Friendship Quality and Social Development

Author(s): Thomas J. Berndt

Source: Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Feb., 2002), pp. 7-10
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of Association for Psychological Science
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20182753
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 CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 7

successes and each

Friendship Quality and encourage

other after failures, thereby bolster
Social Development ing each other's self-esteem.
Some features of high-quality
Thomas J. Berndt1 are
friendships recognized by ado
of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Indiana lescents but not by young children.
Department Lafayette,
Adolescents often say that best
friends tell each other everything,
or disclose their most personal
Similar questions about the ef and These per
Abstract thoughts feelings.
fects of friends and friendships have sonal self-disclosures are the hall
A high-quality friendship is
been discussed in theoretical writ mark of an intimate friendship.
characterizedby high levels of for decades. in recent
ings Only Adolescents also say that friends
prosocial behavior, intimacy,
years, however, have answers to the will stick up for one another in a
and other positive features,
questions begun to emerge from their loyalty.
and low levels of conflicts, ri fight, demonstrating
empirical research. The recent ad A few researchers have de
valry, and other negative fea
vances have resulted in part from scribed various features of
tures. has positive
Friendship quality researchers' success in defining,
been assumed to have direct good friendships, including proso
conceptually and operationally, cial behavior, self-esteem
effects on many support,
aspects of chil what a good friendship is. Inmuch
dren's social development, in intimacy, loyalty, plus others, and
of the literature, good friendships the associations be
their self-esteem and investigated
cluding are now defined as
re friendships high tween these features by asking
social adjustment. Recent
in quality (e.g., Berndt, 1996). them. For ex
search suggests, however, that questions assessing
en to assess re
affects pri High-quality friendships may ample, intimacy,
friendship quality hance children's re
success development searchers have
asked children how
marily children's in the
gardless of the characteristics of often they tell a particular friend
social worldof peers. Friend
those friends. Research on this
could also have in hy things about themselves that they
ship quality can be described as exam
or pothesis would not tell most other people
direct effects, by magnifying
the influence of ining the direct effects of friendship (Berndt & Keefe, 1995). Such re
diminishing But another possibility is
on each other's atti quality. search has found that children who
friends
that friendship most often
tudes and behaviors. quality say that their friendship has a high
Having has indirect effects on children, ef level of one positive feature, such
high-quality friendships may on the friends'
fects that depend as
lessen children's tendencies to intimacy, typically say that their
characteristics. For example, when is high in all other posi
imitate the behavior of shy and friendship
friendships are high in the tive features. These results suggest
withdrawn friends, but little quality,
influence of the friends' character that all positive features are linked
evidence supports the hypoth istics may be magnified. I review to a single dimension of friendship
esis that high-quality friend
evidence for both types of effects in
friends' influence. quality.
ships magnify this article, but it is necessary to be can have
Even best
friendships
gin by defining the construct of features. Most children
Keywords negative
friendship quality more admit that best friends sometimes
social development; precisely.
friendship;
have conflicts with each other. In
peer influence; self-esteem
addition, children typically think of
themselves as equal to their friends,
A DEFINITION OF but equality can be more an ideal
Do enhance FRIENDSHIP QUALITY than a
good friendships reality. Children sometimes
children's social development? say that their friends try to boss
What if those good friendships are The old proverb says, "A friend them around, or dominate them.
with badfriends, friends who often in need is a friend indeed." That is, Children say that their friends "try
in school or show other
misbehave friends help and share with each to prove they're better than me," or
signs of poor social or psychologi other. Childrenagree with adults engage in rivalry. When asked
cal adjustment? Do good friend that these types of prosocial behav about actual friendships, children
ships with friends like those have a ior are expected among friends. Chil usually report the co-occurrence of
positive or a influence on dren also agree with adults that conflicts, dominance and
negative attempts,
children? good friends praise each other's rivalry. Thus, all negative features

Copyright ? 2002 American Psychological Society

 8 VOLUME 11,NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2002

seem to be linked to a single dimen proved by the following May in The effects of negative friend
sion of friendship quality. Scores on their liking for school and in their ship features have also been exam
this negative dimension are only perceptions of their classmates' ined. In one study (Ladd et al.,
correlated with those on the support. In another study (Berndt, 1996), kindergarten who had
weakly boys
positive dimension (Berndt, 1996), Hawkins, & Jiao, 1999), classmates many conflicts with friends in the
so both dimensions must be consid rated students' sociability and middle of a school year exhibited a
ered when defining the quality of a leadership in sixth grade and again decrease by the end of the year in
friendship. in seventh grade. Students whose liking for school and engagement
sixth-grade friendships were high in classroom activities, but an in
in positive features be crease in loneliness. In another
improved
tween sixth and seventh grade in study (Berndt & Keefe, 1995), sev
DIRECT EFFECTSOF and leader enth graders whose
peer-rated sociability friendships
FRIENDSHIP QUALITY were in
ship, but only if their sixth-grade high negative features in
friendships were stable over time. the fall of a year reported increased
on are consistent with at school
Most writers friendship have These findings disruptive behavior the
assumed that high-quality friend hypotheses about the direct effects following spring. Moreover, those
have effects on chil of high-quality friendships, but students whose friendships were
ships positive
dren: fostering their self-esteem, other data are not. In one study also high in positive features re

improving their social adjustment, (Berndt et al., 1999), my colleagues ported the greatest increase in dis
and increasing their ability to cope and I found that friendship quality ruptive behavior.
with Stressors (see Hartup & did not significantly affect the One possible explanation of
Stevens, 1999). Moreover, the cor over time in students' gen these focuses on the
changes findings likely
relations of friendship quality with eral self-esteem. In three earlier effects of negative interactions be
indicators of social adjustment are longitudinal studies (see Keefe & tween friends. Friends who fre
consistent with that assumption. Berndt, 1996), friendship quality quently get into conflicts with each
For example, among early adoles also was not significantly related to other, or who often try to dominate
cents, with in general self-esteem. or assert their superiority over one
having friendships changes
more
positive features correlates These data cast doubt on the hy another, are practicing a repertoire
with involvement in that good friendships en of negative social behaviors that
greater pothesis
school, higher self-perceived social hance children's self-esteem. Stated may generalize to interactions with
and higher more the repeated fail other peers and adults. Moreover,
acceptance, general strongly,
self-esteem (Berndt & Keefe, 1995; ures to confirm the hypothesis that the closer a friendship is, the more
Keefe & Berndt, 1996). high-quality friendships increase the friends interact and the more
Still, a significant correlation be children's self-esteem
suggest a frequently they practice their nega
tween two variables is only weak need for less sweeping and more tive social repertoire. Naturally,
evidence that one affects the other. specific hypotheses about the bene the students' negative behaviors
To test hypotheses about the effects fits of good friendships. provoke negative reactions from
of friendship quality more conclu One possibility is that friend classmates and teachers. Those
researchers have assessed ships high in positive features af negative reactions encourage the
sively,
children's and their ad fect primarily children's success in students to disengage from class
friendships
on two or more occasions the social world of peers. Thus, mates and classroom activities, to
justment
months or years apart (e.g., Ladd, can improve chil feel more lonely, and to like school
good friendships
Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996). dren's views of their classmates less.

Then the researchers have exam and their classmates' These are
improve explanations only pos
ined whether the quality of chil views of them. A ex sibilities because the recent longi
speculative
dren's friendships on the first occa for these effects can also tudinal studies do not provide evi
planation
sion predicted the changes over time be offered. a few dence on the processes responsible
Having good
in their adjustment. If so, the re friendships may help children for the effects of friendship quality.
searchers tentatively have concluded make positive contacts with several Examining these processes must be
a major research
that friendship quality affected the other classmates. Those positive goal of future
changes in children's adjustment. contacts may then lead to positive (Hartup, 1999). Information about
In one study of this type (Ladd relationships that are not as close processes would be especially
et al., 1996), kindergarten children as best friendships but that affect valuable as researchers seek to re

who had high-quality the children's attitudes toward place theories about the general ef
friendships
in January of the school year im their classmates and vice versa. fects of friendship quality with the

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 CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 9

were judged
ories that explain the effects of each higher in quality (see Berndt, 1999). and social withdrawal
dimension of friendship on For example, social learning theory their classmates (Berndt et al.,
quality by
specific aspects of social develop suggests that observational learn 1999). Adolescents whose friends
ment.
ing from friends is enhanced when showed above-average shyness
friends have more positive rela and withdrawal became more
shy
tionships. Other theories suggest and withdrawn themselves over
that friends' influence should be time only if those friendships were
INDIRECT EFFECTSOF
greater the more friends trust each average or low in quality. Having
FRIENDSHIP QUALITY other, and trust is another friends did not
facet of shy and withdrawn
the positive dimension of friend influence changes in students' shy
For decades, researchers from a ship quality. ness and withdrawal when those
variety of disciplines have tested Given the plausibility of the hy were in quality.
friendships high
the hypothesis that children and pothesis about the magnifying ef Apparently, the support that the
adolescents are influenced by the fect of friendship the scar students received from their
quality,
attitudes and behaviors of their city of evidence for it is surprising. friends offset any tendencies to im
peers. Not all studies have
pro Some evidence consistent with the itate the friends' patterns of social
vided support for the hypothesis, was obtained in one behavior.
hypothesis
but the available data convincingly longitudinal study of adolescents' The hypothesis that variations
show that close friends influence delinquent behavior (Agnew, in friendship quality affect the
many facets of children's and ado 1991). Among all the adolescents magnitude of friends' influence on
lescents' social behavior and ad whose friends in serious can be
engaged each other evaluated only in
justment (Collins & Laursen, 1999). delinquent acts, only those who studies that include measures of
In most studies, researchers have were attached to those friends' characteristics and of
closely
not assessed the quality of the friends became more seriously de friendship quality. Unfortunately,
friendships among the peers who linquent themselves. However, the researchers interested in exploring
were one another. But effect
of attachment to the benefits of friendships have sel
influencing comparable
when the issue has been raised, re friends who engaged in minor de dom examined what those friends
searchers have often was are like, and researchers interested
suggested linquency nonsignificant.
that the magnitude of friends' in Other studies have yielded equally in friends' influence
exploring
fluence should be affected by the equivocal support for the hypothe have seldom examined the types of
quality of their friendships. In this sis (Berndt et al., 1999), or no sup relationships those friends have.
way, quality can have port at all (Berndt & Keefe, 1995; the evidence neces
friendship Consequently,
an indirect effect on children's so & Haas, 1999). In
Poulin, Dishion, sary for answering questions about
cial development?affecting how short, the general hypothesis that indirect effects is very limited. This
much children are influenced gap in the literature creates serious
by high friendship quality magnifies
their friends' characteristics. friends' influence must currently problems, because researchers may
For example, according to the be viewed as doubtful. either the effects of
misjudge
differential-association theory of de Under certain conditions, hav friendship quality or the influence
linquent behavior, adolescents ing high-quality friendships may of friends by not exploring how
who spend time with delinquent lessen rather than magnify friends' friends' influence is moderated by
friends are expected to commit de influence on each other. Consider,
friendship quality.
linquent acts themselves (see Ag in particular, children who have of indirect ef
Understanding
new, 1991). Moreover, delinquent good friendships with peers who fects would increase if researchers
friends are assumed to have more are shy and withdrawn. Would more often probed the processes
influence the more positive the re those friendships increase the chil responsible for those effects (Har
with those friends are. dren's tendencies to imitate their researchers
lationships tup, 1999). Typically,
That is, having high-quality friend friends' shy and withdrawn behav use interviews or questionnaires to
ships with delinquent friends is as ior? Alternatively, would those assess
friendship and the
quality
sumed to increase the influence of friendships enhance children's characteristics of children and their
those confidence in social situations and friends, without ever
friends, thereby increasing seeing how
the degree to which adolescents be make them less prone to social the friends behave toward each
come like their friends over time. withdrawal? other. But a few researchers have
Many other theories include the These questions were ad shown that rich and compelling
that friends' influence dressed in a data can be obtained by observing
hypothesis longitudinal study of
is magnified when are
friendships early adolescents whose shyness the social interactions between

Copyright ? 2002 American Psychological Society

 10 VOLUME 11,NUMBER 1, FEBRUARY 2002

friends (e.g., Dishion, Andrews, & Uno, & Holt-Lunstad, 1999). If fu company they keep: Friendship in
1995). These observations ture research confirms that friend childhood and adolescence. Cam
Crosby,
can reveal both the features of chil ship quality has only narrow and bridge, England: Cambridge Uni
dren's friendships and the relations specific effects in childhood but versity Press.
of those features to the friends' in has broad and effects in Collins, W.A., & Laursen, B. (Eds.).
general (1999). (See References)
fluence on each other. Such obser adulthood, the reasons for this dif
Hartup, W.W. (1996). The company
vational studies can be a valuable ference should be ex and their
thoroughly they keep: Friendships
complement to interview-question plored. developmental significance. Child
naire studies. When used in combi High-quality friendships may Development, 67,1-13.
nation, the two research strategies also have indirect effects on chil
should dren's social development. Most
greatly expand knowledge
about the indirect effects of friend theories of social influence include Note
and the processes re some form of the hypothesis that
ship quality 1. Address to Tho
correspondence
for those effects. children are more strongly influ mas of Psycho
sponsible J. Berndt, Department
enced by their friends' characteris logical Sciences, Purdue University, W.
tics the higher the quality of those Lafayette, IN 47907.
friendships. An alarming corollary
CONCLUSIONS
of this hypothesis is that good

friendships with bad friends (e.g.,

Children that References
prize friendships friends with poor social or psycho
are in behavior, inti should have es
high prosocial logical adjustment) Agnew, R. (1991). The interactive effects of peer
and other features. variables on delinquency. Criminology, 29,47-72.
macy, positive negative effects on chil
pecially Berndt, T.J. (1996). Exploring the effects of friend
Children are troubled by friend dren's behavior and development.
ship quality on social development. InW.M.
ships that are high in conflicts, recent research Bukowski, A.F. Newcomb, & W.W. Hartup
However, provides
(Eds.), The company they keep: Friendship in
dominance, and other neg
rivalry, equivocal support for this hypothe childhood and adolescence (pp. 346-365). Cam
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Berndt, T.J. (1999). Friends' influence on students'
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