A PROJECT REPORT

ON
PRODUCTION OF BUTYRALDEHYDE

PREPARED BY: GUIDED BY:

KRUPAL RANA PROF.PIYUSH SHRIVASTAVA

EXAM NO: 801028

YEAR: 2020-2021

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA

 YEAR: 2020- 2021
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING

THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report on “ Production of Butyraldehyde”

submitted by Krupal Rana (Exam No: 801028) in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of Bachelor’s Degree in chemical engineering at
Maharaja Sayajirao University, Vadodara.

Guide: Head of Chemical Engg. Dept.

Prof. Piyush Shrivastava Dr. Nitin Bhate

Date: 19th June,2021

 ACKNOWLEGMENT

It is my duty to acknowledge the kind of help and guidance that I have received
from Faculties of my department in completion of my project report. It would not
have been possible to prepare this report without their valuable guidance.

I would like to thank Dr. Nitin Bhate (Head of Chemical Engineering Department,
MSU) for providing me the opportunity for granting me the permission to do work
on this topic.

I would like to show my gratitude towards my guide Prof. Piyush Shrivastava

(Assistant Professor) for his useful guidance and support. Finally, I would like to
thank other teaching and non-teaching staff of the department for their indirect
support.

Presented By,
Krupal Rana
BE-IV Chemical
 ABSTRACT
The main objective of our report is to design the production plant of Butyraldehyde
in industry. This report is divided in different sections. First of all the introduction
of n-butanal is given, which highlights its importance. Next are different
manufacturing processes for n-butanal production. Detailed description of
"Production of n-Butanal by catalytic hydroformylation of propylene" is presented
in preceding chapter. Afterwards material and energy balance is presented.
Butyraldehyde, also known as n-butanal, is a colorless, flammable liquid with a
characteristic aldehydic ordour. It is used chiefly as an intermediate in the production
of synthetic resin, rubbers accelerators, solvents and plasticizers. Because of large
number of condensation and addition reactions it can undergo, it is useful starting
material in the production of wide variety of compounds containing at least six to
eight carbon atoms. Butyraldehyde also finds its application in India for variety of
purposes.
 INDEX
Chapter Topic
1 introduction
2 Physical and chermical properties
3 applications
4 World scenario
5 Process selection
5.1 Fermentatin
5.2 aldol condensatio
5.3 Hydroformilation
5.3.1 Different techniques for Hydroformilation
5.3.2 RCH\ RP process
6 Material Balance
6.1 MB around Reactor
6.2 MB around stripping Column
6.3 MB over mixing point
6.4 MB over distillation column
7 Energy Balance
7.1 EB around Reactor
7.2EB around heat exchanger
7.3 EB around stripper
7.4 EB around distillation column
8 Equipment design
 8.1 design of CSTR
8.2 design of heat exchanger
8.3 design of stripping column
8.4 design of distillation column
9 Cost Estimation
10 Plant location and layout
11. Environment impact assessment and ETP
12. Refrences
 Chapter 1:Introduction
Normal-Butyraldehyde, also known as Aldehyde butyrique (French), Aldeide
butirrica (Italian), Butal, Butaldehyde, Butalyde, Butanal, n-Butanal (Czech),
Butanaldehyde, Butyl aldehyde, n-Butyl aldehyde, Butyral, Butyraldehyd (German)
occurs naturally in small quantities. It is isolated in small quantities in the essential
oils of several plants. It is also detected in oil of Lavender and Eucalyptus globules
of California, in tobacco smoke, in tea leaves and in other leaves.

Normal-Butyraldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid with a characteristic

aldehydic odor. It is used chiefly as an intermediate in the production of synthetic
resin, rubbers accelerators, solvents and plasticizers. Because of large number of
condensation and addition reactions it can undergo, it is useful starting material in
the production of wide variety of compounds containing at least six to eight carbon
atoms. Butyraldehyde become a commercial chemical in the decade following
World War II. It was discovered shortly after 1860 and was prepared by the reduction
of crotonaldehyde as early as 1880.

Normal Butyraldehyde is miscible with all common organic solvents, e.g., alcohols,
ketones, aldehydes, ethers, glycols, and aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, but is
only sparingly soluble in water. It is an extremely flammable liquid and vapor. The
vapor may cause a flash fire.

Butyraldehyde may irritate the skin and burn the eyes. Upon degradation, peroxides
are formed. Inhalation of vapors and mists may cause a narcotic effect.

1.1 Structure of Butyraldehyde

 Figure 1.1: Structure of n-Butanal

Chapter 2:Physical and Chemical Properties

Appearance

Form clear, liquid

Colour colourless

Safety data

pH 6.0 - 7.0 at 71 g/l at 20 °C (68 °F)

Melting Melting point/range: -96 °C (-141 °F) - lit.

point/freezing point

Boiling point 75 °C (167 °F) - lit.

Flash point -5 °C (23 °F) - closed cup

Ignition temperature 190 °C (374 °F)

Auto-ignition temperature no data available

Lower explosion limit 1.8 %(V)

Upper explosion limit 8 %(V)

Vapour pressure 120 hPa (90 mmHg) at 20 °C (68 °F)

Density 0.8 g/mL at 25 °C (77 °F)

Water solubility soluble

Partition coefficie n-octanol/water log Pow: 0.7

Relative vapour density 2.49 - (Air = 1.0)

Odour unpleasant Odour

Threshold no data available

Evapouration rate no data available

Chapter 3: Applications

 Butyraldehyde is a widely used organic compound and its consumption is

approximately 65% of whole Oxo chemicals consumption

 The primary use for n-Butyraldehyde is as a chemical intermediate in

producing other chemical commodities such as 2-Ethylhexanol (2-EH) and n-
butanol.

 Other products requiring n-Butyraldehyde include trimethylolpropane (TMP),

n-butyric acid, polyvinyl butyral (PVB) and methyl amyl ketone.

 Smaller applications include intermediates for producing pharmaceuticals,

crop protection agents, pesticides, synthetic resins, antioxidants,
vulcanization accelerators, tanning auxiliaries, perfumery synthetics and
flavors.
 Chapter 4: World scenario
Propylene-derived n-butyraldehyde and isobutyraldehyde accounted for
approximately 75% of the world consumption of oxo chemicals in 2017. High
consumption volumes for both of the alcohol derivatives of n-butyraldehyde—n-
butanol and 2-ethylhexanol (2-EH)—will continue in the near future, largely owing
to increased consumption of both alcohols in acrylate esters, acetate esters, and
plasticizers.

Figure 4.1: World Consumption

Asia (including Japan), Europe, and North America are the largest markets for oxo
chemicals, together accounting for 94% of world demand in 2017. Oxo chemicals
demand in China is expected to grow well, albeit at a slower growth rate than in
previous years. Demand for oxo chemicals in the United States is expected to grow
modestly during 2017–22. Western European consumption of oxo chemicals is
forecast to grow slowly. Japanese consumption growth is forecast to be fairly flat
during 2017–22. Other Asian consumption, excluding China and Japan, is expected
to grow well during the same period; Malaysia and Taiwan are the main growth
markets in this region.

4.1 Import by India

Figure 4.2: Total Volume & Value of Imports Data

 Figure 4.3: Average Size per Unit Data

Figure 4.4: Total Value and Quantity of Import by Countries

4.2 Export by India

Figure 4.5: Total Volume & Value of Exports Data

 Figure 4.6: Average Size per Unit Data

Figure 4.7: Total Value and Quantity of Exports by Countries

Chapter 5: Process Selection

There are three different production routs:

5.1 Fermentation

Butyraldehyde was exclusively produced by bacterial fermentation of carbohydrate

containing materials until the early 1930s. “Pullicker industries" were using this
process. However this technology is very old and selectivity of process is also very
low.

5.2 Aldol Condensation

The aldol route from acetaldehyde was formerly the dominant synthetic route to n-
Butyraldehyde. It has been shut down in favour of the more economical Oxo route
in 1950s. ―Celanese‖ in United States has been using this process.

5.3 Hydroformylation

Hydroformylation which is also known as Oxo synthesis was discovered in 1938

by Otto Roelen. He detected this new chemical reaction when he aimed at
increasing the chain length of Fisher-Tropsch hydrocarbons by passing a mixture
of ethylene and synthesis gas over cobalt containing catalyst at 150 0C and 100 bar
in the laboratories of Ruhrchemie AG at Oberhausen, Germany.

In hydroformylation olefinic double bond reacts with synthesis gas (carbon

monoxide and hydrogen) in the presence of transition metal catalyst to form linear
(n) and branched (b) aldehydes containing an additional carbon atom as primary
products shown below.

RCH2 = CH2 + CO + H2 RCH2CH2CHO + RCH(CH3)CH

Starting from mid 1950s hydroformylation gained an importance. In 1997 the total
worldwide oxo production capacity was 6.5x106 MT/year for aldehydes and
alcohols. Today hydroformylation is the largest scale application of homogeneous
organo-metallic catalysis.

5.3.1 Different Techniques of Hydroformylation

The basic classification of Hydroformylation techniques in based on the selection
of catalyst.
1. Cobalt based catalyst

2. Rhodium based catalyst

The comparison of these two techniques is given in the table below.

Process 1: BASF Process

Process 2: Shell Process

Process 3: Ruhrchemie Process

Process 4: Union Carbide Process

Process 5: RCH/RP Process

The most important of rhodium based processes on an industrial scale uses the so-
called phosphine modified catalyst system. The unmodified rhodium carbonyl
complex is used for the reaction of special olefins.

As the reaction products consist of roughly equal amount of branched and linear
aldehydes, this catalyst is only applicable if both aldehyde are valuable products or
if the formation of the branched aldehyde is impossible (e.g., hydroformylation of
ethylene to give propanal). Up until the mid 1970s cobalt was used as catalyst
metal in commercial processes (e.g., by BASF, Ruhrchemie, Kuhlmann). Because
of instability of cobalt carbonyl, the reaction conditions were harsh with the
pressure range of 200- 350 bar to avoid decomposition of the catalyst and
deposition of the metallic cobalt.

The ligand modification introduced by ―Shell Researchers‖ was significant

progress in hydroformylation. The replacement of carbon monoxide with
phosphines (or arsines) enhances the selectivity towards linear aldehyde (n/b) and
the stability of cobalt carbonyl, leading to reduced carbon monoxide pressure.
In 1974-1976 Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) and Celanese Corporation,
independently of one another, introduced rhodium based catalysts on an industrial
scale. These processes combined the advantages of ligand modification with the
use of rhodium as a catalyst metal. As the reaction conditions were much milder,
the process was named as low-pressure oxo (LPO).
Then low-pressure oxo (LPO) processes took the leading role and despite the
higher price of rhodium, cobalt catalysts for the hydroformylation of propene was
replaced in nearly all major plants by rhodium catalysts. Higher price of rhodium
was offset by mild reaction conditions, simpler and therefore cheaper equipment,
high efficiency and high yield of linear products and easy recovery of the catalyst.
In addition, with respect to raw material utilization and energy conversation, the
LPO processes were more advantageous than the cobalt technology, thus leading to
their rapid growth.

In 1980s elegant solution with respect to catalyst recovery was offered by the
Ruhrchemie / Rhˆone-Poulenc (RCH/RP) process. Idea of two phase catalysis was
applied to hydroformylation by using water soluble rhodium as a catalyst.
Trisulfonated triphenylphosphine (TPPTS, as sodium salt) as the ligand yields the
water soluble catalyst HRh(CO)(TPPTS)3. The biphasic but homogeneous reaction
system exhibits distinct advantages over the conventional one phase processes.
Because of mutual insolubility, the separation of the aqueous catalyst phase and
reaction products, including high-boiling by-products, is achieved most simply and
efficiently.

However, the application of this process is limited to low molecular mass olefins
which have adequate water solubility. The commercial hydroformylation of higher
olefins (C6 or larger) is performed exclusively with cobalt carbonyl catalyst.
Several approaches have been developed for the hydroformylation of high olefins:
1. Anchoring of rhodium catalyst to resins, polymeric or mineral support.

2. Homogeneous catalyst with amphiphilic complexes which can be extracted in

another phase at the end of the reaction.

3. Aqueous organic biphasic catalyst involving use of particular ligands, co-solvent

4. Supported hydrophilic liquid phase or aqueous phase catalysis.

5.3.2 Ruhrchemie/Rhˆone-Poulenc (RCH/RP) Process

RCH/RP process is based on a water soluble rhodium catalyst, namely

HRh(CO)(TPPTS)3 complex. The use of a water soluble catalyst system brings
substantial advantages for industrial practice, because the catalyst can be considered
to be heterogeneous. The separation of catalyst solution and reaction products,
including high-boiling by-products, is achieved most simply and efficiently. Losses
of the rhodium in the crude aldehyde stream are negligible. High-boiling by-products
are also negligible by using this aqueous catalyst. Purification of synthesis gas and
propene is not necessary, because the catalyst is not sensitive to Oxo poisons that
may enter with the feed. The following figure shows the flow sheet of RCH/RP
process.

The hydroformylation plant has major four units. Propylene is compressed in

compressors K- 101 and K-102 with an intercooler E-101 and sent to reactor R-101
for reaction. Synthesis gas is compressed in compressors K-103, K-104 and K-105
with intercoolers E-102 and E-103 and sent to the stripper S-101, where it strips out
the unreacted Propylene from aldehyde products coming from reactor R-101.
Unreacted propylene and synthesis gas is compressed in K-106 and recycled back to
reactor R-101. From reactor R-101 gases leaving contain n-butanal and iso-butanal,
which are separated by several flashing after compression and cooling in compressor
K-107, K-108, K-109, K-110 and in cooler E-106, E-107, E-108, E-109 respectively
and mixed with n-butanal and iso-butanal coming from reactor in mixer M-102.
After this the mixture of n-butanal and iso-butanal is heated in heat exchanger E-
112. After passing through heat exchanger E-112 it is sent to distillation column C-
101 where n-butanal is obtained as bottom product and iso-butanal and some
impurities are obtained from top of the distillation column. The condenser in
distillation column is partial condenser because some gases are present in top
product stream.
Figure 5.1: Process Flow Diagram for RCH/RP Process for Hydroformylation of Propylene
 Chapter 6: Material Balance

Basis:
 Assume 300 days/year of operation of plant
 Yield = 94% based on Propylene charged
 Syn. Gas and Propylene ratio = 2.56

Capacity of plant = 100,000 MT/Year of 98.5% n-Butanal

= 13888.88 kg/hr = 192.6 kmol/hr
Selectivity of n/I = 43/1
At a Yield of 94%,
C 3H 6required (charged) (m1, C3H6) = 192.6/0.94 = 204.893 kmol/hr
CO required = H2 required = C 3H 6 required = 204.893 kmol/hr

Material Balance around Reactor:

Conversion is 95%
C 3H 6reacted = 204.893×0.95 = 194.648 kmol/hr
C 3H 6 unreacted (m4, C 3H 6) = 10.24465 kmol/hr
44 C 3H 6 + 44H2 + 44CO 43n-C4H8O + i-C4H8O
44 kmol C 3H 6 → 43 kmol n-C4
194.648 kmol C3H6 → n-C4 produced (m4, n-C4)= 43×194.648/44 = 190.224
kmol/hr
44 kmol C3H6 → 1 kmol i-C4
194.648 kmol C 3H 6→ i-C4 produced (m4, i-C4) = 1×194.648/44 = 4.42 kmol/hr
CO reacted = H2 reacted = C 3H 6 reacted = 194.648 kmol/hr
CO unreacted = H2 unreacted = C 3H 6unreacted = 10.24465 kmol/hr
Assuming all catalyst is removed from flash drum, hence flow rates of C 3H 6, CO,
H2, n-C4, iC4, C 3H 8are same in the 6th stream as of 4th stream

Material Balance around Stripping Column:

Assumptions: 90% of removal of C3H6 & 95 % removal of CO & H2

m 7, C3H6 = 0.1 m6, C3H6 = 0.1(10.24465) = 1.0244 kmol/hr
m3, C3H6 = m2, C3H6 + m6,C3H6 – m7, C3H6 = 0 + 10.24465 – 1.0244 =
9.220185 kmol/hr
m7, CO = 0.05 m6, CO
= 0.05(10.24465) = 0.5122325 kmol/hr
m7, H2 = m7, CO = 0.5122325 kmol/hr
recovered CO = recovered H2 = 10.24465 – 0.5122325 = 9.73241 kmol/hr
m2, CO = m2, H2 = 204.893 – 9.73241 = 195.16058 kmol/hr
m7, n-C4 = m6, n-C4 = 190.224 kmol/hr
m7, i-C4 = m6, i-C4 = 4.42 kmol/hr

Material Balance over Mixing Point:

m1', C3H6 = m1, C3H6 – m3, C3H6 = 204.893 – 9.220185 = 195.6728 kmol/hr
Propylene is 99.5 % with 0.5 % Propane
m1' = 195.6728/0.995 = 196.656 kmol/hr
m1', C3H8 = 0.05(196.656) = 0.98328 kmol/hr
C3H8 is inert, so its flow rate remains same in 1st, 4th, 6th, 7th, 8th stream

Material Balance over Distillation Column:

m8, CO = m7, CO – m9, CO = 0.5122325 – 0 = 0.5122325 kmol/hr

m8, H2 = m7, H2 – m9, H2 = 0.5122325 – 0 = 0.5122325 kmol/hr
m8, C3H6 = m7, C3H6 – m9, C3H6 = 1.0244 – 0 = 1.0244 kmol/hr
m8, C3H8 = m7, C3H8 – m9, C3H8 = 0.98328 – 0 = 0.98328 kmol/hr
m8, n-C4 = m7, n-C4 – m9, n-C4 = 190.224 – 0.985(192.6) = 0.513 kmol/hr
m8, i-C4 = m7, i-C4 – m9, i-C4 = 4.42 – 0.015(192.6) = 1.531 kmol/hr
 Chapter 7: Energy Balance

According to law of conservation of energy,

[Rate of Accumulation of Energy within system =Rate of Energy entering the system
– Rate of energy leaving the system + Rate of Energy generation]
For steady state system there is no accumulation of mass or energy within system.
So by modifying above equation, the energy balance around all equipment is as
under.
For case of energy balance across each equipment to determine the enthalpy of
streams we used reference temperature equal to 25 ℃.
7.1 Energy Balance around Reactor

Heat Flow In Heat Flow Out

Stream 1 = -2.72E+07 kJ/hr Stream 4 = -5.55E+07 kJ/hr
 Cooling Duty Qp = -2.82E+07 kJ/hr

7.2 Energy Balance around Heat Exchange:

Heat Flow In Heat Flow out
Stream 5 = 7.02E+06 kJ/hr Stream 6 = 4.90E+06 kJ/hr
Cooling Duty Qp = -2.12E+06 kJ/hr
Temperature of Cooling water in = 25 ℃,
Temperature of Cooling water out = 30 ℃
Mass Flow rate of cooling water = m = Q/(ΔT.Cp) = 101313.7 kg/hr
Mass Flow rate of Steam = m = Q/λ, λ = 3957 kJ/kg. K

7.3 Energy Balance around Stripper

Heat Flow In Heat Flow Out

Stream 6 = -4.69E+07 kJ/hr Stream 3 = -3.26E+07 kJ/hr
Stream 2 = -2.92E+07 kJ/hr Stream 7 = -4.35E+07 kJ/hr
Total = -7.61E+07 kJ/hr Total = -7.61E+07 kJ/hr
7.4 Energy Balance around Distillation Column
Heat Flow In
Stream 7 = -4.54E+07 kJ/hr
Reboiler Duty = 9.34E+06 kJ/hr
Total = -3.61E+07 kJ/hr
Heat Flow Out
Stream 9 = -4.37E+07 kJ/hr
Stream 8 = -1.48E+06 kJ/hr
Condenser Duty = 9.12E+06 kJ/hr
Total = -3.61E+07 kJ/hr
 Chapter 8: Equipment Design

8.1 Design of CSTR

In a CSTR, one or more fluid reagents are introduced into a tank reactor equipped with an
impeller while the reactor effluent is removed continuously. The impeller stirs the reagents to
ensure proper mixing. The contents of the reactors are completely mixed so that the complete
contents of the reactors are at the same concentration and temperature as the product stream.
Since the reactor is designed for steady state, the flow rates of the inlet and outlet streams, as
well as the reactors conditions, remain unchanged with time. Simply dividing the volume of
the tank by the average volumetric flow rate through the tank gives the residence time, or the
average amount of time a discrete quantity of reagent spends inside the tank.
In short CSTR has following properties.
 Mixing of reactants
 Good temperature control
 High heat and mass transfer efficiencies
 Useful for slow reactions requiring large hold up time
 Uniform composition though out the reactor
 Distribution of catalyst
In our process carbon monoxide, hydrogen and propylene are converted to n-Butyraldehyde in
an aqueous phase containing a water soluble rhodium catalyst. The reaction, therefore, system
consists of three different phases: the aqueous phase, the organic phase and the gas phase. It
has been shown that mass transfer plays an important role in this reaction system. In order to
transfer the gas to the reaction site and to make the separate organic phase as dispersed phase
we need agitation. Keeping these points in view CSTR has been selected

Partial pressure of Hydrogen PA = 17.1 bar

Partial pressure of Carbon monoxide PB = 19.4 bar
Partial pressure of Propylene PE = 13.5 bar
Concentration of Rhodium CRh = 0.92 mol/m3
Concentration of Ligands CLig = 22.08 mol/m3 as CRh:CLig = 1:24
Conversion of reaction XA = 95 %
Initial flow rate of Propylene FA0 = 58 mol/sec
Temperature of reaction T = 393.15 K
Reaction pressure P1 = PA + PB + PE = 50 bar

33
Rate of reaction rA = 0.485 mol/m3.sec
Volume of reaction Vr = FA0 × XA/rA = 110.63 m3
Volume of Catalysts Vcat = 16.38 m3
Head volume VH = 12.70 m3
Volume of Reactor V = 139.7 m3
8.1.1 Length and Diameter
For CSTR Length to diameter ratio is 1.
So L/D = 1
Since,

V = π/4 × L × D2 = 127 m3

After putting the value of L/D = 1 we get,

Length of Reactor L = 5.45 m
Diameter of Reactor D = 5.45 m
8.1.2 Wall thickness
For the calculation of wall thickness, we have to calculate total pressure which is sum of static
pressure and pressure inside the reactor.
Static pressure = Ps = ρgh
= 940 × 9.81 × 5.45 = 50196 Pa = 50.19 KPa
Pressure in the Reactor P1 = 5000 KPa
Total pressure = PT = Ps+P1 = 50.19+5000 = 5050.19 KPa
Maximum allowable internal pressure P = 1.1 × PT = 5555 KPa
For cylindrical shells, thickness of wall can be found as
𝑃𝑟
𝑡= + 𝐶. 𝐴.
𝐹𝐽 − 0.6𝑃
Corrosion allowance C.A. = 3 mm = 0.003 m
Joint efficiency J = 0.85
Maximum allowable working stress, F = 5 × 105 KPa (M.O.C. = High Tensile Steel)
5555 × 2.72
𝑡= + 0.003
5 × 105 × 0.85 − 0.6 × 5555
ts = 0.03583 + 0.003 = 0.03883 m = 38.83 mm
So as per market availability we have to choose 40 mm thick sheet of M.O.C.

34
Outside Diameter, Do = Di + 2t = 5.45 + 2(0.03883) = 5.52 m

Combined Loading Calculation:

𝑡′ = corroded thickness = 40-3 = 37 mm
1) Tangential Stress
𝑃(𝐷𝑖 +𝑡 ′ )
𝑓𝑡 = 2𝑡 ′

= 5.555 × (5450 + 37) / (2×37)

𝑓𝑡 = 411.9 N/mm2 (Tensile)

2) Longitudinal Stress
(a) Due to internal pressure
𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝑓1 = 4𝑡 ′

= 5.555 × 5450/(4×37)
= 204.56 N/mm2 (Tensile)
(b) Due to Vessel and Contents
𝑊
𝑓2 = 𝜋𝑡 ′ (𝐷 +𝑡 ′ )
𝑖
𝜋
Weight of vessel = 4 × (𝐷𝑜2 − 𝐷𝑖2 ) × h × 𝜌𝑚𝑜𝑐

= 25802.43 kg
Weight of material = 1000 × 127 = 127000 kg
Weight of head = 25968.49 kg
Taking 60% extra weight for Nozzle,
Total Weight of reactor (W) = 1.6 × 178770.92
= 286033.45 kg
𝑓2 = 0.44846 N/mm2 (Compressive)
(c) Due to wind or piping
𝑀
𝑓3 =
𝜋𝐷𝑖2 𝑡 ′

=0
Total Stress in the longitudinal direction,
𝑓𝑎 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + 𝑓3
= 204.56 – 0.44846 + 0
𝑓𝑎 = 204.111 N/mm2

35
 3) Stresses Due to offset or piping
2𝑇
𝑓𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷 𝑡 ′ (𝐷 +𝑡 ′ )
𝑖 𝑖

𝑓𝑠 = 0.0000575 N/mm2

Resultant Stress,

𝑓𝑅 = √(𝑓𝑡2 + 𝑓𝑎2 + 2𝑓𝑠2 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑎 )

= 356.72 N/mm2

1 𝐸 2𝑡 ′
𝑓𝑐,𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 12
√3(1−𝜇 2 )3 𝐷𝑜

𝑓𝑐,𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 321.20 N/mm2

 Satisfying Conditions:
1. 𝑓𝑟 ≤ 𝑓𝑡,𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∶ 356.72 ≤ 500

2. 𝑓𝑎,𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑓𝑡,𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∶ 204.11 ≤ 500

3. 𝑓𝑎,𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 ≤ 𝑓𝑐,𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ∶ 0.44846 ≤ 321.20

All conditions are satisfied. So, design of reactor with thickness 40 mm is safe.
8.1.3 Reactor Head
There are mainly three types of head for reactor:
1. Ellipsoidal head
2. Torispherical head
3. Hemispherical head
Ellipsoidal head is used for pressure greater than 150 psig and for less than that we can use
Torispherical and Hemispherical head.
Thickness of ellipsoidal head can be calculated as:
𝑃𝐷𝑖
𝑡= + 𝐶. 𝐴.
2𝐹𝐽 − 0.2𝑃
5555 × 5.45
𝑡= + 0.003
2 × 5 × 105 × 0.85 − 0.2 × 5555
th = 0.03866 m = 38.66 mm
So as per market availability we have to use 40 mm thick sheet of M.O.C.

36
Total Volume of head,
2 𝐷𝑜3 − 𝐷𝑖3
𝑉 = 2× ×𝜋×
3 8
2 5.523 − 5.453
= 2× ×𝜋×
3 8
= 3.308 m3
Total Weight of Head = 𝑉 × 𝜌𝑚𝑜𝑐
= 3.308 × 7850
= 25968.49 kg
8.1.4 Flange Design
Choosing Asbestos Gasket,
Gasket Width (N) 20 mm
Gasket Seating Stress (Ya) 11.2 N/mm2
Atmospheric Stress (f) 58.7 N/mm2
Operating Stress (f) 56.2 N/mm2
Gasket Factor (m) 2

Inside diameter of flange = Radius of Vessel = Gi = 2725 mm

Outside diameter of flange Go = Gi + 2N = 2765 mm
Diameter of Gasket Load Reaction, G = (Gi + Go)/2 = 2745 mm
Basic gasket seating width bo = (Go – Gi)/4 = 10 mm
Effective Gasket seating width b = 2.5√𝑏o = 7.91 mm
Wm,atm = πbGYa = 3.14 ×7.91×2745×11.2 = 763601.0256 N/mm2
𝑊𝑚,𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝐴𝑎𝑡𝑚 = = 763601.0256/58.7 = 13008.53 mm2
𝑓
𝜋
𝑊𝑚,𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2𝜋𝑏𝐺𝑚𝑃 + 4 𝐺 2 𝑃 = 34390159.38 N/mm2
𝑊𝑚,𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 34390159.38/56.2 = 611924.5441 mm2
𝑓
G
Number of bolts Nb = 25.4

= 2745/25.4
= 109

37
Choosing M-18 size of bolt, X=18 mm

Area per one bolt, Y = 0.51 × (𝑋)2.09

= 0.51 × (18)2.09 = 214.33 mm2

Area of bolt, A = 𝑁𝑏 × 𝑌 = 109 × 214.33 = 23361.97 mm2

2𝜋𝑌𝑎 𝐺𝑁
Maximum Permissible bolt Area Ab = 𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑚

= 2×3.14×11.2×2745×20/58.7
= 65816.0985 mm2
Here, Ab > A
So, design is safe.

8.1.5 Flange Thickness

𝜋
Total Hydraulic End force H = 4 𝐺 2 𝑃
𝜋
= 4 × 27452 × 5.555

= 32874461.09 N
Bolt Circle Diameter B = Go + 2 X + 12
= 2765 + (2 ×18) + 12
= 2813 mm
𝐵−𝐺
Radial Distance from Gasket Load Reaction to Bolt Circle ℎ𝐺 = 2

= (2813 – 2745)/2
= 34 mm
1
𝑘=
1.5 × 𝑊𝑚,ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 × ℎ𝐺
0.3 + ( )
𝐻×𝐺
Putting all values and 𝑊𝑚,ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 34390159.38 N/mm2
We get, k = 3.1305

Flange plate thickness,

𝑃
𝑡𝑓 = 𝐺√ + 𝐶. 𝐴.
𝑘𝑓

Putting all values,

We get 𝑡𝑓 = 166.528 mm

38
 𝐵×𝜋
Bolt Pitch bp = 𝑁𝑏

= 2813×3.14/109
= 81.076 mm

𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 81.076

= = 4.5
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 18
which is in the range of 3.5 to 5, so SATISFACTORY
Flange Outer Diameter = B + (2X)
= 2813 + (2×18)
= 2849 mm

8.1.6 Agitator Design

Viscosity of mixture at 393K = μ = 0.45 cP
Shape factors are:
S1 = D/T = 1/3
S2 = E/T = 1/3
S3 = L/D = 1/4
S4 = W/D = 1/5
S5 = J/T = 1/10
Agitator dimensions are:
Impeller diameter = D = T/3 = 1.82 m
Impeller height above vessel floor = E = T/3 = 1.82 m
Length of impeller blade = L = 0.25D = 0.45 m
Width of impeller blade = W = D/5 = 0.36 m
Width of baffle = J = T/10 = 0.54 m
Length of sparger = Ls = T/3 = 1.82 m

39
For gas-liquid-liquid mixture and reaction with heat transfer,
Tip velocity = 5 m/s
Tip velocity = π × D × N
Impeller speed = N = 5/ 1.82π = 53 RPM
Power calculation for Agitator
Reynold’s number of impeller is given as
NRe = ρND2/μ = 6.04 × 106
For such a high Reynold’s number which is greater than 105 we use the following relation for
power calculation,
P = KT × N3 × D5 × ρ/gc
KT for six bladed disc turbine is 5.75
Putting all the values in formula we get,
P = 7346 W = 9.9886 hp
It is assumed that gear drive required 5% of impeller power and system variation required a
minimum of 10% of impeller power.
Hence,
Actual minimum motor horsepower = 9.9886/0.85 = 11.75 hp

40
Specifications

Identification

Item Reactor

Item Number R-101

Number of Item 1

Operation Continuous

Type Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor

Design Data
Volume 139.71 m3 Width of baffles 0.545 m

Length 5.45 m Impeller above bottom 0.363 m

Diameter 5.45 m Length of sparger 1.089 m

Number of Baffles 4 Speed of impeller 52.6 RPM

Type of Impeller Disc turbine Diameter of shaft 10 cm

Number of blades 6 Hub diameter 20 cm

Wall thickness 135.9087 mm Length of hub 90.82 cm

Head thickness 132.7441 mm Length of key 15 cm

Impeller Diameter 1.82 m Power requirements 11.75 hp

Length of blade 0.45 m Jacket area 153.29 m2

Width of Blade 0.363 m Water requirements 77891.86 kg/hr

41
8.2 Design of Heat Exchanger
A Heat Exchanger is a heat transfer device that is used for transfer of internal thermal energy
between two or more fluids available at different temperatures. In most of the exchangers the
fluids are separated by a heat transfer surface and ideally don’t mix with each other.
We employed shell and tube heat exchanger due to following reasons:
 It occupies less space.
 Its maintenance is easy.
 Its compactness is more.
 They can tolerate dirty fluids.
 It is used for high heat transfer duties.
 These are mostly employed in industry.
 Means of directing fluid through the tubes and controlling fluid flow through the shell.
 Used where large heat transfer surfaces are required
 Consideration for ease of maintenance and servicing.
 Consideration for differential thermal expansion of tubes and shell.
 It can be fabricated with any type of material depend up fluid properties.
 They can be operated at higher temperature difference b/w coolant and gas.
 Shell and Tube heat exchangers are used on applications where the demands on high
temperatures and pressures are significant.
Shell side and tube side fluid allocation
The criteria for fluid allocation in shell and tube heat exchangers are:
 Specific pressure drop.
 The most corrosive to be tube side
 The higher pressure fluid to be tube side.
 Shell side boiling or condensation is usually preferred.
 Severe fouling fluids shall be allocated the side which is accessible.
Preliminary design steps
Following are the Coulson’s Design Steps for shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
 Defining heat-transfer rate, fluid flow-rates and temperatures.
 Collect physical properties data.
 Decide the type of exchanger.
 Select a trial value for the overall coefficient U.

42
  Calculate the LMTD required.
 Calculate the area required.
 Calculate the individual coefficients
 Calculate the overall coefficient and compare with trial value. If the calculated value
differs significantly from estimated value, substitute the calculated value for estimated
value.
 Calculate the exchanger pressure drop, if unsatisfactory, change exchanger
configuration.
Shell side data
Raw Butanal data
Inlet temperature = T1 = 120 ºC
Outlet temperature = T2 = 40 ºC
Mean temperature = Tm = 80 ºC
Mass flow rate = ṁ = 31420 kg/hr
Physical properties
Density = ρ = 866 kg/m3
Viscosity = μ = 0.34 × 10-3 kg/m.s
Specific heat = Cp = 1.923 KJ/kgºC
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.125 W/m ºC
Tube side data
Cooling water data
Inlet temperature = t1 = 30 ºC
Outlet temperature = t2 = 37 ºC
Mean temperature = tm = 33.5 ºC
Physical properties
Density = ρ = 1015 kg/m3
Viscosity = μ = 0.72 × 10-3 kg/m.s
Specific heat = Cp = 4.23 KJ/kgºC
Thermal conductivity = k = 0.61 W/m ºC

43
DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Calculation of heat duty
From energy balance across heat exchanger E-104 we have heat load,
Q = 2.76 × 106 KJ/hr = 766.66 × 103 W
Q = ṁ CP (t2 – t1)
Mass flow rate of water needed = ṁ = 93300 kg/hr
Calculation of LMTD
t1 = 30 ºC, t2 = 37 ºC
T1 = 120 ºC, T2 = 40 ºC

T1 = 120 ℃

t2 = 37 ℃ T2 = 40 ℃
t1 = 30 ℃

(120−37)−(40−30)
(ΔT)LMTD = 120−37
ln( )
40−30

= 34.5 ºC
Corrected LMTD,
R = (T1 – T2) / (t2 – t1) = 11.4
S = (t2 – t1) / (T1 – t1) = 0.08
Considering 1 shell 2 tube pass heat exchanger,
F = 0.89 (From graph)
(ΔT)LMTD = 0.89 × 34.5 = 30.7 ℃
Heat transfer area required
Assume the heat transfer coefficient Ua = 700 W/m2 ºC
Q = UaA(ΔT)LMTD
Heat transfer area required A = 35.64 m2

44
Choosing cupronickel tubes with outside diameter of 19 mm, inside diameter of 15 mm and
length of 4.9 m.
Heat transfer area provided by one tube = πdoL
= 0.292 m2
Flow area provided by one tube = πri2
= 0.00017 m
Number of tubes Nt = A/(πdoL)
= 35.64/0.292 = 122
Taking total number of tubes = 140
Heat transfer area provided by 140 tubes = 140 × 0.292 = 40.88 m2
For corrected U
766.66 × 103 = U × 40.88 × 30.7
Corrected U = 611 W/m2 ºC
Tube side calculations
Mass velocity = Ġ = ṁ/(Ac × no. of tubes per pass )
= 93300/(0.00017 × 70 × 3600)
= 2178 kg/m2.s
Velocity = Ġ/ρwater
= 2178/1015
= 2.145 m/s (within the range)
Reynold’s Number = NRe = Ġdi/μ
= 2178 × 0.015/0.00072

= 45375 (turbulent flow)

𝐶𝑝 µ
Prandlt number = Pr =
𝑘

=5
Heat transfer coefficient for water
hi = 10000 W/m2K (from literature)
hio = hi × do/di
= 7787 W/m2K

45
Shell side calculations
For triangular pitch with 2 pass,
k1 = 0.249 and n1 = 2.207
1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
Bundle diameter, Db = 𝑑𝑜 ( ) 1
𝐾1

= 0.334 m
Shell inside diameter = Db + diametric clearance
= 0.334 + 0.05
= 0.384 m
Baffle spacing lb = 0.108
Shell diameter Ds = 0.54 m
Pitch for tube = 1.25 × do = 0.0254
(𝑃𝑡 −𝑑𝑜 )𝐷𝑠 𝑙𝑏
Cross sectional flow area for shell side fluid, 𝐴𝑠 =
𝑃𝑡

(0.0254−0.019)0.54 × 0.108
=
0.0254

= 0.01469 m2
Mass velocity Ġs = ṁ/ (Area × 3600 )
= 31420 / (0.01469 × 3600)
= 595 kg/m2.s
Viscosity at wall temperature μw = 0.00042 kg/m.s
1.1
Equivalent diameter of shell Deq = ( 𝑑 ) (𝑃𝑡2 − 0.917𝑑𝑜2 )
𝑜

1.1
= (0.019) (0.02542 − 0.917 × 0.0192 )

= 0.0181 m
Reynold’s number NRe = Ġs × Deq / μ
= 595 × 0.0181 / 0.00034
= 31675 (turbulent region)
𝐶𝑝 µ
Prandlt number Pr =
𝑘
= 1.923 × 0.00034 / 0.000124
= 5.23

46
Heat transfer coefficient
ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑖 1 𝜇 0.14
= 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 ⁄3 ( )
𝑘𝑓 𝜇𝑤

For 25% baffle cut, jh = 0.36

ho = 1606 W/m2K
Overall heat transfer coefficient
𝑟
1 𝑟𝑜 1 1 𝑟𝑜 1 1 ln ( 𝑟𝑜 )
𝑖
( ) = ( )( ) + ( ) + ( )( ) + ( ) + ( )
𝑈𝑜 𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜 𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑑𝑜 𝑘

Where, hdi = hdo = 6000 W/m2K and k = 0.61 kW/m K

1
= 1.5596 × 10−3
𝑈𝑜
Uo = 642 W/m2K
So, calculated overall heat transfer coefficient is lesser than assumed one, hence this result is
satisfactory.
Pressure drop calculations
Tube side
𝐿 µ 0.14 𝜌𝑢2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5] ( )
𝑑𝑖 µ𝑤 2
Where, jf = 0.0054 (from graph)
Np = number of tube side passes
u = tube side velocity
L = Length of one tube
4.8 1015 × 2.1452
∆𝑃𝑡 = 2 [8 × 0.054 ( ) (1)0.14 + 2.5] ( )
0.0145 2
ΔPt = 39 KPa
Shell side
𝐷𝑠 𝐿 𝜌𝑢2 𝜇 −0.14
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( )( )( )( )
𝑑𝑒 𝑙 𝑏 2 𝜇𝑤

0.384 4.8 595 0.00034 −0.14

∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 0.005 ( )( )( )( )
0.0181 0.108 2 0.00042
ΔPs = 11.55 KPa

47
Specification sheet
Name of equipment Shell and Tube heat exchanger
Type 1-2 pass U-tube heat exchanger
No. of equipment 1
Heat transfer area 40 m2
No. of tubes 138
Type of tube BWG 14, SS-405
Tube dimensions ID-0.0148m, OD-0.01905m, 0.0021m thick, 4.88m long
Tube pitch & 0.0254m, 0.00635m respectively
clearance
Shell dimensions ID- 0.387 m
No. of baffles 44
ΔP tube side 34 kPa
ΔP shell side 13 kPa

48
8.3 Design of Stripping Column
Before going in details of stripping column design first we see what is stripping and what its
industrial uses are.
Unit operation where one or more components of a liquid stream are removed by being placed
in contact with a gas stream that is insoluble in the liquid stream.
Stripping is a physical separation process where one or more components are removed from a
liquid stream by a vapor stream. In industrial applications the liquid and vapor streams can
have co-current or countercurrent flows. Stripping is usually carried out in either a packed or
tray column and less often in spray towers, bubble columns and centrifugal contactors.
Choice of random packing
Factors to be considered,
 Void fraction
 Effective surface
 Packing size
 Maximum operating temperature
 Mechanical strength
 Material selection
Packing used here is 0.038m ceramic Intalox saddle because,

 One of the most efficient packing

 Little tendency to nest and block areas of bed
 Gives a fairly uniform bed
 Higher flooding point
 Lower pressure drop
Packing properties
Nominal size = 0.038 mm
Packing factor F 170 Specific gravity (g/cm3) 2.3

Package density (kg/m3) 580 Water absorption (%) <0.3

Free volume (%) 80 Acid resistance (%) >99.6

Surface area (m2/m3) 180 Max operating temp. 1100℃

49
Design approach
 Determining the diameter of column.
 Determining the HETP of packing
 Determining Number of transfer units for the required separation.
 Determining the height of overall transfer units.
 Determining the total height of column.
 Determining the flooding velocity.
 Verifying the pressure drop across the column.
 Mechanical Design
Diameter of column
The column diameter is calculated by following formula

𝐺 0.5
D = 1.128 (𝐺′)

Where,
G = Mass flow rate of gas
G’= Mass flux of gas
To find G’ first find the flow parameter X as followed
Pressure drop range for strippers and absorbers is 147Pa to 490Pa.
Pressure drop of 294 Pa/m of a packed bed is selected.
L = Mass flow rate of liquid stream
ρg = Density of gas
ρl = Density of liquid
x = 0.236
Value of gas mass flux G’ is calculated from figure
G’ = 0.7 kg/m2s

0.2 0.5
Diameter, D = 1.128 (0.7)

= 0.603 m

50
Height equivalent of theoretical plate (HETP)
𝜎 −0.19 𝜇 0.21
HETP = A(20) (0.02)

Where,
A= Size of packing = 38mm
σ= Surface tension of liquid = 29.2 mN/m
µ= Overall viscosity of feed stream = 0.000414 Pa s
HETP = 0.0357m
Number of transfer unit (NTU)
1 𝑥 −𝑦
NTU = 1−𝛽 ln [(1-β)𝑥2 −𝑦1 + 𝛽]
1 1

β=L/HG = 0.0045
L=Molar liquid flow rate = 203 kmol/hr
G=Molar gas flow rate = 566 kmol/hr
H=Henry’s Law Constant = 79.52 Pa/mol fraction
x2=Solute contents in liquid inlet stream mol fraction = 0.0083
x1=Solute contents in liquid exit stream mol fraction = 0.00009
y1=Solute contents in gas at bottom mol fraction =0
By putting all the values,
NTU = 4.5 ~ 5

51
Height of overall gas transfer unit (HOG)
1
( −1)
𝛽
HOG = HETP ln(1/𝛽)

HOG = 1.45 m
Column height
HTotal = HOG × NTU
HTotal = 7.28 m
Giving 0.457m allowance for disengagement of vapors at top and at bottom for liquid.
HTotal = 8.194 m
Flooding velocity
Flooding velocity requires the calculation of the superficial velocity that is given as:
Vs = G/Aρg
Vs = 5.88 m/s
As general rule superficial velocity is 40% to 60% of the flooding velocity. Taking superficial
velocity as 60% of the flooding velocity, then the flooding velocity is given as:
VF = 9.8 m/s
Check for pressure drop
For pressure drop calculation we required flow factor and gas mass velocity.
Flow factor X is calculated as,
𝐿 𝜌𝑔
X = 𝐺 √𝜌
𝑙

X = 2.66
Gas mass velocity is calculated with following formula.
Where,
mv = Mass flow rate of gas stream
A = Area of column
𝑚𝑣
G= 𝐴

G = 0.703 kg/m2 s
Now the Y ordinate of above figure is calculated by the given formula.
𝐺 ′2 𝐹𝜇 0.1
Y=𝜌
𝑔 (𝜌𝑙− 𝜌𝑔 )𝑔𝑐

Y = 0.723

52
Value of pressure drop for this value of Y is 294Pa/m of packing height.
Mechanical design
Thickness of shell
Material of construction = stainless steel 304

ts = Thickness of shell
p =Design pressure = O.P. × 1.1 = 55.265 N/mm2
D =Inside diameter = 0.602 m
f =Design stress = 145 N/mm2
j =Joint efficiency = 85%
c = Corrosion allowance = 2mm
ts = 82mm
Weight of shell
Shell weight is calculated as:
Shell Weight = Volume of shell × Density of shell material
Shell weight = 12670 kg
Head calculation
2:1 Elliptical head has been selected because it is used for high pressure requirements and its
manufacturing is easy as compared to other types.
Material of construction is low alloy steel.
Thickness of elliptical head is calculated with following formula,
𝑝𝐷
𝑖
th = 2𝑓𝑗+0.2𝑝 +c

Where,
th = thickness of head
p = Design pressure = O.P. × 1.1 = 55.25 N/mm2
Cs =Stress concentration factor = 1.77
f = Design stress = 240 N/mm2
j = Joint efficiency = 85%
c = Corrosion allowance =2

53
 th = 83 mm
Weight of head
Weight of elliptical head can be calculated as:
4𝜋(𝐷𝑜 −𝐷𝑖 )(ℎ𝑜 −ℎ𝑖 )
W = 𝜌𝑚 3

W = 58 kg
Support design
Type of support selected is skirt type support for vertical vessels.
Material of construction is stainless steel SS-301.
First we find maximum dead weight of vessel when full of water.
Max. Dead weight = 25.5 kN
Weight of column = 202 kN
Weight of Packing = 2.364 kN
Wind loading
𝑤𝑥 2
Ms = 2

Where,
w = Dynamic wind pressure = 2790N/m2
x = Length of column = 9.11m
Ms = 69813 N
Take test thickness of support say 220mm.
Tensile strength of support,
4𝑀𝑠
σbs = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 )𝐷𝑠 𝑡𝑠

Where,
Ms = Wind loading
Ds = Inside diameter of shell
ts = Thickness of support
σbs = 0.81 N/mm2

Test compressive strength of support,

𝑊
σws(test) = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 )𝑡𝑠

54
Where,
W = dead weight of column when fully filled with water
σws(test) = 0.044 N/mm2
Operational compressive strength of support,
𝑊
σws(operating) = 𝜋(𝐷 +𝑡
𝑠 𝑠 )𝑡𝑠

Where,
W = total weight of column
σws(operating) = 0.359 N/mm2
Maximum tensile strength of support,
σs,max(tensile) = σbs - σws(operating)
σs,max(tensile) = 770 KPa
Maximum compressive strength of support,
σs,max(compressive) = σbs - σws(test)
σs,max(compressive) = 455 KPa
Check for taken thickness of support,
Following two conditions must be satisfied.
1. σs(tensile) < fs j sinθs
Where,
fs = Design stress = 240N/mm2
j = Joint efficiency = 85%
θs = Base angle (normally taken as 90°)
0.226 < 0.770
Condition 1 is satisfied.
𝑡
2. σs(compressive) < 0.125E(𝐷𝑠 ) sinθs
𝑠

Where,
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity = 11.35 N/mm2
0.455 < 0.518
So, condition 2 is also satisfied.
Hence,
Thickness of support is 220 mm.

55
Specification sheet

Name of equipment Stripper

Type Packed column
No. of equipment 1
Type of packing 0.038m ceramic Intalox saddles
Material of construction Low alloy steel 950X
Diameter of column 0.602m
Area of column 1.138m2
NTU 5
Hog 1.45m
Height of column 9.11m
Weight of shell 12671kg
Pressure drop 294Pa/m of packing

56
8.4 Design of Distillation Column
Distillation is a separation technique in which the components of a fluid mixture are separated
by heating the mixture.
Basic principle of separation is the difference in the boiling points of mixture components or
their relative volatilities.
Greater the difference in boiling point or greater the relative volatility, greater will be the ease
of separation. It is easier to separate the components when the relative volatility is greater than
one.
Significance of distillation column
Distillation column is the final equipment in our process flow-sheet. The feed to distillation
column is a mixture of iso-butanal, n-butanal and propylene. Whereas our required product is
98.8% n-butanal. So the required separation is being brought about by distillation column.
Choice between tray and packed column
 Plate columns are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without flooding.
 Packed columns are not suitable for very low liquid rates.
 For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate column.
 Packing should always be considered for small diameter columns <0.6m where plates
are difficult to install.

57
  It is easier to make provisions for cooling in plate column.
 For corrosive liquids a packed column will be cheaper than the equivalent plate column.
 Packed column are suitable for foaming liquids.
 The liquid hold up is appreciably lower in a packed column than a plate column. This
can be important when the inventory of toxic or flammable liquids needs to be as small
as possible for safety reasons.
 Man-holes are provided for cleaning in tray columns. In packed columns packing must
be removed before cleaning.
 Plate columns can be designed with more assured rating.
So on the basis of above-mentioned points, tray column was preferred.
Selection of tray type
Sieve Tray has been selected because of the following reasons:
 High capacity
 Easier and cheaper to install
 Light in weight
 Low pressure drop
 Maintenance and cleaning is easy
 Cheapest
 They can easily handle wide variations in flow-rate
 Simple design
 Their fundamentals are well-established
Material balance
Feed = Top Product + Bottom Product
F = D + B = 5.076 + 192.6 = 197.676 kmol/hr
Feed

Components Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr) Molar Flow Rate (kmol/hr)

n-butanal 14028 190.224
Iso-butanal 321.8 4.42
Propylene 7.22 1.0244
Hydrogen 0.1085 0.51223
CO 2.71 0.51223
Propane 2.02 0.98328
Total 14359.8385 197.676

58
Top products

Components Mass Flow Rate(kg/hr) Molar flow-rate (kmol/hr)

n-butanal 29.75 0.513

Iso-butanal 20.1 1.531
Propylene 5.36 1.0244
Hydrogen 0.1078 0.51223
CO 2.7 0.51223
Propane 1.44 0.98328
Total 59.4578 5.076

Bottom products

Components Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr) Molar Flow Rate (kmol/hr)

n-butanal 13722 189.711

Iso-butanal 166.7 2.889
Total 13888.7 192.6
So,
Feed = 197.676 kmol/hr
Top Product = 5.076 kmol/hr
Bottom Product = 192.6 kmol/hr
Hence,
Feed = Top Product + Bottom Product
F = D + B = 5.076 + 192.6 = 197.676 kmol/hr
Mole fraction

Components Xf Xd XB
Hydrogen 0.00259 0.1009 0.00
CO 0.00259 0.1009 0.00
Propylene 0.00518 0.2018 0.00
Propane 0.00497 0.1937 0.00
n-butanal 0.96230 0.10106 0.985
Iso-butanal 0.02235 0.3016 0.015
Total 1.00 1.00 1.00

59
Process conditions

Stream Temperature (K) Pressure (kPa)

Feed 378 280
Top 308.2 260
Bottom 385.2 300

Physical properties
Top

Avg. Mol. Weight 72

Vapor Density (kg/m3) 4.081
Liquid Density (kg/m3) 787.9
Surface Tension (dynes/cm) 25.04

Bottom

Avg. Mol. Weight 72

Vapor Density (kg/m3) 2.075
Liquid Density (kg/m3) 824.8
Surface Tension (dynes/cm) 29.76

Average Viscosity of Feed = 0.3206 kg/m.s

Relative volatility

Components Feed Top Bottom

n-Butanal 1 1 1
Iso-Butanal 1.250801495 1.27376817 1.240707
Propylene 26.46187108 31.95212565 …
Hydrogen 294.79087 440.348431 …
CO 223.2445197 440.348431 …
Propane 2.985369453 3.192712193 …

Light key (LK) = iso-butanal

Heavy key (HK) = n-butanal

60
Standard design shape for distillation column
 Calculation of Minimum Reflux Ratio Rm.
 Calculation of Actual reflux ratio.
 Calculation of Theoretical number of stages.
 Calculation of Actual number of stages.
 Calculation of Diameter of the column.
 Calculation of Weeping point.
 Calculation of Pressure drop.
 Calculation of Entrainment.
 Calculation of the Height of the column
Minimum reflux ratio
Underwood equation for minimum reflux is given below:

As q = 1
By iteration,
θ = 1.20
By putting value of θ in second equation,

Rmin = 8.1
Now by rule of thumb,
R = 1.2-1.5 times of Rmin
R = 12.5
Minimum number of stages
Minimum number of stages can be calculated by Fenske equation.
x x
ln[( LK ) ( HK ) ]
xHK D xLK B
1 + Nmin = ln∝Avg

Nmin = 16.7
Theoretical number of trays
It is calculated by Gilliland equation

61
 N − Nmin R − R min 0.566
= 0.75 [1 − ( ) ]
N+1 R+1
N = 17.42
Plate efficiency
Eo = 51 – 32.5 log (μavg × αavg)
Eo = 63.85 %
Actual number of trays
𝑁𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
NActual = 𝐸𝑜

NActual = 27
Location of feed plate
2
ND B xHK (xLK )B
log ( ) = 0.206 log [( ) ( ) ( ) ]
NB D xLK SF (xHK )D

ND + NB = 27
By these two equations,
Location of feed plate is 9th from bottom.
Vapor load
Top
Vn ×mol. weight
Qv,Top = ρv ×3600

Qv,Top = 0.0647 m3/s

Bottom
Vm ×mol. weight
Qv,Bottom = ρv ×3600

Qv,Bottom = 0.1825 m3/s

Liquid load
Top
Ln ×mol. weight
Ql,Top = ρl ×3600

Ql,Top = 0..00031 m3/s

Bottom
Lm ×mol. weight
Ql,Bottom = ρl ×3600

62
 Ql,Bottom = 0.00573 m3/s
Liquid-Vapor factor
L ρ 0.5
Top, (FLV )T = ( n ) ( v )
V ρn l T

= 0.0665
For this value of FLV,
Csb,T = 0.0078 m/s
L ρ 0.5
Bottom, (FLV )B = ( m ) ( v )
V ρm l B

= 0.5609
For this value of FLV,
Csb,B = 0.0094 m/s

Flooding velocity
Top
σ 0.2 ρ −ρ 0.5
VF,T = Csb,T (20T ) l v
( )
ρv T

= 0.113 m/s
For 80% flooding,
VF,T = 0.8 × 0.113 = 0.0904 m/s
Bottom
σ 0.2 ρ −ρ 0.5
VF,B = Csb,B ( 20B ) l v
( )
ρv B

= 0.202 m/s
For 80% flooding,
VF,B = 0.8 × 0.202 = 0.162 m/s
Net vapor velocity
Net velocity is 75% of flooding velocity. Hence,

Top, Vn,T = 0.75 × 0.0904 = 0.0678 m/s

Bottom, Vn,B = 0.75 × 0.202 = 0.121 m/s

63
Net area

Q
Top, An,T = (V v )
n T

= 0.954 m2

Q
Bottom, An,T = (V v )
n T

= 1.50 m2

Cross sectional area

n A
Top, Ac,T = (0.85 )
T

= 1.12 m2

n A
Bottom, Ac,B = (0.85 )
B

= 1.76 m2

Column diameter

4Ac
D=√ π

Top, D = 1.19 m

Bottom, D = 1.49 m

So diameter of column is taken as 1.5 m.

Flooding check

Q
Vn = (Av )
n B

Vn = 0.135 m/s

V
F = Vn
f,B

F = 79.86 %

64
Fractional entrainment factor

From graph,
Ψ = 0.04
As Ψ < 0.1
So process is satisfactory.
Weeping point
K2 −[0.90−(2.54−dn )]
Uh,min = (ρv )0.5

= 7.85 m/s

65
Actual minimum vapor velocity = (Min. Vapour Rate) / Ah
Actual minimum vapor velocity = 10.5 m/s
As actual minimum vapor velocity > Uh,min
So from curve there is no weeping.
Total active and downcomer area
Active area, Aa = 0.76 AT
= 1.34 m2
Downcomer area, Ad = 0.15 AT
= 0.264 m2
Total pressure drop
Lw 2/3
How = 750 (ρ )
lb lw

= 16.563 m
Q
Uh = A v
h

= 1.35 m/s

Uh 2 ρvb
Hd = 51 ( )
Co ρlb
= 0.3360 mm
Ht = Hd + Hw + HOW + HT
= 82.05 mm
Now,
Pressure drop, ∆Pt = 0.00981Ht ρl
= 663.96 Pa
Weir length

66
From graph,
Weir length = lw = 1.56 m
Downcomer calculations
Downcomer height

Lwd 2
Hdc = 98 ( )
ρl Am
= 36.83 mm
Backup in downcomer
Hbc = Hdc + Hw + HOW + Ht
= 185.46 mm
Residence time
𝐴𝑑 × 𝐻𝑏𝑐 × 𝜌𝑙
𝑡𝑟 =
𝐿𝑤
= 9.56 s
Holes calculation
Area of single hole
𝜋𝐷 2
𝛼ℎ = 4

= 0.000019635 m2
Total number of holes’
Ah
nh = αh

= 6837
So, number of holes per plate = 250
Column height
Hc = (Nact − 1)Hs + ∆H
= 14.840 m
Height to diameter ratio
H/D = 14.84 / 1.49
= 9.9

67
Specification Sheet
Item: Distillation column
Number required: 1
Function: To separate n-butanal from feed mixture
Operation: Continuous

Parameters Values Parameters Values

Type of column Tray column MOC Carbon steel

Tray Type Sieve Tray Hole Diameter 5 mm

No. of Trays 28 Weir Length 1.56 m

Height of Column 14.84 m Pressure Drop 0.663 kPa

Diameter of Column 1.5 m Tray Thickness 5 mm

2
Tray spacing 0.45 m Active Area 1.35 m

Flooding 80% Reflux Ratio 12.2

68
 Chapter 9: Cost Estimation
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating
under conditions which will yield a profit. Since net profit equals total income
minus all expenses, it is essential that we are aware of the many different types of
costs involved in manufacturing processes. Capital must be allocated for direct
plant expenses, such as those for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides
direct expenses, many other indirect expenses are incurred, and these must be
included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to be obtained. Some examples
of these indirect expenses are administrative salaries, product-distribution costs,
and costs for interplant communications.

A capital investment is required for any industrial process, and determination of

the necessary investment is an important part of a plant-design project. The total
investment for any process consists of fixed-capital investment for physical
equipment and facilities in the plant plus working capital which must be available
to pay salaries, keep raw materials and products on hand, and handle other special
items requiring a direct cash outlay. Thus, in an analysis of costs in industrial
processes, capital-investment costs, manufacturing costs, and general expenses
including income taxes must be taken into consideration.

Cash Flow for Industrial Operations

Above figure shows the concept of cash flow for an overall industrial operation
based on a support system serving as the source of capital or the sink for capital*
receipts. Input to the capital sink can be in the form of loans, stock issues, bond
releases, and other funding sources including the net cash flow returned to the
capital sink from each project. Output from the capital source is in the form of total
capital investments for each of the company’s industrial operations, dividends to
stockholders, repayment of debts, and other investments.

The tree-growth concept, as shown in Fig., depicts a trunk output to start the
particular industrial operation designated as the total capital investment. This total
capital investment includes all the funds necessary to get the project underway.
The cash flow for the capital investments can usually be considered as in a lump
sum or in-an-instant such as for the purchase of land with a lump-sum payment or
the provision of working capital as one lump sum at the start of the operation of the
completed plant.
Capital Investments

Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment Land and
service facilities must be obtained, and the plant must be erected complete with all
piping, controls, and services. In addition, it is necessary to have money available
for the payment of expenses involved in the plant operation. The capital needed to
supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the fixed-capital
investment, while that necessary for the operation of the plant is termed the working
capital. The sum of the fixed-capital investment and the working capital is known as
the total capital investment. The fixed-capital portion may be further subdivided into
manufacturing fixed-capital investment and nonmanufacturing fixed-capital
investment.

Estimation of Capital Investment

Of the many factors which contribute to poor estimates of capital investments, the
most significant one is usually traceable to sizable omissions of equipment, services,
or auxiliary facilities rather than to gross errors in costing. A check list of items
covering a new facility is an invaluable aid in making a complete estimation of the
fixed-capital investment.

Cost Indexes (CI)

Most cost data which are available for immediate use in a preliminary or predesign
estimate are based on conditions at some time in the past. Because prices may change
considerably with time due to changes in economic conditions, some method must
be used for updating cost data applicable at a past date to costs that are representative
of conditions at a later time? This can be done by the use of cost indexes. A cost
index is merely an index value for a given point in time showing the cost at that time
relative to a certain base time.

Present Cost =Original Cost(CI at Pressent Time/CI at Time Original Cost was
Obtained)
9.1 Capital Cost Estimation & Distribution

Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index for year 2009 = 521.9

Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index for year 2020 = 607 86

Cost of Butyraldehyde plant of capacity 100000 MT/year in 2009 is ₹ 175 cr.

Hence,
Cost of Plant in 2019 = Cost of Plant in 2009 × (Cost index in 2019/Cost index in
2009 )
= ₹ 204 cr (Total Capital Investment)

Estimation of Capital Investment Cost

The percentages indicated in the following part are the various constituting the
capital investment. These approximations are applicable to ordinary chemical
processing plants. It should be realized that the values given could vary depending
on many factors, such as plant location, type of process, complexity of
instrumentation etc.
Here Fixed capital investment = Direct cost + Indirect cost.
Now,
Fixed Capital Investment (80-90 % of total capital investment)
FCI = 0.85 × 204 = ₹ 174 cr
Working Capital Investment (10-20 % of total capital investment)
WC = 0.15 × 204 = ₹ 30 cr

1. Direct Cost (DC)

a) Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-85 %

of fixed-capital investment) = 0.80 × 132 = ₹ 139.2 cr

b) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation +

painting (50-60% of above cost) = 0.55 × 139.2 = ₹ 76.56 cr
c) Purchased equipment cost (15-40% of actual installation cost of fixed capital
investment) = 0.30 × 139.2 = ₹ 41.76 cr

d) Installation including insulation and painting (25-55 % of purchased equipment

cost) = 0.40 × 41.76 = ₹ 16.7 cr

e) Instrumentation and controls, installed (6-30% of purchased equipment cost)

= 0.20 × 41.76 = ₹ 8.35 cr

f) Piping installed (10-80 % of purchased equipment cost)

= 0.50 × 41.76 = ₹ 20.88 cr

g) Electrical accessories installed (10-40 % of purchase equipment cost)

= 0.25 × 41.76 = ₹ 10.44 cr

h) Service facilities and yard improvement (40-100% of purchased equipment cost)

= 0.75 × 41.76 = ₹ 31.32 cr

i) Land (40-50 % of purchased equipment cost) = 0.45 × 41.76 = ₹ 18.8 cr

Direct Cost = c + d + e + f + g + h
= 41.76 + 16.7 + 8.35 + 20.88 + 10.44 + 31.32
= ₹ 130 cr

2. Indirect Cost (IC)

They are expenses which are not directly involved in material and labor of actual
insulation of complete facility. (15-30% of capital investment)
Indirect cost = FCI – DC
= 174 – 130 = ₹ 44 cr
Engineering and supervision (5-30% of direct costs)
= 0.2 × 130 = ₹ 26 cr

Construction expenses and contractors’ fee (6-30% of direct costs)

= 0.25 × 130 = ₹ 32.5 cr
Contingency (5-15% of fixed capital investment)
= 0.1 × 174 = ₹ 17.4 cr

Estimation of Total Product Cost

Total Product Cost = Manufacturing Cost + General Expenses

Manufacturing Cost
Manufacturing cost = total production costs + fixed charges + plant overhead costs

a) Fixed charges

About 10% of fixed-capital investment for machinery and equipment

= 0.1 × 174 = ₹ 17.4 cr
Local taxes is 1-4% of fixed capital investment
= 0.025 × 174 = ₹ 4.35 cr
Insurance is 0.4-1% of the fixed capital investment
= 0.007 × 132 = ₹ 1.218 cr 88
Total fixed charges = 17.4 + 4.35 + 1.218 = ₹ 23 cr

b) Total production cost

Fixed charges are 10-20% of total production cost. So,

Total production cost = 23 / 0.1 = ₹ 230 cr

Direct production cost is 60% of the production cost = 0.6 × 230 = ₹ 138 cr

Raw material is 10-50% of total production cost = 0.30 × 230 = ₹ 69 cr

Operating labor is 10-20% of total production cost = 0.15 × 230 = ₹ 34.5 cr

Direct supervisory and clerical labor is 10-25 % of operating labor = 0.175 × 34.5
= ₹ 6.037 c

Utilities is 10-20% of total production cost = 0.15 × 230 = ₹ 34.5 cr

Maintenance and repair is 2-10% of fixed capital investment = 0.06 × 174
= ₹ 10.44 cr
Operating supplies cost is 10-20% of cost for repair and maintenance
= 0.15 ×10.44 = ₹ 1.566 cr

Laboratory charges is 1-2 % of total production cost

= 0.015 × 230 = ₹ 3.45 cr
Patents and royalties is 0-6% of total production cost
= 0.05 × 230 = ₹ 11.5 cr

c) Plant Overhead cost

Plant overhead cost includes costs for the following: general plant upkeep,
overhead, payroll, packaging, salvage, laboratories and storage facilities.
Plant overhead cost is 5-15% of total production cost = 0.1 × 230 = ₹ 23 cr

Manufacturing Cost = a + b + c = 23 + 230 + 23 = ₹ 276 cr

General expenses

General expenses = administrative costs + distribution costs + research and

development cost
a. Administrative cost is about 15% of cost for operating labor
= 0.15 × 34.5 = ₹ 5.175 cr
b. Distribution and selling cost is 2.6% of the total product cost
= 0.026 × 230 = ₹ 5.98 cr
c. Research and development is 5% of total product cost = 0.05 × 230 = ₹ 11.5 cr

d. Financing is 0.1% of total fixed capital investment = 0.001 × 174 = ₹ 0.174 cr

Hence,
General expenses = 5.175 + 5.98 + 11.5 + 0.174
= ₹ 22.829 cr
So,
Total product cost = 276 + 22.829 = ₹ 298.829 cr = ₹ 300 cr
9.2 Total Income

The selling price of Butyraldehyde per Tonne in market = ₹ 49000 (700 $ per
Tonne)

It is assumed that seller is given a commission of 10% of the market selling price.
Price of Butyraldehyde per Tonne from the factory = ₹ 44100

Total selling price/year = 44100 × 100000 = ₹ 441 cr

Total income = gross earning – total product cost = 441 – 300 = ₹ 141 cr

Depreciation cost is 10% of fixed capital investment = 0.10 × 174 = ₹ 17.4 cr

Total profit after depreciation = 141 – 17.4 = ₹ 123.6 cr

9.3 Payout Time and Rate of Return

Payout Time
Payout time= Fixed Capital InvestmentNet Profit After Taxes+Depreciation
= 17474.16+17.4
= 1.90 Years

Rate of Return
Rate of Return=Net Profit × 100Fixed Capital Investment
= 74.16 ×100174
= 42.62%
 Chapter 10: Plant Location and Layout
A suitable plant location must be selected for the installation of Butyraldehyde plant, with easy
access to resources, climate, transportation, availability, and for proper waste disposal. The
location should be economical and sustainable regarding the needs of future generation.

10.1 Plant Location and Site Selection

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project, and the scope
for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site, and only
a brief review of the principle factors are given below.
The principle factors to consider are:
1. Location, with respect to the marketing area.
2. Raw material supply.
3. Transport facility.
4. Availability of labor.
5. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power.
6. Availability of suitable land.
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal.
8. Local community considerations.
9. Climate.
10. Political and strategic considerations.

1. Marketing area
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities; such as Butyraldehyde where the cost of the
product per tonne is relatively low and the cost of transport a significant fraction of the sales
price, the plant should be located close to the primary market. This consideration will be less
important for low volume production, high-priced products; Pharmaceuticals. In an
international market, there may be an advantage to be gained by locating the plant within an
area with preferential tariff agreements.
2. Raw material supply
The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location. Plants
producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material; where
this is also close to the marketing area.
3. Transport facility
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected that is close to at least
two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river), or a sea port. Road transport
is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long- distance transport of bulk chemicals. Air
transport is convenient and efficient for the movement personnel and essential equipment and
supplies, and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be considered.

75
4. Availability of labor
Labor will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate
pool of unskilled labor availability locally; and labor suitable for training to operate the plant.
Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union customs and
restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the availability and suitability
of the local labor for recruitment and training.
5. Utilities (Services)
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general process
use, and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality. Process water may
be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites, the
cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations
cooling towers will be needed. Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical
processes that require large quantities of power; need to be located close to a cheap source of
power. A competitively priced fuel must be available on site for steam and power generation.
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal:
All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be
covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial
site survey to determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment
should be made for each new project or major modification or addition or an existing process.
7. Local community considerations:
The proposed plant must be fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able
to provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel: schools, banks, housing, and recreational
and cultural facilities.
8. Land (site considerations):
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant and for future expansion. The
land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full
site evaluation would be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations.
9. Climate:
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperatures will
require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and pipe runs.
Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone/hurricane) or
earthquakes.
10. Political and strategic considerations:
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to direct
new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The overriding of
such grants can be the overriding considerations in site selection.

76
10.2 Site Layout
The process units and auxiliary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical flow
of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe
distance from other buildings. Consideration must be given to the future expansion of the site.
The auxiliary buildings and services required on a site, in addition to the main processing units
(buildings), will include:
1. Storages for raw materials and products: tank farms and warehouses.
2. Maintenance workshops.
3. Stores, for maintenance and operating supplies.
4. Laboratories for process control.
5. Fire stations and other emergency services.
6. Utilities: Steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, transformer
station
7. Effluent disposal plant.
8. Offices for general administration.
9. Canteens and other amenity buildings, such as medical center.
10. Car parks.

When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited first
and arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from raw
materials to final product storage. Products units are normally spaced at least 30 m apart; grater
spacing may be needed for hazardous processes. The location of the principal auxiliary
buildings should then be decided. They should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by
personnel in traveling between buildings.
Administration offices and laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people will be
working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes. Control rooms
will normally be located adjacent to the processing units, but with potentially hazardous
processes may have to be sited at a safer distance. The siting of the main process units will
determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys and drains. Access roads will be needed to
each building for construction, and for operation and maintenance.
Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and from the
process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of
condensate spray drifts away from the plant area and adjacent properties. The main storage
area should be placed between the loading and unloading facilities and the process units they
serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited at least 70 m (200 ft.) from
the site boundary.

77
 Chapter 11: Environmental Impact Assessments and ETP
11.1 Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) can be defined as the process of identifying,
predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made.
Purpose of EIA
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the likely positive and/or
negative influence a project may have on the environment.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider environmental
impacts before deciding whether to proceed with new projects.
EIA is intended to identify the Environmental, Social and Economic impacts of a proposed
development prior to decision making.
This means that it is easy to identify:
1. The most environmentally suitable option at an early stage.
2. The Best Practicable Environmental Option.
3. Alternative processes
Steps involved in EIA

78
Potential Health Effects
Eye contact:
Immediately flush eyes or skin with copious amounts of water for at least 15 minutes. Assure
adequate flushing of the eyes by separating the eyelids with fingers, and seek medical advice.
Skin contact:
Immediately flush skin with copious amounts of water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen.
If swallowed:
Wash out mouth with water provided the person is conscious. Call a physician. Wash
contaminated clothing before reuse.
Chronic Exposure:
Marked impairment of vision has been reported. Repeated or prolonged exposure may cause
skin irritation.
Aggravation of Pre-existing Conditions:
Persons with pre-existing skin disorders or eye problems or impaired liver or kidney function
may be more susceptible to the effects of the substance.
First Aid and Measure
Inhalation:
Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give
oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
Ingestion:
Induce vomiting immediately as directed by medical personnel. Never give anything by mouth
to an unconscious person. Get medical attention immediately.
Skin Contact:
Immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical attention. Wash clothing before reuse.
Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse.
Eye Contact:
Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting lower and upper
eyelids occasionally. Get medical attention immediately.

79
Fire Fighting Measures
Fire:
Flash point: 262 K
Auto ignition temperature: 503 K
Flammable limits in air 1.4% - 12.5% by volume.
Flammable Liquid and Vapor
Flammable vapor and air can form explosive mixtures. Cease fire, high-heat combustion
caused the explosion. With the oxidizer reaction will be fierce. In case of high fever, can occur
polymerization reaction and emit heat and large containers ruptured and caused the explosion.
Its vapor is heavier than air, will spread to the lower Department of considerable local and met
the fire will generate a return to burning. Combustion (decomposition) products: carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide.
Extinguishing media
 Carbon dioxide, dry chemical powder or appropriate foam
 Water may be effective for cooling, but may not effect extinguishment.
Special fire-fighting procedures
 Wear self-contained breathing apparatus and protective clothing to prevent contact with
skin and eyes.
 Extremely flammable.
 Use water spray to cool fire-exposed containers.
Unusual fire and explosion hazards
 Vapor may travel considerable distance to source of ignition and flash back,
 Container explosion may occur under fire conditions.
 Forms explosive mixtures in air.
Accidental release measures
 Evacuate personnel to safe areas.
 Keep people away from and upwind of spill/leak.
 Shut off all sources of ignition.
 Wear self-contained breathing apparatus, rubber boots and heavy rubber gloves.
 Cover with an activated carbon adsorbent take up and place in closed containers.
 Transport outdoors. 
 Ventilated and wash spill site after material pickup is complete.

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Handling and Storage
Handling: Use only in well-ventilated areas. Do not breathe vapors or spray mist. Avoid
contact with skin, eyes and clothing. Take necessary action to avoid static electricity discharge
(which might cause ignition of organic vapors.)
Storage: Keep tightly closed in a dry, cool and well-ventilated place. Keep away from heat and
sources of ignition. Store in original container. Electrical equipment should be protected to the
appropriate standard.
Exposure controls / Personal protection
 Wear approved respirator EN141, chemical resistant gloves, safety goggles, other
protective clothing.
 Use only in a chemical fume cupboard.
 Safety shower and eye bath.
 Use non-sparking tools.
 Do not breathe vapor.
 Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing.
 Avoid prolonged or repeated exposure.
 Wash thoroughly after handling.
 Keep tightly closed.
 Keep away from heat, sparks and open flame.
 Store in a cool dry place.

Stability and Reactivity

Stability:
 Stable.
Conditions to avoid:
 Heat
 Protect from light.
Incompatibilities:
 Oxidizing agents.

81
  Strong bases.
 Strong reducing agents.
 Strong acids.
Hazardous combustion or decomposition products:
 Toxic fumes of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide.
Hazardous polymerization:
 May undergo autopolymerisation.
Toxicological Information
Acute effects:
 Harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through skin.
 Butanal is extremely destructive to tissue of the mucous membranes and upper
respiratory tract, eyes and skin.
 Symptoms of exposure may include burning sensation, coughing, wheezing, and
laryngitis, shortness of breath, headache, nausea and vomiting.
 Prolonged or repeated exposure may cause allergic reactions in certain sensitive
individuals.
Disposal Considerations
 Burn in a chemical incinerator equipped with an afterburner and scrubber but exert extra
care in igniting as this material is highly flammable.
 Observe all EU, Irish and Local Environmental Regulations.
Personal Protection Equipments (PPEs)
 Respiratory protection: In case of insufficient ventilation wear suitable respiratory
equipment.
 Hand protection: Neoprene gloves / butyl rubber gloves.
 Eye protection: Goggles giving complete protection to eyes.
 Skin and body protection: Rubber or plastic boots, Chemical resistant apron /
complete suit protecting against chemicals.

82
11.2 Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)
The waste water from the plant should be treated properly before letting into the water channel.
Since the waste water contains organic compounds, it is necessary to recover these organic
contents and then proceed with the treatment of the water. Water treatment procedure contains
two stages-primary treatment and secondary treatment.
The primary method comprises of the removal of large floatation and suspended impurities.
The equipment used are Raked bar screens, Sedimentation Tanks, etc. The secondary treatment
is a step where the process of biodegradation takes place. Here the oxygen supplied to the
bacteria is consumed under controlled condition. The idea behind it is to consume all the
oxygen in the plant rather than in the water course. The process is also known as activated
sludge process. Trickling filters are commonly used for this purpose. The sludge that is formed
has to be disposed of properly. The steps involved in the disposal of sludge are:
 Concentration: This step involves the removal of water so that the volume is reduced
as much as possible to facilitate the efficient handling of the sludge.
 Digestion: This is the stage where the sludge is stabilized by digesting it under aerobic
or anaerobic conditions.
 Conditioning: The stabilized sludge is added with some chemicals like iron salt, alum,
lime and polyelectrolyte to improve its dewatering characteristics.
 Dewatering: The sludge is further processed for removal of water by mechanical
means. This product from this stage is a solid waste material.
 Oxidation: The sludge is oxidized to remove any unoxidized organic matter and
stabilized further.

Ultimate Sludge Disposal: The sludge is usually disposed by spraying it on cropland where it
functions as fertilizer or it is dumped in the sea.

83
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