinch,very intricate designs
are possible.The fabrics can be fairly expensive. Leavers Iace is used to a great
extent in the dressindustry.
2. Nottingham Lace: .
The Nottingham m achine originated in Nottingham ,England.It also utilizes sw inging
brass bobbins but produces a flat Iace that is coarser than leavers lace. Its large
overallpatternsare used forsuch purposes astable cloths.
3. Bobbin Lace:
The Bobbin m achine em ploys the braiding principle.The Iace produced has a fairly
heavy texture,w ith an angular appearance and a uniform count.Bobbin lace Iacks
the fine texture and flow ing Iines ofthe Iaces produced by otherm achines.
4. RaschelLace:
Knitting m achines can be constructed to m ake Iace resem bling levers and crocheted
Iaces. The Raschel m achine, w hich has its needles set horizontally instead of
vertically as for knitting, can produce at high speed inexpensive Iace fabrics of
m anm ade filam entyarns.
5. Ratiné Lace:
It is a m achine m ade Iace that has a ground ofheavy Ioops resem bling that ofterry
c10th.
6. SchiffliLace:
Although the schifflidesign closely resemblesIace,itisproduced by an em broidery
technique on the Schifflim achine developed in St.Gall,Sw itzerland.lt is produced
now by Swijs descendants from St.GallIiving in the northeastern part of New
Jersey,around Union City.
The m achine w as nam ed Schiffli,w hich m eans ''little boat'',because ofthe shape
ofthe shuttle.Item ploys682 to 1020 needlesto produce fine and intricate designs in
appliqués and em broideries on aIIkinds offabrics,particularly sheerfabrics such as
batiste,Iaw n,and organdy.The pattern is controlled by punched cards sim ilarto
those used in the Jacquard Ioom . The finished m aterial Iooks Iike eypensive
handw ork but costs m uch Iess.The fabrics produced range from narrow trim m ings
towidthsofupto15yards(14m),includingpileconstrudion.
579
NONW OVEN FABRICS

Nonwovensareflexible,porousproductsconsistingofone ormorefibre I ayers.Theseparate fibresmay

eitherbe preferentially oriented in one diredi
on ormay be deposited in a random manner.They are
bonded,by chemical,thermalor mechanicalprocesses into textile produds.Nonwovens are mainly
planarstrudures-Thisrelativelyyoungbranch ofthetextileindustryhasexpanded enormouslyafterthe
secondworld-warbecauseofthehigh produdion ratesandthe resultingcostsavings.

Contemporary nonwoven fabric datesto the early 1930s.Atthattime,a few textile com panies
began experim enting with bonded materials as a way of utilizing cotton waste. The first
com mercialprodudion of the produds now called nonwovens began in 1942 in the United
Statesin an effortto producefabricdired lyfrom fibres.The marketfornonwoven produdshas
experienced tremendousgrowth and has potentialform ore. '

Nonwovensmay beclassifiedaseitherdisposableordurabligoods.Disposable,ornondurable,
nonwovensinclude such one-tim e use produd sasdiapers,m edicaldressings,household wipes,
and disposable protective clothing.Durable goodsare used forapparelintedacings,automobile
headliners,road underlaym ents,and carpets.

M anufad ure:
The basicsequence ofstepsin manufacturing contemporaw nonwovenfabricsisasfollows:
Preparation ofthe fibre---+ webformation ----+.web bonding---+ drying---+ curing ---+
finishing.

Forfilms,the chem icalsolution isprepared and extruded,orcast,asafilm .

Raw M aterials:
Polyesteris the m ostfrequently used fibre in the United States;olefin and nylon are used for
theirstrength,and cotton and rayon areused forabsorbency.Some acrylic,acetate,and vinyon
are also being used.

Fibresare seleded onthe basisoftheirpropertiesand expeded pedormance in end uses.New,

first-quality fibres are preferred over reused or reprocessed fibres.Both staple and filament
fibresare used,and itispossible to blend fibresofdifferentIengthsaswellasfibresofdifferent
genericgroups.The seledion offibresdependson the productproposed,the care typically
given it,and the expected ordesired durability.Asin the m anufacture ofaIIfabrics,the costof
the fibresused isim portant,asitinturn influencesthe costofthe finalprodud .
 W eb Form ation: 580
W ebformationisthecreaiionofaIooselyjoined sheetstrudurebylayingdownfibresinoneof
severaltechniques including,but notlim ited to, dry-laid and wet-laid webs, spunbonding,and
casting film s.Both staple and filament fibres are used to form the web, which is usually too
weakto beusedwithoutadditionalprocessing.
1. Dry-laid w eb:

A dry-laid web isform ed by a processsim ilarto that used to produce a card sliverin
spinning.Fibrescan be separated by suspending them in an airstream and blow ing
them onto a beltorby using a m echanicalcard to form a uniform web on a m oving
belt.The fibres m ay be som ew hatparallelto each otherin a random web;they can
be m ade perpendicularby alternating Iayersoffibresatrightangles;orthe web m ay
have a parallelfibre arrangement similar to that of a combed yarn web. Fibre
bonding is achieved either through the use of a binder or adhesive or by the
inclusion in the blend of heat-sensitive fibres, w hich softén and fuse w i
th other
fibres,helping to sealthe finalfabric.
d' .-. . .
$' z -'. ... G RDING
BALEOF a . m Mxx:
RBER '''. CARDED W EB
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FIBER - TO W EB
SEPARATING FIBER BONDING
FEEDING CARDED W EB
AND TRANSFER
W EB LAYDG N

W eb form ing by Carding m ethod

FIBE:
SEPARATIN G .
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BALEOF z' %NN-2è% TRANSFER
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WEBM YY

W eb form ing by the Airlaying m ethod

II. W et-laid w eb:
A wet-laid web is formed by depositing an aqueous suspension of fibres onto a
screen belt ora perforated drum . It perm its m anufacturers to use very short fibres,
eventhose lessthan % inch Iong.W et-laid websare fprm ed quite rapidly and can be
Iessexpensive than othernonwovens ifwaste fibre is used.
581
This issim ilarto the processof m aking paper.The fibres are suspended in waterto
achieve a uniform suspension.Thisflows overthe m oving screen.W hen the water
filters out, the fibres rem ain in the form of a wet web.The rem aining water is
squeezed out and the fabric is dried.Further bonding m ay be achieved w ith rollers.
A bonding agent, such as therm osensitive fibres or an adhesive, m ay be
incorporated in the suspension to bind the web together as i t dries.Alternatively,
followinjformationthewebcan be sprayed witha binder,whichsealsthefibre
togetheronce the web dries.

BALE OF
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FIBER SUSPENSION
# yxsojwc
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FIIER W EB PORM IN G
SUSPENSION AND DRYING
O- ATERIN G

W eb form ing by the W etlaying m ethod

111. Dired zlaid web:

ln the dired laid process, webs are m ade directly from fibres spun from m olten
polym er.The tw o direct-laid processesare spunbonding and melt blow ing.

a. Spunbopding:
This method isused forman-m ade filamentfibresthat meltunderheat,such as
. polyester.Spunbonding isa process by which fabricsare produced directly from
a therm oplastic polym er such as polyester, nylon, polypropylene, or
polyethylene.The m olten polym er is extruded through a spinnerette,cooled
slightly in the air,and laid on a moving conveyorbeltto form a continuousweb.
Asthe web cools,thefibresbond.
The pattern of the spun-bonded fabric and arrangement oftbe fibres can be
varied in severalw ays.The spinnerette can be rotated to deliverfilaments in
differentpatternsandarrangements;ajetofair(acontrolledstream ofair)can
be introduced to tangle the filam ents;the conveyor can be moved at variable
speeds to collect different quantities offilaments at selected Iocations;and
applying an electricalchargeto m akethefibresIoop and crim p.
Spuhbondedfabricsare strong because ofthe filamentfibresand are noteasilytorn.
Theyare usedforawidevarietyofproductsrangingfrom apparelinterlinings,carpet
backing,furniture and beddingto baggingand packing m aterial.Spunbonded fabrics
m ay be used in geotextilesto controlerosion orin constructing road.Som e
 582
spunbonds m ade from olefins are used as a tough,especially durabl'
e substitute
for paperin w allcoverings,charts,m aps,tags and the like.

M >-
C+

N G

s- o w wc

* COLIM ON
Ae w o G -

W eb form ing by the Spunbonding m ethod

Fabrics made by this process include M irafi 140, made from nylon and
polypropylene;Celestra polypropylene; Reem ay polyester;Tyvek polyethylene;
Typarpolypropylene;Bondtex polyester;Cerex nylon;and Bidim polyester.

b. M eltBlow ing:
M elt blowing also forms fabrics diredly from fibres, but it differs from
spunbonding in thatm olten fibre filam entsare attenuated and broken into short
Iengths asthey exitfrom the spinnerettes.In this process,the m olten polym eris
forced through a spinnerette into a high-velocity air stream .The im pad of the
airbreaks the filam ent into shortfibres,w hicb thèn collect on a m ovihg belt to
form a w eb.Coolair distributes the fibres onto a m oving screen.As the fibres
coolthey bond,form ing a w hite,opaque w eb offine fibreé.Because the fibres in
m eltblown nonwovensare fine,the fabrics m ake good filterm aterials.

c- r c--
My- O& &

W eb form ing by the M elt blow ing m ethod

Specialty products can also be made by Iayering spunbonded and m eltblown
fabrics or by entrapping absorbent fibres or other m aterials within the
meltbloFp strud ure.
583
11/.Film Fibrillation orExtrusion protess:
There is another m ethod offabric construction that does not startw ith a fibre but
withaplasticfilm.Thisfilm isextrudedfrom ameltedpolymer(achainlikestructure
from which man-madefibrescan bederived)throughaslotteddie asafilm rather
than asfibre filam ents.The film is em bossed and then is stretched biaxially oriented,
to the point w here it opens into a netting of fibres.The m echanical em bossing
produces a weakened area in the film so that stretching the film along both axes
creates openings in the film - a nonwoven net.The form ofthe netting is controlled
by the em bossing pattern.Hercules Incorporated m akes such a net fabric, w hich it
calls Delnet.

Bulk polymer
Wind-up
Em* ssing

tri
lmi
extrusi
on o Oo
Orientation

Film Fibrillation orExtrusion process

W eb Bonding:

Afterthe web isformed,bondsbetween thefibresm ustbe strengthened and stabilized.W ebs

are bonded byoneofthefollowing processes:

1. Chemicalbonding,witheitherIatexorchemicalreagents
2. Thermalorheatbonding,w itheitherhotairora calender
3. Mechanicalbonding,byeitherneedle punchingorhydroentanglement

1. Chem italBonding:

Bonding m ay be achieved byappl ying an adhesive materialto the web and then setting
the adhesive.This,in essence, ''glues''the fibrestogether.Latex adhesives, in which the
adhesive substance is suspended in water, are most often used.The fabric web is
passedthrough abath in which itisim pregnated with the latex, and then dried.

W hen adhesive isapplied to the surface ofthe fibre web, ittendsto makethefabricstiff
and more rigid.Also,fabricsexhibi tthe characteristicsofthe adhesive m aterialonthe
surface ratherthanthose ofthe originalfibre. To overcom ethisdisadvantage,adhesives
may be im printed ontothe surface in selected areas. Theprintingpatternsare developed
carefully to ensure thatadequate bondingtakesplace am ong fibresto maintain fabric
strength.Such fabricsare less rigid and have betterdrapability and a m ore pleasant
 surface texture than do those that have been com pletely coated by an adhesive. 584

Instead ofadhesive bonding, fibres m ay be solution bonded by spraying a m ixture of

chem icalsand wateronto the surface ofthe fibres. W hen subjeded to heat,the water
evaporates and the chem ical vaporizes, dissolving a sm all am ount of fibre usually
,
whereonefibre crossesanother. W henthe dissolved fibresresolidifw bondsareformed
thathold the fibrestogether.

I
hn m ost instances the web is coated with a heat-activated substance. W hen the w eb is
eated,the substancç form sa spot-weld effectat points ofcontactbetween fibres.Any
solventsthat are presentevaporate at highertem peratures Ieaving boehihd a strudure
,
offibres sealed togetherat the weld points. Because no extraneous
m aterialis Iefton
.
t
bhe fabric, these materi
als are softer and ha ve bet ter draping properties than those
onded w ith adhesives.
Binderand adhesives used in m aking nonwoven fabrics include acrylic Iatexes, polyvinyl
acetate copol
ym ers,polyvinylchloride copol
ym ers, nitriles,ethylene vinylchloride,and
vins acetate-e&hNlene.Theiç sinlusaç characteçistic.s pçoduc.
e different pçopertkes in
nonwoven fabrics.

=
n O
o . > T
w l 1- -

Application ofIatex adhesive

Acrylic latexes produce fabrics w ith softness, resilience,high wet-abrasion resiitance,
and a good hand. Fabrics designed to disintegrate, such as disposable diapers and
sanitary products,are often produced w ith polyvinyl-acetate copolym ers.Nitriles,w hich
retain their flexibili
ty at Iow tem peratures, are frequently selected for.Iuggage,
footwear,and sim ulated leather.Ethylene vinylchloride is used in m edicaland surgical
products.Vinylacetate-ethylene isused m ostly in wetw ipes,towels,and otherproducts
designed forone-time use.
2. Therm alBonding:
Therm oplasticfibresm ay be bonded by heat.The application ofheatcausesthe fusing
togetherofheat-sensitive fibres,w hich efectively fastensthem together.Asin bonding
585
with adhesives, heat m ay be applied in a pattern to provide sufficient bonding for
durability and to allow greaterflexibility and softness in the end product.Nonw ovens
can also be formed with a sm allpercentage of binderfibresoflowerm el ting pointthan
the predom inantfibres.W hen the w eb is heated,the binderfibres melt,providing the
necessary adhesion.
Heatand pressure can be applied to bind fibres into a w eb.The two com m on thermal
bonding m ethods are calendaring and air heating. In air heating, hot air fuses fibres
within the web and on the surface ofthe web to m ake high-loft Iow -density fabrics.The
hot air is blown through the w eb in a conveyorized oven or sucked through the web
w hile itis passed overa vacuumed porous drum .In the calendaring process,the web is
draw n overand between heated cylindersto produce strong,Iow-loftfabrics.Spunbond
and m eltblow n nonwovens therm ally bond w hen the m olten flaments harden after
extrusion.Passing the spunbonded orm eltblown fibre w ebs betw een heated cylinders
called calendar rolls bonds fabrics m ore com pletely.Design effectscan be produced if
these cylinders have patterns em bossed on theirsurfaces.Heat can also be applied to
webs by infrared radiation orultrasound..

mr e
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Airbonding process Calendarbonding process

3. M ethanicalBonding:

M echanicalbonding isthe oldestmethod ofproducing nonw ovens;itentanglesfibresto

im part strength to dry-laid webs.The m ost com m on m echanicalm ethods are needle
punching,spunlacing,also called hydroentangling and stitch bonding.

1.Needle Punthing:
In needle punching,barbed needlesare punched vertically through the web to hookand
entangle tufts offibres.Needle-punched nonw ovens resem ble felt in appearance, but
they are made prim arily from fibres other than wool. Characterized by high density
combinedwithsomebulk,theyareavailableinweightsfrom 50to285grams(1.7to10
oz)andinthicknessesfrom 15to 160m ils.
Two basicstepsare involved in the construction ofneedle-punching nonwovens:
 586
a. The fibre w eb,or batt, prepared by either carding,garneting,or air-laying
techniques,isfed into a machinewithspeciallydesigned needles.
b. The fibre web moves on a substrate between a metalbed plate and a
stripper plate; the needles punch through the plates and the fibre w eb,
reorienting the fibres so that m echanical interlocking or bonding occurs
am ong the individualfibres.
re l: bearn

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Basic principle ofneedle punching

The substrate may be filam ents, a scrim , or som e other form . Placem ent of the
substrate in the m iddle ofthe fibre web im proves the strength and structuralintegrity
ofthefinished needle-punched fabric.

The strength of needle-punched fabrics also depends on the fibre arrangem ent w ithin
the webs.Iffibresare placed pa/allelto each other,tbe finished fabric willhave good
strength in thatdirection butw illtend to be w eak in the opposite direction.Ifthe fibres
are in a random arrangem ent,strength isequalin aIIdirections.A tw o-step processfirst '
tacksthewebwith30to60punchespersquareinch(4.7to9.3persquarecm)andthen
punches with 800 to more than 2500 penetrationspersquare inch (125 to 390 per
squarecm).The highernumberof punchesisused forfabricssuch asblankets,which
are expectedto be subjected to considerable handlingduringuseand care.
The properties of needle-punched fabrics depend on the Iength and characteristics of
the fibres,the physica!properties ofthe w eb,and the techniques used to produce the
w eb.M ost needled fabrics Iack any structuralpattern because the needles punch and
interm ingle the fibres in such a random w ay thatthe fabricsudace appears uniform .

Needle-punched A brfc; produced with a mod@ed needle bed Jnd needles th/t
penetrutebeyondthestldleekoform Ioopson theblrkcanbemldetoresembleloop
pile,velounorvelveteen.TheIoopseithei@rele# uncutorarecutJpdbrushedtoWve
thexlldleeuppeqrunceo;thepile-wovenA :rfc.
Needle-punched fabricsfrequently are found in carpeting and otherfloorcoverings,w all
coverings,blankets,padding m aterial,insulation m aterials,industrialfabrics,and fabrics
forvehicles.
 587
II.Hydroentangling:

In hydroentangling,orspun Iacing, the fi

brousweb issubjected to high-velocity water
jets to entangle the fibres,causing them to curland knot around each other. These
materials are produced without a binder, resulting in Iightwvight,soft and drapable
spun-laced fabrics.The Nexus fabrics by Burlington, available in severalpatterns that
can be dyed or printed, best typify this group. Som e of these fabrics are w ashable;
othersare dw -cleanable. Fabricsrangein weightfrom 0.7 to 2.2 ouncespersquare yard
and in thickness from 3.5 to 25 m ils. Typicalend uses include quilt backing fabrics,
-

m attress pad ticking, and substrates for coated fabrics of various types interlinings,
,
curtains,table coverings, and selected item s of apparel. Although m ost of the spun-
laced fabricson the marketare made ofpolyester, it is possible to use other fibres
Nexus,Sontara, and Polyspun are exam plesofpolyesterspun-laced products .
.

Spunlacing is often used in m aking kitchen wipes. The w ipes have a regular pattern of
holes surrounded by tightly entangled fibres. M any w ipes are also adhesively bonded
forincreased w etstrength.

DR#FORMED WEBS
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W eb bonding by the spunlacing orhydroentangling process

111.Stiteh bonding:
For the stitchbonding technique fibre w ebs are stitched through to hold the fibres
together. M aliw att fabrics are fibre w ebs that have been stitched t
ogether. The
resulting fabrics are used as lining fabrics, furnishing fabrics insulating m aterials
f , base
abrics fortufted goods,and in industrialand geotextiles. M alivliesfabrics,used in, felts
packing m aterials, insulation m aterials, and utility textiles are created by form ing,
,
stitchesfrom the fibres ofthe web itself. No additionalyarnsare required.
Otherbranded processesare kunitand m ultiknit. Kunitfabrics are form ed by feeding a
w eb offibres into a m achine w here a type ofcom pound knitti
stitches from the fibre w eb. These stitches hold the web together ng needle formsknitting
may have eithera plushlike,furlike and form a fabricthat
, orflatappearance. Uses include liningsforclothing
and shoes,plush fortoys, autom otive interiorfabrics
, acousticaland therm alinsulation
packaging m aterial, and base fabrics to w hich coatings m ay be applied ,
. l
n the m ultiknit
 588
process, two fabrics form ed by the kunit process are united into a double-sided,
m ultilayered fabric with knitting stitches m ade by a com pound needle w ith a sharp
pointthatcan penetrate both fabrics.Applications include insulation m aterials,garm ent
interlinings, base m aterials for m olded textile com posites, and as a replacem ent for
foam in carand furniture upholstery.
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Finishing:
Thefinalstage inthe manufacture ofnonwovensisfinishing,which includesdrying,curing,embossing,
printing,and dyeing.Hot- airovens,infrared Iights,rollers over beated cans,orhigh - frequency
electricalequipmentcan provide the drying action,which also removes any sol
ventsremaining in the
fabric.Manyofthesefinishesaresimilartothoseusedforstandardwovenorknittedfabrics.
Care:
Care ofnonwovensdependson severalfactors,includingthe fibre used,the thicknessand diredionof
fibre I
ayintheweb,theadhesi ve system used,and thefinishesand coloursapplied.Obviously,thecare
procedures for durable products willdiffer from.those for di sposable products. Procedures for
discardingdisposablediapersand medicalproductsarenow regulated in somemunicipalities.
Im podantetonom icadvantagesinclude:
1. noweavingorknitting processesandpreparatorystagestothose processes;
II. no mechanicalspinning process, since nonwovens are made from carded fibre webs,
pneumaticallymadefibrewebsorfibrewebsmade on papermachines;
111. (very)hi
ghprodudionrates,forexampleupto morethantenmetersperminutefordrp
laid nonwovensand upto severalhundredsofmetersperminuteforwet-laid nonwovens;
IV. savingsofIabourforceandmachinew;
V. produdionofcheap articles,and also dispensableitems(one timeuse)suchasnappies,
bri
efs,towels,napkins,aprons,blankets,industrialclothing etc.
 589
Charad eristicsofNonwoven Fabrics:

The particular set of properties that a nonwoven fabric may have is dependent upon the
com bination offactorsin itsproduction. The rangeofcharacteristicsiswide.

The appearance of nonwoven fabrics may be paperlike, feltlike, orsim ilar to that of woven
fabrics.They m ay have a soft,resilient hand, orthey may be hard,sti
ft orboardy with Ii ttle
pliability.They may be as thin as tissue paperor many timesthickèr. Nonwovens m ay be
translucent or opaque. Their porosity m ay range from high, free aidlow to minute to
im permeable.Theirstrength m ay range from Iow tearand burst strength to very high tensile
strength.They m ay be fabricated by gluing, heat bonding, or spwing. The drapability of
nonwovens varies from good to none at all.Som e nonwovens have excellent Iaunderability;
othershave none.Some m ay be dry-cleaned.

Nonwovens are engineered to provide particular properties suited to desired end uses. For
example,diaperscan beconstruded oftwo differentIayersofnonwoven fabrics:an outerIayer
com posèd ofa wetting-agent treated polyester that willperm it rapid fluid penetration, but
with m inimal Iateralw icking, and an inner Iayer of absorbent rayon. Thin, high-filtration
nonwoven fabrics for surgicalm asks can be com posed of m icrodenier fibres; thick, fluffy,
insulating nonwovens for skijackets can also be made of microdenier fibres. Research
continues in order to achieve or perhaps exceed certain properties of conventionally
construded c10th.

UsesofNonwoven Fabrics:

The use of nonwoven produds continues to expand. The many uses of nonwovens may be
classified as disposables, durable consum ergoods, and industrialmaterials. AI(these areas are
making increasinguseofthiskind ofmerchandise becauseofitsIow costand itssuitability for
m any needs.

Disposable nonwovens are essentially m ade forone-tim e use;but some such as dust doths,
,
m ay be laundered and reused a few times. General applications include personalhygiene
products,such as diapers and sanitary napkins;medicalpfoduds such
d as surgicalgowns and
rapes;surgicaland industrialm asks, bandages,wipesand towels;bibsand even costum esfor
specialevents.Tbe'y have recentl# become popularforIightweight''fun''cloths that can be
washed a num beroftim es.

Durable nonwovenshave wide applications. Consumerdurables include both household goods

or hom e furnishings,such ae for draperies, furniture upholstery
, mattr
ess padding,towels,
table dotbs,blankets and carpet backing and clothing or apparel such as forcaps,Iinings
,
interlinings,interfacingsand the reinforcem éntofotherfabrics. ,
 590
The many industrialuses include filters, insulation, packing materials,roadbed stabilization
sheeting orroad-buildingm aterialsgeotextilesand roofing products.

specialty Nonw oven Products:

Fusible Nonwovens:A fusible nonwoven fabric is any nonwoven fabric with a heat-activated
adhesive resin coating.More than halfofthe interfacings used in apparelconstruction are
fusibles.They are placed between garment Iayers to provide body,shape,support,addi tional
strength,and foundation.Heatand pressure,applied fora specified time,activate the resin to
bond the interfacing to the shellfabric.
'
N .

Fusible interfacings have some disadvantages.They som etimesproduce a stifforboardy hand;

differentialshrinkage between the fabrics being joined may produce a rippled garment;and
separation of the two fabric Iayers may occur when improperly applied interfacings are
Eleaned.

Otherspecialnonwoven productsare film fabrics,coated fabrics artificialsuedes and Ieathers

etc.