Final Paper

FINAL PROJECT GC 2014
ABSTRACT
One of the primary needs for socio-economic development in any nation in the world is the
provision of reliable electricity supply systems. This work is a development of an indigenous
technology hybrid Solar -Wind Power system that harnesses the renewable energies from
Sun and Wind to generate electricity. Here, electric DC energies produced from
photovoltaic and wind turbine systems are transported to a DC disconnect energy
controller. The data regarding wind speed and solar irradiation for the site understudy are
collected from the National Metrological Agency (NMA) and analyzed using the software tool
HOMER. Whereas the solar energy potential, has been given in the form of solar radiation plots
for the site.
The design of a standalone PV-wind hybrid power generating system has proceeded based on the
promising findings of these two renewable energy resource potentials, wind and solar. By
running the software the simulation results which are lists of power supply systems have been
generated and arranged in ascending order according to their net present cost. Sensitivity
variables, such as range of wind speed, solar radiation, PV panel price and diesel price have been
defined as inputs into the software and the optimization process has been carried out repeatedly
for the sensitivity variables and the results have been refined accordingly.
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AKNOWLEDGMENT
First, we would like to thank GOD, Next, we would like to express our sincere gratitude from
bottom of our heart to our advisor ENGINEER MYLANE A. for her expert guidance,
constructive comments, suggestions and encouragement without which this work could have not
been completed. She has been a constant source of inspiration throughout lifespan of our thesis
study.
And also we would like to express our sincere gratitude to SIBHAT LEAB H/SLASSIE (M.sc in
electrical power engineering) for his continuous encouragement and helping of us by giving
constructive ideas during our thesis study.
And finally we would like to thank you our lovely family who have been a persistent source of
encouragement not only during the thesis work but also throughout our academic career. We
want them to know that we respect and always keep in our memory their boundless and
invaluable support, beyond a simple thank you and love you
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Contents
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................... 1
AKNOWLEDGMENT ....................................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 INTRODUCTION and Background of the study ............................................................................. 7
1.2 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Main objective .................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.2 Specific objectives ............................................................................................................... 10
2 Chapter TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Solar Energy ................................................................................................................................ 11
2.2 Solar-generated Electricity – Photovoltaic ................................................................................. 13
2.3 Photovoltaic (PV) ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.4 Basic Components of Solar Power .............................................................................................. 14
2.5 Generic Photovoltaic Cell ............................................................................................................ 15
2.6 Basic Components of Solar Power [5] ......................................................................................... 18
2.7 Design of the Reflectors [1] ........................................................................................................ 18
2.8 Solar Cells: Construction and Operation ..................................................................................... 19
2.8.1 Photovoltaic construction ................................................................................................... 19
2.9 Photovoltaic operation ............................................................................................................... 20
2.9.1 Temperature and solar radiation effects on PV performance ............................................ 20
2.10 Main PV Cell Types ...................................................................................................................... 22
2.11 Wind Energy ................................................................................................................................ 26
2.11.1 The Earth's Wind Systems ................................................................................................... 27
2.12 Wind Power................................................................................................................................. 27
2.13 Wind Turbines ............................................................................................................................. 28
2.14 Wind Power Modeling ................................................................................................................ 29
2.15 Hybrid System ............................................................................................................................. 30
2.16 Inverter ....................................................................................................................................... 32
2.17 Battery......................................................................................................................................... 33
2.18 The Homer Model and the Hybrid Setup .................................................................................... 34
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3 Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 35

3.1 Site Identification ........................................................................................................................ 35
3.2 The use of hybrid system ............................................................................................................ 35
3.2.1 The use of data from solar energy ...................................................................................... 35
3.3 Wind energy ................................................................................................................................ 36
3.4 Electrical load estimation for Electrical Laboratory .................................................................... 37
3.5 Primary Load Estimation ............................................................................................................. 37
3.6 Deferrable Loads Estimation ....................................................................................................... 44
3.7 Design Procedures of Photovoltaic System ................................................................................ 45
3.7.1 Determine Power Consumption Demand ........................................................................... 45
3.8 Design Procedures of Wind Generator System .......................................................................... 46
3.8.1 Wind Generator Rating Analysis ......................................................................................... 47
3.9 Charge Controller Analysis .......................................................................................................... 47
3.9.1 Battery Size Analysis ........................................................................................................... 48
3.10 Inverter Analysis.......................................................................................................................... 50
4 Chapter 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................................................................................. 51
4.1 Input Parameters ........................................................................................................................ 51
Primary and Deferrable Loads ............................................................................................................ 52
4.2 Simulation Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 54
4.3 Sensitivity Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 58
5 Chapter 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................................................... 59
5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 59
5.2 Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 59
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 61
Appendix ................................................................................................................................................. 62
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Tables
Table 1 average solar radiation ................................................................................................................... 36
Table 2 monthly wind speed at 35 meters height........................................................................................ 37
Table 3 load demand for computer, control, and power lab ....................................................................... 39
Table 4 total load for experimental laboratories ......................................................................................... 40
Table 5 overall average primary load demand ........................................................................................... 44
Table 6 total monthly average deferrable load............................................................................................ 45
Table 7 battery voltage selection as the load demand ................................................................................. 49
Table 8 categorized optimization result ...................................................................................................... 57
Table 9 sensitivity analysis result ............................................................................................................... 58
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Figures
Figure 1 special distribution of solar irradiance.......................................................................................... 12
Figure 2: schematic diagram of hybrid solar wind power source ............................................................... 13
Figure 3 photovoltaic .................................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 4 electric flow from n- type semiconductor .................................................................................... 16
Figure 5 photovoltaic system ...................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 6 reflector design ............................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 7 photovoltaic cell and array ........................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8 solar circuit equivalent.................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 9 energy conversion from wind to electricity .................................................................................. 29
Figure 10 general schemes of standalone hybrid power supply system ..................................................... 34
Figure 11 monthly average wind speed ...................................................................................................... 51
Figure 12 monthly average solar radiation ................................................................................................. 52
Figure 13 primary load input ...................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 14 average deferrable load input ..................................................................................................... 54
Figure 15 Optimization Figure 16 the hybrid PV wind system Analysis ................................................... 56
Figure 17 monthly average electric production .......................................................................................... 58
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION and Background of the study
Energy is essential to our society to ensure our quality of life and to underpin all other elements
of our economy. The escalation in cost and environmental concerns involving conventional
electrical energy. Sources have increased interest in renewable energy sources. Many societies
across the world in which we live have developed a large appetite for electrical energy. This
appetite has been stimulated by the relative ease with which electricity can be generated,
distributed, and utilized, and by the great variety of its applications. It is arguable whether the
consumption of electricity should be allowed to grow unchecked, but the fact is that there is an
ever-increasing demand for this energy form. Clearly, if this demand is to be met, then the
world‟s electricity generating capacity will have to continue to grow.
Multi-source hybrid renewable energy sources to some extent overcome the intermittency,
uncertainty, and low availability of single-source renewable energy systems, which has made the
power supply more reliable. PV and wind power are complementary because sunny days
generally have very low wind while cloudy days and night times are more likely to have strong
wind. Therefore, hybrid PV-Wind systems have higher availability and reliability than systems
based on individual PV or wind sources. Therefore, this study is orientated towards small-scale
residential grid-connected PV-Wind systems.
The electric power generation system, which consists of renewable energy and fossil fuel
generators together with an energy storage system and power conditioning system, is known as a
hybrid power system. A hybrid power system has the ability to provide 24hour grid quality
electricity to the load. This system offers a better efficiency, flexibility of planning and
environmental benefits compared to the diesel generator standalone system. The maintenance
costs of the diesel generator can be decreased as a consequence of improving the efficiency of
operation and reducing the operational time which also means less fuel usage. The system also
gives the opportunity for expanding its capacity in order to cope with the increasing demand in
the future. This can be done by increasing either the rated power of diesel generator, renewable
generator or both of them.
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The disadvantage of standalone power systems using renewable energy is that the availability of
renewable energy sources has daily and seasonal patterns which results in difficulties of
regulating the output power to cope with the load demand. Also, a very high initial capital
investment cost is required.
Over the present year‟s hybrid technology has been developed and upgraded its role in renewable
energy sources while the benefits it produces for power production can't be ignored and have to
be considered. Nowadays many applications in rural and urban areas use hybrid systems. Many
isolated loads try to adopt this kind of technology because of the benefits which can be received
in comparison with a single renewable system.
Due to the continual oil price increment, growing concerns of global warming, the contradiction
between depletion of oil/gas reserves and the fast growth of global energy demand; renewable
energy such as solar, wind, bio energy and hydropower might become a new trend in which we
produce energy to secure sustainable provision of electrical power. Energy resources exemplify
these issues. Reliable energy supply is essential in all economies for lighting, heating,
communications, computers, industrial equipment, transport, etc. Purchases of energy account
for 5–10% of gross national product in developed economies. However, in some developing
countries, energy imports may have cost over half the value of total exports; such economies are
unsustainable and an economic challenge for sustainable development.
Photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy systems are the most promising candidates of the future
energy technologies among the many listed above and it has been widely noticed that stand alone
and grid connected PV and wind energy markets have grown rapidly. Energy generation system
reliability has been considered as one of the most important issues in any system design process.
However, natural energy resources are unpredictable, intermittent, and seasonally unbalanced.
Therefore, a combination of two or more renewable energy resources may satisfy bigger share of
electricity demand and offer reliable and consistent energy supply. The Hybrid solar PV and
Wind Electricity System is well suited to conditions where sun light and wind have seasonal as
well as diurnal pattern. For example, in summer time; the sun light is abundant but less windy
while in winter, wind resource increases that can complement the solar resource. The reliability
of the stand-alone hybrid PV-wind system in producing energy has been proven by many earlier
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studies. In the last two decades, solar and wind energy has become an alternative to the
traditional energy sources. These alternative energy sources are pollution free (environmental
friendly), free and abundant in their availability, and the best alternative for remote and rural
electrification where national grid extension is economically infeasible but the high capital cost,
especially for photovoltaic (PV) system, made its growth a slow one. Electricity from wind is
close to cost competitive with electricity produced from natural gas depending on natural gas
prices, the availability of production tax credits, renewable resource availability, technological
advancement in wind turbines and other variables.
The best way to attempt to decrease the cost of these systems even below the theoretical limit is
by careful design of the standalone system in a way that can efficiently utilizes the resources
available through highly efficient generating components and also supplying as large power as
produced to the loads available (load matching). Finite energy is most easily produced centrally
and is expensive to distribute. Renewable energy is most easily produced in dispersed locations
and is expensive to concentrate. With an electrical grid, the renewable generators are said to be
„embedded‟ within the (dispersed) system.
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1.2 Problem statement
The world is facing problems regarding the development of generating methods based on
conventional fuels. Electric generation usually utilizes coal, oil, gas, water or nuclear material as
fuel sources. Hydro-power generation is restricted to geographically suitable areas, and reserves
of coal, although presently plentiful, are not renewable .The possible hazards of nuclear power
have been much publicized, particularly those concerning the storage and military use of nuclear
waste material. These only mean that sources of electricity that the world is using today are
depleting, harmful and restricted according to geographical location. To help manage these
problems, it is vital for the world to use nonconventional methods of generation. Wind- solar
power generations are visible options for future power generation. Besides being free, they are
free of recurring costs. They also offer power supply solutions for remote areas, not accessible
by grid power supply. This project, in one way or another, helps in the solution of these
problems. The application is specific to a small location, but if other places have similar system
like what we are designing, then it is going to make a difference.
1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 Main objective
The main objective of this study is to design a PV-Wind hybrid generation system using
HOMER.
1.3.2 Specific objectives

 To gather the following data from National Metrological Service Agency (NMSA):
o Estimation of solar radiation for Mekelle University main campus
o Estimation of wind speed of Mekelle University main campus
 To gather electric energy consumption or demand estimation for Mekelle University

Electrical and Computer Engineering Laboratory.
 To design a model of the PV-Wind hybrid generation system in Homer.
 To perform simulation, optimization and sensitivity analysis of the system using

HOMER.
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2 Chapter TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Solar Energy
The sun radiates energy radially, from an effective surface temperature of about 5760 K, as
electromagnetic radiation known as `solar energy' or sunshine. The earth is situated at about 150
million km from the sun with a total surface area of about 510 million km2, of which only about
21% is land. The sun, the source of solar radiation, is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter
with a diameter of about 1.39 x m, a total mass of 1.99 x kg, and on the average 1.50 x
m away from the earth. Nuclear fusion reactions in the active core of the Sun produce inner
temperatures of about 107 K and an inner radiation flux of uneven spectral distribution. The
inner radiation produced is absorbed in the outer passive layers which are heated to about 6000 K
and so become a source of radiation with a relatively continuous spectral distribution. The
radiant flux (W/m2) from the Sun at the Earth‟s distance varies through the year by ±4% because
of the slightly non-circular path of the Earth around the Sun.
Figure 2.1 shows a spectral distribution of extraterrestrial solar irradiance. The area beneath the
curve is the solar constant G*oλ=1367Wm−2. This is the RFD incident on a plane directly
facing the Sun and outside the atmosphere at a distance of 1.496× km from the Sun (i.e. at
the Earth‟s mean distance from the Sun). Solar radiation reaches the Earth‟s surface at a
maximum flux density of about 1.0kWm−2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5μm. This is
called short wave radiation and includes the visible spectrum. For inhabited areas, this flux varies
from about 3 to 30MJm−2 day−1 depending on place, time and weather. The spectral
distribution is determined by the 6000K surface temperature of the Sun.
A substantial portion of the solar radiation, on its way to reaching the earth‟ surface, is attenuated
due to atmospheric interventions. Additionally, because of the sun-earth angle concept, the solar
radiation received at the earth's surface varies on hourly, daily, or monthly basis. Hourly
variation is due to the motion of the sun from east to west, and also due to the presence of clouds,
whereas daily variation and monthly (seasonal) variation is due to the position of the sun.
Longitude and latitude give the location of a place on the earth's surface.
The Sun comes overhead twice a year in the tropical belt. Ethiopia is in the equatorial region
which is probably the most favorable region for solar energy.
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The sun is the largest energy source of life while at the same time it is the ultimate source of
most of renewable energy sources. Solar energy can be used to generate electricity in a direct
way with the use of photovoltaic modules. Solar radiation in the form of radio magnetic wave
emanates from this surface and propagates spherically in space. Some part of the radiation
reaches the earth surface after atmospheric effect (reflection, refraction, absorption, scattering
etc.). Such radiation is called diffused radiation.
There is also some part of radiation that reaches the earth‟s surface without such atmospheric
effect which is called direct radiation. The received solar radiation on Earth‟s surface can be used
directly (in the form of solar PV and solar thermal) or indirectly (in the form of wind, hydro,
biomass etc.)
Figure 1 special distribution of solar irradiance

, G*oλ=1367Wm
There are two types of solar systems: those that convert solar energy to D.C power, and those
that convert solar energy to heat.
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2.2 Solar-generated Electricity – Photovoltaic

The Solar-generated electricity is called Photovoltaic (or PV). Photovoltaic are solar cells that
convert sunlight to D.C electricity. These solar cells in PV module are made from semiconductor
materials. When light energy strikes the cell, electrons are emitted. The electrical conductor
attached to the positive and negative scales of the material allow the electrons to be captured in
the form of a D.C current. The generated electricity can be used to power a load or can
be stored in a battery. Photovoltaic system is classified into two major types: the off-grid
(standalone) systems and inter-tied system. The off-grid (standalone) systems are mostly used
where there is no utility grid service. It is very economical in providing electricity at remote
locations especially rural banking, hospital and ICT in rural environments.
PV systems generally can be much cheaper than installing power lines and step-down
transformers especially to remote areas. Solar modules produce electricity devoid of pollution,
without odor, combustion, noise and vibration. Hence, unwanted nuisance is completely
eliminated. Also, unlike the other power supply systems which require professional training for
installation expertise, there are no moving parts or special repairs that require such expertise.
Figure 2: schematic diagram of hybrid solar wind power source
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2.3 Photovoltaic (PV)

Photovoltaic is a material or device that is capable of converting the energy contained in
photons of light into an electrical voltage and current. Electrons absorb energy to jump bands.
Top-band where electrons contribute to electric current electron gets energy from photons.
Absorption of photon promotes electron to jump to higher energy level (excited state), which
should be separated from the ground state by an energy gap (e.g. band gap in semiconductors).
Charges are separated, collected and extracted to external circuit and to do electrical work. It
extracts solar energy only from photons with energy sufficient to bridge the band gap.
2.4 Basic Components of Solar Power

The major components include P.V modules, battery and inverter. The most efficient way to determine
the capacities of these components is to estimate the load to be supplied. The size of the battery bank
required will depend on the storage required, the maximum discharge rate, and the minimum
temperature at which the batteries will be used. When designing a solar power system, all of
these factors are to be taken into consideration when battery size is to be chosen. Lead-acid
batteries are the most common in P.V systems because their initial cost is lower and also they are readily
available nearly everywhere in the world. Deep cycle batteries are designed to be repeatedly discharged as
much as 80 percent of their capacity and so they are a good choice for power systems. Figure is a
schematic diagram of a typical Photovoltaic system.
Figure 3 photovoltaic
The main components of standalone PV systems are solar cell, module and array; rechargeable
battery; controller; and appliances load.
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2.5 Generic Photovoltaic Cell

Let us consider what happens in the vicinity of a p–n junction when it is exposed to sunlight. As
photons are absorbed, hole-electron pairs may be formed. If these mobile charge carriers reach
the vicinity of the junction, the electric field in the depletion region will push the holes into the
p-side and push the electrons into the n-side as shown in fig below. The p-side accumulates holes
and the n-side accumulates electrons, which creates a voltage that can be used to deliver current
to a load.
Figure 2.4 when photons create hole-electron pairs near the junction, the electric field in the
depletion region sweeps hole in to the p-side and sweeps electrons in to the n-side of the cell
If electrical contacts are attached to the top and bottom of the cell, electrons will flow out of the
n-side into the connecting wire, through the load and back to the p-side. Since wire cannot
conduct holes, it is only the electrons that actually move around the circuit. When they reach the
p side, they recombine with holes completing the circuit. By convention, positive current flows
in the direction opposite to electron flow, so the current arrow in the figure
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Figure 4 electric flow from n- type semiconductor
The physical of PV cell is very similar to that of the classical diode with a PN junction formed
by semiconductor material. When the junction absorbs light, the energy of absorbed photon is
transferred to the electron-proton system of the material, creating charge carriers that are
separated at the junction. The charge carriers in the junction region create a potential gradient,
get accelerated under the electric field, and circulate as current through an external circuit. The
solar cell is the basic building of the PV power system it produces about 1 W of power. To
obtain high power, numerous such cell are connected in series and parallel circuits on a panel
(module), the solar array or panel is a group of a several modules electrically connected in series
parallel combination to generate the required current and voltage. The electrical characteristics of
the PV module are generally represented by the current vs. voltage (I-V) and the current vs.
power (P-V) curves.
The I– V characteristic of the PV module are:

I = IL - I0 (e^q(V +IRS)/nkT _ 1) (1)
Where IL = photo current
I0 = diode saturation current
RS = series resistance
q = charge of electron
k = constant
T = temperature
N = number of PV module
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Power output from the PV array can be obtained by using the equation:
Ppv (t) = Ins (t) * A*Eff(pv) (2)
Where Ins (t) = insolation data at time t (kw/ m2)

A = area of single PV panel (m2)
Effpv = overall efficiency of the PV panels and dc/dc converters.
The Solar Cell Characteristics:
 Isc-short circuit current
 Voc-open circuit voltage.
 Peak power
 The open circuit voltage of a single solar cell is approx 0.5V.
 Much higher voltage is required for practical application.
 Solar cells are connected in series to increase its open circuit voltage.
The integration of PV-system with other renewable energy sources like wind energy, and
conventional energy sources like diesel generator, will assist in expanding a sustainable
electricity access in remote and rural areas, especially in developing countries, where the
communities have not access to grid electricity yet. This is an acceptable alternative means for
rural electrification if:
 It is far distant from the main grid

 Status of electrification is too difficult (desert area, hilly area…)
 Grid extension is not cost effective
 Density of consumers is too small
The solar irradiation varies daily with time and seasonally. These in turn results to the reliability
problems from such sources of energy seeking energy conversion, energy storage and load
control etc. when compared with conventional sources of energy. The advantages and drawbacks
of the PV-array energy can be summarized as below. The advantages are the following:
 Environmentally friendly and pollution free (emission free)
 No use of fuels and water
 Requires minimum maintenance and low running cost
 Long lifetime, up to 30 years
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 Modular or “custom made” energy, can be designed for any applications from
watch to a multi-megawatt power plant
 No restriction on harvesting as far as there is light
And the drawbacks are the following:
 High initial cost
 PV can‟t operate without light
 PV generates DC current: energy storage, like batteries, and inverters are needed
 Large area needed for large scale applications
 Cannot always generate stable output with ever-changing weather conditions
2.6 Basic Components of Solar Power [5]

The major components include P.V modules, battery and inverter. The most efficient way to
determine the capacities of these components is to estimate the load to be supplied. The size of
the battery bank required will depend on the storage required, the maximum discharge rate, and
the minimum temperature at which the batteries will be used. When designing a solar power
system, all of these factors are to be taken into consideration when battery size is to be chosen.
Lead-acid batteries are the most common in P.V systems because their initial cost is lower and
also they are readily available nearly everywhere in the world. Deep cycle batteries are designed
to be repeatedly discharged as much as 80 percent of their capacity and so they are a good choice
for power systems. Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of a typical Photovoltaic system.
Figure 5 photovoltaic system
2.7 Design of the Reflectors [1]
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Each reflector is inclined at 60 degree to the plane of the panel. The width of the reflector is
equal to the width of the solar panel and the length matches that of solar panel. The tracking
ensures that the plane of the panel is always perpendicular to the sun‟s rays. This arrangement
enables the light falling at the tip of the reflector to reach the edge of the panel and the all other
reflected rays falling within the width of the panel. Thus there is no wastage and the collection
efficiency is maximized. Theoretically this should double the light collection. It enables
realization of the full potential of the panel.
Figure 6 reflector design
2.8 Solar Cells: Construction and Operation

2.8.1 Photovoltaic construction
A solar cell is considered the basic part in the photovoltaic system, it is a device that converts
light energy into electrical energy by the photovoltaic effect. Solar cells are often electrically
connected and encapsulated as a module. PV modules often have a sheet of glass on the front
(sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers from the
elements (rain, hail, etc.). Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an
additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current. Modules are then
interconnected, in series or parallel, or both, to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage
and current. PV cells consist basically of a junction between two thin layers of semi conducting
materials, known as p (positive) type semiconductors and n (negative) type semiconductors. The
p-type semiconductor is created when some of the atoms of the crystalline silicon are replaced by
atoms with lower valence like boron which causes the material to have a deficit of free electrons.
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The n-type semiconductor is created when some of their atoms of the crystalline silicon are
replaced by atoms of another material which has higher valence band like phosphorus in such a
way that the material has a surplus of free electrons.
2.9 Photovoltaic operation

When the photovoltaic cell becomes exposed to the light beam which consists of photons, the
electrons are stimulated. The electrons start moving rapidly, jump into the conduction band and
they leave holes in the valence band. Some of the electrons are attracted from n-side to combine
with holes on the nearby p-side. Similarly, holes on the near p-side are attracted to combine with
the electrons on the nearby n-side. The flow of the electrons from one semiconductor to the other
creates the electric current into the photovoltaic cell.
2.9.1 Temperature and solar radiation effects on PV performance

The two most important effects that must be considered are due to the variable temperature and
solar radiation. The effect of these two parameters must be taken into account while sizing the
PV system.
Temperature effect: This has an important effect on the power output from the cell. The
temperature effect appears on the output voltage of the cell, where the voltage decreases as
temperature increases. This decrease for silicon cell is approximately 2.3 mV per 1°C increase in
the solar cell temperature.
The solar cell temperature Tc can be found by the following equation:
Where:
Tamb: ambient temperature in °C
G: solar radiation in W/m²
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NOCT: Normal Operating Cell Temperature which is defined as the cell temperature when the
module operates under the
Following conditions at open circuit:
Solar radiation: 800 W/m²
Spectral distribution: AM1.5
Ambient temperature: 20 °C
Wind speed: > 1 m/s
Solar radiation effect: The solar cell characteristics are affected by the variation of illumination.
Increasing the solar radiation increases in the same proportion the short circuit current. The
following equation illustrates the effect of variation of radiation on the short circuit current:
Isc (G) = Isc (at 1000 W/m²) ∗ (G (in W/ m²) /1000) (4.3)
The output power from the PV cell is affected by the variation of cell. Temperature and variation
of incident solar radiation. The maximum power output from the PV cell can be calculated using
the following equation:
Pout-pv = Pr-pv ∗ (G/Gref) ∗ [1+ KT (Tc - T ref)] (4.4)
Where:
Pout-pv: output power from the PV cell
Pr-pv: rated power at reference conditions
G: as defined before
Gref: solar radiation at reference conditions (Gref =1000 W/ m²)
Tc: cell temperature, calculated using equation (4.2)
Tref: cell temperature at reference conditions (Tref = 25 °C)
KT: temperature coefficient of the maximum power
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(KT= - 3.7 ∗10 − 3 / 1°C for mono and poly crystalline Si)
The following equation can be used to calculate the cell temperature
Approximately if the NOCT is not given by the manufacturer:
TC = Tamb + 0.0256 ∗ G (4.5)
Where Tc, Tamb, and G are as defined before.
2.10 Main PV Cell Types
The material that is widely used in the industry of PV cells is silicon. Silicon can be found inside
the sand in the form of silicon oxide (SiO2). Depending on the structure of the basic material
from which PV cells are made and the particular way of their preparation, PV cells can mainly be
categorized as follows:
1. Mono-crystalline: The efficiency of a single crystal silicon cell varies between 13-16% and it
is characterized by a high cost for its manufacture and has a dark blue color.
2. Poly-crystalline: Its efficiency varies between 10-14% and it is characterized by lower cost
silicon which is used for its manufacture and has light blue color.
3. Amorphous (non crystalline) silicon: This type of photovoltaic cells achieves maximum
efficiency not more than 10%. Production cost is much cheaper than what is for the previous two
types. Its efficiency degrades with time.
Other types of PV cells use other materials or compounds rather than silicon. Other innovative
PV technologies use multi-junction, silicon spheres, or photo electrochemical in manufacturing
the PV cells.
PV ARRAY: Multiple modules, in turn, can be wired in series to increase voltage and in parallel
to increase current, the product of which is power. An important element in PV system design is
deciding how many modules should be connected in series and how many in parallel to deliver
whatever energy is needed. Such combinations of modules are referred to as an array. Figure
below shows this distinction between cells, modules, and arrays.
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Figure 7 photovoltaic cell and array
The theoretical note under this subtopic is primarily based on the reference material Photovoltaic
(photo = light; voltaic = produces voltage) or PV systems convert light energy directly into
electricity using semiconductor technology.
The most basic power conversion unit of a photovoltaic (PV) system is the solar cell. As shown
in figure sunlight strikes a PV cell and a direct current (D.C.) is generated. An inverter inverts
the D.C. to an Alternating Current (A.C.) and by connecting the electric load to the output
terminals the current can be utilized.
The intensity of light energy determines the amount of electricity generated. In other words, the
conversion of energy relies on the quantum nature of light, whereby we perceive light as a flux
of particles - photons - which carry the energy, Eph as given by equation
Eph (λ) =hc/λ
Where:
h = the Planck constant,
c = the speed of light (m/s), and
λ = the wavelength of light (m)
On a clear day, approximately 4.4 x 1017 photons strike a square centimeter of the earth‟s
surface every second. Those photons with energy in excess of the band gap energy of the
semiconductor material being used can be converted into electricity by the solar cell. A rough
estimate of the current that can be generated by a solar cell is given by equation 3-2. Ignoring
23
losses in the cell, and assuming each photon produces one electron charge, for an electron charge
of 1.6 x coulomb, and 4.4 x photons striking a square centimeter of cell area, the
current density is approximately 70 mA/cm2.
IL = qNA
Where N is the number of photons, A the area exposed to light, and q the charge in coulomb. The
maximum voltage, V, that a solar cell can generate is equal to the band gap of the semiconductor
in use and is expressed in electronvolts. This means that the separation of electrons and holes at
the terminals of the solar cell can only continue until the electrostatic energy of the charges after
separation, Eg, equals to the pair energy in the semiconductor. Hence, the maximum voltage is
given by equation (3-3). In other words, the maximum voltage that can be generated by a solar
cell is numerically equal to the band gap of the particular semiconductor in use expressed in
electronvolts [Markvart, 2000
V = Eg / q
A diagram of a typical solar cell is given as shown below .The current generated is extracted via
contacts on the front and rear sides of the cell. A thin layer of dielectric material, known as an
anti-reflection coating or ARC, covers the cell to minimize light reflection from the uppermost
surface. The assessment of solar cell operation or the design of solar-cell-based power systems
requires and understanding of the electrical characteristics or voltage-current relationship of the
cell under various temperature and radiation levels. A typical model or equivalent circuit for a
solar module is given in figure below. For practical operation, solar cells are usually assembled
into modules consisting of several cells or an array consisting of several modules.
Figure 8 solar circuit equivalent
24
The equation governing the I-V characteristics of the cell in the figure is given by Eq below
Where:
ID = the diode current (A)
ISh = the shunt resistance current (A)
I = the load current (A)
IL = current produced by the cell (A)
Io = reverse saturation current of the diode (A)
q = charge on an electron (C)
V = output voltage (V)
K = Boltzmann's constant
T = working temperature of the cell in (K)
The current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of a typical PV module

corresponding to equation 3.4 are shown in figure 3-5 with the short circuit current at radiation
level G, Isc (G), the maximum power current (Imp), maximum power point (Pmp), maximum
power voltage (Vmp), and open circuit voltage (Voc) labeled at their respective points. Figure 3-
m = the diode quality factor Pmp is the maximum power that can be obtained from the module
and it corresponds to the maximum rectangular area under the I-V curve. Voc increases
logarithmically, whereas Isc increases almost in proportion to the radiation as long as the current
axis does not intersect the curved portion of the I-V characteristic. In the figure it is worth taking
a note of the effect of temperature upon the current generated by the solar cell (module).
PV cells are the fundamental building blocks of PV systems. The power generated by a PV cell
is only enough to power small devices such as electronic calculators. Each silicon solar cell
produces about 0.5 volts. To meet higher loads the PV cells must be connected in series and/or in
parallel depending on the magnitude of the voltage and current required. Typically, 36 cells are
25
connected in series to form a module which is capable of producing enough voltage to charge 12
volt batteries and run pumps and/or motors. It is important to note that losses of voltage occur
due to the temperature rise of the cells in the heat of the sun and also that a 12 V battery typically
needs about 14 V in order to be charged. Modules are the basic building blocks of systems. For
more voltage or current modules are connected in series or in parallel respectively to form a
panel and then panels can be assembled into a group to form a complete PV array. The power
output of a PV system is given by equation shown below:
P = AcηmpηeGT
where:
Ac = the array area
mp η = the maximum power point efficiency of the array (≈14%)
eη
= the efficiency of power conditioning equipment (≈ 90%)
GT = the incident solar radiation on the array
2.11 Wind Energy

All renewable energy (except tidal and geothermal power), and even the energy in fossil fuels,
ultimately comes from the sun. The sun radiates 174,423,000,000,000 kilowatt hours of energy
to the earth per hour. In other words, the earth receives 1.74 x 10 17 W of power. Wind energy
has been used for thousands of years for milling grains, pumping water and other mechanical
power applications. But the use of wind energy as an electrical supply with free pollution what
makes it attractive and takes more interest and used on a significant scale. Attempts to generate
electricity from wind energy have been made since the end of nineteenth century. Small wind
machines for charging batteries have been manufactured since the 1930s. Wind now is one of the
most cost-effective methods of electricity generation available in spite of the relatively low
current cost of fossil fuels. The technology is continuously being improved both cheaper and
more reliable, so it can be expected that wind energy will become even more economically
competitive over the coming decades.
26
2.11.1 The Earth's Wind Systems

The earth's wind systems are due to the movement of atmospheric air masses as a result of
variations in atmospheric pressure, which in turn are the result of differences in the solar heating
of different parts of the earth‟s surface. One square meter of the earth‟s surface on or near the
equator receives more solar radiation per year than one square meter at higher latitudes. As a
result, the tropics are considerably warmer than the high latitude regions. Atmospheric pressure
is the pressure resulting from the weight of the column of the air that is above a specified surface
area. Like all gases, air expands when heated, and contracts when cooled. In the atmosphere,
warm air is lighter and less dense than cold air and will rise to high altitudes when strongly
heated by solar radiation. A low pressure belt is created at the equator due to warm humid air
rising in the atmosphere until it reaches the top of the troposphere (approximately 10 km) and
will spread to the North and the South. This air gradually cools until it reaches latitudes of about
30 degrees, where it sinks back to the surface, creating a belt of high pressure at these latitudes.
The majority of the world's deserts are found in these high pressure regions. Some of the air that
reaches the surface of these latitudes is forced back towards the low-pressure zone at the equator,
forming what is known "trade winds".
However, not all of the air that sinks at the 30 degree latitudes moves toward the equator. Some
of it moves toward the poles until it reaches the 60 degree latitudes, where it meets cold air
coming from the poles. The interaction of the two bodies of air causes the warmer air to rise and
most of this air cycles back to the 30 degree latitude regions where it sinks to the surface,
contributing to high pressure belt. The remaining of air that rises moves toward poles and sinks
to the surface at the poles as it cools. It returns to the 60 degree latitude region. As the earth is
rotating, any movement on the Northern hemisphere is diverted to the right, if we look at it from
our own position on the ground. (In the southern hemisphere it is bent to the left). This apparent
bending force is known as the Coriolis force.
2.12 Wind Power
Wind Power is energy extracted from the wind, passing through a machine known as the
windmill. Electrical energy can be generated from the wind energy. This is done by using the
energy from wind to run a windmill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity [6].
27
The windmill in this case is usually called a wind turbine. This turbine transforms the wind
energy to mechanical energy, which in a generator is converted to electrical power. An
integration of wind generator, wind turbine, aero generators is known as a wind energy
conversion system (WECS). Wind power systems convert the kinetic energy of the wind into
other forms of energy such as electricity. Although wind energy conversion is relatively
simple in concept, turbine design can be quite complex. Most commercially available
wind turbine uses a horizontal – axis configuration with two or three blades, a drive
train including a gearbox and a generator and a tower to support the rotor. Typical sizes for a
wind turbine range from 200-750 KW, with electricity produce within a specific range of
wind speed.
Cooperative research between DOE and manufacturing companies is aimed at increasing the
aerodynamics efficiency and structural strength of wind turbine blades, developing
variable speed generation and electronic power controls and using taller tower that allow
access to the stronger wind found at greater height. An important factor in how much
power your wind turbine will produce is the height of its tower. The power available in
the wind is proportional to the cube of its speed. This means that if wind speed doubles, the
power available to the wind generator increases by a factor of 8 (2 x 2 x 2 = 8) Since
wind speed increases with height increases to the tower height can mean enormous increases
in the amount of electricity generated by a wind turbine.
2.13 Wind Turbines
A wind turbine is a machine for converting the kinetic energy in wind into mechanical energy.
Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types based on the axis about which the turbine
rotates. Turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis turbines
are less frequently used. Wind turbines can also be classified by the location in which they are
used as Onshore, Offshore, and aerial wind turbines. Wind turbines are used to generate electricity
from kinetic power of the wind i.e. the generation of wind energy primarily depends on the wind speed.
To enhance the energy capture, the turbine is mounted on a tall tower. Wind is an intermittent resource;
however, wind turbines are not unreliable technology. Modern wind turbines capture more than 90% of
available energy from wind, compared with fuel efficiency between 30- 40% for a conventional coal fired
28
station, which typically loses a significant portion of energy through heat loss and pollution. The main
components of a wind turbine are the rotor of the turbine, which is the prime mover, and the
induction generator. The rotor is connected to the generator via a gearbox which matches and
enhances the rotational speed. As the wind does not blow all the time nor does the sun shine all
the time, solar and wind power alone are poor power sources. Hybridizing solar and wind power
sources together with storage batteries to cover the periods of time without sun or wind provides
a realistic form of power generation.
Modern wind turbines come in two basic configurations based on the direction of the rotating
shaft (axis): horizontal axis and vertical axis. They range in size from very small machines that
produce a few tens or hundreds of watts to very large turbines producing as much as 5 megawatts
of power.
Horizontal axis wind turbine: Most wind machines being used today are the horizontal-axis
type. Horizontal-axis wind machines have blades like airplane propellers. Horizontal axis wind
turbines (HAWTs) predominantly have 2 or 3 blades, or a large number of blades. The later are
described as high-solidity devices and include the multi blade wind turbines used for water
pumping on farms. In Contrast, the swept area of wind turbines with 2 or 3 blades is largely void:
only small fraction of this area appears to be solid. These are referred to as low-solidity devices
[5]. Rotors of modern low-solidity HAWTs generally have 2 or 3 wing-like blades. They are
almost universally employed to generate electricity. Some experimental single-bladed HAWTs
have also been produced.
2.14 Wind Power Modeling
The block diagram below shows the conversion process of wind energy to electrical energy.
Figure 9 energy conversion from wind to electricity
The HOMER Micro power Optimization Model is a computer model developed by the U.S.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to assist in the design of micro power systems
and to facilitate the comparison of power generation technologies across a wide range of
29
applications. HOMER models a power system‟s physical behavior and its life-cycle cost, which
is the total cost of installing and operating the system over its life span. HOMER allows the
modeler to compare many different design options based on their technical and economic merits.
It also assists in understanding and quantifying the effects of uncertainty or changes in the inputs.
HOMER can model grid-connected and off-grid micropower systems serving electric and
thermal loads, and comprising any combination of photovoltaic (PV) modules, wind turbines,
small hydro, biomass power, reciprocating engine generators, microturbines, fuel cells, batteries,
and hydrogen storage.
HOMER performs three principal tasks: simulation, optimization, and sensitivity analysis. In the
simulation process, HOMER models the performance of a particular micropower system
configuration each hour of the year to determine its technical feasibility and life-cycle cost. In
the optimization process, HOMER simulates many different system configurations in search of
the one that satisfies the technical constraints at the lowest life-cycle cost. In the sensitivity
analysis process, HOMER performs multiple optimizations under a range of input assumptions
to gauge the effects of uncertainty or changes in the model inputs. Optimization determines the
optimal value of the variables over which the system designer has control such as the mix of
components that make up the system and the size or quantity of each. Sensitivity analysis helps
assess the effects of uncertainty or changes in the variables over which the designer has no
control, such as the average wind speed or the future fuel price.
2.15 Hybrid System
A hybrid renewable energy system is a system in which two or more supplies from different
renewable energy sources (solar-thermal, solar-photovoltaic, wind, biomass, hydropower, etc.)
are integrated to supply electricity or heat, or both, to the same demand. The most frequently
used hybrid system is the hybrid which consists of Photovoltaic (PV) modules and wind turbines.
Because the supply pattern of different renewable energy sources intermittent but with different
patterns of intermittency, it is often possible to achieve a better overall supply pattern by
integrating two or more sources. Sometimes also including a form of energy storage. In this way
the energy supply can effectively be made less intermittent, or more firm. Combining
renewable hybrid system with batteries as a storage system, to increase duration of energy
30
autonomy, will make optimal use of the available renewable energy resource and this in turn can
guarantee high supply reliability. To deal with different weather conditions and to make the
system supplies load demand at the worst conditions, this strategy requires large storage capacity
and therefore it is very expensive. It is cheaper to supply peaks or to supply demand during
periods of cloudy weather or poor wind days with another back up supply ( usually diesel
generator ), although this lowers the proportion of renewable energy used. Selecting appropriate
size of the storage system is such that to minimize diesel running time and to maximize fuel
savings. Dump loads are recommended to be used in hybrid power systems as secondary loads
to provide a sink for excess renewable generated power to keep power balance of the system at
all times, also improve the economic return of the system by allowing excess renewable energy
to meet an on-site energy needs that would otherwise have to be met with other energy source.
Optimum match design is very important for PV/wind hybrid system, which can guarantee
battery bank working at the optimum conditions as possible as can be, therefore the battery
bank‟s lifetime can be prolonged to the maximum and energy production cost decreased to the
minimum. In last few years, some commercial software packages for simulating wind power, PV
and hybrid generating systems have been developed. By using computer simulation, the optimum
system configuration can be found by comparing the performances and energy production costs
of different system configurations. To simulate the practical operating situations of renewable
energy systems, many factors need to be considered
The hybrid system studied is one combining solar and wind with diesel generator(s) and a bank
of batteries, which is included for backup purposes. Power conditioning units, such as
converters, are also a part of the supply system. It is conceivable that a solar/wind hybrid system
has numerous advantages. One of the
Advantages are reliability; when solar and wind power production resources are used together,
reliability is improved and the system's energy service is enhanced. What this means is that in the
absence of one type of energy another would be available to carry out the service, and, as a result
the size of the battery storage can be reduced. Other advantages are the stability and immobility
of the system (fewer moving parts) and a lower maintenance requirement, thus reducing
downtime during repairs or routine maintenance. In addition to this, as well as being indigenous
and free, renewable energy resources also contribute to the reduction of emissions and pollution.
31
The operational concept of the hybrid system is that renewable resources are the first choice for
supplying load and any excess energy produced is stored in the battery. The diesel generator is a
secondary source of energy. Electronic controller circuitry is used to manage energy supply and
load demand. The main actors, or elements, of the hybrid system are the wind turbine and the PV
generators. Diesel generator(s), a battery system, and an inverter module are additional parts of
the system. In the following sections the basic principles of these components will be discussed.
In addition to the theoretical notes considered as a background literature survey is also part and
parcel of the foundation of this work. It is known that researchers have been working in the area
of standalone hybrid system since long and numerous research results for a variety of
applications have been published.
2.16 Inverter
An inverter is an electrical device that converts DC power to AC power at a desired output
voltage or current. Its typical application is to convert DC power from a battery or PV array into
AC power for use with conventional, utility-powered household appliances. Basically, there are
three kinds of DC-AC inverters; square wave, modified sine-wave, and pure sine wave inverters.
Of the three, the square wave type is the simplest and least expensive, but with the poorest
quality output signal. The modified sine wave type is suitable for many load types and is the
most popular low-cost inverter. Pure sine wave inverters produce the highest quality signal and
are used for sensitive devices such as medical equipment, laser printers, stereos, etc. The
working principle of most inverters is to use a low DC voltage input and to first step-up the
voltage to a level corresponding to that of the peak value of the desired AC voltage and then
generate the desired AC voltage by using a full-bridge or half bridge electronic circuit
configuration. The output voltage of the inverter is controlled by electronic circuitry. An inverter
is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input rating of the inverter should
never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal
voltage as your battery. For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the
total amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30% bigger
than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type in motor or compressor then inverter
size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting. For grid tie systems or grid connected
32
systems, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and
efficient operation.
2.17 Battery
Batteries are a key component in a stand-alone renewable energy system. Basically, a battery is a
device that stores energy for later use. It is a combination of electrochemical cells that can store
chemical energy that has the potential to be converted into electric voltage or, to put it simply, it
is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. Lead-acid battery is the
type of battery commonly used in stand-alone power systems. Batteries can be classified in two
ways: by their application (the way they are used) and their construction (how they are built).
The major construction types are flooded (wet), gelled, and AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat). The
construction aspect is beyond the scope of this work. With regard to their applications, the major
ones are Automotive (starting), marine, and deep-cycle. Deep-cycle batteries are used in
renewable energy applications.
In terms of the automotive (starting) type, it is designed to provide a large amount of current for
a short period of time. To achieve a sufficiently large amount of current, car batteries use thin
plates in order to increase the surface area. Such batteries are not suitable for storing the energy
that PV or hybrid systems produce. On the other hand, Deep Cycle batteries are designed to be
discharged as low as 80 % and recharged over and over again and therefore have much thicker
plates. It is important to note that companies recommend. Those hybrid system batteries should
not be discharged beyond 50% of their capacity. Deep Cycle batteries deliver a consistent
voltage as the battery discharges.
The Marine type is usually hybrid and falls somewhere between the starting and deep-cycle
battery types. The plates may be composed of lead sponge, but it is coarser and heavier than that
used in starting batteries. With regard to the effect of temperature on batteries, the battery
capacity is reduced as the temperature goes down, and is increased as the temperature goes up.
The standard rating for batteries is 25 0C. Battery Ah capacity drops to 50% at approximately -
27 0C. At freezing (≈0°C), capacity is reduced by 20%.
33
2.18 The Homer Model and the Hybrid Setup
The Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable (HOMER) software is used as a tool to
carry out the research. As mentioned earlier, the main objective of the research is to assess the
feasibility and economic viability of utilizing hybrid PV–Wind–diesel–battery based standalone
power supply systems to meet the load requirements of the hypothetical community specified
earlier. A schematic diagram of the standalone hybrid power supply system sought is shown in
the figure below and its representation by HOMER is shown in figure. The power conditioning
units are DC-DC and AC-DC. Converters, with the sole purpose of matching the PV and wind
Turbine generated voltages to that of the bus voltage at the DC Centre. The AC load is of both
primary and deferrable types.
Figure 10 general schemes of standalone hybrid power supply system
HOMER requires input information in order to analyze the system and to give the feasible set-
ups. One such piece of information is the electrical load condition, which the hybrid system is
expected to supply.
34
3 Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Site Identification
The site was identified for wind and solar resource assessment using Wikipedia, Google map.
The location used in this study is the Electrical laboratory District located at latitude of 13.50
North and longitude of 39.50 East. The data and literature were taken from National
Meteorological Service Agency (NMSA). The Satellite based wind speed and solar radiation
data were taken from NASA and SWERA database websites.
3.2 The use of hybrid system

A hybrid energy system is consists of two or more renewable energy sources used together to
provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in energy supply. This means if
there is no renewable system to fulfill 100% need of the load, so two or more renewable energy
system can be combined.
The proponents used a combined system of WIND and SOLAR sources which are proposed to
be located in Arid Campus, Mekelle University.
3.2.1 The use of data from solar energy

solar energy is power from the sun's rays that reach Earth. By using photovoltaic cells made from
silicon alloys, sunlight can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.
Steam generators using thermal collectors to heat a fluid, such as water, sometimes convert even
higher amounts of solar energy into electricity.
From the location of the area in Mekelle University, the following data are found from the
Google map:
Latitude: 13 degrees 28 minutes 52 seconds North

Longitude: 39 degrees 29 minutes 9 seconds 36 micro second East
Time zone: GMT +3:00
35
Month Clearance index Average radiation (kwh/

)
Jan 0.69 5.85
Feb 0.67 6.27
Mar 0.64 6.5
Apr 0.64 6.82
May 0.62 6.62
Jun 0.57 6.05
Jul 0.52 5.57
Aug 0.51 5.46
Sep 0.59 6.05
Oct 0.65 6.22
Nov 0.69 6.00
Dec 0.69 5.66
Annual average clearance index 0.62
Table 1 average solar radiation
This data shows that the annual radiation of Mekelle University is good enough to satisfy the
need of electricity for people living to this area.
3.3 Wind energy
Wind is produced by uneven solar heating of the earth‟s land and sea surfaces; it is also a form of
“solar” energy. On average, the ratio of total wind power to incident solar power is on the order
of two percent, reflecting a balance between input and dissipation by turbulence and drag on the
surface.
Wind is the movement of air caused by the irregular heating of the Earth's surface. It happens at
all scales, from local breezes created by heating of land surfaces that lasts some minutes, to
global winds caused from solar heating of the Earth. Wind power is the transformation of wind
energy into more utilizable forms, typically electricity using wind turbines.
36
Table 3.2 Monthly Average Wind Speed at 35 m above the surface of the earth (m/s)
Lat 13.48 Lon Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
39.4861 average
10-year 5.76 5.81 5.80 5.37 4.66 6.29 6.58 6.06 5.18 3.98 4.50 5.07 5.41
average
Table 2 monthly wind speed at 35 meters height
3.4 Electrical load estimation for Electrical Laboratory
Electrical load assessment for the design of Hybrid Renewable Power System is the basic step in
determining the size of system components.
In this project, due to the case already mentioned above, a strong emphasis is given for detailed
analysis of electrical load for this district.
3.5 Primary Load Estimation

Electrical load assessment for the design of Hybrid Renewable Power System is the basic first
step in determining the size of system components. This load can be estimated by collecting
available data from the planed area.
Primary load is electrical load that must be met immediately in order to avoid unmet load. From
the table below our load indicates the load is maximum at the middle of the Day because most of
the societies in this area are habited to work at this time. The estimation of load within a day are
seen from the table below which are distributed over by diversity factor. The load demands
considered are from office load, laboratories of the four ECE streams and electrical equipment.
The tables below show the total estimation of all loads in 24-hrs.
37
Total load demands in kwh

Total hours Lamp Computer Fan motor Corridor(40
in use in 85(40 Total of 26 1 wattage)
one day wattag (235 Lamp 5
e) wattage)
00:00-1:00 0 0 0 0
01:00-2:00 0 0 0 0
02:00-3:00 0 6.11 0 0
03:00-4:00 0 6.11 0 0
04:00-5:00 0 6.11 0.225 0
05:00-6:00 0 6.11 0.225 0
06:00-7:00 0 0 0.225 0
07:00-8:00 0 6.11 0.225 0
08:00-9:00 0 6.11 0.225 0
09:00-10:00 0 6.11 0 0
10:00-11:00 0 6.11 0 0
11:00-12:00 0 0 0 0
12:00-13:00 0 0 0 0.28
13:00-14:00 2.48 0 0 0.28
14:00-15:00 2.48 0 0 0.28
15:00-16:00 1.44 0 0 0.28
16:00-17:00 4.96 0 0 0.28
17:00-18:00 2.68 0 0 0.28
18:00-19:00 0 0 0 0.28
19:00-20:00 0 0 0 0.28
20:00-21:00 0 0 0 0.28
21:00-22:00 0 0 0 0.28
22:00-23:00 0 0 0 0.28
23:00-00:00 0 0 0 0.28
38
Total load demands in kwh

Total hours in Lamp Computer Cable box ( 20 wattage)
use in one 34 ( 40 wattage ) 83(235 wattage) 2
day
00:00-1:00 0 19.505 0.04
01:00-2:00 0 19.505 0.04
02:00-3:00 0 19.505 0.04
03:00-4:00 0 19.505 0.04
04:00-5:00 0 19.505 0.04
05:00-6:00 0 19.505 0.04
06:00-7:00 0 0 0.04
07:00-8:00 0 19.505 0.04
08:00-9:00 0 19.505 0.04
09:00-10:00 0 19.505 0.04
10:00-11:00 0 19.505 0.04
11:00-12:00 0 19.505 0.04
12:00-13:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
13:00-14:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
14:00-15:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
15:00-16:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
16:00-17:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
17:00-18:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
18:00-19:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
19:00-20:00 1.36 19.505 0.04
20:00-21:00 1.36 0 0.04
21:00-22:00 1.36 0 0.04
22:00-23:00 1.36 0 0.04
23:00-00:00 1.36 0 0.04
Table 3 load demand for computer, control, and power lab
39
time Power system lab Communication lab Control lab

00:00-1:00 0 0 0
1:00-2:00 0 0 0
2:00-3:00 12.47 5 1.875
3:00-4:00 12.47 5 1.875
4:00-5:00 12.47 5 1.875
5:00-6:00 9.35 2.5 1.875
6:00-7:00 0 0 0
7:00-8:00 0 0 0
8:00-9:00 9.35 2.5 1.875
9:00-10:00 9.35 2.5 1.875
10:00-11:00 9.35 2.5 1.875
11:00-12:00 0 0 0
12:00-13:00 0 0 0
13:00-14:00 0 0 0
14:00-15:00 0 0.75 0
15:00-16:00 0 .75 0
16:00-17:00 00 0.75 0
17:00-18:00 0 0 0
18:00-19:00 0 0 00
19:00-20:00 0 0 0
20:00-21:00 0 0 0
21:00-22:00 0 0 0
22:00-23:00 0 0 0
23:00-00:00 0 0 0
Table 4 total load for experimental laboratories
Calculation:
1. For lamps: There are 34 lamps in the 3 labs (computer, control and power) with and 85
lamps for electrical equipment lab, communication lab, and office, and 5in corridor with
wattage of 40 watt. The total power consumed by the lamps can be found us follows:
 In the 3 labs they consumes 1.36kw per hour for 12 hours in a day. The total watts in a
day: 12*1.36kwh=16.32kwh/day.
40
 In the office, communication lab, and electrical equipment we have 85 labs, and their
power consumptions are not constant and they serves for 5 hours. We can calculate for
each hour.
13:00-14:00 we have 2.48kwh.
14:00-15:00 2.48kwh
15:00-16:00 1.44kwh
16:00-17:00 4.96kwh
17:00-18:00 2.68kwh
Total of 2.48 kw/h+ 2.48kw/h+1.44kw/h+4.96k/wh+2.68kw/h=14.04kwh/day
 For corridor there are 5 lamps serving for 12 hours, each hour of 0.28kwh. A total of
0.28kwh*12=3.36kwh/day.
 Therefore, for all labs the total power consumed in one day is the sum of the power
obtained above. Thus,
=3.36kwh/day+14.04kwh/day+16.32kwh/day=33.72kwh/day.
2. For computers: There are 83 computers in the 3 labs giving service for 19 hours and 26
computers in communication lab, electrical equipment‟s, and offices and serves for 8
hours.
 For the 83 computers, the total load is 19*19.505kwh=370.595 kWh/day.
 For the 26 computers 8*6.11kwh=48.88kwh/day.
 Which gives a total of
370.595h/day+48.88kwh/day= 419.475kwh /day
3. For Cable box: there are 2 cable box in the lab found in computer and power labs, and
they serve for 24 hours in a day. The total power consumed by these 2 cable boxes is
24*0.04kwh= 0.96kwh/day
41
4. Electrical laboratory equipment: This is where all the electrical work shop activities
are performed.
 For Power system lab: It is assumed that from 3:00-5:00 consumes each of 12.43 KW/h,
and 9.35 KW/h, from 5:00-6:00. And from 8:00- 11:00 consumes each of 9.375 KW/h.
then the total power consumption in 24 hours is
3*12.375+4*9.375= 74.625 Kwh/day.
 For Communication lab: It is assumed that from 3:00-5:00 consumes each of 5 Kw/h and
2.5 from 5:00-6:00. And from 8:00- 11:00 consumes 2.5 Kw/h each. And from 14:00-
17:00 consumes each of 0.75 Kw/h. In this lab the total load is
3*5+4*2.5+3*0.75= 27.25 Kwh/day
 For Control lab: It is assumed that 1.875 kw/h for 7 hours in a day. That means
1.875 Kw/h *7= 13.125 Kwh/day.
 Then the total power consumption for the 3 lab experiments is as follows:
13.125h/day+27.25 Kwh/day+74.625Kwh/day=115 Kwh/day.
5. For Fan motor: we have 3 fan motors works for 5 hour then the total daily power
consumption becomes
5 *0.225 kw/h=1.125kwh/day.
6. Then the total primary load for 24 hour is calculated:
1.125kwh/day+115 Kwh/day+0.96kwh/day+419.475kwh /day+33.72kwh/day = 570.28kwh/day.
42
Hours Hourly average load in kwh

01:00 19.545
02:00 19.545
03:00 45
04:00 45
05:00 45.225
06:00 39.605
07:00 0.265
08:00 25.88
09:00 39.605
10:00 39.38
11:00 33.27
12:00 20.905
13:00 23.665
14:00 24.415
15:00 27.375
16:00 27.375
17:00 26.895
18:00 23.865
19:00 21.185
20:00 21.185
21:00 1.68
22:00 1.68
23:00 1.68
00:00 1.68
Hourly average load in kilowatt hour
43
Average hourly load in kwh

Hours (October - June) July Aug Sep
01:00 19.545 9.7725 14.65875 4.88625

2:00 19.545 9.7725 14.65875 4.88625
03:00 45 22.5 33.75 11.25
04:00 45 22.5 33.75 11.25
05:00 45.225 22.6125 33.91875 11.30625
06:00 39.605 19.8025 29.70375 9.90125
07:00 0.265 0.1325 0.19875 0.06625
08:00 25.88 12.94 19.41 6.47
09:00 39.605 19.8025 29.70375 9.90125
10:00 39.38 19.69 29.535 9.845
11:00 33.27 16.635 24.9525 8.3175
12:00 20.905 10.4525 15.67875 5.22625
13:00 23.665 11.8325 17.74875 5.91625
14:00 24.415 12.2075 18.31125 6.10375
15:00 27.375 13.6875 20.53125 6.84375
16:00 27.375 13.6875 20.53125 6.84375
17:00 26.895 13.4475 20.17125 6.72375
18:00 23.865 11.9325 17.89875 5.96625
19:00 21.185 10.5925 15.88875 5.29625
20:00 21.185 10.5925 15.88875 5.29625
21:00 1.68 0.84 1.26 0.42
22:00 1.68 0.84 1.26 0.42
23:00 1.68 0.84 1.26 0.42
00:00 1.68 0.84 1.26 0.42
Table 5 overall average primary load demand
3.6 Deferrable Loads Estimation
There are three deferrable loads; these are the three TV, one printer, and one copy machine. The
wattage ratings of the deferrable loads are as follows:
44
Television 100watt 8 hours per day
Copy machine 75 watt 4 hours per day
Printer 50 watt 4 hours per day
Months Total deferrable loads in

kwh/month for the three loads.
Jan 2.9
Feb 2.9
Mar 2.9
Apr 2.9
May 2.9
Jun 2.9
July 1.45
Aug 2.175
Sep 0.725
Oct 2.9
Nov 2.9
Dec 2.9
Table 6 total monthly average deferrable load
The proponent reduces load consumption in the three months (July, August, and September),
because the number of summer and extension students are less than the regular students. The
proponent estimated that the August month is loaded among the three months. That is why it
uses 75% of the regular months. The researcher also estimated that the load consumption in July
is 50% of the regular month, and load consumption of September is 25% of the regular months.
3.7 Design Procedures of Photovoltaic System
3.7.1 Determine Power Consumption Demand
The first step in designing hybrid system is to find out the total power and energy consumption
of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV and wind turbine system as follows:
 Total power consumption is 574 kwh/day
45
 Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (to compensate the energy lost
in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panel
and wind turbine.
 Therefore the total is be 574 kwh/day *1.3=746.2 kwh/day
Solar Panel Power Rating Analysis
The power rating of the solar panels depends on the ratio of solar generation and total peak sun
hours in a day. Peak sun hour is the number of hours in a day where an average of 1000 W m-2 of
solar irradiance is received. The recorded average peak sun hour for Ethiopia is around 4.68h. It
is used to calculate the solar panel power rating required for the design:
Where:
Prating = Solar panel power rating (W)
Psolor = Power generated from solar generator (WH)
PSH = Peak sun hour (hours)
Therefore;
The number of PV panel needed: Let one solar panel produce 10Kw
Therefore, the system should have at least 8 PV panel.
3.8 Design Procedures of Wind Generator System
46
3.8.1 Wind Generator Rating Analysis
Friction and mechanical losses in the wind generator need to be taken into account when the generator
rating is analyzed. The following equation is used to calculate the wind generator power rating and swept
area of the wind turbine.
Where:
Wrating = Wind generator power rating (W)
ηg = Wind generator efficiency
p = Air density (kg m-3)
A = Swept area (m2)
V = Wind speed (m sec-1)
Assuming that the efficiency to be 50%. The swept area is calculated as follows;
First the air density is calculated, from the NMASA website we have got the average temperature
is 296.2 kelvin, pressure is 87.2 kpa at 50 meter height of turbine.
R=287.05 Jpa/kg.k
∗ ∗
∗
∗
3.9 Charge Controller Analysis
47
Charge controllers or also known as power conditioners are used to protect batteries from over
charging, under charging and also to maintain flow of electricity to the load. Output voltage of
the charge controller must be the same with the battery voltage and charging current must be able
to support minimal current from the generators. The following equation is used to calculate the
charge controller size in amps for the solar and wind generator:
Where:
Cs = Solar charge controller current rating (A)
Cw = Wind charge controller current rating (A)
Vb = battery voltage (v)
Number charge controller we need 17 charge controller.
= 6216.7A
Number of charge controller
3.9.1 Battery Size Analysis
Batteries are needed to store energy during excess energy generation to be supplied to the load
when generation is low. Battery size depends on the Depth of Discharge (DOD) of the battery
and the number of power storage days when generation is zero. Battery voltage or the system
voltage selection depends on the total load demand of the system according to Table 1. The
analysis will take into account the user input on the days of storage needed and also battery
DOD.
48
Total daily load (wh) Battery voltage (volt)

< 1000 12
1000-2000 24
2000-3000 36
3000-4000 48
>4000 60-120
Table 7 battery voltage selection as the load demand
Deep cycle batteries can be discharged until 80% of the battery capacity but to preserve battery
life, the battery DOD is best set at 50%). The following equations will be used to calculate
battery capacity in watt hour and ampere hour:
The storage battery can be calculated using the following formula;
D * PL (Wh / day)
C ( Ah) 
VS * DOD
D=-0.48 PSH minimum+4.58
Where,
D=day of autonomy in selected region
PL=Load energy in Wh/day
We can calculate the battery storage
PSH minimum =5.46 which is solar radiation in July
PL=746 Kwh/day
Vs=120v
D=-0.48*5.46 + 4.58=1.9592
∗
∗
49
So that we have 10 batteries each having 1900Ah.
3.10 Inverter Analysis
Inverter sizing: To determine the inverter size you must find the peak load or the
maximum wattage your load. This found by adding up the wattage of the appliances and devices
that could be run at the same time. The sum will tell you which inverter size you need. For
safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
Total appliance wattage = 74.435kw
Inverter size = 74.435kw+25% of the total wattage
74.435+0.25*74.435k = 93.0437kw
the inverter size should be about 93.043 kW or greater
50
4 Chapter 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter the results of the design of a PV-wind hybrid power generation system is
presented. Homer simulates the operation of the system by making simulation, optimization and
sensitivity calculations for 8,760 hours in a year. For each hour, Homer compares the electric
demand of an hour to the energy that the system can supply in that particular hour, and calculates
the flows of energy to and from each component of the system. The results of the investigation
are presented in the following paragraphs
4.1 Input Parameters

Monthly Average Wind Speed:The monthly average wind speed for Mekelle University,
together with other related data, such as values of Weibull parameter k, diurnal pattern,
autocorrelation were fed into HOMER. The wind speed resource data, measured at 50m height
with altitude of 1286 m and annual average of 5.41 m/s, were taken from NASA. Homer, after
inputing these values, generated the graph shown on table 4.1 below.
Figure 11 monthly average wind speed
Average Solar Radiation: The daily solar radiation, taken from NMSA, of the ECE
Laboratory of Mekelle University was fed into HOMER. The specific location, the time zone are
51
also fed into Homer. Homer immediately displays the clearness index average (clearness index
ranges from 0.25 for very cloudy month to 0.9 for very sunny month), the graph of the solar
radiation striking Earth‟s surface and the annual average radiation as shown on table 4.2 below.
Figure 12 monthly average solar radiation
As observed, solar radiation varies through the year and it is impossible to get the same
magnitude of radiation continuously. In this study, the peak monthly radiation is recorded on
April and minimum radiation is recorded on August.
Primary and Deferrable Loads: The Average Hourly Primary and Deferrable Loads
for each month of the year for the Electrical and Computer Engineering Laboratory are inputed
52
into Homer. The system immediately graphs the load and calculates parameters as shown in
figures 4.3 and 4.4 below.
Figure 13 primary load input
53
Figure 14 average deferrable load input
4.2 Simulation Analysis
The simulation process models the system configuration. It serves two purposes. First, it
determines whether the system is feasible. HOMER considers the system to be feasible if it can
adequately serve the electric and thermal loads and satisfy any other constraints imposed by the
user. Second, it estimates the life-cycle cost of the system, which is the total cost of installing
and operating the system over its lifetime. The quantity to represent the life-cycle cost of the
system is the total net present cost (NPC). This single value includes all costs and revenues that
occur within the project lifetime, with future cash flows discounted to the present. The total net
present cost includes the initial capital cost of the system components, the cost of any component
replacements that occur within the project lifetime, the cost of maintenance and fuel, and the cost
54
of purchasing power from the grid. Any revenue from the sale of power to the grid reduces the
total NPC.
Table 4.1 below is generated based on the set of input values of the system configuration. The
costs, capacity, quantity and lifespan of each component of the system are taken from the
different websites. The diesel price is 0.94$/L and it is the current price of diesel in the country.
Figure 4.1 shows the complete configuration of the system. It is composed of the PV panel, wind
turbines, generating unit, batteries, converters, primary and deferrable loads and the AC and DC
bus bars.
Inputs PV Wind Diesel Battery converter

turbine Generator
Size(kw) 80 17 1 18396.36AH 4.4
Capital 1125/kw 1764.7/kw 600/kw 1200 2608

cost($)
Replacement 1125/kw 1764.7/kw 400/kw 1200 2608

Cost ($)
O & M cost 25 25 0.5 60 40

($/yr)
Size
considered 0 , 80 0,30 0,3,4,5
(kw)
0,1,2,3
Quantities 1 0,1,2,3 4,5,6,7
Considered 8,9,10
Life time 12 yrs. 25 yrs. 20,000 hrs. 10569 kWh 15 yrs.
55
Figure 15 Optimization Figure 16 the hybrid PV wind system Analysis
The optimization process determines the best possible system configuration. In HOMER, the
best possible, or optimal, system configuration is the one that satisfies the user-specified
constraints at the lowest total net present cost. Finding the optimal system configuration may
involve deciding on the mix of components that the system should contain, the size or quantity of
each component, and the dispatch strategy the system should use. In the optimization process,
HOMER simulates many different system configurations, discards the infeasible ones, ranks the
feasible ones according to total net present cost, and presents the feasible one with the lowest
total net present cost as the optimal system configuration.
The optimization results are generated in either of two forms; an overall form in which the top-
ranked system configurations are listed according to their net present cost (NPC) and in a
categorized form where only the least-cost system configuration is considered for each system.
Table 4.2 below shows the overall configuration of most cost effective system, i.e. the system
with the lowest Net Present Cost, is the PV-wind turbine-battery-converter set-up with
generator operating under a load following (LF) 0.93 RF strategy (a dispatch strategy whereby
the generator operates to produce just enough power to meet the primary load; lower-
priority objectives, such as charging the battery bank or serving the deferrable load, is left to
the renewable power sources). For this set-up, the total net present cost (NPC) is $679,195, the
cost of energy (COE) is 0.0.305 $/kWh, contribution from renewable resources is 93%. In this
56
set-up the part that renewable resources contribute to the supply system is significant,
being 93 %. This setup could be a good choice for implementation. Figure 4.2 shows the
monthly average electrical production of this system. Table 4.3 below shows the categorized
optimization result. It shows that there are only two system configurations having the lowest Net
Present Cost. It also shows that the system configuration has one PV, four wind turbines and one
generating unit.
Initial Operati Total

PV Wind Gen Con ng COE Diesel Gen Batt
Battery Capital NPC RF
(kw) (kw) (kw) Cost ($/kwh) (L) (Hrs.) Life
($) ($/yr.) ($)
80 4 30 48 4.4 190208 38252 679195 0.305 0.93 29,833 5171 12
80 5 30 48 3.3 199611 37721 681812 0.305 0.94 29,003 5043 12
80 4 30 48 3.3 189611 38533 682189 0.306 0.92 30,158 5241 12
80 5 30 60 4.4 214608 38779 710339 0.318 0.94 28701 4998 12
80 4 30 60 4.4 204608 39569 710436 0.319 0.93 29833 5171 12
80 4 30 60 3.3 204011 39850 713431 0.32 0.92 30158 5043 12
80 5 30 72 4.4 229008 40097 741580 0.332 0.94 28701 5241 12
0.930
80 4 30 72 4.4 219008 40887 741678 0.333 29833 4978 12
0
80 5 30 72 3.3 228411 40356 744295 0.33 0.94 29003 5171 12
Table 8 categorized optimization result
57
Figure 17 monthly average electric production
4.3 Sensitivity Analysis
In sensitivity analysis process, HOMER performs multiple optimizations each using a different
set of input assumptions. A sensitivity analysis reveals how sensitive the outputs are to changes
in the inputs. In sensitivity analysis, the user enters a range of values for a single input variable.
A variable for which the user has entered multiple values is called a sensitivity variable.
The proponents changed the cost of diesel fuel in order to observe the result of the sensitivity
analysis. The proponents used this, because it is the most dynamic input variable. The output of
the simulation is a list of feasible combinations of PV, wind-turbine, generator, converter, and
battery hybrid system set-up. And at same time, all categories of costs are also changing.
Initial Total
Cost of Operating COE
PV Wind Gen Con
Fuel Capacity Diesel
Battery Capital NPC RF
Cost ($/kw Shortage (Li)
(kw) (kw) (kw)
($) ($) ($/yr.) ($) h)
1.5 80 5 30 60,000 47,006 660,892 0.296 0.94 0.15 30.147
1.15 80 5 30 60,000 36,454 526,008 0.236 0.94 0.15 30.147
0.85 80 4 30 50,000 28,074 408,885 0.183 0.92 0.15 31,251
.60 80 5 30 124 4.4 206,608 32,289 619,372 0.270 0.94 0.15 28,700
Table 9 sensitivity analysis result
58
5 Chapter 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
A hybrid power generation system comprising of PV arrays, wind turbines and diesel generator
with battery banks and power conditioning units has been discussed in this study to achieve a
cost effective system configuration which is to supply electricity in ECE Laboratory in case of
power failure. The purpose is to have a continuous supply of electricity during laboratory classes
even during brown-outs.
Before the design of the hybrid system was started, the wind energy and solar energy resources
of the area under study were taken. Then, based on these resources, a standalone PV-Wind
electric power supply system was designed. The renewable potentials of the site are obtained
from the NMSA. The renewable resource data were fed into HOMER. Simulation, Optimization
and Sensitivity analyses were simulated in the HOMER software. The results show that the
designed system configuration is enough to supply the overall load demand of the system.
Homer has several configuration choices with different Net Present Cost, which gives different
possible design options for the designer to choose from. The proponents therefore conclude that
the design of this study is feasible to supply the entire load and at same time having the most
economical cost from construction up to its lifetime.
5.2 Recommendations
The following recommendations are derived from this study:
 Ethiopia has been experiencing power problems. One of the options to solve these
problems is to design a hybrid off-grid renewable source of energy similar to this study
and probably construct a system from this design.
 There are important parameters that need to be inputed in Homer which were not used in
the simulation, because of time constraint and limited internet access. The proponents
recommend that for future study, the researchers have to input variety and wider options
of parameters to have better analyses.
59
 There are also input cost parameters like fuel cost, initial cost, maintenance and operating
costs and replacement cost which are varying with time and of which some are assumed
in this study. The proponents recommend to study further about these parameters, to
gather more information of costs from reliable websites and use them in their future
study.
 The proponents also recommend to have an actual construction of this design, for it
cannot only help in solving power failure problems especially during classes, but it can
also be considered as experimental tools for the ECE students in their laboratory
experiments.
60
REFERENCES
[1] A. Rohani, K. Mazlumi, H. Kord, “Modeling of a Hybrid Power System for Economic
Analysis and Environmental Impact in HOMER”, IEEE transaction, ICEE 2010, May 11-13.
[2] F. Mesquita, C. Monteiro, “Design and strategy Optimization of Standalone Hybrid Energy
System”, MIEEC, Sept 2009, pp 1-11.
[3] Juhari Ab. Razak, K. Sopian, Yusoff Ali, “Optimization of renewable energy hybrid system
by minimizing excess capacity”, International journal of energy, issue 3, Vol. 1, pp. 77 – 81,
2007.
[4] K. Sopian, A. Zaharim, Y. Ali, Z. Nopiah, “Optimal operational strategy for hybrid
renewable energy system using genetic algorithms”, WSEAS transactions, issue 4, Vol. 7, pp.
130 – 140, April 2008.
[5] N. Razak, M. Othman, “Optimal sizing and operational strategy of hybrid renewable energy
system using HOMER”, IEEE transaction, pp. 495 – 501, June 2010.
[6] M. Shakawat Hossan, M. Maruf Hossain, A. Reazul Haque, “Optimization and Modeling of a
Hybrid energy system for off-grid electrification”, IEEE transaction, 2011.
[7] G. Vuc, I. Borlea, C. Barbulescu, “Optimal energy mix for a grid connected hybrid wind –
photovoltaic generation system”, IEEE transaction, pp. 129 – 132, March 2011.
[8] Rui Huang, S. Low, U. Topcu, K. Chandy, “Optimal design of hybrid energy system with
PV/Wind Turbine/ Storage : A Case study”, IEEE transaction, pp. 511 – 516, 2011.
[9] http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar
[10] http://eosweb/arc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/grid.cgi.
[11] NREL 2007, “Estimating Appliance and home electronics energy use a consumer‟s guide to
energy efficiency and renewable energy [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_ho
me/appliances/index.cfm]
61
Appendix
Over all optimization result
62
63

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FINAL PROJECT GC 2014

3 Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 35

1.2 Problem statement

1.3.2 Specific objectives

o Estimation of solar radiation for Mekelle University main campus

o Estimation of wind speed of Mekelle University main campus

 To gather electric energy consumption or demand estimation for Mekelle University

 To design a model of the PV-Wind hybrid generation system in Homer.

 To perform simulation, optimization and sensitivity analysis of the system using

2 Chapter TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Figure 1 special distribution of solar irradiance

2.2 Solar-generated Electricity – Photovoltaic

Figure 2: schematic diagram of hybrid solar wind power source

2.3 Photovoltaic (PV)

2.4 Basic Components of Solar Power

2.5 Generic Photovoltaic Cell

Figure 4 electric flow from n- type semiconductor

The I– V characteristic of the PV module are:

Where Ins (t) = insolation data at time t (kw/ m2)

 It is far distant from the main grid

2.6 Basic Components of Solar Power [5]

Figure 5 photovoltaic system

2.7 Design of the Reflectors [1]

Figure 6 reflector design

2.8 Solar Cells: Construction and Operation

2.9 Photovoltaic operation

2.9.1 Temperature and solar radiation effects on PV performance

The solar cell temperature Tc can be found by the following equation:

Tamb: ambient temperature in °C

G: solar radiation in W/m²

Following conditions at open circuit:

Solar radiation: 800 W/m²

Spectral distribution: AM1.5

Wind speed: > 1 m/s

Pout-pv = Pr-pv ∗ (G/Gref) ∗ [1+ KT (Tc - T ref)] (4.4)

Pout-pv: output power from the PV cell

Pr-pv: rated power at reference conditions

Gref: solar radiation at reference conditions (Gref =1000 W/ m²)

Tc: cell temperature, calculated using equation (4.2)

Tref: cell temperature at reference conditions (Tref = 25 °C)

KT: temperature coefficient of the maximum power

The following equation can be used to calculate the cell temperature

Approximately if the NOCT is not given by the manufacturer:

TC = Tamb + 0.0256 ∗ G (4.5)

Where Tc, Tamb, and G are as defined before.

2.10 Main PV Cell Types

Figure 7 photovoltaic cell and array

Eph (λ) =hc/λ

h = the Planck constant,

c = the speed of light (m/s), and

λ = the wavelength of light (m)

Figure 8 solar circuit equivalent

The current-voltage (I-V) and power-voltage (P-V) characteristics of a typical PV module

2.11 Wind Energy

2.11.1 The Earth's Wind Systems

2.12 Wind Power

2.13 Wind Turbines

2.14 Wind Power Modeling

Figure 9 energy conversion from wind to electricity

2.15 Hybrid System

2.18 The Homer Model and the Hybrid Setup

Figure 10 general schemes of standalone hybrid power supply system

3.2 The use of hybrid system

312.375+49.375= 74.625 Kwh/day.

35+42.5+3*0.75= 27.25 Kwh/day