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INTRODUCTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
INTRODUCTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
% Obtain additional relations between the stresses by
applying the conditions of equilibrium to a free body
diagram of a portion of the body These relations
resulting from a study of the equilibrium between
externally applied loads and the internal resisting forces
over an exploratory section are called equations of
equilibrium
' Be sure that the solution of the equations in steps and
% is consistent with the loading conditions at the surface
of the body This is known as satisfying the boundary
conditions
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
The figure below shows two views of a solid circular shaft If
a torque T is applied at the ends of the shaft a fiber AB on
the outside surface which is originally straight will be
twisted into a helix AC as the shaft is twisted through the
angle θ This helix is formed as follows
Torsion is the introduction to the problems of variable stress
Although the general theory of these problems are complex
its application consists of little more than substituting given
values in the formulas soon to be derived and is fairly
simple
The general technique used in all cases of non uniform
stress distribution is outlined in these steps
Determine the relations between stresses that are
compatible with the deformations produced by a specific
load plus the application of Hooke’s law Such relations
are known as the equations of compatibility
INTRODUCTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
In deriving the torsion formulas we make the following
assumptions These assumptions may be proved
mathematically and some may be demonstrated
experimentally The first two apply only to shafts of circular
section
Circular sections remain circular
% Plane sections remain plane and do not warp
' The projection upon a transverse section of straight
radial lines in the section remains straight
- Shaft is loaded by twisting couples in planes that are
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft
. Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit
DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS
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DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS

Consider any internal fiber located a radial distance ρ from The shearing stress at this typical fiber is determined from
the axis of the shaft The radius of such a fiber also rotates Hooke’s law to be
through the angle θ causing a total shearing deformation δs  Gθ 
τ = Gγ =  ρ 2c3
equal to DE The length of this deformation is the arc of a  L 
circle whose radius is ρ and which is subtended by the angle Equation 2c3 may be called the equation of compatibility
θ in radians0 the length is given by since the stresses expressed by it are compatible with the
δs 1 DE 1 ρθ 2a3 elastic deformation Note that each of the terms in the
parentheses in this equation is a constant that does not
The unit deformation of this fiber is depend on the particular internal fiber chosen for analysis0
the product of these terms represents a constant
δs ρθ
γ = = 2b3
L L

DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS

The shearing stress at this typical fiber is determined from Therefore it is concluded that the shearing stress at any
Hooke’s law to be internal fiber is determined by the product of a constant and
 Gθ  a variable radial distance0 that is the stress distribution along
τ = Gγ =  ρ 2c3
 L  any radius varies linearly with the radial distance from the
axis of the shaft
Equation 2c3 may be called the equation of compatibility
since the stresses expressed by it are compatible with the
elastic deformation Note that each of the terms in the
parentheses in this equation is a constant that does not
depend on the particular internal fiber chosen for analysis0
the product of these terms represents a constant

DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS

A differential area of section M N at a radial distance ρ from To satisfy the condition of static equilibrium we apply
the axis of the shaft carries the differential resisting load ΣM16 or the fact that the applied torque T equals the
dP 1 τ dA resisting torque Tr The resisting torque Tr is the sum of the
resisting torques developed by all differential loads dP

T = Tr = ∫ ρdP = ∫ ρ (τdA)

Replacing τ by its value from Eq 2c3 gives

Gθ
ρ 2 dA
L ∫
T=

2
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DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS

Or since ∫ ρ%dA 1 J the polar moment of inertia of the By replacing the product Gθ;L in Eq 2c3 by its equivalent
cross section value T;J from the above equation we obtain
Gθ
T= J Tρ
L τ=
J
This is usually written as
This is called the torsion formula
TL
θ= The formula that determines the maximum shearing stress is
JG
a more common form of the torsion formula It is obtained
In SI units the angle θ will be determined in radians if T is by replacing ρ by the radius r of the shaft
expressed in N m L in m J in m- and G in N;m% 2Pa3 In
US Customary Units θ will be in radians if T is expressed in Tr
Max.τ =
lb in L in in J in in- and G in psi J

DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS

Note that since Hooke’s law was used in deriving these In many practical applications shafts are used to transmit
equations the stresses must not exceed the shearing power From dynamics it is known that the power P
proportional limit0 also these formulas are applicable only to transmitted by a constant torque T rotating at a constant
circular shafts either solid or hollow angular speed ω is given by
The following equations are the modifications of the torsion P 1 Tω
formula
where ω is measured in radians per unit time If the shaft is
2T 16T
Solid shaft Max.τ = = rotating with a frequency of f revolutions per unit time ω 1
πr 3 πd 3 %πf and we have
2TR 16TD
Hollow shaft Max.τ = = P 1 T%πf
π (R4 − r 4 ) π (D4 − d 4 )

DERIVATION OF TORSION FORMULAS A steel shaft ' ft long that has a diameter of - in is
subjected to a torque of . kip ft Determine the maximum
Thus the torque can be expressed as
shearing stress and the angle of twist Use G 1 %x 6@ psi
P
T=
2πf

where In SI units with P in watts 2 W 1 N m;s3 and f in

revolutions per second 2rps3 or hertz 2 Hz 1 ;s3 the
equation above will determine the torque T in N m When
using the US Customary Units with P in lb in;s and f in
revolutions per second the above equation will calculate the
torque in lb in

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What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will
not twist through more than '° in a @ m length when
subjected to a torque of % kN mA What maximum shearing
stress is developedA Use G 1 B' GPa
A shaft with a constant diameter of % in is loaded as shown
in the figure below by torques applied to gears fastened to it
If the modulus of rigidity G 1 %x 6@ psi compute in degrees
the relative angle of twist between gears A and D
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
A commonly used connection between two shafts is a
flanged bolt coupling It consists of flanges rigidly attached to
the ends of the shafts and bolted together as in below The
torque is transmitted by the shearing force P created in bolts
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Two solid shafts of different materials are rigidly fastened
together and attached to rigid supports as shown The
aluminum segment is ' in in diameter and GA 1 -x 6@ psi
The steel segment has a diameter of % in and GS 1 %x 6@
psi The torque T 1 6 kip in is applied at the junction of the
two segments Compute the maximum shearing stress
developed in the assembly
A solid shaft in a rolling mill transmits %6 kW at % Hz
Determine the diameter of the shaft if the shearing stress is
not to exceed -6 MPa and the angle of twist is limited to @°
in a length of ' m Use G 1 B' GPa
FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS
Assuming that the stress is uniformly distributed the load in
any bolt is given by the simple stress equation of P 1 Aτ and
equals 2πd%;-3τ It acts through the center of the bolt and
tangent to the bolt circle The torque resistance of one bolt is
PR where R is the radius of the bolt circle Therefore for
any number of bolts n the torque capacity of the coupling is
expressed by
πd 2
T = PRn = τRn
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FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS

Occasionally a coupling has two concentric rows of bolts The relation between P and P% can be determined from the
Letting the subscript refer to bolts on the outer circle and fact that the comparatively rigid flanges cause shear
subscript % refer to bolts on the inner circle the torque deformations in the bolts that are proportional to their radial
capacity of the coupling is distance from the shaft axis Thus the shearing strains are
related by
T = P1 R1n1 + P2 R2 n2 γ1 γ2
=
R1 R2
Using Hooke’s law for shear G 1 τ;γ we have
τ1 τ2 P1 / A1 P2 / A2
= or =
G1 R1 G 2 R2 G1 R1 G2 R2

FLANGED BOLT COUPLINGS A flanged bolt coupling consists of ten steel %6 mm diameter
bolts spaced evenly around a bolt circle -66 mm in
If the bolts on two circles have the same area A 1 A% and
diameter Determine the torque capacity of the coupling if the
if the bolts are made of the same material G 1 G% the
allowable shearing stress in the bolts is -6 MPa
relation between P and P% reduces
P1 P2
=
R1 R2
Using the relation between P and P% the above equation
will determine the torque capacity of the coupling

A flanged bolt coupling consists of eight 6 mm diameter In the preceding problem determine the number of 6 mm
steel bolts on a bolt circle -66 mm in diameter and six 6 diameter steel bolts that must be used on the -66 mm bolt
mm diameter steel bolts on a concentric bolt circle of '66 circle to increase the torque capacity to - kN m
mm in diameter as shown below What torque can be
applied without exceeding a shearing stress of @6 MPa in
the boltsA

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In a rivet group subjected to a twisting couple T show that
the torsion formula τ 1 Tρ;J can be used to find the
shearing stress τ at the center of any rivet Let J 1 Σ Aρ%
where A is the area of a rivet at the radial distance ρ from
the center of the rivet group
The plate shown is fastened to the fixed member by five
6 mm diameter rivets Compute the value of the load P so
that the average shearing stress in any rivet does not
exceed C6 MPa
HELICAL SPRINGS
The close coiled helical spring in the figure below is
elongated by an axial load P The spring is composed of a
wire or round rod of diameter d wound into a helix of mean
radius R The helix angle is small so that any coil of the
spring may be considered as lying approximately in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the spring
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A plate is fastened to fixed member by four %6 mm
diameter rivets arranged as shown Compute the maximum
and minimum shearing stress developed
HELICAL SPRINGS
To determine the stresses produced by P we follow the
general procedure of passing an exploratory cutting plane m
n through any typical section as shown and then determining
the resisting forces required for equilibrium We then analyze
the stress distribution that creates these resisting forces
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HELICAL SPRINGS HELICAL SPRINGS

16 PR  d 
τ= 1 + 
πd 3  4 R 

For heavy springs

16 PR  4 m − 1 0.615  2R
τ=  +  m=
πd 3  4 m − 4 m  d

For light springs

16 PR  0.5 
τ= 1 + 
πd 3  m 

HELICAL SPRINGS Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a

helical steel spring composed of %6 turns of %6 mm
Practically all the spring elongation measured along its axis
diameter wire on a mean radius of D6 mm when the spring
is caused by torsional deformation of the spring wire
is supporting a load of . kN Assume heavy spring and use
64 PR 3 n G 1 B' GPa
δ=
Gd 4

A helical spring is fabricated by wrapping wire ¾ in in
diameter around a forming cylinder B in in diameter
Compute the number of turns required to permit an
elongation of - in without exceeding a shearing stress of B
ksi Use G 1 %x 6@ psi
A rigid bar pinned at point O is supported by two identical
springs as shown Each spring consists of %6 turns of ¾ in
in diameter wire having a mean diameter of @ in Determine
the maximum load W that may be supported if the shearing
stress in the springs is limited to %6 ksi

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Two steel springs arranged in series as shown

below support a load P The upper spring has
% turns of %. mm diameter wire on a mean
radius of 66 mm The lower springs consists
of 6 turns of %6 mm diameter wire on a mean
radius of C. mm If the maximum shearing
stress in either spring must not exceed %66
MPa compute the maximum value of P and
the total elongation of the assembly Assume
heavy spring and G 1 B' GPa Compute the
equivalent spring constant by dividing the load
by the total elongation