LOGICAL REASONING

SYLLOGISM
The word "syllogism" is given by Greeks ii) Predicate : Predicate is the part of the
which means 'inference' or 'deduction'. It was proposition denoting that which is affirmed
introduced by Aristotle. or denied about the subject.
An example of a question of syllogism is eg : In the proposition All novels are songs,
given below. something is being said about novels. So novels
Directions : In the following questions, two is the subject. Songs is the predicate here
statements are given followed by two because it affirmed about the subject.
conclusions. You have to study the two CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS
statements and then decide which of the i) Universal positive proposition: A
conclusions follow from the statements. proposition of the form All S are P is called
Mark the right answer from (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) a universal positive proposition. A
Statements : All plants are trees. universal positive proposition is denoted
by A.
No trees are green.
eg : All girls are disciplined.
Conclusions : I. Some plants are green.
All bulbs are lions.
II. No plants are green.
i) Universal negative proposition :A
1) Only I follows proposition of the form No S is P is called
2) Only II follows a universal negative proposition. It is
usually denoted by E.
3) Both I and II follow
eg : No professors is lazy.
4) Either I or II follows
No boxes are baskets.
5) Neither I nor II follows
ii) Particular positive Proposition : A
This is a typical question of syllogism. proposition of the form Some S are P is
Here the choice (2) is true. Later on we can discuss
called a particular positive proposition. It
the method to reach at the answer choice. Now let
is usually denoted by I.
us see some definitions related to syllogism.
eg : Some boys are smarts.
PROPOSITION
Some boys are cats.
A proposition is a sentence that makes
a statement and gives a relation between two or iv) Particular negative proposition :
more terms. A proposition of the form Some S are not
P is called particular negative proposition.
In logic, any statement is termed a
It is denoted by the letter O.
proposition.
eg : Some flowers are not grapes.
Eg : i) All windows are rods
Some fans are not black.
ii) No cloth is a bay
In syllogism, there are two types of inferences.
iii) Some students are members
1) Mediate inference :
iv) Some green are not white
Here conclusion is drawn from two
The parts of proposition are given below. propositions. For example, if you are given All
i) Subject : A subject is the part of the cats are dogs and All dogs are animals, then a
proposition about which something is conclusion of the form All cats are animals could
being said. be drawn from it.
2) Immediate inference :
Here conclusion is drawn from only one
given proposition. For example if a given
statement is All gates are blue, then based on
this a conclusion could be drawn that Some blue
are gates. This is a case of immediate inference.
Two important cases of immediate
inference is given below.
a) Implications :
If a given proposition is A - type, then it
also implies that the I - type conclusion must
be true. Let us verify it by considering the
proposition, All elephants are big. This statement
naturally implies that the conclusion Some
elephants are big must be true. Similarly we
can prove that an E - type proposition also implies
an O - type conclusion.
b) Conversion
Two steps are to be followed in conversion.
The first step is to change the subject as the
predicate and the predicate as the subject. The
second step is to change the type of the given
proposition to the pattern given in the following
table.
Type of the given Type of the proposition
proposition after conversion
A I
E E
I I
O Cannot be converted
Let us consider the statement Some
posters are good looking. This can be converted
by using the above table as Some good looking
are posters. In the same way, No books are
pencils can be converted as No pencils are
books.
HIDDEN PROPOSITION
You may find it difficult to categorise some
propositions of the form Rahim is brilliant, Every
man talks English, Not a single student passed
the exam, No student except Prem was present,
etc. We shall know, how to find the hidden
propositions in such sentences.
A - type hidden propositions :
• All positive propositions beginning with
'each', 'every' and 'any'.
• A positive sentence with a particular
person as its subject.
• A positive sentence with a very definite
exception.
eg : Each of them plays football.
He should be awarded.
All members except Kavitha have a share
of profit.
E - type hidden proposition
• All negative sentences beginning with
'no one', 'none' and 'not a single'
• A sentence with a particular person as
its subject but a negative sense.
• A negative sentence with a very definite
exception.
• An interrogative sentence which is used
to make an assertion.
eg : None can escape from death.
Swathi is not an IAS officer.
No student except Salim has attend the party.
Is there any person who can cheat himself?
I - type hidden propositions :
• Positive propositions beginning with words
such as 'most', 'a few', 'mostly', 'generally',
'almost', `frequently', and negative
propositions beginning with words such
as 'few', 'seldom', `hardly', 'scarcely',
'rarely' and 'little'.
• A positive sentence with an exception
which is not definite.
eg : Very few writers research before they
write.
Seldom are people not jealous.
All students except five have failed.
O - type hidden propositions :
• All negative propositions beginning with
words such as 'all', 'every', 'any' and 'each'.
• Negative propositions with words as 'most'
, 'a few', 'mostly', 'generally', 'almost', and
`frequently'.
• Positive words beginning with 'few',
'seldom', 'hardly', scarcely', 'rarely' and
little.
• A negative sentence with an exception
which is not definite..
e.g. : All men are not honest
Most of the books have not been read.
Girls are usually not brave.
Rarely is a rich man worried.
No students except a few are absent.
eg : Statements : No watch is hat
All pins are hats.
In this pair, the common term is 'hat' and
it is the predicate of both the sentences. So we
have to align the sentences by converting any
of the sentences and changing the order if
needed.
After alignment, the above example will
become
All pins are hats

EXCLUSIVE PROPOSITIONS No hat is watch.

While aligning a given pair of statements,
A statement beginning with'only', 'alone', the priority should be given while converting, to I
'none but' or 'none else but' is called exclusive - type statements to E-type statements and then
proposition. Such propositions can be reduced to A - type statement, in that order. That is, the
to A or E or I type. rule of IEA should be followed.
Only brave men are pilots. After aligning the given pair of statements,
This sentence means that "No coward the conclusion can be easily drawn by using
man is a pilot" and "All pilots are brave men". the following table.
SOLUTION OF SYLLOGISM BY ANALYTICAL Statement - I Statement - II Conclusion
METHOD A + A = A
There are two steps to be followed for A + E = E
solving syllogism by analytical method. E + A = O*
E + I = O*
A problem of syllogism consists of two I + A = I
propositions which have one common term. This I + E = O
common term will be the predicate of the first
proposition and the subject of the second. If this No definite conclusion can be drawn for
condition is not satisf ied in the giv en other combinations like A+I, O+A etc, which are
propositions, they should be aligned accordingly. not mentioned in the above table.
eg : Statement : All birds are trees. For the above given combinations which
are aligned properly, the conclusion is a
Some trees are cows.
proposition whose subject is the subject of the
Here the common term is 'trees'. Also it first statement and whose predicate is the
satisfies the above said condition. Hence the predicate of the second statements. The
statements are properly aligned. common terms disappears.
Let us consider another example. In the above table, O* implies that the
eg : Statement : All pencils are bottles conclusion is of type - O, whose subject is the
predicate of the second statement and the
All bricks are pencils. predicate of the conclusion is the subject of the
Here the common term is 'pencil'. But it first statement.
does not satisfy the given condition. So we have SOLVED EXAMPLES.
to align this pair. This can be aligned easily by
changing the order of the statements. The 1. Statements :All bags are toys.
aligned pair will be All toys are keys.
All bricks are pencils. The sentences are already aligned. From
All pencils are bottles. the above given Table, A+A=A. Hence the
conclusion is of type - A whose subject is the
subject of the first proposition and the predicate
is the predicate of the second proposition. So
the conclusion is All bags are keys.
2. Statements : All teachers are readers.
All teachers are writers.
This pair is not properly aligned because
the subject of both the sentences is 'teachers'.
Since both the sentences are of type - A, we
may convert any of them. So the aligned pair is
Some readers are teachers.
All teachers are writers.
Here the conclusion will be of type - I
because I+A=I.
 The conclusion is Some readers are
writers.
3. Statements : Some chocolates are toffees.
All chocolates are pastries.
The subject of both the sentences is the
same.By the rule of IEA, we convert the I - type
statement.
So the aligned pair is,
Some toffees are chocolates.
All chocolates are pastries
I+A=I. So the conclusion is
Some toffees are pastries.
4. Statements :All lights are balls
No bats are lights
By changing the order of the statements itself
we can align the sentences. The aligned pair is
No bats are lights.
All lights are balls.
E+A=O*. So the conclusion is,
Some balls are not bats.
5. Statements :Some caps are red.
No clip is red.
Here the common term is 'red' which is
the predicate of both the sentences. By the rule
of IEA, we convert the I - type statement. After
conversion, the given pair becomes,
Some red are caps.
No clip is red.
Now by changing the order of the
statements, we can align the sentences. So the
aligned pair is,
No clip is red.
Some red are caps.
The conclusion is of type O* since
E+I=O*. Hence the conclusion is
Some caps are not clips.
6. Statements : Some powders are not soaps.
All soaps are detergents.
The given pair is properly aligned. But no
definite conclusion can be drawn from this type
because it is a O+A - type combination.
IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
Now let us consider an example which
has two statements as well as two conclusions.
eg. Statements: All novels are stories.
All stories are songs.
Conclusion : (i) All novels are songs.
(ii) Some songs are novels.
First of all let us consider only the
statements . The sentences are already aligned.
Since A+A = A, the conclusion will be All novels
are songs If we convert this conclusion, we get
Some songs are novels.Hence both the
conclutions given in the question are true.
eg: Statements :Some roses are leaves.
Some leaves are throns.
Conclusions : (i) Some roses are thorns.
(II) Some leaves are roses.
We know that for a combination of I+I -
type no conclusion could be drawn. But if we
convert the first statement, we get Some leaves
are roses. Which is conclusion (ii) Also on
converting the second statement, we get some
thorns are leaves. This proposition is not given
in the conclusion part. So in this example,
conclusion (ii) alone is true.
So while solv ing the problems on
syllogism, we should also take the immediate
inferences of the given statements as well as
the immediate inference of the conclusion drawn
from the table.
 COMPLEMENTARY PAIR
Consider the following.
Conclusions :i) Some buses are trucks.
ii) Some buses are not trucks.
We know that either some buses will be
trucks or some buses will not be trucks. Hence
either (i) or (ii) is true. Such pair of statements
are called complementary pairs. So in a
complementary pair, at least one of the two
statements is always true. We can call a pair
as a complementary pair if
i) The subject and predicate of both the
sentences are the same.
ii) They are an I + O - type pair or an A + O
type pair or an I + E - type pair.
Some complementary pairs are given
below.
i) All birds are swans .
Some birds are not swans.
ii) Some tables are watches.
Some tables are not watches.
iii) Some girls are cute.
No girls are cute.
Note :The steps to be followed to do a syllogism
problem by analytical method are mentioned
below.
i) Align the sentences properly
ii) Draw conclusion using the table
iii) Check for immediate inferences.
iv) Check for complementary pair if steps ii
and iii fail.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
1. Statement : No rooms are stones
Some houses are rooms.
Conclusions : i) Some houses are stones
ii) Some houses are not stones.
We can easily align the statements by
changing the order of the sentences. The aligned
pair is :
Some houses are rooms.
No rooms are stones.
I + E = O. So the conclusion is Some
houses are not stones, Hence we obtain a
definite conclusion that conclusion (ii) is correct.
Hence step IV becomes unnecessary.
2. Statements :Some cows are horses
All cows are tigers.
Conclusions : i) Some tigers are horses.
ii) Some tigers are cows.
To align the sentences, it is sufficient to
convert the first statement. So the aligned pair
is
Some horses are cows.
All cows are tigers.
I + A = I. Hence the conclusion will be
Some horses are tigers. If we convert this
conclusion, we get Some tigers are horses which
is conclusion (i). Also if we convert the second
statement, conclusion (ii) is obtained.
Hence both the conclusions given above
should be taken as true. There is no need to
check for complementary pair because definite
conclusion has already been obtained.
3. Statements :Some poets are teachers.
Some teachers are saints
Conclusions : i) Some poets are saints.
ii) Some poets are not saints.
This pair is already aligned. But there is
no definite conclusion for I + I type combinations.
Also none of the given conclusions is the
immediate inference of any of the statements.
So let us check for the complementary pair. The
conclusions given are in the form of 'some' and
'some not'. Hence either conclusion (i) or (ii)
follows.
THREE - STATEMENT SYLLOGISM
This type of syllogism problems consist
of 3 statements which are followed by 4 or more
conclusions.
A typical three - statement syllogism
problem is given below.
Directions : Below are given three statements
followed by several conclusions based on them.
Examine the conclusions and decide whether
they logically follow from the given statements.
You have to take the given statements as true
even if they appear to be at variance with
commonly known facts.
Statements : A) All bags are hats.
B) Some pins are bags.
C) No hats are needles.
Conclusions : I) Some pins are hats.
II) No needles are bags.
III) Some pins are needles.
IV) Some pins are not needles.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I and IV follow
(c) I, II and IV follow
(d) Either III or IV, and I follow
(e) Either III or IV and I and II follow.
Before solving this example, let us see
the steps in solving a three-statement syllogism
problems.
Step I
i) Consider a given conclusion.
ii) Note the subject and predicate of this given
conclusion.
iii) Now f ind which of the two giv en
statements has this subject and
predicate.
iv) a) If there is a common term between the
two statements chosen in the previous
part, then consider only these two
statements.
b) If there is no common term between the
two statements chosen in the previous
part, then we should consider all the three
statements.
Step II
i) If two statements are relevant for a given
conclusion, align them.
ii) If three statements are relevant, write them
as a chain. That is, align them in such a
way that the predicate of the first sentence
and subject of the second are the same,
and the predicate of the second sentence
and the subject of the third sentence are
the same.
iii) Now arrive at the conclusion using the
table.
iv) Now compare the given conclusion with
the conclusion drawn using the tables. If
they match, the given conclusion is true.
If they do not match, it is false.
Step III
i) If a given statement has already been
marked as a valid conclusion after step
II, then leave it. Otherwise check if it is
an immediate inference of any of the
three given statements of the conclusion
derived.
ii) Search for complementary pair :
a) Check if any two given conclusions have
the same subject and the same predicate.
b) If (a) is satisfied, then check whether any
of them has been marked as a valid
conclusion after step II or as an immediate
inference.
c) If none of them has been marked as a
valid conclusion, then they will form a
complementary pair if they are an A - O
or I - O or I - E pair.
d) If they do make a complementary pair,
then mark the choice "either of the two
follows".
If a conclusion is marked as a valid
conclusion after step II, then it is not necessary
to perform step III (i). Again if a given conclusion
has already been accepted in step III (i), then it
is not necessary to perform step III (ii).
The learner should understand these
steps clearly. Now follow the solution to the
example which is already given. Here we have
to check the validity of each and every
conclusions one by one.
Conclusion I : Here the subject is pin and the
predicate is hat. So let us consider (A) and (B)
as our relevant statements because they have
a common term 'bags'.
The second step is to align the sentences.
The aligned pair is,
 Some pins are bags. given conclusions definitely follows from the
All bags are hats. given statements.
I + A = I. So we arrive at the conclusion, Give answer ((a) if only I follows ; ((b)
'Some pins are hats'. So conclusion I is valid. if only conclusion II follows ; ((c) if either I or II
follows; ((d) if neither I nor II follows and ((e) if
Conclusion II : Here the subject is 'needles' both I and II follow.
and the predicate is 'bags'. Statement C contains 1. Statement : Some tables are glasses.
the subject 'Needles'. But 'bags' appears in both All trees are tables.
A and B. We should select A because there is Conclusions: I.Some trees are glasses
a common term between A and C. This is an II. Some glasses are trees.
aligned pair and so we arrive at the conclusion
No bags are needles which implies No needles 2. Statement : No man is a lion.
are bags. Hence conclusion II is valid. Somu is a man.
Conclusions: I. Somu is not a lion.
Conclusion III : Here the subject is 'pins' and II. All men are not Somu.
the 'predicate' is needles. These words appear 3. Statement : All boys are mothers.
in statements (B) and (C) respectively which have All mothers are fathers.
no term in common. So all the three statements Conclusions : I. All mothers are boys.
should be taken as relevant. Now align the II. All boys are fathers.
statements as Step II (ii) So we get, 4. Statement : All pots are cups.
Some pins are bags All cups are bowls.
All bags are hats. Conclusions: I. All pots are bowls.
No hats are needles. II. All cups are pots.
5. Statement : All students are girls.
I + A + E = (I + A) + E= I + E = O. No girl is dull
So the conclusion is 'Some pins are not Conclusions : I. There are no boys in the
needles', which is conclusion IV. So conclusion class
IV is valid. II. No student is dull.
Since conclusion III is not valid in step II, 6. Statement : Some cats are kittens.
let us perform step III (i). The conclusion, Some All goats are kittens.
pins are not needles is not an immediate Conclusions: I. Some cats are goats.
inference of any of the three given statements. II. Some goats are cats.
So the next step is to check the existence of a 7. Statement : All names are houses.
complementary pair in the given conclusions. No houses are foxes.
Conclusions : I. All names are foxes.
We see that conclusion III and conclusion II. No houses are names.
IV form a complementary pair of I - O type. So 8. Statement : All pens are dogs.
the choice "either III or IV follows" could be Some pens are lights.
selected. But we find that conclusion IV is valid Conclusions: I. Some dogs are lights.
from the previous step. So conclusion III is not II. Some lights are not dogs
valid. Hence for this given example, the third 9. Statement : Some birds are clouds.
choice which is 'I, II and IV follow' is true.
Horse is a bird.
Conclusions : I. Some clouds are birds.
PRACTICE TEST II. Horse is not a cloud.
Directions (Qs. 1 - 25) : Each of the following 10. Statement : All tables are ants.
questions contains two statements followed by Some ants are chairs.
two conclusions numbered I and II. You have to Conclusions: I. All ants are tables.
consider the two statements to be true, even if II. Some chairs are not ants.
they seen to be at variance at the commonly 11. Statement : All elephants are birds.
known facts. You have to decide which of the Some birds are cows.
 Conclusions: I. Some cows are birds.
II.Some elephants are cows.
12. Statement : All papers are pencils.
All pencils are erasers.
Conclusions: I.Some erases are papers.
II. Some pencils are not
papers.
13. Statement : Some trees are horses.
Some ships are trees.
Conclusions: I.Some horses are ships.
II.Some trees are neither
ships nor horses.
14. Statement : All glasses are mirrors.
Some mirrors are red.
Conclusions: I. All mirrors are glasses.
II. Some glasses are red.
15. Statement : Some dogs are horses.
No horse is black.
Conclusions: I. Some dogs are black.
II.Some horses are dogs.
16. Statement : All roads are poles.
No poles are houses.
Conclusions: I. Some roads are houses.
II.Some houses are poles.
17. Statement : Many actors are singers.
All singers are dancers.
Conclusions: I. Some actors are
dancers.
II. No singer is an actor.
18. Statement : Only cats are animals.
No historian is an animal.
Conclusions: I. Some cats are not
historians.
II. Some historians are not
cats.
19. Statement : Some desks are caps.
No cap is red.
Conclusions: I. Some caps are desks.
II. No desk is red.
20. Statement : Some pots are belts.
No belt is white.
Conclusions: I. Some pots are white.
II. Some pots are not white.
21. Statement : Some girls are flowers.
Some flowers are books.
Conclusions: I. Some girls are books.
II. No books are girls.
22. Statement : Some files are ants.
All insects are ants.
Conclusions: I. All files are ants.
II. Some ants are insects.
23. Statement : All players are tall.
Pranesh is tall.
Conclusions: I. Pranesh is a player.
II. Pranesh is not a player.
24. Statement : Some hens are cows.
All cows are horses.
Conclusions : I. Some horses are hens.
II. Some hens are horses.
25. Statement : All business men are hard
working.
No hard working men are
superstitious.
Conclusions: I. No business men are
superstitious.
II. All superstitious are not
businessmen.
Directions (Qs. 26 - 40) : In each question below,
there are two or three statements followed by
four conclusions numbered I, II, III and IV. You
have to take the given statements to be true
even if they seem to be at variance with
commonly known facts and then decide which
of the given conclusions logically follow(s) from
the given statements.
26. Statements: Some boys are girls.
All girls are students.
Conclusions:
I. Some boys are students.
II. Some students are boys.
III. Some students are girls.
IV. All students are girls.
(a) I, II and III follow
(b) II, III and IV follow
(c) I, III and IV follow
(d) I, II and IV follow
(e) All follow
27. Statements: All books are watches.
Some watches are clips.
Conclusions:
I. Some watches are books.
II. No watches are books.
III. Some books are clips.
IV. No books are clips.
(a) I,and III follow
(b) Only I follow
(c) Either I or II follows
(d) Either III or IV and I follow
(e) Either I or II and III follow.
28. Statements: Some chairs are tables.
Some tables are desks.
 Conclusions: Conclusions:
I. Some chairs are desks. I. All boys are students.
II. No chairs are desks. II. All boys are teachers.
III. Only desks are chairs. III. Some teachers are boys.
IV. Only chairs are desks. IV. No teachers are boys.
(a) Only I follows (a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows (b) Only II and II follow
(c) Either I or II follows. (c) Either I or III follows
(d) Either III or IV follows (d) Either I or IV follows
(e) Either I or II and either III or IV follow. (e) Either III or IV follows
33. Statements: Some girls are teens.
29. Statements: Some reds are blues.
No teens are snakes.
No greens are blues.
Conclusions :
Conclusions : I. Some teens are girls.
I. Some reds are not greens. II. Some snakes are no girls.
II. All reds are greens. III. Some girls are not snakes.
III. Some greens are not reds. IV. All snakes are girls.
IV. All greens are reds. (a) Only I follows
(a) Only I follows (b) Either II or III follows
(b) Only III follows (c) Only I and III follow
(c) Either I or II follows. (d) Only I and II follow
(d) Either III or IV and I follow (e) Either III or IV follows
(e) I and II follow. 34. Statements :No blankets are pillows.
30. Statements :No systems are decks. Some beds are blankets.
All decks are books. Conclusions :
Conclusions: I. Some blankets are not pillows.
I. Some systems are books. II. Some pillows are not beds.
II. Some systems are not books. III. Some beds are not pillows.
III. Some books are systems. IV. All beds are pillows.
IV. Some books are not systems. (a) Either III or IV follows
(a) Only II follows (b) Either I or II follows
(b) Only IV follows (c) I and III follow
(c) I and IV follow. (d) Either II or III follows
(d) II and either III or IV follow (e) None of the above
(e) Either I or II and IV follow. 35. Statements: All classes are glasses.
All brasses are glasses.
31. Statements :All birds are animals.
Conclusions :
Many birds are stones.
I. Some classes are brasses.
Conclusions :
II. Some brasses are glasses.
I. Some birds are animals.
III. Some brasses are classes.
II. Some animals are stones. IV. Some classes are glasses.
III. All animals are stones. (a) Only I follows
IV. Some animals are not stones. (b) Only II follows
(a) Only I follows (c) I and II follow
(b) Only II follows (d) II and IV follow
(c) Either III or IV follows. (e) All follow
(d) I and II follow 36. Statements: All cars are buses.
(e) I and II and either III or IV follow Some buses are cycles.
32. Statements : Conclusions:
Some teachers are students. I. All cycles are buses.
Some students are boys. II. All cycles are car.
 III. Some cars are cycles. (a) Only I follows
IV. No cars are cycles. (b) Either I or II follows
(a) Only I follows (c) Either III or IV follows
(b) Only II and III follow (d) Only I and III follow
(c) Either II or III follows (e) None of the above
(d) Either I or IV follows Directions (Qs. 41 - 60) : Below are given three
(e) Either III or IV follows statements A, B,and C followed by four
37. Statements: Some singers are rockers. conclusions. You have to take the given
All rockers are westerners. statements to be true even if they appear to be
Conclusions: at variance with commonly known facts, and
I. Some rockers are singers. then decide which of the conclusions logically
II. Some westerners are rockers. follow (s) from the given statements. For each
III. Some singers are westerners. question, mark out an appropriate answer choice
IV. Some singers are not westerners. that you think is correct.
(a) I, II and III follow
(b) I, II and IV follow 41. Statements:
(c) II, III and IV follow A. All thieves are men.
(d) I, III and IV follow B. All men are graduates.
(e) All follow C. No graduates are employed.
38. Statements: All pigs are elephants. Conclusions :
No pigs are bakers. I. Some graduates are thieves.
Conclusions : II. No employed are thieves.
I. Some bakers are not pigs. III. Some men are thieves.
II. Some pigs are not bakers. IV. Some employed are men.
III. Some elephant are not bakers. (a) I, II and III follow
IV. Some bakers are not elephants (b) II, III and IV follow
(a) I, II and III follow (c) Only I and II follow
(b) I, II and IV follow (d) Only II and II follow
(c) I, III and IV follow (e) Only II and IV follow.
(d) II, III and IV follow 42. Statements:
(e) All follow A. Some books are pens
39. Statements : All green are blue. B. All tables are chairs.
All blue are white. C. No pens are tables.
Conclusions : Conclusions:
I. Some blue are green. I. Some books are not tables.
II. Some white are green. II. Some pens are not chairs.
III. Some green are not white. III. Some books are not chairs.
IV. All white are blue. IV. Some chairs are not pens
(a) Only I and II follow (a) I, and IV follow
(b) Only II and III follow (b) II, and IV follow
(c) Only I and III follow (c) I and III follow
(d) Only I and IV follow (d) II and III follow
(e) All follow (e) III, and IV follow.
40. Statements: Some soaps are clean. 43. Statements :
All clean are wet. A. All satellites are planets.
Conclusions : B. No stars are planets.
I. Some clean are soaps. C. Some cosmos are satellites.
II. No clean are soaps. Conclusions:
III. Some wet are soaps. I. Some cosmos are stars.
IV. All wet are soaps. II. Some cosmos are planets.
 III. Some stars are not cosmos.
IV. Some cosmos are not stars
(a) Only II and III follow
(b) Only II and IV follow
(c) Either I or IV follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) Either I or IV and III follow
44. Statements:
A. All books are notes.
B. Some notes are pencils.
C. No pencils are papers.
Conclusions:
I. Some notes are books.
II. Some pencils are books.
III. Some books are papers.
IV. No books are papers.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only I and either III or IV follows
(c) Either III or IV follows
(d) Only I and III follow
(e) None of these.
45. Statements :
A. Some cups are utensils.
B. No utensils are buckets.
C. All buckets are plates.
Conclusions:
I. Some cups are buckets.
II. Some utensils are plates.
III. No utensils are plates.
IV. Some cups are plates
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only III follows
(c) Either II or III follows
(d) Either III or IV follows
(e) None of these
46. Statements :
A. Some keys are locks.
B. All locks are doors.
C. Some doors are windows.
Conclusions:
I. Some locks are windows.
II. Some windows are keys.
III. Some windows are doors.
IV. No locks windows.
(a) Either I or IV follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Only III and IV follow
(d) None follows
(e) None of these.
47. Statements:
A. All pins are staplers.
B. Some staplers are sharpeners.
C. Some sharpeners are stands.
Conclusions:
I. Some staplers are stands.
II. Some sharpeners are pins.
III. Some pins are stands.
IV. Some stands are sharpeners.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only II and IV follow
(c) Only III follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) None of these
48. Statements:
A. Some oranges are apples.
B. All apples are guavas.
C. No guavas are bananas.
Conclusions:
I. Some guavas are oranges.
II. No apples are bananas.
III. Some oranges are bananas.
IV. Some apples are bananas.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I and either II or IV follow
(c) Only I, II and IV follow
(d) Only III and either II or IV follow.
(e) None of these
49. Statements:
A. Some streets are roads.
B. Some roads are lanes.
C. Some lanes are highways.
Conclusions :
I. Some roads are not streets.
II. No highways are streets.
III. Some streets are not roads.
IV. Some lanes are not roads.
(a) Only III follows
(b) Only III and IV follows
(c) Either I or III follows
(d) Both I and III follow
(e) None of these
50. Statements :
A. Some pencils are pens.
B. All pens are erasers.
C. All staplers are erasers.
Conclusions:
I. Some pens are not pencils.
II All erasers are pencils.
III. Some staplers are pens.
IV. Some staplers are pencils.
 (a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Only III follows
(d) Only IV follows
(e) None follows
51. Statements:
A. Some tables are chairs.
B. No cupboards are tables.
C. Some chairs are cupboards.
Conclusions :
I. Some chairs are not tables.
II. All chairs are either tables or cupboards.
III. Some chairs are both tables and cup
boards
IV. All chairs are tables.
(a) Only either I or IV follows.
(b) Only either II or III follows.
(c) Only IV follows.
(d) Either II or III and I follow
(e) None of these.
52. Statements :
A. All birds are animals.
B. Some animals are humans.
C. All humans are mammals.
Conclusions :
I. Some humans are not birds.
II. Some birds are humans.
III. Some animals are not mammals.
IV. All animals are mammals.
(a) Only I and II follow.
(b) Either III or IV follows
(c) Either I or II follows.
(d) Either I or II and either III or IV follow
(e) None of these.
53. Statements :
A. Some leaves are fruits.
B. All branches are fruits .
C. Some roots are branches.
Conclusions :
I. Some roots are fruits.
II. Some branches are leaves.
III. No leaves are branches.
IV. Some leaves are roots.
(a) Either II or III and I follow.
(b) Only I follows
(c) Only either II or III follows
(d) Only I and III follow
(e) None of these.
54. Statements :
A. Some keys are locks.
B. Some locks are stickers.
C. All stickers are pens.
Conclusions :
I Some pens are locks.
II Some stickers are keys.
III. No stickers are keys.
IV. Some locks are keys.
(a) I, IV and either II or III follow
(b) Only I and IV follow.
(c) Only II and III follow.
(e) None of these.
55. Statements :
A. All books are papers.
B. Some papers are journals.
C. Some journals are calendars.
Conclusions :
I. Some journals are books.
II. Some calendars are papers.
III. Some books are journals.
IV. Some books are calendars.
(a) Only II and IV follow
(b) Only II and III follow
(c) Only I and III follow
(d) Only III and IV follow
(e) None follows.
56. Statements :
A. Some answers are questions.
B. Some questions are writers.
C. All writers are poets.
Conclusions :
I Some writers are answers.
II. Some poets are questions.
III. All questions are poets.
IV. Some poets are answers.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I, II and IV follow
(c) Only II follows
(d) Only II and IV follow
(e) Only III follows.
57. Statements :
A All bottles are boxes.
B. All boxes are bags.
C. Some bags are trays.
Conclusions :
I Some bottles are trays.
II Some trays are boxes.
III. All bottles are bags.
IV. Some trays are bags.
 (a) Only I, III and IV follow.
(b) Only II and III follow.
(c) Only I, II and III follow.
(d) Only III and IV follow.
(e) All follow.
58. Statements :
A. Some envelops are gums.
B. All gums are seals.
C. Some seals are adhesives.
Conclusion :
I Some envelops are seals.
II. Some gums are adhesives.
III. Some adhesives are seals.
IV. Some adhersives are gums.
(a) Only I and II follow
(b) Only I and III follow
(c) Only II and IV follow
(d) Only III and IV follow
(e) Only I and IV follow.
59. Statements :
A. All flowers are garlands.
B. All garlands are fruits.
C. All fruits are trees.
Conclusions :
I. All trees are flowers.
II. Not all trees are flowers.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows
(c) Either I nor II follows
(d) Neither I or II follows.
(e) Both I and II follow.
60. Statements :
A. All chairs are apples.
B. Some apples are tables.
C. All tables are cupboards.
Conclusions :
I. Some cupboards are chairs.
II. Some tables are not chairs.
(a) Only I follows
(b) Only II follows.
(c) Either I or II follows
(d) Neither I nor II follows
(e) Both I and II follows.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

1. (4) 2 . (a) 3 . (b) 4 . (a) 5 . (e) 6 . (d) 7 . (d) 8.(a)
9. (a) 1 0 . (d) 1 1 . (a) 1 2 . (a) 13. (d) 1 4 . (d) 1 5 . (b) 16.(d)
17. (a) 1 8 . (a) 1 9 . (a) 2 0 . (b) 21.(c) 2 2 . (b) 2 3 . (c) 2 4 . (e)
25. (e) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (e) 31. (e) 3 2 . (e)
33. (c) 3 4 . (c) 3 5 . (d) 3 6 . (e) 3 7 . (a) 3 8 . (a) 3 9 . (a) 4 0 . (d)
41. (a) 4 2 . (a) 4 3 . (b) 4 4 . (b) 4 5 . (c) 4 6 . (e) 4 7 . (d) 4 8 . (a)
49. (e) 5 0 . (e) 5 1 . (a) 5 2 . (d) 5 3 . (a) 5 4 . (a) 5 5 . (e) 5 6 . (c)
57. (d) 5 8 . (b) 5 9 . (b) 6 0 . (d)
1. d. The aligned pair is 5. e. A + E = E. The conclusion is No student
All trees are tables is dull. II follows. Since All students' are
Some tables are glasses. girls, which means No boys are students.'
Hence I also follows.
This is a `A + I - type pair which has no
solution 6. d. Align this pair as All goats are kittens
and Some kittens are goats.
2. a. Align this pair as Somu is a man and No
man is a lion. A + E = E. So the A + I pair has no definite conclusion.
conclusion is Somu is not a lion : 7. d. A + E = E, the conclusion here is No names
 I follows are foxes. But this conclusion is not given.
3. b. A + A = A. The conclusion is All boys 8. a. The aligned pair is Some lights are pens
are fathers .  II follows and All pens are dogs. So the conclusion
 is Some lights are dogs which implies
Some dogs are lights.
9. a. The aligned pair is Horse is a bird and
Some birds are clouds. There is no
definite conclusion for A + I - type pair.
But conversion of statement I implies
conclusion I.
10. d. A + I - type has no definite conclusion.
11. a. A + I - type has no definite conclusion.
But immediate inference of Some birds
are cows implies Some cows are birds.
Hence I follows.
12. a. The conclusion is All papers are erasers.
Conclusion I follows from the immediate
inference of this conclusion.
15. b. I + E = O. So the conclusion is Some
dogs are not black. But conclusion II
follows as it is the conversion of the first
statement.
16. d. A + E = E. So the conclusion is No roads
are houses.
17. a. I + A = I. So the conclusion is "Some
actors are dancers".
18. a. The first statement can be converted to
All animals are cats. Now align the pair
by changing the order as
No historian is an animal.
All animals are cats.
E + A = O*. So the conclusion is
Some cats are not historians.
19. a. I + E = O. So the conclusion is Some
desks are not red. This is not given. But
conclusion I is obvious from statement I.
20.b. I + E = O. The conclusion is
Some pots are not white
21. c. I + I pair has no definite conclusion. But
the choice make a complementary pair
when we consider I and the immediate
inference of II. Spot either I or II follows.
22. b. The aligned pair is
All insects are ants.
Some ants are files.
A + I - type pair has no definite solution.
But conclusion II follows directly from
statement II.
23. c. Aligned pair is
Pranesh is tall.
Some tall are players.
A+ I - type pair has no definite conclusion.
But Pranesh should either be a player or
a non - player. Hence either of the two
conclusions follows.
24. e. I + A = I. So the conclusion is
Some hens are horses. Again on
conversion, this gives Some horses are hens.
25. e. A +E = E. The conclusion is No
businessmen are superstitious. Also on
conversion, this implies No superstitious
are businessmen. This implies All
superstitious are not businessmen also
must be true.
26. a. I + A = I. The conclusion is Some boys
are students which is I. This can be
converted to Some students are boys,
which is II. Some students are girls follows
from All girls are students.
27. d. A+ I pair has no definite conclusion. But
conclusion I follows directly from All
books are watches. III and IV are a
complementary pair.
28. c. I + I pair has no conclusion. But
conclusion I and II form a complementary
pair. Hence either I or II follows.
29. d. The aligned pair is
No greens are blues.
Some blues are reds.
E + I = O. So the conclusion is Some
reds are not greens. Hence I follows. Also
III and IV make a complementary pair.
30. e. E + A = O*. Hence the conclusion is
Some books are not systems. Again, I
and II are a complementary pair.
31. e. Many birds are stones implies Some birds
are stones. The aligned pair is
Some stones are birds.
All birds are animals.
I + A = I. Hence the conclusion is Some
stones are animals. On conversion
conclusion II is obtained. I is obviously
from statement I. Also III and IV make a
complementary pair.
32. e. I + I - type pair has no conclusion. But III
and IV are complementary pair.
33. c. I + E = O. Hence Some girls are not
snakes follows. Also I is obvious from the
first statement.
34. c. I + E = O. So the conclusion is Some
beds are not pillows. Hence III follows.
Also I is obvious from the first statement.
35. d. The aligned pair is
All classes are glasses.
Some glasses are brasses.
A + I - type pair has no solution. But II is
obvious from All brasses are glasses and
IV is obvious from All classes are glasses.
38. a. The aligned pair is
No backers are pigs.
All pigs are elephants.
E + A = O*. Hence the conclusion is
Some elephants are not bakers. Thus III
follows. No pigs are bakers implies that
No bakers are pigs. I is obvious from this
sentence. II follows directly from No pigs
are bakers. Hence I, II and III follow.
41. a. Conclusion drawn from statements A and
B is All thieves are graduates. Conclusion
I is obvious from this sentence. III is
obvious from statement A. Also A + A +
E = A + E = E.
Conclusion drawn from all the three is
No thieves are employed. II is obvious
from this sentence.
42. a. I follows from statements A and C.
IV follows from statements C and B.
No other conclusion is possible
43. b. Statements C + A gives Some cosmos
are planets. So II is valid. By aligning II
and B or by aligning all the three
statements, we get IV.
44. b. Conversion of A gives Some notes are
books. Therefore I follows. For II A and
B are the relevant statements. But A + I -
type pair has no conclusion. So II is not
valid. For III all the statements are
relevant. No definite conclusion can be
obtained from this combination. But
conclusions III and IV f orm a
complementary pair.Hence either
conclusion III or conclusion IV follows.
45. c. For I, A and B are relevant. But the
conclusion obtained here is Some cups
are not buckets. So I is not valid. II and III
form a complementary pair. For IV, all the
statements are relevant. But no conclusion
is obtained for this combination.
46. e. For I, B and C are relevant. But here no
conclusion is obtained. Similarly IV is not
valid. But I and IV form a complementary
pair. So either I or IV follows. For II all the
three statements are relevant. But no
conclusion follows from them. III is obvious
from C. Hence conclusions III and either I
or IV follow.
47. d. For I, B and C are relevant. But no
conclusion follows from them. For II all
the three statements are relevant. But no
conclusion follows from them. III also not
valid IV is obvious from C.
48. a. A + B gives Some oranges are guavas. I
is obvious from this statement. B + C
gives No apples are bananas. So II is
valid. For III all the three statements are
relevant. But the conclusion arrived here
is Some oranges are not bananas. So III
is invalid. IV is also invalid, since II is valid.
49. e. No conclusion is derived from the given
statements because I + I type pair has
no solution.
No conclusion can be arrived as the
immediate inference of the statements.
There is no complementary pair also. So
none follows.
50. e. No conclusion is derived form the given
statements because (I + A) + I = I + I.
This pair has no solution. Also no
conclusion can be arriv ed as the
immediate inf erence of the given
statements and there is no
complementary pair. So none follows.
51. a. I and IV form a complementary pair.
52. d. I and II form a complementary pair and III
and IV form another complementary pair.
53. a. C + B gives I. Also II and III form a
complementary pair.
54. a. B + C gives, Some locks are pens.
I is the conversion of this conclusion.
Also II and III form a complementary pair.
56. c. B + C gives, Some questions are poets.
II is obvious from this.
59. b. The conclusion drawn from these three
statements is All flowers are trees. So I
is invalid. II can be re-written as, Some
trees are flowers. This is obvious from the
derived conclusion.