Table of Contents

List of experiments .......................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Experiment 01 ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Objective: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Theory: ............................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Main Parts of Hydraulic Bench: ................................................................................................................................ 5
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Observations & Calculations: ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Result: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Experiment 02 ................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Objective: ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Venturi Meter: ............................................................................................................................................................ 7
Bernoulli apparatus: ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Bernoulli’s Theorem: .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Result: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10
Precautions: ................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Experiment 03 ............................................................................................................................................................... 11
Objective: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Venturi Meter: .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Bernoulli apparatus: ................................................................................................................................................. 11
Bernoulli’s Theorem: ................................................................................................................................................ 12
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................................................................... 14
Precautions: ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Experiment 04 ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
Objective: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Bernoulli apparatus: ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Bernoulli’s Theorem: ................................................................................................................................................ 17
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................................................................... 18
Result: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Precautions: ................................................................................................................................................................... 19

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Experiment 05 and 06 ................................................................................................................................................... 20
Objective: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Theory: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Main Parts of Osborne Reynolds apparatus: ......................................................................................................... 20
Reynolds number: ..................................................................................................................................................... 21
Types of flow: ............................................................................................................................................................ 22
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Result: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 23
Precaution:..................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Experiment 07 ............................................................................................................................................................... 24
Objective: ....................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Theory: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Principle of Pressure Gauge: ................................................................................................................................... 24
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Observations & Calculations: ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Result: ............................................................................................................................................................................ 26
Precaution:..................................................................................................................................................................... 26

List of figures

Figure 1: Hydraullic bench ............................................................................................................................................ 4

Figure 2: Venturimeter................................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: Bernoulli’s apparatus ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 4: Venturimeter................................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 5: Bernoulli’s apparatus ................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6: Bernoulli’s apparatus ................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 7: Pitot tube ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 8: Reyald’s apparatus ....................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 9: Type of flow................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 10: Dead Weight Pressure gauge ..................................................................................................................... 24

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 List of Experiments

Experiment No. Description

Experiment No. 1 To measure the flow rate of water using hydraulic bench.
Experiment No. 2 To study the functioning of piezometer and variation sin
piezometer head using venturimeter.
Experiment No. 3 To determine the coefficient of discharge using
venturimeter.
Experiment No. 4 To determine the flow rate and stagnation pressure using
pitot tube.
Experiment No. 5 To compute Reynolds number
Experiment No. 6 To determine the flow of liquid.

Experiment No. 7 To calibrate the pressure measuring equipment.

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 Experiment 01
Objective:
To measure the flow rate of water using hydraulic bench.

Apparatus:
In order to complete the demonstration we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Hydraulic Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
2. Stop watch.

Theory:
Hydraulic bench is a very useful apparatus in hydraulics and fluid mechanics. The hydraulics
bench is used to provide continuous discharge and for adjustment of different types of apparatus upon it.
Almost every experiment involves the hydraulic bench in one way or the other.
The bench is constructed from lightweight corrosion resistant plastic and is mounted on wheels for mobility.
The bench top incorporates an open channel with side channels to support the accessory on test. Volumetric
measurement is integral and has been chosen in preference to other methods of flow measurement for its
ease of use, accuracy and safety in use (no heavy weights for students to handle). The volumetric measuring
tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow rates. A stilling baffle reduces turbulence and a remote
sight tube with scale gives an instantaneous indication of water level. A measuring cylinder is included in
the supply for measurement of very small flow rates. Opening the dump valve returns the measured volume
of water to the sump in the base of the bench for recycling. An overflow in the volumetric tank avoids
flooding. Water is drawn from the sump tank by a centrifugal pump and a panel mounted control valve
regulates the flow. An easy-to-use quick release pipe connector situated in the bench top allows for the rapid
exchange of accessories without the need for hand tools.

Water channel
Dump Valve

Working Bench Volumetric Tank

Flow Control Valve Sight Tube

Main Switch
Drain Valve

Centrifugal Pump Sump Tank

Figure 1: Hydraullic bench

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Main Parts of Hydraulic Bench:
Following are the main parts of hydraulic bench and their description
Pump and motor unit
A self-priming centrifugal pump draws water from the sump tank and delivers into a vertical transparent
pipe. Pump motor is connected to electricity via pump switch to provide water discharge.
Sump tank
A tank in the Hydraulic bench to store water that is not being used in the experiment.
Flow control valve
To control the flow of water to the bench.
Drain Valve
This valve is incorporated in the end wall of sump tank. Used to empty the sump tank.
Open Channel
This is used to support external accessories over the bench.
Side Channels
The bench top also incorporates two side channels to support the accessory being used for the current
experiment.
Volumetric Measuring Tank
Discharged water collects into this tank and then according to the known volume of the tank, we can easily
get to know the volume of discharged water. This tank is stepped to accommodate low or high flow rates.
Stilling baffle
A sloping device that reduces turbulence in water level so as to measure readings properly.
Sight tube
A remote sight tube which gives an instantaneous indication of water level with scale. Has two calibrations
of two different types.
Measuring Cylinder
It is included in the supply to measure volumes where the flow rate is very small.
Dump valve
This is located in the base of volumetric tank, operated by a remote actuator. Opening the dump valve
returns the measured volume of water to the sump tank in the bench of the base (this water can then be
reused again from the sump tank). An overflow in the volumetric tank avoids flooding.

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment and identify its components.
2. Connect one end of the hose to the hydraulic bench supply and place the other end in the volumetric
tank; in order to facilitate the timed volume collections.
3. Start the pump of the hydraulic bench and initiate the flow by gradually opening the flow control
valve.
4. After the steady state is achieved, direct the water outlet hose into the bench volumetric tank. Collect
water with a particular capacity and record the time taken for the water to fill it up.
5. Take at least 3 measurements and record the timings in order to calculate flow rate.

5|Page
 6. Divide the volume collected in the volumetric tank by the time taken to collect that capacity in order
to calculate average flow rate.
7. Repeat the experiment by varying the flow of water through the hydraulic bench by adjusting the
flow control valve.
8. Compute the average values of flow rates.

Observations & Calculations:

Flow rate =

𝑄𝑖 = ( or )

∑Qi
𝑄𝑖avg = ( or )

Sr no. Volume (litre) Time (sec) Flow rate (litre/sec) Flow rate (m3/sec)
1 20 75 0.2667 0.2667 x 10-3
2 35 58 0.6034 0.6034 x 10-3
3 40 53.5 0.7476 0.7476 x 10-3
4 50 68 0.7352 0.7352 x 10-3
5 15 86 0.1744 0.1744 x 10-3

∑(0.2667+0.6034+0.7476+0.7352+0.1744)
𝑄𝑖avg = ( )

𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞
𝑄𝑖avg = 0.50546 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜

∑(0.2667x 10−3+0.6034x 10−3+0.7476x 10−3+0.7352x 10−3+0.1744x 10−3)

𝑄𝑖avg = ( )

𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫
𝑄𝑖avg = 0.50546 x 10-3 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜

Result:
The flow rate of water using hydraulic bench is found to be 0.50546 and 0.50546 x 10-3 in litres and
meter respectively.

Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean
position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

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 Experiment 02
Objective:
To study the functioning of piezometer and variations in piezometer head using
venturimeter.

Apparatus:
In order to complete the experiment, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Hydraulics Bench
2. Stop Watch
3. Bernoulli’s Apparatus

Theory:
A piezometer is a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by measuring the height to
which a column of the liquid rises against gravity, or a device which measures the pressure. A piezometer is
designed to measure static pressures.

Venturi Meter:
A venturi meter is a measuring device that is usually used to measure the flow of a fluid in
the pipe. A Venturi meter may also be used to increase the velocity of any type fluid in a pipe at any
particular point. It basically works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. The pressure in a fluid moving
through a small cross section drops suddenly leading to an increase in velocity of the flow. The fluid of the
characteristics of high pressure and low velocity gets converted to the low pressure and high velocity at a
particular point and again reaches to high pressure and low velocity. The point where the characteristics
become low pressure and high velocity is the place where the venturi flow meter is used. The Venturi meter
is constructed as shown in Figure. It has a constriction within itself. The pressure difference between the
upstream and the downstream flow, Δh, can be found as a function of the flow rate.

Figure 2 Venturimeter

Bernoulli apparatus:
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers
tapped into the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be traversed along the
centre of the test section to measure the total head. The test section is a circular duct of varying diameter
7|Page
with a 14° inclined angle on one side and a 21° inclined angle on other side. Series of side hole pressure
tappings are provided to connect manometers to the test section. Manometers allow the simultaneous
measurement of the pressure heads at all of the six sections along the duct. The test section incorporates two
unions, one at either end, to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing. A probe is provided to
measure the total pressure head along the test section by positioning it at any section of the duct. This probe
may be moved after slackening the gland nut, which should be re-tightened by hand. To prevent damage, the
probe should be fully inserted during transport/storage. The pressure tappings are connected to manometers

Air bleed valves

Manometers

Unions

Gland nut

Water inlet

Adjustable feet
Venturimeter Hypodermic probe

Figure 3 Bernoulli’s apparatus

that are mounted on a baseboard. The flow through the test section can be adjusted by the apparatus control
valve or the bench control valve.

Bernoulli’s Theorem:
The Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the sum of pressure head, velocity head and the potential head is
constant along a stream line for a steady, in viscid and incompressible flow of fluid.
Considering the flow in two different sections of a pipe, and applying the law of conservation of the energy,
Bernoulli’s equation may be written as:

+ + Z1 = + + Z2
 

Where, in this equipment, Z1= Z2; and P =  . h

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv ),
and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as the total head (h* ). According to
the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h* at any cross section is constant (based
on the assumptions given above). In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as
measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones. In our experimental setup, the
centre line of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may
choose as the datum, z=0), and thus, all the ‘z’ values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
(This is the total head at a cross section).
P = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2.
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 = density of the flowing fluid in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 mm/s2)
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
z = elevation head of the centre of the cross section with respect to a datum z=0
h* = total head in m
For our experiment, we denote the pressure head as hi and the total head as h*i, where ‘i’ represents the cross
section we are referring to. The sum of the three previous terms is constant and so, Bernoulli’s theorem can
be shown as:

H= +

Where:

= Kinetic height

H= = Piezo-metric height: it is the height of one water column associated with the pressure of the

gravitation field.
Bernoulli's law indicates that, if an in viscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and higher where the pipe opens out and the
fluid stagnates. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher velocity,
lower pressure). The well-known Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions:
1. Fluid is incompressible ( density 𝜌 is constant );
2. Flow is steady:
3. Flow is frictionless ( = 0);
4. Along a streamline

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment on the hydraulic bench so that its base is horizontal.
2. Check if the drain valve is open and keep it wide open and check whether the outlet pipe goes to the
drain. Ensure that the outflow valve is positioned above the volumetric tank.
3. Connect the inlet to the bench flow supply, close the bench valve and the apparatus flow control valve
and start the pump. Initiate flow through the venturi test section by gradually opening the inlet valve.
4. Check that all piezometer tubes are properly connected to the corresponding pressure taps and are air-
bubble free. If needed flush the air-bubbles by slowly closing the exit valve and draining the water
through the manometer tubing.
5. Adjust both (inlet and outlet) valves so that the maximum difference in water levels between tapping
point 1 and 3 is achieved.
6. Wait for some time for the level in tubes to stabilize.
7. After the steady state is achieved, direct the water outlet hose into the bench volumetric tank. Collect
water with a particular capacity and record the time taken for the water to fill it up.
8. Take readings of piezometer ha to hf when the water level in the manometers is steady. The total
pressure probe should be retracted from the test section during this reading. Take at least 3
measurements and record the timings in order to calculate average flow rate.
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Observations & Calculations:

Flow rate =

𝑄𝑖 = ( or )

∑Qi
𝑄𝑖avg = ( or )

Sr Volume Time ha hb hc hd he hf Flow rate Flow rate

no. (litre) (sec) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (litre/sec) (m3/sec)
1 10 46 182 160 15 55 138 150 0.2173 0.2173 x 10-3
2 15 71 190 178 70 89 159 163 0.2112 0.2112 x 10-3
3 20 97 249 234 131 157 217 221 0.2062 0.2062 x 10-3

∑(0.2173+0.2112+0.2062)
𝑄𝑖avg = ( )

𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞
𝑄𝑖avg = 0.21156 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜

∑(0.2173x 10−3+0.2112x 10−3+0.2062x 10−3)

𝑄𝑖avg = ( )

𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫
𝑄𝑖avg = 0.21156 x 10-3 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜

Result:
Variations in piezometer head is found.

Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of piezometer tubes, note the mean
position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

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 Experiment 03
Objective:
To determine the coefficient of discharge using venturimeter.

Apparatus:
In order to complete the experiment, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Hydraulics Bench
2. Stop Watch
3. Bernoulli’s Apparatus

Theory:
Venturi Meter:
A venturi meter is a measuring device that is usually used to measure the flow of a fluid in
the pipe. A Venturi meter may also be used to increase the velocity of any type fluid in a pipe at any
particular point. It basically works on the principle of Bernoulli's Theorem. The pressure in a fluid moving
through a small cross section drops suddenly leading to an increase in velocity of the flow. The fluid of the
characteristics of high pressure and low velocity gets converted to the low pressure and high velocity at a
particular point and again reaches to high pressure and low velocity. The point where the characteristics
become low pressure and high velocity is the place where the venturi flow meter is used. The Venturi meter
is constructed as shown in Figure. It has a constriction within itself. The pressure difference between the
upstream and the downstream flow, Δh, can be found as a function of the flow rate.

Figure 4 Venturimeter

Bernoulli apparatus:
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers
tapped into the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be traversed along the
centre of the test section to measure the total head. The test section is a circular duct of varying diameter
with a 14° inclined angle on one side and a 21° inclined angle on other side. Series of side hole pressure
tappings are provided to connect manometers to the test section. Manometers allow the simultaneous
measurement of the pressure heads at all of the six sections along the duct. The test section incorporates two
unions, one at either end, to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing. A probe is provided to

11 | P a g e
measure the total pressure head along the test section by positioning it at any section of the duct. This probe
may be moved after slackening the gland nut, which should be re-tightened by hand. To prevent damage, the
probe should be fully inserted during transport/storage. The pressure tappings are connected to manometers

Air bleed valves

Manometers

Unions

Gland nut

Water inlet

Adjustable feet Venturimeter Hypodermic probe

Figure 5 Bernoulli’s apparatus

that are mounted on a baseboard. The flow through the test section can be adjusted by the apparatus control
valve or the bench control valve.

Bernoulli’s Theorem:
The Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the sum of pressure head, velocity head and the potential head is
constant along a stream line for a steady, in viscid and incompressible flow of fluid.
Considering the flow in two different sections of a pipe, and applying the law of conservation of the energy,
Bernoulli’s equation may be written as:

+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝜔 𝜔

Where, in this equipment, Z1= Z2; and P = 𝜔. h

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv ),
and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as the total head (h* ). According to
the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h* at any cross section is constant (based
on the assumptions given above). In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as
measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones. In our experimental setup, the
centre line of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may
choose as the datum, z=0), and thus, all the ‘z’ values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
(This is the total head at a cross section).
P = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2.
 = density of the flowing fluid in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 mm/s2)

12 | P a g e
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
z = elevation head of the centre of the cross section with respect to a datum z=0
h* = total head in m
For our experiment, we denote the pressure head as hi and the total head as h*i, where ‘i’ represents the cross
section we are referring to. The sum of the three previous terms is constant and so, Bernoulli’s theorem can
be shown as:

H= +
𝜔

Where:

= Kinetic height

H= = Piezo-metric height: it is the height of one water column associated with the pressure of the
𝜔
gravitation field.
Bernoulli's law indicates that, if an in viscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and higher where the pipe opens out and the
fluid stagnates. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher velocity,
lower pressure). The well-known Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions:
1. Fluid is incompressible ( density 𝜌 is constant );
2. Flow is steady
3. Flow is frictionless ( = 0);
4. Along a streamline

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment on the hydraulic bench so that its base is horizontal. This is necessary for accurate
height measurement from the manometer.
2. Check if the drain valve is open and keep it wide open and check whether the outlet pipe goes to the
drain.
3. Connect the rig inlet to the bench flow supply, close the bench valve and the apparatus flow control
valve and start the pump. Initiate flow through the Venturi test section by gradually opening the inlet
valve.
4. Check that all manometer tubes are properly connected to the corresponding pressure tape and are air-
bubble free.
5. Adjust both (inlet and outlet) valves so that the maximum difference in water levels between tapping
point 1 and 3 is achieved.
6. Wait for some time for the level in manometer tubes to stabilize.
7. After the steady state is achieved, direct the water outlet hose into the bench volumetric tank. Collect
water with a particular capacity and record the time taken for the water to fill it up. Take at least 3
measurements and record the timings in order to calculate (average) flow rate.
8. Take static pressure head readings from all piezometer tubes along the length of the Venturimeter.
9. Select any two cross sections and calculate the ideal volume flow rate through the venturimeter and
compare the result with actual flow rate obtained from volumetric method.
10. Compute the co-efficient of discharge for the flow through venturi.

13 | P a g e
Observations & Calculations:
Pressure in terms of head;

+ + Z1 = + + Z2 (1)
𝜔 𝜔

Z1= Z2 = 0; and P = . h = 𝜌gh

- = (2)
𝜔 𝜔

Sensitivity equation;
A1v1 = A2v2 (3)

v1 =
A1

A= D2
4

Head of water in piezometer tubes = hi(ha, hb , hc, hd, he, hf)

h1 − h2 = differential head in first two piezometer tubes, selected to measure discharge
From (1);

2g(h1− h2 )
v2 =
( )

Actual discharge through venturi =

𝑄a =

Ideal discharge through venturi =

𝑄i = A2v2

Coefficient of discharge =
Qa
Cd =
Qi

D1 =26mm and D2 =26mm

Sr Volume Time ha hb h1 -h2 v2 𝑄a 𝑄i Cd
no. (litres) (sec) (m) (m) (m) (ms-1) (litre/s) (litre/s)
1 10 46 0.182 0.16 0.022 1.192 0.217 2.39 x10-4 907.9
2 15 71 0.190 0.178 0.012 2.019 0.211 4.06 x10-4 519.7
3 20 97 0.249 0.234 0.015 0.586 0.206 1.17 x10-4 1760.6
∑Cd
Cd avg = ( or )
n
∑(907.9+519.7+1760.6)
Cd avg = ( )

𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞
Cd avg = 1062.7 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜

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 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫
Cd avg = 1.0627 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜

Result:
The average coefficient of discharge using venturimeter is found to be 1062.7 and 1.0627 in litres
and meter respectively.

Precautions:
1. Keep the other valve closed while taking reading through one pipe.
2. The initial error in the manometer should be subtracted final reading.
3. The parallax error should be avoided.
4. Maintain a constant discharge for each reading.
5. The parallax error should be avoided while taking reading the manometer.

15 | P a g e
 Experiment 04
Objective:
To determine the flow rate and stagnation pressure using pitot tube.

Apparatus:
In order to complete the experiment, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Hydraulics Bench
2. Stop Watch
3. Bernoulli’s Apparatus
4. Pitot Static Tube

Theory:
Pitot tube is a mechanical device which is used to measure velocity of flow at any point in a pipe
or a channel. It can measure static and dynamic pressure Pitot tube works on a basic principal of fluid
mechanics and that is, if a fluid stops flowing, all its kinetic energy gets converted into pressure energy. It
helps us in measuring that pressure energy of stopped fluid. Since kinetic energy is directly proportional to
square of velocity, we can easily calculate velocity of flow.

Bernoulli apparatus:
The Bernoulli test apparatus consists of a tapered duct (venturi), a series of manometers
tapped into the venturi to measure the pressure head, and a hypodermic probe that can be traversed along the
centre of the test section to measure the total head. The test section is a circular duct of varying diameter
with a 14° inclined angle on one side and a 21° inclined angle on other side. Series of side hole pressure
tappings are provided to connect manometers to the test section. Manometers allow the simultaneous
measurement of the pressure heads at all of the six sections along the duct. The test section incorporates two
unions, one at either end, to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing. A probe is provided to
measure the total pressure head along the test section by positioning it at any section of the duct. This probe
may be moved after slackening the gland nut, which should be re-tightened by hand. To prevent damage, the
probe should be fully inserted during transport/storage. The pressure tappings are connected to manometer
that are mounted on a baseboard. The flow through the test section can be adjusted by the apparatus control
valve or the bench control valve.

Air bleed valves

Manometers

Unions

Gland nut

Water inlet

Adjustable feet Venturimeter Hypodermic probe

Figure 6 Bernoulli’s apparatus
16 | P a g e
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
The Bernoulli’s Theorem states that the sum of pressure head, velocity head and the potential head is
constant along a stream line for a steady, in viscid and incompressible flow of fluid.
Considering the flow in two different sections of a pipe, and applying the law of conservation of the energy,
Bernoulli’s equation may be written as:

+ + Z1 = + + Z2
𝜔 𝜔

Where, in this equipment, Z1= Z2; and P = 𝜔. h

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity head (hv ),
and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as the total head (h* ). According to
the Bernoulli’s theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h* at any cross section is constant (based
on the assumptions given above). In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as
measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones. In our experimental setup, the
centre line of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may
choose as the datum, z=0), and thus, all the ‘z’ values are zeros so that the above equation reduces to:
(This is the total head at a cross section).
P = fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m2.
 = density of the flowing fluid in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 (its value is 9.81 m/s2 = 9810 mm/s2)
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
z = elevation head of the centre of the cross section with respect to a datum z=0
h* = total (stagnation) head in m
For our experiment, we denote the pressure head as hi and the total head as h*i, where ‘i’ represents the cross
section we are referring to. The sum of the three previous terms is constant and so, Bernoulli’s theorem can
be shown as:

H= +
𝜔

Where:

= Kinetic height

H= = Piezo-metric height: it is the height of one water column associated with the pressure of the
𝜔
gravitation field.
Let Point 1 be the stagnation point in below figure and Point 2 be the static point. In a Pitot tube, the air
velocity at the stagnation point is zero while the air velocity at the static point is constant. The elevation of
the two points is the same. If the pressure at the stagnation and static points is measured, the velocity at the
static point can be determined from bernoulli’s equation.

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 Figure 7 Pitot tube

Bernoulli's law indicates that, if an in viscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and higher where the pipe opens out and the
fluid stagnates. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher velocity,
lower pressure). The well-known Bernoulli equation is derived under the following assumptions:
1. Fluid is incompressible ( density 𝜌 is constant );
2. Flow is steady
3. Flow is frictionless ( = 0);
4. Along a streamline

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment on the hydraulic bench so that its base is horizontal.
2. Check if the drain valve is open and keep it wide open and check whether the outlet pipe goes to the
drain.
3. Connect the rig inlet to the bench flow supply, close the bench valve and the apparatus flow control
valve and start the pump. Initiate flow through the Venturi test section by gradually opening the inlet
valve.
4. Check that all manometer tubes are properly connected to the corresponding pressure taps and are air-
bubble free.
5. Adjust both (inlet and outlet) valves so that the maximum difference in water levels between tapping
point 1 and 3 is achieved.
6. Wait for some time for the level in manometer tubes to stabilize.
7. After the steady state is achieved, direct the water outlet hose into the bench volumetric tank. Collect
water with a particular capacity and record the time taken for the water to fill it up. Take at least 3
measurements and record the timings in order to calculate (average) volume flow rate.
8. Gently push (slide) the pitot (total head measuring) tube, connected to manometer 7, so that its end
reaches the cross section of the venturi tube at 1
9. Wait for some time and note down the readings from manometers 7 and 1. The reading shown by
manometer 7 is the sum of the pressure and velocity heads, i.e. the total (or stagnation) head, because
the pitot tube is held against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero velocity).
10. Repeat step 8 for other cross sections (2, 3,4, 5 and 6).
11. Note down your observations.

Observations & Calculations:

Stagnation pressure = Static pressure + Dynamic pressure

+ + Z1 = + + Z2 (1)
𝜔 𝜔

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Z1= Z2 = 0; and P = . h = 𝜌gh
v2= 0 velocity at stagnation point

Stagnation pressure: P2= + P1 (2)

Static head of water in piezometer tubes = h1(h1, h2 , h3)

Dynamic head of water in piezometer tubes = h0(h1, h2 , h3)
ho – h1 = differential head in first two piezometer tubes,
From (2);

v2 = 2g(ho− h1 ) (3)
Coefficient of discharge =

Cd = 0.7

𝑄i = (4)

𝑄exp = Cd 𝑄i

Sr Volume Time Static head Dynamic head Velocity 𝑄i 𝑄exp P2

no.
(litre) (sec) h1 h2 h3 h1 h2 h3 (m/sec) (l/sec) (l/sec)
(KPa)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1 25 142 115 29 83 121 122 97 27 0.176 0.1232 75.13

2 20 96 235 120 210 236 250 220 52.56 0.208 0.1456 283.7
3 15 85 265 112 218 270 275 232 59.72 0.176 0.1232 365.86
∑(0.1232+0.1456+0.1232)
𝑄expavg = ( )

𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞
𝑄expavg = 0.1306 ( )
𝐬𝐞𝐜
∑(75.13+283.7+365.86)
Pavg =

Pavg = 211.56 KPa

Result:
The average flow rate and stagnation pressure using pitot tube is found to be 0.1306 and 211.56
respectively.

Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of tubes, note the mean position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

19 | P a g e
 Experiment 05 and 06
Objective:
To compute Reynolds number and to determine the flow of liquid.

Apparatus:
In order to complete the experiment, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Osborne Reynolds Apparatus
2. Hydraulic bench
3. Stop watch
4. Ink

Theory:
Reynolds Apparatus includes a vertical head tank that provides a constant head of water through a
bellmouth entry to the flow visualization glass pipe. Stilling media (marbles) are placed inside the tank to
tranquilize the flow of water entering the pipe. The discharge through this pipe is regulated by a control
valve and can be measured using a measuring cylinder. The flow velocity, therefore, can be determined to
calculate Reynolds number. A dye reservoir is mounted on top of the head tank, from which a dye can be
injected into the water to enable observation of flow conditions.

Main Parts of Osborne Reynolds apparatus:

1. Ink tank
2. Colouring liquid injection valve
3. Screw
4. Injector
5. Nozzle
6. Visualization flow tube
7. Flow control valve
8. Inlet pipe
9. Overflow outlet pipe
10. Overflow

Figure 8 Reynolds Apparatus

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Reynolds number:
Flow behaviour in natural or artificial systems depends on which forces (inertia,
viscous, gravity, surface tension, etc.) predominate. In slow-moving laminar flows, viscous forces are
dominant, and the fluid behaves as if the layers are sliding over each other. In turbulent flows, the flow
behaviour is chaotic and changes dramatically, since the inertial forces are more significant than the viscous
forces.
The Reynolds number (Re), provides a useful way of characterizing the flow. It is defined as:

Re =

Where:
Re = Reynold’s number
V = Average velocity in ms-1
D = Diameter of pipe in m.
ρ = Mass density of fluid ( Kg / m3)
µ = Dynamic viscosity ( Ns/ m2 or kg/ msec)
For;
Re > 4000 flow is turbulent
2000 < Re < 4000 flow is transition
Re < 2000 flow is laminar
In this experiment, we check the formation or appearance of dye filament in the glass tube for different
velocities and note down the flow type based on its appearance from below three cases.
Case 1:
If dye filament forms straight line, then it is called as laminar flow.
Case 2:
If dye filament flows in a slightly wavy manner, then it is said to be transition flow.
Case 3:
If dye filament diffuses over the entire cross section of tube while passing, then it is called as turbulent flow.
All of these three flows are represented in below figure.

Figure 9 Types of flow

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Types of flow:
Following are the three types of flow that are discussed in this experiment
Laminar Flow:
nnnnnnnnnnnA flow is said to be laminar when the various fluid particles moves inlayer with one layer of
fluid living smoothly over on adjacent layer.A laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles moves in
layers or laminar with one layer sliding over the other. Therefore there is no exchange of fluid particles from
one layer to the other and hence no transfer of later of momentum to be adjacent layers. The particles, in the
layer having lower velocity, obstruct the fluid particles in the layer with higher velocity. This obstruction
force is called viscous resistance or viscosity. The laminar flow is one in which fluid layers glide over each
another. It has low velocity and high viscous resistance
Turbulent Flow:
There is a continuous transfer of momentum to adjacent layers. Fluid particles occupy
different relative position at different places. It is one in which, the particles get thoroughly mixed on (called
turbulence). The turbulent flow has higher velocity. The flow in canals, pipes and rivers is usually turbulent
flow
Transition Flow:
The transition flow has intermediate properties between the laminar and turbulent flow. In
laminar the forces should be considered to calculate the friction loss and in the turbulent flow only the
internal forces are considered because the effect of viscous force is negligible as compared to internal forces.

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment on the hydraulic bench so that its base is horizontal.
2. Check if the drain valve is open and keep it wide open and check whether the outlet pipe goes to the
drain.
3. Connect the inlet pipe to the bench flow supply. Make sure that the exit hose is positioned so that it
will drain into the sink tank of the bench.
4. Fill up the dye reservoir with ink.
5. Start the pump of the Hydraulic Bench and establish the water supply.
6. Open the outflow valve to test the unit. Check for any leaking of water and proceed to inject the ink.
7. Lower the dye injector until it is seen in the glass tube.
8. Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter tank.
9. Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant level.
10. Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
11. Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
12. Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is achieved.
13. Regulate the water inlet and outlet valve until an identifiable dye line is achieved.
14. After the steady state is achieved, direct the water outlet hose into the bench volumetric tank. Collect
water with a particular capacity and record the time taken for the water to fill it up. Take at least 3
measurements and record the timings in order to calculate (average) volume flow rate.
15. Compute Reynolds number and observe the flow.
16. Repeat the experiment by regulating water inlet and outlet valve to produce different flows.

Observations & Calculations:

Cross sectional Area of tube = A = D2
4

Diameter of tube = D= 10 𝑚𝑚 = 0.01m

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 Reynolds number = Re =

Re =

= 1.004 x 10-6 m2s-1 at 20 oC

Sr Flow Time Flow rate Discharge Velocity Re Type of
no. (litre) (sec) (ml/sec) (m3/sec) (m3/sec) flow
1 0.7 77 9.091 7.139 x10-7 9.091 x10-3 90.547 Laminar
2 0.7 71 9.859 7.743 x10-7 9.859 x10-3 3210 Transition
3 0.8 53 15.094 11.85 x10-7 15.08 x10-3 6550 Turbulent
Re Number in Laminar = 90.547
Re Number in Transient = 3210
Re Number in Turbulent = 6550

Result:
The Reynolds number in laminar, transient, turbulent flow is found to be 90.547, 3210 and 6550
respectively.

Precaution:
1. Take reading of discharge accurately.
2. Set the discharge value accurately for each flow.

23 | P a g e
 Experiment 07
Objective:
To calibrate the pressure measuring equipment.

Apparatus:
In order to complete the experiment, we need a number of pieces of equipment.
1. Dead Weight Pressure gauge
2. Set of Test weights.
3. Weight balance.

Theory:
Principle of Pressure Gauge:
Dead weight pressure gauge tester is a testing instrument, which helps to
calibrate and test the pressure gauges. Here dead weights are used to build pressure inside the pressure
chamber. Oil pump is fitted to the pressure chamber by which oil is pumped to pressure chamber. The
pressure chamber has two outlets. One outlet is connected to the oil tank through a control valve. The other
outlet is connected to any pressure gauge which has to be tested or calibrated. The pressure chamber is fitted
with a plunger chamber also. By closing the control valve and by pumping the oil inside the pressure
chamber, the pressure increases inside the chamber and the plunger starts moving out. The dead weight
calibrated for known pressure is kept on the plunger which will build pressure, inside the pressure chamber
proportion to weight on the plunger. By adding the weight on the plunger, the pressure inside the chamber
can be increased accordingly. The plunger is made to lift the weight till the mark on the plunger, by pumping
the oil into the pressure chamber by using oil pump.

Test gauge

Piston

Weight Support Cylinder

Weights

Base Plate

Figure 10 Dead Weight Pressure gauge

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The pressure gauge to be calibrated is a Bourdon tube pressure gauge. The Bourdon tube is the basis of
many mechanical pressure gauges and also used in electrical transducers by measuring the output
displacement with potentiometers, differential transducers etc. The basic element in the all the various forms
is a tube of non-circular cross section. A pressure differences between inside and outside of the tube (high
pressure inside) causes the tube to attempt to attain circular cross section. This result in distortion which
leads to curvilinear translations of the free end in ‘C’ type and Spiral and Helical types and an angular
rotation in the twisted type and these motions are the output.
The dead weight pressure gauge tester comprises of the following;
Hydraulic Pump
The pump fitted is of single cylinder reciprocating type oil pump.
Oil Reservoir
Acrylic tank with metal cover to store oil to build the pressure
Piston
Piston to load the dead weight, so the pressure built can be calculated as follows.

P= F= ma
Where, P = Pressure built due to weight kg/cm²
m = mass in kg.
A = Area of cross section of the piston in cm²
Control valve
Stainless steel needle valve to control the pressure and to release the pressure.

Procedure:
1. Measure the weight of the calibration masses.
2. Note down the weight of the piston and it’s cross sectional area.
3. Remove the piston and pour the water into the cylinder until it is full to overflow level. Any air
trapped in the tube may be cleared by tilting and gently tapping the apparatus.
4. Insert the piston carefully and spin it to minimize any friction effects.
5. Note the pressure reading from the gage.
6. Add the weights in convenient increments, and at each increment, observe the pressure gauge
reading.
7. Take the similar sets of readings with decreasing weights.

Observations & Calculations:

Cross sectional Area of tube = A = D2

Diameter = D= 25.3 m

A= (25.3)2 = 502.73m2

Pressure = F= mg

Absolute gauge error = Gauge reading – Pressure

% Gauge error =

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 Sr Mass Pressure Gauge reading Absolute Gauge Error %Gauge error
no. (kg) (Pa) (KPa) (KPa)
1 2.61 0.051 40 40 78.43
2 4.61 0.089 70 70 78.7
3 6.61 0.129 105 105 81.4
4 8.61 0.168 135 135 80.35
5 10.61 0.207 165 165 79.71
6 11.61 0.227 185 185 81.5

∑(40+70+105+135+165+185)
Absolute gauge erroravg = (KPa)

Absolute gauge erroravg = 116.667 (𝐊𝐏𝐚)

Result:
The average absolute gauge error is found to be 116.667 in KPa.

Precaution:
1. Air bubbles inside the tester unit may result in inaccurate reading.
2. Static friction between the piston and cylinder, yield smaller gauge reading.

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