Lebw4977 03

APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE
GASEOUS FUELS
G3600 • G3500
G3400 • G3300
Contents
Gaseous Fuels ....................................................................... 1

Fuel Properties ................................................................... 2
Hydrocarbons ................................................................ 2
Standard Condition of a Gas............................................ 3
Specific Gravity & Density .............................................. 4
Specific Gravity (Relative to Air) .................................. 4
Density ..................................................................... 4
Properties of Gas Mixtures .............................................. 4
Moles and Molecular Weight ........................................... 5
Heat Value .................................................................... 5
Fuel Characteristics ............................................................ 8
Stoichiometry ................................................................ 8
Methane Number ........................................................... 9
Impact of Fuel Quality on Engine Performance..................... 11
LHV, Air Required for Combustion & Engine Power.......... 11
Relative Power Capability & Wobbe Index....................... 12
Relative Power Capability .......................................... 12
Wobbe Index ........................................................... 13
Fuel System Sizing & Fuel Metering ............................... 14
Methane Number, Detonation & Engine Power ................ 14
Detonation and Pre-ignition ....................................... 14
Fuel Usage Guides.................................................... 17
Contaminants .................................................................. 19
Sulfur Compounds........................................................ 19
Halide Compounds ....................................................... 21
Ammonia Compounds................................................... 24
Water ......................................................................... 25
Silicon......................................................................... 25
Silicon Crystals ........................................................ 26
Silicon Containing Gases ........................................... 26
Corrosive Gas Guidelines .............................................. 29
Maximum Contaminants and Conditions ..................... 31
Useful Conversions ...................................................... 32
Common Fuels................................................................. 33
Natural Gas (Pipeline) ................................................... 33
Field Gas ..................................................................... 33
Fuel Treatment ........................................................ 33
Reference Material ........................................................... 35
Media Numbers............................................................ 35
Definitions ................................................................... 36
Table A: Physical Properties of Gases (English Units) ....... 37
Table B: Physical Properties of Gases (Metric Units)......... 38
Table C: Constituents of Gas by Volume ........................ 39
Foreword
This section of the Application and Installation Guide generally describes
Gaseous Fuels for Caterpillar® engines listed on the cover of this section.
Additional engine systems, components and dynamics are addressed in other
sections of this Application and Installation Guide.
Engine-specific information and data are available from a variety of
sources. Refer to the Introduction section of this guide for additional
references.
Systems and components described in this guide may not be available or
applicable for every engine.
Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

Discretion is recommended when distributing. Materials and specifications
are subject to change without notice.
CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, “Caterpillar Yellow” trade dress,

as well as corporate and product identity used herein, are trademarks of
Caterpillar and may not be used without permission.
Gaseous Fuels Application and Installation Guide
Gaseous Fuels
Most internal combustion engines today use fuels that are based on
hydrocarbon compounds derived from petroleum. The most commonly seen
hydrocarbon fuels are those used in automotive and aerospace applications
that typically exist in a liquid state until they are burned (i.e., gasoline, diesel
fuel and kerosene). Another class of hydrocarbon fuels exists in gaseous
form under normal conditions. The most common examples of these gaseous
fuels are natural gas, propane and butane.
While the most commonly seen examples of gaseous hydrocarbon fuels
come from petroleum, such gases may also be obtained from other less
typical sources. Hydrocarbon gases are a naturally occurring byproduct of
landfills and organic digester processes. They may also be manufactured
through the conversion of carbon-bearing materials such as coal or wood.
Each of these gaseous hydrocarbon fuels has unique characteristics that
affect their performance as an internal combustion engine fuel. This guide
provides an understanding of what gaseous fuels are and how they behave
when used as fuel for an engine.
SECTION CONTENTS
Fuel Properties .................... 2 Contaminants .................... 19

• Hydrocarbons • Sulfur Compounds
• Standard Condition of a Gas • Halide Compounds
• Specific Gravity & Density • Ammonia Compounds
• Properties of Gas Mixtures • Water
• Moles & Molecular Weight • Silicon
• Heat Value • Corrosive Gas Guidelines
Fuel Characteristics ............. 8 • Useful Conversions
• Stoichiometry Common Fuels .................. 33
• Methane Number • Natural Gas (Pipeline)
Impact of Fuel Quality on • Field Gas
Engine Performance ............11 Reference Material ............. 35
• LHV, Air Required for • Media Numbers
Combustion & Engine Power • Definitions
• Relative Power Capability & • Table A - Physical Properties
Wobbe Index of Gas (English)
• Fuel System Sizing & Fuel • Table B - Physical Properties
Metering of Gas (Metric)
• Methane Number, • Table C – Constituents of
Detonation & Engine Power Gas by Volume
©2009 Caterpillar®
All rights reserved. Page 1
Application and Installation Guide Gaseous Fuels
Fuel Properties
different hydrocarbon compounds in
Hydrocarbons
the series are sometimes called
Hydrocarbons are grouped into
“hydrocarbon fractions”.
three classifications according to
their molecular structure. Once the chains become long
enough they can different shapes.
• Paraffins - CnH2n+2
Some keep the “straight chain”
• Napthenes - CnH2n shape shown above and some form
• Aromatics - CnH2n-6 branches. These different versions
The hydrocarbon gases used as of the same molecule are known as
engine fuels are almost exclusively isomers, the name for chemical
paraffins (also known as alkanes). compounds that have the same
This family of compounds has formula but different molecular
molecules formed as a chain of structures. The straight chain
carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms version of these compounds is
attached at the remaining bond sites. termed “normal” and is often shown
The series begins with methane with a prefix of “n-“ or “nor-“. The
(CH4), with each succeeding member branched versions may be indicated
adding another carbon (C) atom by the prefixes “iso-“ or “neo-“, with
along with the corresponding number the difference between them being
of hydrogen (H) atoms. Shown where in the molecule the branch is
graphically, the first four members of found.
the paraffin series look like this. As the number of atoms in the
molecule increases, the mass of
the molecule increases. Such larger
hydrocarbon fractions are said to
be “heavier”. The increased size of
Methane (CH4) Ethane (C2H6) each successive molecule brings
with it changes to the characteristic
properties that define the behavior
of each. The shape of the molecule
alters these properties as well, such
that the various isomers of a given
fraction will also have somewhat
Propane (C3H8) Butane (C4H10) different characteristic properties.
Tables A & B on Pages 37 & 38
Note the similarity in how each compare the physical properties of
additional set of carbon and the paraffin series hydrocarbon
hydrogen atoms is added to the fractions most typically found in
chain. Because of the way in which gaseous fuels, along with some
the shorter chains appear as if they other non-hydrocarbon compounds
are portions of the longer ones, the that are also common in fuel gas.
Page 2 All rights reserved.
Standard Condition of a Gas account the ambient barometric

When dealing with gaseous fuels pressure. A reference measurement
it’s important to be able to gauge that does not account for this
the amount of gas present in a given atmospheric pressure is termed
sample. The number of atoms in “gauge” and is indicated by a small
each molecule and the number of letter “g”. Similarly, the units of
molecules present determines the volume carry a special tag when they
mass of the sample, but it can be are measured at these reference
difficult to weigh a gas sample to conditions. Cubic feet measured at
determine its mass. Volume is a standard conditions are considered
more practical measurement of a gas “standard cubic feet” and are often
sample, but the volume occupied by abbreviated “SCF”. Cubic meters
a given amount of a gas is measured at normal conditions are
dependent upon its temperature and termed “normal cubic meters” and
pressure. Higher temperatures and are often indicated as “Nm3”. Other
lower pressures each tend to cause abbreviations or reference conditions
a gas to occupy a greater amount of do sometimes get used, so it is
space (higher volume). To allow for important to know the terminology
consistent comparisons of gas and references used on each job. The
samples, reference conditions of abbreviations and conditions noted
temperature and pressure have been above are the references used
established, termed “standard” or throughout this guide.
“normal” conditions depending on Converting Reference Conditions
the source. The definitions for Because gas measurements are
“standard” and “normal” used in rarely made when the ambient
Caterpillar published documentation temperature and pressure match
are as follows: the reference conditions described
Standard Conditions above, it is important to be able to
Typically used with English units convert measurements from one set
of measure, standard conditions are of conditions to another. This is done
defined as 14.696 psia using the Ideal Gas Law, a chemistry
(101.31 kPaa) and 60°F (15.55°C). principle that summarizes the
relationships among temperature,
Normal Conditions pressure, volume and amount of gas
Typically used with metric units,
present into a single simple equation.
normal conditions are defined as
Because we’re comparing a single
101.31 kPaa (14.696 psia) and sample under “before” and “after”
0°C (32°F).
conditions the equation is simplified
Note in each case that the pressure even further to:
units of pounds per square inch Temp2 x Press1
(“psi”) or kilopascals (“kPa”) are Vol.2 = Vol.1 x
Temp1 x Press2
followed by a small letter “a”. The
“a” stands for “absolute”, indicating
that the measurement takes into
IMPORTANT: This equation only These types of conversions are

works when the measurements for done commonly to give information
temperature and pressure are about gases in terms of reference
expressed on an absolute scale. For conditions.
pressure, the measurements must
account for atmospheric pressure Specific Gravity & Density
and would appear as “psia” or Specific Gravity (Relative to Air)
“kPaa”. For temperature, units must Specific gravity is the ratio of the
be used that measure temperature molecular weight of a gas to the
relative to absolute zero. The molecular weight of air. It is useful
temperature scales that do this are for converting between units of
Rankine (R) and Kelvin (K). mass and volume. Specific gravity
Temperatures in Fahrenheit or values of common gases can be
Celsius are easily converted to found in a variety of engineering
Rankine or Kelvin using the following reference books. A table of gas
relationships: properties is included in this guide in
R = °F + 460 Table A on Page 37.
K = °C + 273 Density
As an example of how these Multiplying the specific gravity of a
equations and conversions are used, gas by the density of air at a given
consider a gas flow measured at set of conditions (temperature and
255 cubic meters per hour. If the pressure) yields the density of the
conditions at the time of gas at the same conditions.
measurement were 152 kPaa Example
pressure and 35°C temperature, we Given the following values,
can convert the flow rate to normal calculate the density of methane at
conditions in this way: normal conditions.
(0+273K) x (152kPa) Specific gravity of methane = 0.5539
Vol.2 = 255m3hr x
(35+273K) x (101.3 kPa)
Density of air at normal
conditions (0°C, 101.31 kPa) = 1.290 kg/Nm3
Vol.2 = 339 Nm3hr (Density of methane at Normal conditions = specific gravity
of methane) x (density of air at Normal conditions)
The same measurement expressed
in English units would have a flow 0.5539 x 1.290 kg/Nm3 = 0.7145 kg/Nm3
rate of 150 cubic feet per minute at Properties of Gas Mixtures
95°F and 22 psia. This flow rate Most natural gas engine fuels are a
can be converted to standard mixture of hydrocarbons and inert
conditions thus: gases. The properties of each
(60+460R) x (22 psia) component must be weighted when
Vol.2 = 150ft3min x
(95+460R) x (14.696 psia) determining the properties of the
mix. This weighting is done on a
Vol.2 = 210 scfm volume basis. For example, to find
the specific gravity of a mixture that
is 80% methane, 15% ethane and equivalent to volume percent values

5% carbon dioxide, you would divided by 100. All of the mole
multiply the properties of each gas fractions for substances in a given
by its volume % or “mole fraction” gas mixture added together will equal
from Table A on Page 37. 1, just as all of the volume percent
measurements added together will
equal 100%.
Gas Formula Specific Gravity The molecular weight of a
Methane CH4 0.5539
substance gives the relationship
between the number of molecules in
Ethane C2H6 1.0382
a sample and the mass of that
Carbon Dioxide C7H16 1.5196
sample. Given equal amounts of two
substances, a sample of a substance
Specific Gravity of the fuel mixture = with a molecular weight of 12 will
(0.8 x 0.5539) + (0.15x1.0382) + (0.05 x 1.5196) = 0.6748
have twice as much mass as an
Moles and Molecular Weight equal-sized sample of another
A mole is a measure of the number substance with a molecular weight
of molecules of a substance, which is of 6. This, together with the Ideal
a useful way to measure how much Gas Law described above, means
of that substance is present when the molecular weight gives us the
the volume it occupies is dependent tool to convert directly from volume
upon the temperature and pressure at measurement to mass measurement
the time of the measurement. It for any ideal gas.
provides a reference quantity to use Heat Value
as a starting point for discussions Combustion is the combination of
involving measured amounts of the fuel gas with oxygen to release
chemical substances, such as the
heat energy. Since the amount of
amounts of each hydrocarbon energy released is directly tied to
fraction that make up a gaseous fuel how much power the engine can
mixture. produce, it is important to know the
It is a useful property that one mole potential of each fuel gas to release
of any ideal gas occupies essentially heat during combustion. This
the same volume as one mole of any potential is known as the heat value
other ideal gas under the same (or calorific value) of the gas, and it
temperature and pressure conditions. is defined as the amount of thermal
This makes it very simple to go from energy released during complete
“how much” of a substance is combustion of the gas. It can be
present (in moles) to how much we measured using a calorimeter, a
can measure (in volume). In fact, the device that measures the heat
term “mole fraction” is commonly released during a chemical reaction
used for the proportionate measure (such as combustion).
of the parts that make up a gas Given that combustion of
sample. Mole fraction amounts are hydrocarbons involves the
combination of hydrogen and two moles of water (36 kg or 36 lb)

oxygen, one consistent byproduct of and one mole of CO2 (44 kg or 44
the reaction is water. Furthermore, lb). Therefore, for each unit mass of
given the high temperatures of the CH4 burned:
typical combustion reaction, the 36/16 = 2.25 kg (lb) of water are
water produced during combustion formed per kg (lb) of CH4.
comes out in a gaseous state. This
To determine the amount of water
change of state from a liquid to a
formed per SCM (SCF) of CH4
gas consumes heat energy (known
burned, divide 2.25 kg (lb) by the
as the latent heat of vaporization),
specific volume (m3/kg or ft3/lb) of
meaning a portion of the theoretical
gas at standard conditions of
energy release of combustion is not
temperature and pressure. Methane
available to the engine for use in
is:
producing mechanical power. Thus
for gaseous fuels, we document two 1 kg = 1.4738 SCM
heat values: (1 lb = 23.61 SCF)
• The higher heat value (HHV),
which is the total theoretical Therefore:
energy potential of the gas 2.25
• The lower heat value (LHV), = 1.526 kg H2O
1.4738 SCM CH4
which is the higher heat value
minus the latent heat of
2.25
vaporization of the water in = 0.09529 lb H2O
23.61 SCF CH4
the exhaust.
1.526 kg H2O (0.09529 lb H2O) is
An examination of the combustion the amount of water formed per
equation using pure methane (CH4), SCM (SCF) of methane burned.
the main constituent of natural gas,
The difference between high and
will illustrate this point further. The
low heat value for CH4 is the heat
equation for combustion of methane
required to convert 1.526 kg/SCM
is:
(0.09529 lb/SCF) of water to vapor
CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2 at standard conditions. The latent
heat of vaporization per kg (lb) of
To determine the amount of water water at 15.55°C (60°F) from the
formed during combustion, first steam tables is 2.4653 MJ/SCM
identify the molecular weight of (1059.9 Btu/SCF). Therefore, the
each gas. difference between HHV and LHV of
CH4 is:
CH4 2O2 2H2O CO2
+ = + 3.763 MJ/SCM (0.09529 x
16 64 36 44
When one mole of methane (16 kg 1059.9 = 101 Btu/SCF).
or 16 lb) is combined during Note that Tables A & B (Page 37 &
combustion with two moles of 38) reflect this difference in HHV
oxygen (64 kg or 64 lb), it will form and LHV for CH4.
As stated previously, the amount of propane forms 3.0937 kg/SCM

water formed depends on the (0.1931 lb/SCF) of water.
hydrocarbons being burned. As a To pursue this one step further,
comparison, consider the combustion the amount of heat lost to the
products of propane (C3H8). engine in converting this water to
C3H8 5O2 3CO2 4H2O vapor at 15.55°C (60°F) for
+ = +
44 160 132 72 propane is:
The amount of water formed per Energy lost per SCM (SCF) C3H8
kg (lb) of propane burned is: burned is 7.6 MJ/SCM C3H8 (0.1931
72/44 = 1.6363 kg (lb) H 2 O/kg (lb) C 3 H 8 x 1059.9 = 204 Btu/SCF C3H8)
And the amount of water formed Examination of Tables A & B (Page
per SCM (SCF) of propane burned is: 37 & 38) will confirm that this is the
1.636 kg H 2 O/kg C 3 H 8 = 3.0937 kg H 2 O difference between HHV and LHV
for propane.
1.636 kg H2O/kg C3H8 3.0937 kg H2O
= As stated earlier, the heat energy
0.5288 SCM/kg C3H8 SCM C3H8
lost to the vaporization of water is
lost to the engine for producing
1.636 lb H2O/lb C3H8 0.1931 lb H2O
= power as well. For this reason, LHV
8.471 SCF/lb C3H8 SCF C3H8
is the fuel property used when
When burning one SCM (SCF) each
determining the power-producing
of methane and propane, the
potential of a gas when used as
methane forms 1.526 kg/SCM
engine fuel.
(0.09529 lb/SCF) of water and the
Fuel Characteristics
While discussing the makeup and amount of gas; this is important
structure of gaseous fuels in the information when setting up an
previous sections, references were engine to use gas as fuel.
made to characteristic properties By the previous equation, one
that vary among different gases. volume of methane requires two
Understanding the properties of each times that volume of oxygen to burn
gas is very important to being able completely. Knowing that air is only
to properly prepare an engine to use 21% oxygen, we can work our way
a particular gas as fuel. to the proportionate amount of air
this way:
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry (pronounced “stoy- 2
= 9.53
kee-ah-muh-tree”) simply refers to 0.21
the relative quantities of elements in Thus, it takes 9.53 volumes of air
a molecule or the relative amounts to completely burn one volume of
of reactants and products in a methane. This ratio of volumes,
chemical reaction. We use it in 9.53:1, is a characteristic of
regard to the amounts of fuel and air methane known as its stoichiometric
involved in the chemical reaction air/fuel ratio. The stoichiometric
that is combustion. Stoichiometric combustion equations for the rest of
combustion takes place when the the hydrocarbon fuel fractions
fuel and air are in the correct balance differently, so the
proportions so that there is no stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for each
oxygen or fuel remaining when will be different. These air/fuel ratios
combustion is finished. This are shown in Tables A & B on Page
proportion is found by balancing the 37 & 38.
chemical equation for combustion, Most gaseous fuels don’t exist as
which is different for each gas. a single compound but instead as a
The stoichiometric combustion mixture of several compounds. A
equation for methane looks like this: typical pipeline quality natural gas
will be predominantly methane, but
will also contain much smaller
CH4 + 2O2 = 2H2O + CO2 amounts of other hydrocarbon
fractions and other compounds like
This equation tells us that methane nitrogen or carbon dioxide. The
and oxygen combine to form water amount of air required to burn such
and carbon dioxide. It also tells us a gas mixture will be determined by
that it takes two oxygen molecules a summing the amount required for
to convert each methane molecule. each component of the mixture
We can use this information to weighted for the percentage each
determine how much air will be represents in the overall mixture.
needed to completely burn a given
Such a weighted sum might look like the ability of the fuel gas to resist
this: detonation, an uncontrolled burning
Gas Stoichiometric of the gas in the engine. Left
Percent
Constituent Air/Fuel Ratio unchecked, detonation has the
Methane
90% 9.53
potential to cause significant engine
CH4 damage. For this reason, having a
Ethane
5% 16.67 measure of this detonation resistance
C2H6
Propane
property provides a valuable tool for
3% 23.83 assessing the suitability of a gas to
C3H8
Carbon Dioxide use as engine fuel.
2% 0.00
CO2
Caterpillar's earliest attempt at a
To find the weighted sum for this detonation resistance scale was
mixture, the percentages and air/fuel using the octane rating method, a
ratios are multiplied and summed like tool long established for use with
this: gasoline engines. The octane rating
CH 4 : 0.90 x 9.53 = 8.58 method uses a special test engine
C 2 H 6 : 0.05 x 16.67 = 0.83 with variable compression ratio to
establish the critical compression
C 3 H 8 : 0.03 x 23.82 = 0.71
ratio for a fuel, the compression
CO 2 : 0.02 x 0.0 = 0.00 ratio at which detonation occurs.
3 3
Total m (ft ) Unknown fuels are tested in this
Air Required = 10.12 engine and their results are
Thus, the stoichiometric air/fuel compared to a baseline set of results
ratio for this gas mixture is 10.12:1, for blends of iso-octane and n-
meaning 10.12 volumes of air are heptane. The octane rating number
required to completely burn one represents the percent of iso-octane
volume of this gas. This weighted in the baseline blend. The problem
sum technique is useful in with using the octane rating is that
determining “mixed gas” value for octane is not an effective reference
several of the characteristic gas point for natural gas. Natural gas
properties. typically contains a high percentage
of methane, the smallest, lightest
Methane Number paraffin fraction. Octane is a much
Caterpillar engines can operated on heavier paraffin series molecule with
gaseous fuel from a wide range of very different combustion properties,
sources, ranging from raw field gas including the fact that it tends to
to processed pipeline natural gas to exist as a liquid under normal
gas from landfill/digester processes. conditions - good for gasoline
However, the combustion qualities of engines, but not so good for natural
gas from these sources varies a great gas engines.
deal, affecting engine settings such To use the octane rating for gas
as ignition timing or even limiting the engines, each hydrocarbon fraction
power which the engine may (methane, ethane, propane, and so
produce. The key property involved is
on) must be tested to establish its refine the system through extensive
octane rating number. These values research and testing on a wide range
are then used to compute a of fuels from field gas to landfill gas.
weighted average octane rating for Calculating the methane number
each gas mixture being evaluated. requires a set of complicated
This approach has two significant computations; therefore, Caterpillar
drawbacks. First, it assumes a linear developed a computer program to
contribution by each fraction to the perform these calculations and allow
overall average result. In fact, the field determination of the methane
heavier fractions tend to have more number. This program makes it a
impact than the lighter ones on the simple task to enter the gas
behavior of the mixed gas. composition values and have the
Secondly, the octane rating system computer deliver a full report of the
provides no way to take into expected properties of the gas,
account the beneficial effects of including not only the methane
inert gases like carbon dioxide or number but also the higher and lower
nitrogen. In certain blends, these heat values, the specific gravity, the
gases can help to cool combustion, stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, and other
allowing a small improvement in properties, such as the Wobbe Index.
resistance to detonation. The octane Methane numbers of some individual
rating method was acceptable when component gases are:
used with processed “pipeline-
Methane (CH4) 100
quality” natural gas, but it
usefulness was limited when applied Ethane (C2H6) 46.6
to the broad range of gas Propane (C3H8) 33
compositions found at the well. Butane (commercial) 15
These applications needed a more
reliable rating method. n-Butane (C4H10) 10
The methane number rating After calculating the methane
method was first developed in number and knowing the aftercooler
Austria in the mid-1960s. Instead of water temperature (or air-to-air
octane, it uses methane as the aftercooling temperature) available,
reference for establishing resistance the engine rating can be determined
to detonation. The methane number from the fuel usage guides published
scale sets a value of 100 for pure by Caterpillar. The guides show
methane and uses hydrogen, with a engine power and timing for
value of 0, as the reference for a specified ranges of methane number
very fast-burning gas prone to for each aftercooler water
detonation. Caterpillar adopted this temperature.
method in the 1980s, continuing to
Impact of Fuel Quality on Engine Performance

as “naturally aspirated” (abbreviated
LHV, Air Required for “NA”). An NA engine will be
Combustion & Engine Power sensitive to any factors that restrict
An engine is a conversion device. airflow, and one such factor is the
It takes in the chemical energy altitude and ambient temperature of
stored in the fuel, releases that the installation where the engine is
energy as heat during combustion, in use. Increased altitude or ambient
and then converts the heat energy air temperature causes the air to
into mechanical work. Part of the become less dense, making it more
engine’s job, then, is to make certain difficult for the engine to draw in
enough fuel gets into the cylinder to enough air to support combustion.
enable it to reach its full rated power The fuel gas makeup comes into
output. But, as we learned earlier, play in that the amount of air
combustion requires fuel and air, so required to support combustion is
getting enough air into the cylinder determined by the air requirements
is just as important as getting of the fuel as shown by the
enough fuel. stoichiometric air/fuel ratio.
The path the air takes, from first Adding a turbocharger to an engine
entering the air cleaner until it is an effective way to offset this
reaches the cylinder, poses a breathing problem. The turbocharger
restriction to flow of the air. This is forces air into the engine, allowing it
characteristic of the design of the to overcome the effects of decreased
engine, so it is a property that varies ambient air density. But, pumping up
from engine model to engine model. the pressure of the inlet air to
Also characteristic of the engine increase the density also pumps up
design is whether or not it has a the temperature of that air, and
device that helps to push air into the higher temperatures mean decreased
cylinder to increase the power- air density. For this reason, many
producing potential of the engine. turbocharger installations also include
Such devices are known as an intercooler or aftercooler, a heat
superchargers, with the type most exchanger designed to cool the inlet
commonly seen on large engines air, allowing it to become more
being called turbochargers since the dense. The turbocharged-aftercooled
power used to pump the air into the (“TA”) engine design gives greatly
engine comes from a turbine placed expanded breathing ability to the
in the engine exhaust stream. engine, supporting the production of
The most basic engine air inlet power.
design uses no supercharger; it relies The fuel system has a similar role
only on the vacuum drawn by the in enabling the engine to produce
piston moving down in the cylinder rated power. It also poses a
to pull air in. This design is known restriction to the flow of fuel into
the engine and so is critical in the production capability of the engine.

design of the engine. It is also To determine relative power
affected by the inlet pressure of the capability for a fuel, start by
fuel supply much like the air system calculating the LHV of the fuel-air
is impacted by the site altitude and mixture.
ambient temperature. But, unlike the Fuel composition:
air system, the fuel system may also
CH4 = 55%
be impacted by the LHV of the fuel
gas. Too high an energy content CO2 = 35%
may cause the fuel system to be N2 = 10%
unable to mix air and fuel in the The LHV for this mixture,
proper ratios, resulting in poor calculated using the weighted sum
combustion and reduced power. To method described earlier, is 501
low an LHV results in starving the Btu/SCF (19.69 MJ/Nm3). The
engine for the fuel energy necessary stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for this
to produce power. fuel is 5.24:1, also determined by
Relative Power Capability & the weighted sum method. To
determine the LHV of the fuel-air
Wobbe Index mixture, we must divide the fuel
Two calculated properties of a fuel
content of one volume of fuel by the
gas were created to help in sizing up
total volume of a stoichiometric air-
the concerns over air system and
fuel blend, which is the sum of 1
fuel system restriction on power plus the stoichiometric ratio. This
production. The relative power gives:
capability documents the combined
impact of the air system and fuel 501
= 80.29 Btu/SCF
quality on the ability to get fuel 1 + 5.24
energy into the cylinder. Wobbe
Index serves as a tool to help gauge 19.69
= 3.16 MJ/Nm3
whether the fuel system will be able 1 + 5.24
to flow enough fuel to put fuel The LHV of the reference fuel-air
energy into the cylinder. mixture is calculated in the same
Relative Power Capability way, using the LHV and air/fuel ratio
The relative power capability of a information for the pipeline quality
fuel gas is a ratio of the LHV of the natural gas used in rating
fuel-air mixture for the engine development:
installation relative to the LHV of the 905
= 86.6 Btu/SCF
fuel-air mixture used to develop the 1 + 9.45
engine power rating. If the fuel-air
mixture contains less energy than 35.64
the reference fuel-air mixture, the = 3.41 MJ/Nm3
1 + 9.45
relative power capability drops The Relative Power Capability
below 100%, representing the (RPC) is the ratio of the two.
theoretical restriction on power
RPC = 3.16/3.14 = 0.93, or that would burn the low energy fuel
using the values in English units: used in the previous example.
RPC = 80.29/86.6 = 0.93 Ambient/altitude derate factor =
So the stoichiometric air-fuel 0.92 (found on Altitude Derate Table
mixture of this fuel would deliver to provided with the Technical Data
the engine only 93% of the energy Sheet)
that would be contained in a same Relative Power Capability factor =
volume of a stoichiometric mixture 0.93
of pipeline natural gas. Total Air System Derate
This factor is particularly important = (1 - 0.92) + (1 - 0.93)
when determining the rating of a
=0.8 + 0.7
naturally aspirated (NA) engine.
Without a turbocharger, the engine =0.15
does not have the means to increase The total derate = 15%
the density of the incoming air-fuel The total derate factor may be
mixture, and the fuel RPC factor will found multiplying the two factors
dictate the engine rating. together:
Even a turbocharged engine has its (0.92)(0.93) = 0.85
limits. While the turbocharger and
aftercooler help to compensate for The site rating is limited by the air
decreased air density at high site system capacity (site conditions and
altitudes and ambient temperatures, RPC) to:
their ability to do so has limits too. 809 bkW x 0.85 = 688 bkW
Once the turbocharger’s contribution Wobbe Index
reaches its limit, the TA engine is Changes in the fuel composition
subject to the same RPC limits that affect not only the energy content of
we've shown for the NA engine. the fuel, but its specific gravity (SG)
Additionally, the decline in air as well. The impact of the LHV
density delivered to the cylinders changes is clear; less energy in the
creates a second source of derate fuel means potentially less energy
that must be taken into account. delivered to the cylinder. The impact
To determine the limits of the air of the specific gravity is important in
system on a TA engine, the altitude the same manner. The specific
ambient derate factor (provided with gravity of the fuel is the property
the engine Technical Data Sheet) that determines how well it can turn
and the fuel RPC must be considered corners and squeeze through tight
together. These derates are spaces in the fuel system. A higher
cumulative. specific gravity fuel gas will have
For example, consider a G3516LE more difficulty traveling through a
engine rated at 809 bkW @ given fuel system than will a fuel
1200 rpm in a location at gas with a lower specific gravity.
2000 meters altitude and More restriction to flow through the
30°C (86°F) ambient temperature
fuel system means potentially less characteristic for the carburetor.

fuel energy flowing into the cylinder Such fuel system changes should be
and thus less power. This flow considered when the standard
capability of a fuel gas is measured engine fuel system cannot be made
using the Wobbe Index. to work with a given fuel gas.
The Wobbe Index takes these two
critical properties of the fuel – LHV Gas Heating Values
and SG – and puts them together to
55.0 –94.3 MJ/Nm3
create a direct measure of fuel High Energy Gas
(1400 –2400 Btu/SCF)
energy flowing through the fuel 31.4 –55.0 MJ/Nm3
Natural Gas
system. The LHV is a measure of (800 –1400 Btu/SCF)
how much energy is in the gas. Flow Low Energy 23.6 –31.4 MJ/Nm3
of a gas through the fuel system is Natural Gas (600 –800 Btu/SCF)
17.7 –25.5 MJ/Nm3
proportional to 1 divided by the Biogas
(450 –650 Btu/SCF)
square root of SG. Putting them 15.7 –23.6 MJ/Nm3
together, the flow of energy through Landfill Gas
(400 –600 Btu/SCF)
the fuel system is proportional to Table 1
LHV divided by the square root of
SG. This is the definition of the Methane Number, Detonation
Wobbe Index.
& Engine Power
Fuel System Sizing & Fuel Earlier we discussed the creation
Metering of a rating scale based on the
The fuel system on any engine detonation-resistant characteristics
must be capable of delivering a fuel of methane and hydrogen. This
flow rate that enables the engine to Methane Number scale serves as a
achieve its full rated power. As basis for rating fuel mixtures on their
shown in the discussions on Relative relative ability to resist detonation.
Power Capability and Wobbe Index, To understand how this information
its ability to do so is dependent upon is used, we start with an
the fuel LHV and SG, making it a understanding of detonation itself.
challenge for a single design to Detonation and Pre-ignition
successfully adapt to the broad Detonation and pre-ignition are two
range of gases that may be used as forms of abnormal combustion that
engine fuel. Fortunately, certain fuel involve uncontrolled burning of the
system designs can be adapted fuel-air mixture in the cylinder. Pre-
relatively easily to enable them to ignition is the term used to describe
work with different gases. As an premature ignition of the fuel-air
example, consider the broad fuel gas mixture before the spark plug has
categories described in Table 1. A fired. Detonation describes the
carbureted fuel system can often be scenario where the fuel-air mixture is
adapted to different fuel LHV ranges ignited at the proper time by the
by changing the internal parts that spark plug and a second ignition
establish the air/fuel ratio event takes place in the unburned
fuel-air mixture before the normal Normal combustion

combustion sequence can go to Burning of the fuel-air mixture is
completion. Both events are started by the spark plug. The flame
potentially damaging to the engine front progresses uniformly across
due to their potential to produce the combustion chamber until the
localized high temperatures and entire fuel-air charge is burned. Heat
sharp rises in pressure. released by combustion produces a
Pre-ignition is typically a result of rise in pressure that pushes the
a “hot spot” in the combustion piston down in the cylinder,
chamber. Such hot spots may occur producing useful work at the
at sharp edges on the engine parts crankshaft. Refer to Figure 1.
(such as valves or spark plugs) if
they get too hot, or from carbon
deposits in the combustion chamber.
If these hot spots cannot cool
between combustion cycles, they
can get hot enough to serve as an
ignition source themselves and will
light the fuel-air charge before the
spark plug gets the chance.
Detonation is the result of a more
complex set of circumstances,
involving the combined influence of
fuel quality, engine design, engine
set-up, site construction, ambient
conditions, and engine loading. If
enough of these inputs stray from
Figure 1
their proper ranges during engine
operation, combustion that begins Detonation
normally can suddenly see a portion The advancing flame front
of the unburned gas self-ignite compresses the unburned fuel-air
before it has been met by the mixture, pushing its temperature
primary flame front. The flame fronts beyond the auto-ignition point. The
from these two combustion sources unburned portion of the mixture self-
will eventually collide, creating a ignites, creating a sharp rise in
sharp metallic “ping” sound that is pressure and localized high
the audible evidence of detonation. temperatures. Refer to Figure 2.
Detonation is the event often called
“knocking” in your car’s gasoline
engine.
The following descriptions illustrate
normal combustion and detonation.
gas beyond the auto-ignition

threshold.
• Low fuel MN: Fuel gas does
not have sufficient resistance
to detonation. The fuel auto-
ignition temperature is low
compared to the standard fuel
resulting in auto-ignition under
normal combustion pressure
rise conditions.
This short list of direct causes can
grow to an extremely lengthy list of
root causes if we were to look at all
of the design and environmental
factors that can result in one of
these conditions.
Figure 2 Focusing just on engine attributes
that directly play into detonation
As described earlier, detonation sensitivity, four design issues come
results from one of several factors to the forefront.
being out of range either at the start
of, or during, the combustion • Compression Ratio
sequence. The basic driver for • Ignition Timing
detonation is the temperature of the • Aftercooler Temperature
unburned gas, or “end gas”, before
• Power Rating.
it is ignited by the flame front.
Because of this, the list of direct As we examine these attributes,
causes for detonation can be pretty you should begin to notice how
well defined (although the root several of the factors are directly
causes for those conditions can related to one another.
sometimes be more difficult to
establish). Direct causes of Compression Ratio
detonation include: The compression ratio of the
engine and the fuel MN go hand-in-
• Fuel-air charge temperature
hand when searching for the proper
too high: High starting
engine for a given fuel. High
temperature of the fuel-air
compression ratios tend to increase
mixture results in temperature
in-cylinder pressures, making factors
rise in the end gas beyond the
sensitive to the pressure rise critical
auto-ignition threshold.
with regard to detonation. Low MN
• Fuel-air charge pressure too fuels burn faster than higher MN
high: High starting pressure of fuels, creating steeper pressure rise
the fuel-air mixture results in rates that are not well matched to
temperature rise in the end high compression ratios. In general,
low MN fuels require low Power Rating

compression ratio engines. Engine power output is the most
challenging to see how it contributes
Ignition Timing to detonation because it involves the
Ignition timing is also directly tied movement of the piston. Normal
to fuel MN and pressure rise rate. operation of the engine uses the
Achieving peak combustion pressure pressure rise in the cylinder to push
at the proper time in the piston’s the piston and eventually drive the
movement in the cylinder requires load attached to the crankshaft. If
that the spark plug fire at a precise the driven load on the crankshaft
moment in advance of that point. becomes too great it restricts the
The timing of that “spark advance” movement of the piston. With the
depends heavily on the burning rate piston movement restricted, the
of the fuel, which is closely related pressure rise in the cylinder gets
to the fuel’s MN. Lower MN fuels steeper, eventually resulting in
require the use of less spark timing detonation.
advance.
Fuel Usage Guides
Aftercooler Temperature To successfully use fuels that are
more prone to detonation, cylinder
The aftercooler serves as the final
temperatures and pressures must be
control over the starting temperature
limited to the fuel’s capabilities and
of fuel-air charge. Because this plays
ignition timing must be optimized.
directly into the risk of detonation,
To match fuel capability with engine
any design or installation issues that
characteristics, Caterpillar publishes
can compromise the aftercooler's
a Fuel Usage Guide with each
ability to achieve the appropriate
engine’s technical data sheet. The
temperature in the inlet charge are
Fuel Usage Guide is a table that lists
critical detonation risk factors. The
a range of fuel methane number
aftercooler can fail to provide
values and provides the required
adequate cooling of the inlet air by
engine derate factor and
not being large enough to handle the
recommended engine timing for
heat removal demand placed on it or
each. The derate factor, when
by being fed aftercooler water at too
multiplied by the standard engine
high a temperature. High aftercooler
rating in the technical data, tells the
water temperatures can stem from
maximum power that the engine
improper selection of the aftercooler
should run on a fuel with the MN
water thermostat set point, or an
shown. The ignition timing is the
inadequately sized radiator, or by
recommended spark advance setting
high ambient air temperatures
for that fuel.
reducing the cooling capabilities of
the radiator.
Example of Fuel Usage Guide
Figure 3
An example of a fuel usage guide 23 degrees BTDC (“before top dead

is shown in Figure 3. This example center”). If the fuel MN dropped to
guide suggests that with a fuel gas 40, however, the rating would need
of MN=46, this engine could to be dropped to 90% of the
operate at the full published rating published rating (derate factor =
(derate factor = 1.0), and the 0.9) and the ignition timing should
recommended timing would be be set to 22 degrees BTDC.
Contaminants
Later in this guide, Table 4 engines, like the G3500B, C, and E,
shows the maximum concentration result in higher levels of condensation
for gas contaminants for standard in the aftercooler. For these engines,
engine configurations. Other a stainless steel aftercooler core is
engine configurations, such as recommended when the fuel sulfur
those designed to operate on content is above 0.14 ug H2S/Btu or
landfill gas, tolerate different levels 3 ppm of H2S @ 900 Btu/Scf. For all
of contaminates. Note some limits models, the gas should be treated
vary according to fuel heat value as corrosive when sulfur content is
and some limits depend on engine above 0.45 ug H2S/Btu or 10 ppm @
configuration. 900 Btu/Scf. as shown in Figure 4a.
Special measures can be taken to
Sulfur Compounds
make an engine more tolerant to sulfur
Sulfur compounds are formed
and other corrosive compounds
during the decomposition of
contained in the fuel. These measures
organic waste. The primary
are outlined in the Corrosive Gas
compound of concern is hydrogen
guidelines discussion later in this
sulfide (H2S), although any
section. When these guidelines are
compound containing sulfur should
followed, the fuel sulfur level can be
be considered when comparing
increased, depending on the fuel lower
sulfur intake to engine limits.
heating value (LHV). The maximum
Table 2 provides a list of typical
level of sulfur compounds, in terms of
sulfur compounds.
ppm vs. LHV, is given in Figure 4b.
Sulfur compounds which
When determinining the sulfur level
condense out of the fuel gas are
in a fuel, the number of sulfur atoms
highly corrosive and will quickly
must be considered. As an estimate,
damage and fail bright metal engine
this can be done by counting the
components. Condensation of the
sulfur atoms in a compound.
air fuel mixture in the aftercooler
Constituents with two sulfur
will lead to failure of the aftercooler
elements, such as carbon disulfide
core. Even more significant, sulfur
(CS2), should be counted at twice
compounds dissolved in the engine
their ppm level.
oil from blow-by gas will corrode
the oil cooler, bronze and brass For example, 20 ppm H2S and
bushings and bearings and any 15 ppm CS2 are equivalent to 50 ppm
internal engine components sulfur compounds:
containing copper. 1 x 20 ppm (H2S) + 2 x 15 ppm (CS2) = 50 ppm
Even trace amounts of sulfur can Refer to Table 2 for the number of
significantly damage engine sulfur elements in a variety of sulfur
components. The high manifold compounds.
pressures of high performance
Maximum Level of Sulfur Compounds
Figure 4a
Figure 4b
Typical Sulfur Compounds
Chemical Sulfur Atoms

Compound Name
Formula in compound
Carbon Disulfide CS2 2
Carbonyl Sulfide COS 1
Dimethyl Disulfide C2H6S2 2
Dimethyl Sulfide C2H6S 1
Ethyl Mercaptan (Ethanethiol) C2H6S 1
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 1
i-propyl Mercaptan (Propanethiol) C3H8S 1
Methyl Ethyl Sulfide C3H8S 1
Methyl Mercaptan (Methanethiol) CH4S 1
n-propyl Mercaptan (Propanethiol) C3H8S 1
Table 2
and hydrofluoric acid (HF). Both

Halide Compounds these acids are very corrosive to
Landfill gas may contain internal engine components.
halogenated hydrocarbons, which Excessive levels of HCl or HF acid
contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine result in accelerated piston ring,
or some combination of the three. cylinder liner, exhaust valve stem,
The most common halogenated and valve guide wear.
hydrocarbons are referred to as
These hydrocarbons are heavier
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and
molecules than the methane and
have been widely used in the
CO2. They tend to remain in the
refrigerant industry. Refrigerant 12,
landfill until the landfill gas is
the most common refrigerant, has
collected. Once gas is drawn from
the chemical name
the field, the hydrocarbons are
dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) and
evaporated into the moving gas
the trade name Freon-12. Refrigerant
stream until they are depleted.
11 and 22 are also similarly
Measurements from producing
composed and have been widely
landfills indicate the volatile
used. Paint thinners, degreasers,
hydrocarbons drop to 10 - 25%
aerosol cans, refrigerators, and air
from their original levels after one
conditioners are all sources for
or two years of gas production.
CFC’s and other hydrocarbons.
Very few of the halogenated Note: The standard engine
hydrocarbons are formed from the configuration cannot tolerate any
decomposition of plastics and other halides; they can cause serious
petroleum-based materials. damage to the engine. However,
special fuel system configurations
When the CFC’s are burned within
were developed for landfill
the engine, chlorine and fluorine are
applications that provide some
released during the combustion
protection from halides.
process, then react with water, and
finally form hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Table 3 provides acceptable halide the gas. This is the total amount of
levels for the special configurations. chlorine and fluorine present in all
These special configurations have a the various compounds that may
halide limit of 20 µg/Btu (19 mg/MJ) carry halides. See Figure 5 for the
of halides as CI. maximum acceptable level.
The level of halides is given in Note: If this level is exceeded at any
mass divided by the fuel energy time through the lifetime of the
content, or micrograms of chlorine project, serious damage may occur
and fluorine per low heating value of to the engine.
Figure 5
When determinining the halide times, twice for each of the two
level in a fuel, the number of CL, F element constituents.
and Br atoms must be considered. Typical halide compounds are
As an estimate, this can be done by shown in Table 3.
counting these atoms in a
For example, 10 ppm C2H3Cl and
compound. Constituents with one
20 ppm CCl2F2 are equivalent to
chlorine element, such as vinyl
90 ppm halide compounds:
chloride (C2H3Cl), should be counted
once, while constituents with two 1 x 10 ppm C2H3Cl + 4 x 20 ppm CCl2F2 = 90 ppm
chlorine and two fluorine elements, Refer to Table 3 for the number
such as dichlorodifloromethane of chlorine elements in a variety
(CCl2F2), should be counted four of halide compounds.
Typical Halide Compounds

Chemical Cl, F & Br
Compound Name
Formula Atoms In Compound
1,1,1-Trichloroethane C2H3Cl3 3
1,1,1-Trichloropropane C3H5Cl3 3
1,1,1,2-Tetrachloroethane C2H2Cl4 4
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane C2H2Cl4 4
1,1,2-Trichloroethane C2H3Cl3 3
1,1-Dichloroethane C2H4Cl2 2
1,1-Dichloroethene C2H2Cl2 2
1,2-Dichloroethane C2H4Cl2 2
1,2-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 2
1,2,3-Trichloropropane C3H5Cl3 3
2-Chloroethylvinylether (Chloroethoxyethanol) C4H9ClO2 1
Bromodichloromethane CHBrCl2 3
Bromofluorobenzene C6H4BrF 2
Bromoform (Tribromomethane) CHBr3 3
Bromomethane (Methyl Bromide) CH3Br 1
Carbon Tetrachloride CCl4 4
Chlorobenzene (Phenyl Chloride) C6H5Cl 1
Chlorodifluoromethane (Freon-22) CHClF2 3
Chloroethane (Ethyl Chloride) C2H5Cl 1
Chloroform (Trichloromethane) CHCl3 3
Chloromethane (Methyl Chloride) CH3Cl 1
Chloropropane (n-Propyl Chloride) C3H7Cl 1
Chlorotoluene (Benzyl Chloride) C7H7Cl 1
cis-1,3-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 2
Dibromochloromethane CHBr2Cl 3
Dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon-12) CCl2F2 4
Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride) CH2Cl2 2
Pentachloroethane C2HCl5 5
Tetrachloroethene (Tetrachloroethylene) C2Cl4 4
Total 1,2-Dichloroethenes C2H2Cl2 2
cis-1,2-Dichloroethene
trans-1,2-Dichloroethene
Total Dichlorobenzenes C6H4Cl2 2
o-Dichlorobenzene
m-Dichlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
Total Trichlorobenzene C6H3Cl3 3
1,2,3-Trichlorobenzene
Trans-1,3-Dichloropropane C3H6Cl2 2
Trichloroethene (Trichloroethylene) C2HCl3 3
Trichlorofluoromethane (Freon-11) CCl3F 4
Vinyl Chloride (Chloroethene) C2H3Cl 1
Table 3
Chlorinated hydrocarbon and If the chlorine, fluorine or

chlorofluorocarbon gases are in bromine level exceeds the
relatively low concentrations within maximum shown in Figure 5, fuel
landfill gas; however, their affect treatment is required. Chlorine and
can be great. The most widely used fluorine are water soluble and are
test to determine gas concentration frequently carried into the engine
is the EPA624 test for volatile by water vapor. Removing the
hydrocarbons. This EPA water water vapor by drying the fuel will
standards test has been adapted for reduce halogen levels. For more
measuring gases. The EPA624 test information, see the section on fuel
is acceptable for determining the system design in this manual.
chlorine level provided the minimum
threshold of detectability is 5 ppmv. Ammonia Compounds
This test has shown variability from Natural gas fuel may contain
laboratory to laboratory. nitrogen compounds, that when
hydrogen is present, can combine
Caterpillar has developed a
to form base compounds. The two
laboratory test for measuring the
compounds of concern are Ammonia
levels of halogens within a sample of
(NH3) and Acrylonitrile (C3H3N) that
landfill gas. The sample, including
can easily be converted into
the halogenated organic compounds,
ammonia in gaseous fuels.
is oxidized in a CO2 and O2
atmosphere. The hydrogen halide by- Note: The standard engine
product of the pyrolysis is measured configuration cannot tolerate
electrically using microcoulometric ammonia; it can cause serious
titration. The accuracy of this damage to the engine. However,
equipment is ±0.002%, not special fuel system configurations
including inaccuracy introduced at were developed for landfill
the sample withdrawing and applications that provide some
depositing. Caterpillar recommends protection from ammonia. These
the follow laboratory for halogen and special configurations have an
hydrogen sulfide testing: ammonia limit of 2.96 µg/Btu
(2.81 mg/MJ) of NH3.
Core Laboratories- Houston
Attention: Gas Analysis Chemist
6310 Rothway Drive
Houston, TX 77040
(713)690-4444 phone
(713)690-5646 fax
Figure 6
The maximum level of nitrogen can combine with organic

compounds in terms of ppm vs. LHV compounds or carbon dioxide form
is given in Figure 6. acids that can be very corrosive to
When determining the ammonia the gas handling equipment as well
level in a fuel, ammonia (NH3) and as to the engine.
acrylonitrile (C3H3N) should both be Condensation of water is not
counted only once. permitted in the engine and should
For example, 50 ppm NH3 and be avoided at all points in the fuel
10 ppm C3H3N are equivalent to delivery system. If the risk of
60 ppm ammonia compounds: condensation is too great, the fuel
must be treated to reduce its water
1 x 50 ppm (NH3) + 1 x 10 ppm (C3H3N) = 60 ppm
content.
Any fuel in region “C” of Figure 6 Silicon

must be treated to remove the Silicon, the second most abundant
excess Ammonia. element on the earth, is commonly
found in sand, quartz, flint, granite,
Water glass, clay, and mica. If ingested
Water can be damaging to the into an engine, microscopic pieces
engine in any form - liquid or vapor. of these compounds can cause
Water vapor is a very common abrasive wear leading to significant
constituent in gases and should be damage. Gaseous compounds
taken into account whenever containing silicon are man made and
evaluating a gas stream for its can form deposits in the combustion
potential as engine fuel. Water vapor chamber and exhaust system of an
engine. Both types of silicon Silicon Containing Gases

ingestion are discussed below. The more difficult silicon to deal
with enters the engine in gaseous
Silicon Crystals
compounds containing silicon. The
Depending upon the landfill cover
most common class of gaseous
material, the climate, and the
silicon compounds known to exist in
velocity of the gas within the fill,
landfills and in landfill gas are
significant levels of microscopic
siloxanes.
silicon crystals can be carried with
the gas. Generally, this silicon is less Siloxanes are organic compounds
than one micron in size. The composed of silicon, oxygen, and
particles are generally too small to methyl groups with structural units
cause significant abrasive wear of -(CH3)2SiO-, and molecular
within the engine. However, if the weights typically in the range of
silicon particles are in high enough 150 to 600. Solubility decreases as
density, they can combine with the molecular weight increases.
other elements, including elements Siloxanes may be volatile or non-
found in oil additives, in the volatile. In the US, they are not
combustion process and form larger regulated by the environmental
particles. These larger particles can protection agency (EPA) as a volatile
result in abrasive wear of the organic compound (VOC) because
exhaust valve face and valve seat. siloxanes have been shown not to
The compound silicon particles can contribute to the formation of
also form indentations on the ground level ozone. Siloxanes are
exhaust valve face and seat if they common components in products
become trapped between those such as shampoos, cosmetics,
surfaces during valve closure. These detergents, pharmaceuticals, ink,
indentations or pitting of the valve lubricants and adhesives. A solid
face and seat may result in eventual antiperspirant may contain 50%
leakage or guttering of the valve. siloxanes. Siloxanes are found
Engine oil should be analyzed for wherever consumer waste and
silicon. sewage sludge are discharged.
Filtration is recommended to During combustion, the siloxane
control the silicon. Filters with molecules break down, freeing the
100% effectiveness of particles silicon and oxygen molecules to an
1.0 micron (1 micron equal 10–6 unstable monatomic state. They can
meters) and larger are then form a deposit by combining
recommended. Even with this with various other elements that
filtration equipment, significant may be present in the cylinder during
amounts of silicon can still enter the combustion. X-ray diffraction of
engine. The silicon will be detected deposits shows a mostly amorphous
in the oil analysis results. See composition of silica (SiO2) and
Lubrication section of this guide for silicates. The elemental composition
further information. of a deposit has a high level of
silicon plus elements commonly The maximum amount of silicon

found in oil additives and wear permitted in the gas for standard
metals from the engine, such as engines is shown in Table 4. For low
calcium, sodium, sulfur, zinc, iron, energy fuel engines, the limits are
copper, and others. Deposits caused 0.56 mg Si/MJ (0.60 µg Si/Btu). If
by siloxanes will tend to be white to the silicon level in the gas exceeds
tan or gray in color, granular or flaky this amount, serious damage to the
in nature, and can become thick. engine may occur. Silicon levels may
The deposits are extremely hard and vary throughout the lifetime of the
cannot be easily removed by landfill project. Testing is
chemical or physical means. recommended at the beginning of
Deposits can appear in the the project and subsequently at 6-
combustion chamber, exhaust month intervals until the silicon level
manifold, turbine, exhaust stack, is stabilized. After the silicon level
and even catalyst equipment. In the stabilizes, testing is recommended if
combustion chamber, deposits can any deposits accumulate in the
on the valve faces. This will lead to exhaust or combustion chamber.
excessive valve recession due to the Testing for silicon compounds
grinding action of the silica on the requires specialized equipment.
valve and valve seat. Deposits may The following section describes the
also lead to valve guttering. This procedure to determine the level of
occurs when a portion of thick silicon in landfill gas.
deposit on the valve face chips Collection of gas samples for trace
away. This leaves a path for the silicon analysis must be done with
combustion gases to pass through great care due to the common
when the valve is closed; creating a presence of silicon in the
torch effect that literally melts a part environment. The sample should be
of the valve. It has been shown that taken immediately before the gas
guttering occurrences on engines delivery to the engine. Chilled
with deposits can be decreased by Methanol Adsorption is
loading the engine slowly over a recommended for gas sampling. In
20 to 30 minute period. This allows this process, a fixed amount of gas
time for the temperature of the is passed through the adsorption
deposits to increase; changing their agent, usually methanol (CH3OH) or
consistency to plastic from brittle. a similar hydrocarbon. The exposed
Deposits on the turbine can cause methanol should then be analyzed by
bearing failure due to imbalance and gas chromatography and mass
can cause turbine wheel erosion due spectrometry for the total amount of
to buildup between the wheel and siloxane compounds. The total
housing. Deposits may also mask content of silicon in the sample
catalyst or heat recovery equipment should be determined by Liquid
located in the exhaust stream. Chromatograph with Inductively
Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission may be present in a gas stream.

Spectroscopy. However, refrigeration of the gas
Caterpillar has developed gas will reduce the level of siloxanes in
sampling equipment for siloxane and the gas. For the most common
halogen measurements. This kit is siloxanes, D4 and D5, reduction of
available through Bio-Engineering the gas temperature from 43.3°C
Services (see address below). It may (110°F) to 4.4°C (40°F) should
be used to accurately collect and result in an approximate 95%
meter gas for the Chilled Methanol reduction in siloxane level. A limited
Adsorption technique. The kit number of sites have employed
contains three containers of refrigeration as a means to control
methanol and a system to pass a siloxanes and this technique appears
fixed amount of gas through the to be effective.
methanol. The exposed methanol is Passing the gas through a solvent
then sent to a laboratory for testing. (methanol, kerosene, toluene, etc.)
This kit will also gather gas in a bag will cause the siloxane molecules to
for halogen and hydrogen sulfide adsorb to the solvent. A counterflow
content tests. gas-liquid adsorption bed can be
Caterpillar recommends the used to significantly reduce the level
following laboratories for siloxane of siloxane as well as chlorine and
testing. fluorine in the gas. However,
installation and operation of such a
Bio-Engineering Services
system is usually cost prohibitive.
36 Virginia Street
Contact Caterpillar for additional
Southport, PR8 6RU England
details and supplier
44 (0) 1704 539094 phone
recommendations for this type
44 (0) 1704 501660 fax
system.
Jet-Care International Inc. No additional fuel treatment
3 Saddle Road methods exist at this time to reduce
Cedar Knoll, NJ 07927-1902 siloxane in gaseous fuels.
(201)-292-9597 phone On G3500 engines, a water wash,
(201)-292-3030 fax or water injection into the engine,
has been shown to reduce siloxane
If the total silicon level in the caused buildups. Water is sprayed
sample exceeds the limit shown in into the intake. The added water
Table 4, gas treatment is required. vaporizes in the combustion process,
Conventional filtering systems will cleaning deposits from the
not remove siloxane from the landfill combustion chamber. Water
gas. Siloxanes are solvent soluble injection has been used to clean
but are only water soluble to a existing buildups and has been used
limited extent. It is for this reason to control additional buildups.
that drying the gas of water will only Injection rates vary from 4 to
remove a portion of the siloxane that 16 liters (1 to 4 gallons) of water
per hour of engine operation. A minimize the amount of

spray mist of water is injected condensation. Engines
downstream of the turbocharger. equipped with inlet control
The water must be the product of cooling systems will maintain
reverse osmosis cleaning. Raw outlet temperatures 110°C
water will lead to severe deposits of (230°F) range. Engines with
calcium throughout the engine. outlet control cooling systems
Caution must be used if water may require additional external
injection is used to clean existing controls to maintain 110°C
buildups. Pieces of a deposit may (230°F) outlet temperatures.
break loose, guttering valves and Elevating coolant
damaging the turbochargers. Use temperatures may not be an
low water injection rates until option and all engine models,
deposits are removed. The factory such as the G33/3400.
can provide further guidelines Contact Caterpillar before
regarding water-wash. The following applying such changes.
company designs and sells water • Maintain the temperature of
injection systems: the oil in the sump high
Bio-Engineering Services enough to prevent water from
36 Virginia Street condensing in the oil.
Southport, PR8 6RU England Maintaining the jacket water
44 (0) 1704 539094 phone outlet temperature at a
44 (0) 1704 501660 fax minimum of 93°C (200°F)
will normally accomplish this.
Corrosive Gas Guidelines Elevating oil temperatures
The following modifications to the may not be an option and all
operating and maintenance practices engine models, such as the
and engine hardware will G33/3400. Contact Caterpillar
significantly increase its tolerance to before applying such changes.
corrosive elements introduced in the • Where it is possible to start
fuel. the engine on sweet gas,
• Maintain the coolant outlet bring the engine up to
temperature at 110°C operating temperature on
(230°F). Temperature rise sweet gas, then switch to
across the engine should be sour gas; reverse the
no more than 8.3°C (15°F), procedure when shutting the
and a 5.6°C (10°F) rise is engine down.
desirable. Water and sulfur • Establish an oil analysis
oxides are formed during program to assure oil change
combustion and will condense periods are not extended
on cylinder walls at low beyond safe limits and that
temperature. The higher jacket other problems are not
water temperature will overlooked. Caterpillar Dealers
are capable of establishing attack of internal engine

and conducting such components. The ventilation
programs. system should positively
• Use a gas engine oil designed remove the fumes from the
for landfill applications. These crankcase and allow filtered
oils include a specialized air to enter the crankcase to
additive package suitable for dilute the levels of H2S.
corrosive gas applications. Guidelines for crankcase
See the Caterpillar Fluids ventilation systems are
service publications listed in provided in the Crankcase
the reference material to this Ventilation section of the
section for more information Application and Installation
on Caterpillar oil Guide.
recommendations. • When using an engine
• There is no known oil additive configuration which mixes air
that can protect the internal and fuel prior to the
bright metal engine aftercooler, a stainless steel
components from H2S attack. aftercooler core must be used.
Positive crankcase ventilation
has proven to reduce the H2S
Maximum Contaminants and Conditions

(Unless otherwise noted, Contaminant and Condition limits apply to fuel
and combustion air. See footnote 1 below.)
Table 4
To convert µg/L to ppmv:

Useful Conversions
To determine the amount of a ppmv = (µg/L) (23.67)/(MW)
particular atom contained in a Where:
compound, such as Cl from a ppmv = part per million volume
particular Cl bearing compound,
1 mole of gas contains 22.4 liters at
% Cl = (MW of Cl)(number Cl atoms in 0°C, 101.3 kPa
compound)(100)/(MW of compound)
1 mole of gas contains 23.67 liters
µg Cl/L= (concentration of compound at 15.5°C, 101.3 kPa
µg/L)(% Cl)/100
MW (molecular weight):
The same procedure can be used fluorine =19
for other atoms and compounds. chlorine =35.5
To show the level of one bromine =79.9
contaminant as another, such as µg iodine =126.9
F as µg Cl, (for use with Total sulfur =32
Halogen levels): hydrogen =1
µg F as Cl = (µg F/L)(MW of Cl)/(MW of F) 1 ft3 = 28.3 L
To convert µg/Btu to µg/L: 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
(µg/Btu)(LHV Btu/scf)/(28.3 L/scf)=µg/L
Common Fuels
pentane, etc. Before being marketed
Natural Gas (Pipeline)
through the gas distribution
By definition, natural gas is any
pipelines, the wet ends are removed
gas that occurs organically within
to provide what we often refer to as
the earth and often is associated
dry pipeline gas.
with oil reserves and/or oil
production. In this Application & The composition of natural gas as
Installation Guide, natural gas is it leaves the wellhead varies from
assumed to have certain properties. one area, or gas field, to another. In
In this guide, natural gas is clean, each instance, it is a mixture of
dry, pipeline quality gas or treated gases composed mostly of methane
field gas. Treated field gas is a gas (CH4) with varying percentages of
that has been treated to remove the ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8),
following elements. butane (C4H10), and usually small
amounts of helium (He), carbon
• Particulate Matter
dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2), and in
• Water some fields hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
• Inert gases such as Carbon Table 5 illustrates the variation in
Dioxide (CO2) and Nitrogen composition of natural gases from
(N2) different fields, including an analysis
• Heavier Hydrocarbons of a typical dry pipeline gas.
Removal of these elements from Note that the quality of field gas is
field gas provides a consistent, high never constant. Field gases will vary
quality gas with at least a 905 BTU not only from site to site, but also
value and an 80MN (Methane from minute to minute on a single
Number). This is the gas typically well or field. Because engine fuel-air
associated with household heating mixing systems are typically
and cooking and purchased from a designed for a specific input fuel,
utility. This is also the BTU value gas larger variations can have
used in all Caterpillar natural gas detrimental effects on the engine.
engine technical data and rating Any application fuel gas source that
sheets. has an unacceptable amount of
liquids or heavy hydrocarbons, or
Field Gas that exhibits notable swings in fuel
Natural gas in its original state is composition may be a candidate for
often referred to as field gas, fuel treatment.
wellhead gas, or wet gas. In the gas
Fuel Treatment
industry, the designation wet or dry
The presence of water, heavy
does not refer to the presence or
hydrocarbons or contaminants
absence of water, but to the
doesn't necessarily render a gas
presence or absence of liquid
stream unusable as engine fuel.
hydrocarbons such as butane,
There are many gas treatment
methods available that can remedy is often inversely proportional to the

one or more of these issues - at a pressure of the stream. Higher
cost. Some, such as coalescers and pressures can make simpler, less
scrubbers to remove excess water, expensive solutions possible. The
are relatively inexpensive and simple proper choice in each case will
to implement. Others for addressing depend upon the economics of the
certain contaminant compounds can project to determine if the fuel
be very involved and expensive. The treatment technique required is
challenge of reducing the content of worth the investment.
heavy hydrocarbons in a gas stream
Natural Gas Analysis - Percent by Volume

Example A Example B Example C Example D
(Field Gas) (Field Gas) (Field Gas) (Dry, Pipeline)
Methane, CH4 75.23 76.00 89.78 92.20
Ethane, C2H6 12.56 6.40 4.61 5.50
Propane, C3H8 7.11 3.50 2.04 0.30
Butane, C4H10 3.38 0.67 0.89 —
Pentane, C5H12 0.69 0.30 0.26 —
Hexane, C6H14 0.40 — 0.21 —
Heptane, C7H16 — — — —
Nitrogen, N2 0.43 12.33 2.13 1.60
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.20 0.40 — 0.40
Others — 0.40 0.08 —
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
HHV (High heat value) Btu/SCF 1,323.00 1,005.00 1,092.00 1,038.00
LHV (Low heat value) Btu/SCF 1,202.00 909.00 986.00 936.00
Methane Number 44.20 65.00 67.90 83.50
Table 5
Reference Material
The following information is
provided as an additional reference
to subjects discussed in this manual.
Media Numbers
LEBW5336: Gaseous Fuel Systems
LEKQ7260: Low Energy Fuels
LEKQ7742: Detonation and
Preignition
LEKQ6378: Caterpillar Methane
Number Program
LEKQ9085: G3600 Engine Basics
SENR6517: Troubleshooting -
G3500 Air/Fuel Ratio Control
Engines with Electro
SEBU6400: Caterpillar Gas Engine
Lubricant, Fuel, and Coolant
Recommendations
Internal Combustion Engine
Fundamentals: Heywood, John B.,
New York, 1988.
Definitions
BACT = Best Available Control Technology
Bar = 14.5 psi
BEMP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
bhp-hr = Base Horsepower per Hour
Btu/SCF British Thermal Units per Standard Cubic Foot
C3H3N = Acrylonitrile
CH2O = Formaldehyde
CH4 = Methane
CO = Carbon Monoxide
CO2 = Carbon Dioxide
DWC = Dry To Wet Conversion
DST = Detonation Sensitive Timing
EIS = Electronic Ignition System
EPA = Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
H2O = Water
H2S = Hydrogen Sulfide
HAP = Hazardous Air Pollutants
Lambda = Air/Fuel Ratio
LHV = Lower Heating Level
m3 = Meters Cubed = 35.3147 ft3 at equal temperatures
mg = Milligrams
mg/Nm3 = Milligrams per Normal Meter Cubed
MJ/Nm3 = Mega Joules per Normal Meter Cubed
Mole = Molecular Weight
MW = Molecular Weight = sum of atomic weights of all atoms in the molecule
N2 = Nitrogen
NH3 = Amonia
Nm3 = Normal Meter Cubed = 1 m3 at 0°C and 1013 milliBar
NMHC = Non Methane Hydrocarbons
NMNEHC = Non Methane, Non Ethane Hydrocarbons
NO = Nitric oxide
NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide
NOX = Oxides of Nitrogen
O2 = Oxygen
O3 = Ozone
ppm = Parts Per Million
ppmv = Parts Per Million By Volume
ppmvd = Parts Per Million By Volume Dry
PSD = Prevention of Significant Deterioration
SCF = Standard Cubic Foot = 1 ft3 at 60°F and 760 mm Hg (14.67 psi)
SCM = Standard Cubic Foot = 1 ft3 at 60°F and 760 mm Hg (14.67 psi)
SCR = Selective Catalytic Reduction
SiO2 Silica
SO2 = Sulfur Dioxide
SOX = Sulfur Oxide
Theoretically Complete Combustion - The objective of stoichiometric
Stoichiometric/
combustion is to achieve complete fuel burn, with no air or fuel left
Stoichiometric =
over, after combustion.
THC = Total Hydrocarbon
Table A: Physical Properties of Gases (English Units)
Gas Density, 60°F, 14.696 psia Heat Value: At 60°F

Air Required Flammability Limits
Btu/SCF Btu/SCF
Boiling Specific SCF Btu/lb Btu/gal For Volume Percent
SCF lb/gal Vapor at Vapor at
Gas Formula Point at Gravity Gas/gal Liquid Liquid Stoichiometric In Air Mixture
Gas/lb Liquid 14.696 psia 14.696 psia
14.696 psia (Air = 1) Liquid (LHV) (LHV) Combustion
(LHV) (HHV) Lower Higher
(cu ft/cu ft)
Methane CH4 –258.72 0.5539 23.6541 59.135 2.5000 909.40 1,010.0 21,511.0 53,778 9.53 5.00 15.00
Ethane C2H6 –127.46 1.0382 12.6200 37.476 2.9696 1,618.70 1,769.6 20,429.0 60,666 16.67 2.90 13.00
Propane C3H8 –43.73 1.5226 8.6505 36.375 4.2268 2,314.90 2,516.1 19,922.0 84,206 23.82 2.00 9.50
iButane C4H10 +10.78 2.0068 6.5291 30.639 4.6927 3,000.40 3,251.9 19,590.0 91,930 30.97 1.80 8.50
nButane C4H10 +31.08 2.0068 6.5291 30.639 4.8691 3,010.80 3,262.3 19,658.0 95,717 30.97 1.50 9.00
iPentane C5H12 +82.09 2.4912 5.2596 27.380 5.2058 3,699.00 4,000.9 19,456.0 101,284 38.11 1.30 8.00
nPentane C5H12 +96.89 2.4912 5.2596 27.673 5.2614 3,703.90 4,008.9 19,481.0 102,497 38.11 1.40 8.30
Hexane C6H14 +155.70 2.9755 4.4035 24.379 5.5363 4,403.90 4,755.9 19,393.0 107,365 45.26 1.10 7.70
Heptane C7H16 +209.17 3.4598 3.7872 21.725 5.7364 5,100.30 5,502.5 19,315.0 110,799 52.41 1.00 7.00
Octane C8H18 +258.17 3.9441 3.3220 19.575 5.8926 5,796.20 6,248.9 19,256.0 113,468 59.55 0.80 6.50
Carbon Monoxide CO –313.60 0.9670 13.5500 - - 320.50 320.5 4,342.2 - 2.39 12.50 74.20
Carbon Dioxide CO2 –109.24 1.5196 8.6229 58.807 6.8199 - - - - - - -
Hydrogen H –422.90 0.0696 188.6790 - - 273.93 342.2 51,566.0 - 2.39 4.00 74.20
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S –76.49 1.1767 11.1351 74.401 6.6817 586.80 637.1 6,534.0 43,658 7.20 4.30 45.50
Oxygen O2 –297.32 1.1048 11.8593 112.930 9.5221 - - - - - - -
Nitrogen N2 –320.44 0.9672 13.5465 91.413 6.7481 - - - - - - -
Air –317.81 1.0000 13.1026 95.557 7.2930 - - - - - - -
Table B: Physical Properties of Gases (Metric Units)
Gas Density, 0°C, 101.31 kPa Heat Value: At 0°C
Air Required Flammability Limits

Specific MJ/Nm3 MJ/Nm3 MJ/kg MJ/L Volume Percent
Boiling Pt at Nm3 Nm3 Gas/L kg/L For
Gas Formula Gravity Vapor Vapor Liquid Liquid In Air Mixture
101.3 kPa ` Gas/kg Liquid Liquid Combustion
(Air = 1) (LHV) (HHV) (LHV) (LHV)
(Vol/Vol) Lower Higher
Methane CH4 –161.51 0.5539 1.3997 0.4190* 0.2994* 35.746 39.700 50.034 14.980* 9.53 5.00 15.00
Ethane C2H6 –88.59 1.0382 0.7468 0.2656 0.3556 63.626 69.558 47.516 16.897 16.67 2.90 13.00
Propane C3H8 –42.07 1.5226 0.5119 0.2578 0.5062 90.992 98.900 46.579 23.578 23.82 2.00 9.50
iButane C4H10 –11.79 2.0068 0.3864 0.2171 0.5619 117.937 127.823 45.571 25.606 30.97 1.80 8.50
nButane C4H10 –0.51 2.0068 0.3864 0.2253 0.5831 118.346 128.231 45.729 26.665 30.97 1.50 9.00
iPentane C5H12 +27.83 2.4912 0.3112 0.1940 0.6234 145.397 157.264 45.248 28.208 38.11 1.30 8.00
nPentane C5H12 +36.05 2.4912 0.3112 0.1961 0.6301 145.589 157.578 45.307 28.548 38.11 1.40 8.30
Hexane C6H14 +68.72 2.9755 0.2606 0.1728 0.6630 173.104 186.940 45.111 29.909 45.26 1.10 7.70
Heptane C7H16 +98.37 3.4598 0.2241 0.1539 0.6869 200.478 216.287 44.927 30.860 52.41 1.00 7.00
Octane C8H18 +125.65 3.9441 0.1966 0.1387 0.7056 227.831 245.626 44.792 31.605 59.55 0.80 6.50
Carbon Monoxide CO +156.44 0.9670 0.8018 + + 12.598 12.598 10.101 + 2.39 12.50 74.20
Carbon Dioxide CO2 +42.91 1.5196 0.5103 0.4167 0.8167 0 0 0 0 + + +
Hydrogen H +217.17 0.0696 11.1651 + + 10.766 13.451 120.203 + 2.39 4.00 74.20
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S –60.27 1.1767 0.6589 0.5272 0.8001 23.065 25.043 15.198 12.160 7.20 4.30 45.50
Oxygen O2 –182.95 1.1048 0.7018 0.8002 1.1403 0 0 0 0 + + +
Nitrogen N2 –195.80 0.9672 0.8016 0.6478 0.8081 0 0 0 0 + + +
Air –194.34 1.0000 0.7754 0.6771 0.8733 0 0 0 0 + + +
*Approximate Value
Table C: Constituents of Gas by Volume
Constituents of Gas by Volume - Percent

Btu/SCF MJ/Nm3
Btu/SCF
LHV LHV
Vol Air/ of Correct Methane
H2 CO CH4 C2H6 O2 CO2 N2 @60°F @0°C
Vol Gas Mixture Number
14.696 101.31
(LHV)
psi kPa
Producer Gas
Anthracite Coal 20.0 25.0 - - 0.5 5.0 49.5 135 1.05 65.85 53.30
Bituminous Coal 10.0 23.0 3.0 0.5 0.5 5.0 58.0 136 1.12 64.25 66.70
Coke 10.0 29.0 - - 0.5 4.5 56.0 120 4.74 0.90 63.15 60.30
Illuminating Gas
Blue Water Gas 50.0 43.3 0.5 - - 3.0 3.2 280 2.27 85.63 5.20
Carbureted Water
40.0 19.0 25.0 8.5 0.5 3.0 4.0 526 4.97 88.10 2.60
Gas
Coal Gas 46.0 6.0 40.0 5.0 0.5 0.5 2.0 584 5.74 86.64 5.20
Oil Gas 32.0 - 48.0 16.5 0.5 - 3.0 772 7.66 89.14 -1.50
By-Product Gas
Coke Oven Gas 53.0 6.0 35.0 2.0 - 2.0 2.0 513 5.02 85.21 12.70
Blast Furnace Gas 5.2 26.8 1.6 - 0.2 8.2 58.0 115 0.90 60.50 76.70
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APPLICATION AND INSTALLATION GUIDE

Gaseous Fuels ....................................................................... 1

Information contained in this publication may be considered confidential.

CAT, CATERPILLAR, their respective logos, “Caterpillar Yellow” trade dress,

Fuel Properties .................... 2 Contaminants .................... 19

Standard Condition of a Gas account the ambient barometric

IMPORTANT: This equation only These types of conversions are

is 80% methane, 15% ethane and equivalent to volume percent values

combination of hydrogen and two moles of water (36 kg or 36 lb)

As stated previously, the amount of propane forms 3.0937 kg/SCM

Impact of Fuel Quality on Engine Performance

the engine and so is critical in the production capability of the engine.

fuel system means potentially less characteristic for the carburetor.

fuel-air mixture before the normal Normal combustion

gas beyond the auto-ignition

low MN fuels require low Power Rating

Example of Fuel Usage Guide

An example of a fuel usage guide 23 degrees BTDC (“before top dead

Maximum Level of Sulfur Compounds

Typical Sulfur Compounds

Chemical Sulfur Atoms

and hydrofluoric acid (HF). Both

Typical Halide Compounds

Chlorinated hydrocarbon and If the chlorine, fluorine or

The maximum level of nitrogen can combine with organic

Any fuel in region “C” of Figure 6 Silicon

engine. Both types of silicon Silicon Containing Gases

silicon plus elements commonly The maximum amount of silicon

Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission may be present in a gas stream.

per hour of engine operation. A minimize the amount of

are capable of establishing attack of internal engine

Maximum Contaminants and Conditions

To convert µg/L to ppmv:

methods available that can remedy is often inversely proportional to the

Natural Gas Analysis - Percent by Volume

Table A: Physical Properties of Gases (English Units)

Gas Density, 60°F, 14.696 psia Heat Value: At 60°F

Carbon Dioxide CO2 –109.24 1.5196 8.6229 58.807 6.8199 - - - - - - -

Oxygen O2 –297.32 1.1048 11.8593 112.930 9.5221 - - - - - - -

Nitrogen N2 –320.44 0.9672 13.5465 91.413 6.7481 - - - - - - -

Air –317.81 1.0000 13.1026 95.557 7.2930 - - - - - - -

Table B: Physical Properties of Gases (Metric Units)

Gas Density, 0°C, 101.31 kPa Heat Value: At 0°C

Air Required Flammability Limits

Carbon Dioxide CO2 +42.91 1.5196 0.5103 0.4167 0.8167 0 0 0 0 + + +

Oxygen O2 –182.95 1.1048 0.7018 0.8002 1.1403 0 0 0 0 + + +

Nitrogen N2 –195.80 0.9672 0.8016 0.6478 0.8081 0 0 0 0 + + +

Air –194.34 1.0000 0.7754 0.6771 0.8733 0 0 0 0 + + +

Table C: Constituents of Gas by Volume

Constituents of Gas by Volume - Percent

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