Mec 422 Lecture Summary (Chap 4 - Chap 8)

MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 6)
Lecture Summary for Midterm II
1
Chapter 4 Piping Systems II

Prerequisite
▪ Review optimization in MEC 320 (Spring 2021)
✓ Multidimensional unconstrained (Direct Methods, Gradient Method, Steepest Ascent/Descent)
▪ Constrained optimization
✓ Direct substitution
✓ Lagrange multipliers
✓ Linear programming
2
6)
Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Optimization problem
Example 4.1 (Direct)
3

Example 4.1 (continued) (Direct)
4

Example 4.1 (continued) (Lagrange multiplier)
5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

𝐷2
15

16

17

18

19

From
20

Economic pipe diameter
▪ In piping systems, 3 types of flow problems are
usually encountered
✓ ∆𝑝 unknown
✓ 𝑄 unknown
✓ 𝐷 unknown
▪ Usually involve 6 variables

✓ Pipe length, 𝐿 ✓ Volume flow rate, 𝑄
✓ Kinematic viscosity, 𝜈 ✓ Inside diameter, 𝐷
✓ Pressure loss, ∆𝑝 ✓ Surface roughness, 𝜀
▪ For contrived problems, you’re given 5 and asked to calculate the 6th variable. Not so in realistic problems, since the
values of five variables are usually not known
- For example, ∆𝑝 is not known, and the pipe may also have to be selected
21

Economic pipe diameter
▪ With only 4 parameters known, additional criteria must be used to solve the problem
It is reasonable to use cost figures as a selection guide Large pipe diameter ⇒ ↑ cost, ↓ ∆𝑝 ⟹ optimization
Small pipe diameter ⇒ ↑ ∆𝑝, ⇒ ↓ 𝜂
(𝜂 = efficiency)
Use a diameter that minimizes the total cost – initial, fixed and operating cost
▪ This diameter is called the Optimum Economic Diameter, 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒕
▪ Obtaining this diameter is an optimization problem
22

The least annual cost (LAC) method
▪ Results apply to gravity flow situations, and can be used whether or not there are pumps in the system
fixed (function of the pump size): for the pipe, fittings, hangers/supports, the pump, and installation
Total cost
electricity
operating: pumping power requirements
engine fuel
Overcomes friction losses,

Changes in elevation,
1
Changes in ∆𝑝 (∆𝑝𝑓 , ∆𝑝static , ∆𝑧, ∆ 𝑉 2 )
2
▪ Will formulate on a cost-per-year basis
▪ Differentiate this with respect to the diameter to obtain the minimum cost
23

The least annual cost (LAC) method – Approach
▪ Convert the initial cost of an entire system to an equivalent annual cost
✓ By assuming that the capital is borrowed from a loan institution at an annual interest rate, 𝒊 (APR)
✓ It must be repaid (amortized) with 𝑚 yearly payments
▪ The annual cost (or annuity) to repay a loan of $ 1 over 𝑚 years is
𝑖 𝑖 = annual interest rate, e.g., 0.09 or 9/100

𝑎= 𝑚 (for $1) 𝑚 = # of yearly payments
1
1− 𝑎 = annual cost factor (i.e., for $1 principal)
1+𝑖
= amortization rate
▪ For an initial cost $𝐶ℓ of a piping system, the annual cost 𝐶𝐴 can be written as
𝑖𝐶ℓ
𝐶𝐴 = 𝑎𝐶ℓ = 𝑚
1
1−
1+𝑖
24

Example: For an initial cost of $10,000 with someone else’s money borrowed at 9%, then
9
𝑖= = 0.09 (APR)
100
If it is to be repaid in seven years,
0.09
𝐶𝐴 = 7 × $10,000 = 0.1987 × 10,000
1
1−
1 + 0.09 Amortization
Rate
= $1,987
= Annual payment
Total money repaid after 7 years is $𝟕 × 𝟏, 𝟗𝟖𝟕 = $𝟏𝟑, 𝟗𝟎𝟗.
25

▪ Installed pipeline costs in $/𝑓𝑡,

𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 𝐷𝑛 (1.0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 1.4),
by fitting a curve to Table 4.1
▪ Express the cost of fittings, valves, supports, pumps
and installation as a multiplier (𝐹) of the pipe costs:
𝐶
ด𝐹 = 𝐹 𝐶 ณ 𝐶1 𝐷𝑛 ; 1.0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 1.4
ด𝑃 = 𝐹
Cost of Pipe Multiplier, typically
Fittings cost 6≤𝐹≤7
(MU/L);
MU ≡ Money unit, e.g., $, £
where 𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶1 𝐷 𝑛 is assumed from data
▪ Total cost of pipe, fittings, valves, supports, pumps,

installation is
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝐶
ต𝑃𝐹 = 𝐶𝑃 + 𝐶𝐹 = 𝐶1 𝐷 + 𝐹𝐶1 𝐷 = 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝐷
Initial/First cost of the system
26

Cost of maintaining the installed system
▪ The annual maintenance cost is a fraction of the cost of the pipe and fittings
▪ Call this fraction “𝑏”
Total amortized, installed cost of the piping system plus its maintenance is
Amortization Annual cost of pipe + fittings

rate for $1
𝐶
ต𝑃𝑇 = ฎ
𝑎+ณ
𝑏 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝐷𝑛
Yearly maintenance
cost fraction
Total annualized cost of the piping system in MU/L∙YR
27

Cost of moving fluid through the pipe
𝑓𝐿 1
▪ Cost associated with overcoming friction, changes in KE and PE. , 𝐾, ∆𝑉 2 , ∆𝑝static , ∆𝑧
𝐷 2
𝑝𝑔𝑐 1 𝑉 2
Head (or energy) ≡ + +𝑧
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔
Thus
𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2 𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊
𝐻1 = 𝐻2 + + ∑𝐾 +
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 all pipes
𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
▪ Assume
✓ Minor losses are either negligible or can be combined with the friction terms. (Remember equivalent length?)
✓ One pipe size for the entire line
𝑑𝑊 𝑔 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑄 𝑚ሶ 4𝑚ሶ
= −𝑚[
ሶ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 + 𝑉= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝐷 2𝑔𝑐 𝐴 𝜌𝐴 𝜌𝜋𝐷2
𝑑𝑊 𝑔 8𝑓𝐿𝑚ሶ 2
⟹− = 𝑚ሶ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝜋 2 𝜌2 𝐷5 𝑔𝑐
𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡 = power required to move the fluid to overcome head changes and frictional effects
Actual motor size = 𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡 Τ𝜂, 𝜂 = efficiency
28

Cost of operating the pump on a yearly basis (𝑪𝑶𝑷)
𝑓𝐿 1
▪ Cost associated with overcoming friction, changes in KE and PE. , 𝐾, ∆𝑉 2 , ∆𝑝, ∆𝑧
𝐷 2
𝑝𝑔𝑐 1 𝑉 2
Head (or energy) ≡ + +𝑧
𝜌𝑔 2 𝑔
Thus Total energy given to pump
𝐶2 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = = cost of operating pump
𝜂
Force unit
where Length unit
Work unit
𝐶2 = cost of energy in MU/(F∙L) ($Τ(𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ𝑟))

Money unit energy
= cost per unit of energy

𝑡 = time during which the system operates per year (ℎ𝑟/𝑦𝑟)
𝑑𝑊
NOTE ✓ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ𝑟
𝜂 = efficiency of the pump

NOTE ✓ 𝐶2 does not depend on clock time!
29

Total cost/year
State Cents/𝒌𝑾𝒉 State Cents/𝒌𝑾𝒉
Professors’ Gas bill 8/29/19 – 9/30/19: 1. Idaho 8.0 ∗ 37. Pennsylvania 13.2
Energy used 377 𝑘𝑊ℎ 3. Washington 8.2 ∗ 38. Maryland 13.7

= 377 × 3.6 𝑀𝑊𝑠 11. West Virginia 9.2 ∗ 39. DC 13.7
= 377 × 3.6 𝑀𝐽 16. Tennessee 9.8 ∗ 40. Massachusetts 14.8
17. Indiana 10.0 ∗ 43. California 15.2 ∗
Amount = $87.97
= $0.233 /𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟 19. Mississippi 10.3 46. New Jersey 16.3 ∗
30. Ohio 11.2 48. Alaska 17.5 ∗
87.97 31. Texas 11.3 49. Connecticut 18.1 ∗
(∗) $Τ𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 6
= $6.48 × 10−8 /𝐽
377 × 3.6 × 10 𝐽 33. Florida 11.7 ∗ 50. New York 18.1, PSEG 23.33 ∗
35. Michigan 13.0 51. Hawaii 33.2 ∗
October 28, 2011

<The Price of Electricity in Your State>
30

Total cost/year
𝑑𝑊
𝐿 𝐶𝑃𝑇 + 𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝐷𝑛 𝐿 + 𝐶2 𝑡 −
𝐶𝑇 = ณ /𝜂
𝑑𝑡
Pipe From (∗)
length 𝑚𝐶
ሶ 2𝑡 𝑔 8𝑓𝐿𝑚ሶ 3 𝐶2 𝑡
𝐻2 − 𝐻1 + ∙
𝜂 𝑔𝑐 𝜋 2 𝜌2 𝐷5 𝑔𝑐 𝜂
No 𝐷 here Friction part
▪ Minimum cost is given by 𝑑𝐶𝑇 Τ𝑑𝐷 = 0
𝑛−1
8𝑓𝐿𝑚ሶ 3 𝐶2 𝑡
𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝐷 𝐿−5 2 2 6 =0
𝜋 𝜌 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝜂
or
1
3 𝑛+5
40𝑓 𝑚ሶ 𝐶2 𝑡
𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 =
𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝜂𝜋 2 𝜌2 𝑔𝑐
𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 = the optimum economic diameter 𝑛 = exponent of 𝐷 in the curve fit for the pipe cost data
𝐶2 = cost per unit of energy 𝑏 = yearly maintenance cost fraction
𝑡 = hours system is operated per year 𝜂 = efficiency of pump
𝑓 = friction factor 𝐶1 = constant in the curve fit for the pipe cost data
𝑚ሶ = mass flow rate 𝑎 = amortization rate
31

Total cost/year
NOTE
1. Pipe length does not appear in 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡
2. Fluid 𝜇 does not enter explicitly, but
𝑓 = 𝑓 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒 𝜇 , 𝜀, 𝐷
3. Diameter is unknown ⇒ trial-and-error

4. Head loss ∆𝐻 ≡ 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 does not appear (∆𝑝, ∆ 1Τ2 𝑉 2 , ∆𝑧 don’t appear)
5. If 𝑓 = 0, an optimum diameter cannot be determined (See Equation 4.13)
▪ Can write the 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 equation as

𝑛+5 𝑛
4𝑚ሶ 256 𝑚ሶ 2 4𝑚ሶ 𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝜂𝜌2
= (4.13)
𝜋𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 10𝜋 3 𝑔𝑐4 𝜇 5 𝜋𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝑓𝐶2 𝑡
𝑅𝑒
NOTE
4𝑚ሶ 4𝜌𝑄 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝑄 4𝑄
= ∙ = = 𝑅𝑒; 𝑉= =
𝜋𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝜋𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝐴 𝜋𝐷2
32

Total cost/year
▪ Multiply both LHS and RHS of Eqn. (4.13) by 𝑓 and take the sixth root to remove 𝑓 on the RHS
1
𝑛
1
𝑛+5 6
128 𝑚ሶ 2 4𝑚ሶ 𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏 1 + 𝐹 𝐶1 𝜂𝜌2 6
𝑓∗ 𝑅𝑒 =
5𝜋 3 𝑔𝑐4 𝜇 5 𝜋𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝐶2 𝑡
To avert Trial-and-Error
▪ Introduce the Roughness Number (𝑅𝑜), so that we wouldn’t need diameter 𝐷 in order to evaluate 𝜀/𝐷:
𝜀/𝐷 𝜀 𝜋𝐷𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜋𝜀𝜇𝑔𝑐
𝑅𝑜 = = = There is no diameter in
𝑅𝑒 𝐷 4𝑚ሶ 4𝑚ሶ this expression
▪ For the 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 problem, convenient to have a graph of
1
𝑓 vs 𝑓∗ 𝑅𝑒 𝑛+5 6, with
𝑅𝑜 as an independent parameter
33

Total cost/year
1 1 6∙2 1 6∙4
1Τ6
▪ Have 3 graphs of 𝑓 vs 𝑓 ∗ 𝑅𝑒 𝑛+5 for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 1.2, and 𝑛 = 1.4 ⟹ 𝑓 6 𝑅𝑒, 𝑓 6 𝑅𝑒 6 , 𝑓 6 𝑅𝑒 6 :
𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝑜
NOTE ✓ Chen equation is used for graph
34

Example 4.6
35

Example 4.6 (cont’d)
36

…
…
37

Example 4.7
7
38

39

14
40

(Figure 4.14)
41
(Figure 4.14)
42

Example 4.8
8
43

44

45

Equivalent length of fittings
•
▪ The friction and minor-loss terms
𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2 𝑓𝐿 𝑉2
+ ∑𝐾 = + ∑𝐾
𝐷ℎ 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷ℎ 2𝑔
▪ Replace the minor-loss term with
𝑓𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐷ℎ ∑𝐾
∑𝐾 = ⟹ 𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐷ℎ 𝑓
Example 4.9
9
46

:
Example 4.9 (continued)
⑤
47

48

…
…
49

Example 4.10 10
21=22
horizontal
pipe
.
50

…
…
51

52

Graphical symbols for piping system
…
…
53

Example 4.10
54

…
… …
55

▪ Select 𝑄 ⟹ Calculate 𝑅𝑒 ⟹ Find 𝑓
56
Chapter 5 Selected Topics
57
Selected Topics – Pipe Networks
▪ A piping network is an assembly of connected pipes used to distribute fluid to users in different locations
▪ The objective here is to determine the volume flow rates 𝑄𝑖 in each pipe of the network
Places where fluid

enter + exits
Procedure
▪ A piping network consists of pipes or tubes of various
sizes, geometric orientation, and frictional characteristics
System could contain pumps, valves, fittings
Fig. 5.1 shows a plan view of a piping network

▪ Formulating a systematic procedure (Not an easy task,
but it can be done if a systematic procedure is
formulated and followed.)
Joints labeled: A, B, …, H
Pipes: 1, 2,…, 10
Loops (3): I, II, III
Inflow/outflow: 𝑄𝐵 , 𝑄𝐷 , 𝑄𝐻 (outflow)
𝑄𝐴 , 𝑄𝐹 , 𝑄𝐺 (inflow) 58

Note:
1) Every junction (joint) of the network is labelled with a letter, A → H
2) Each pipe is labelled with a number: 1, 2, …, 10, …
3) E1 and E2 are so close in this example they can be assumed to coincide
4) Two general equations
✓ Continuity
✓ Bernoulli
5) Global flow rate conservation (𝜌 = constant)

∑𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
all flows entering = all flows leaving
𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐹 + 𝑄𝐺 = 𝑄𝐻 + 𝑄𝐷 + 𝑄𝐵
59

Note:
6) Joint flow rate conservation (𝜌 = constant) for all joints
✓ Similar equations for each joint
✓ First assume flow direction within each pipe
✓ Indicated in the figure
For example, for joint A:
∑𝑄𝑖𝑛 = ∑𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 or 𝑄𝐴 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4
Also joint E:
𝑄3 + 𝑄10 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄7
✓ 8 equations for the 8 joints ⟹ One is redundant; Only 7 LI equations

✓ 𝑁𝑗 joints ⇒ (𝑁𝑗 − 1)LI equations. Remove any one of the 𝑁𝑗 equations
7) Identify “loops” within the network (I, II, III)
60

Note:
8) Select a positive direction for the loop, but directions in a loop don’t have to be all positive or negative; could be
positive for some pipes & negative for others
? ? √
9) Pipes 1, 2, 3, 4 Loop I
5, 6, 7, 2 Loop II
7, 8, 9, 10 Loop III
61

Note:
10) For each pipe segment in a loop write the modified Bernoulli equation.
For example, for Pipe 1 (B → C)
/ /
𝑝𝐵 𝑔𝑐 𝑉𝐵2 𝑝𝐶 𝑔𝑐 𝑉𝐶2 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑉12
𝜌𝑔
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧𝐵 =
𝜌𝑔
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧𝐶 +
𝐷1 2𝑔
+ ∑𝐾
2𝑔 /
For 𝑧𝐵 = 𝑧𝐶 , ∑𝐾 = 0, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶 (constant diameter):
𝑝𝐵 𝑔𝑐 𝑝𝐶 𝑔𝑐 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝜌𝑉12
− = or ∆𝑝𝐵𝐶 =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔𝑐
✓ This pressure drop is positive because it is coincident with the clockwise

direction
62

Note:
11) We are interested in finding the flow rate ⟹ write ∆𝑝 equation in terms of flow rate instead of velocity:
𝑄1 4𝑄1
𝑉1 = =
𝐴1 𝜋𝐷12
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝜌 16𝑄12 8𝜌𝐿1 2
⟹ ∆𝑝𝐵𝐶 = = 𝑓1 𝑄1
𝐶1 = constant 2
𝐷1 2𝑔𝑐 𝜋 𝐷 4 5
𝜋 2 𝐷1 𝑔𝑐
𝐶1
= 𝐶1 𝑓1 𝑄12
Similarly for the other pipes in Loop I
Relative to the direction of the arrows in the loop
∆𝑝𝐶𝐸 = −𝐶2 𝑓2 𝑄22
∆𝑝𝐸𝐴 = −𝐶3 𝑓3 𝑄32
∆𝑝𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶4 𝑓4 𝑄42
✓ Negative values correspond to flow directions that are counterclockwise
63

Note:
11) (Cont’d) Total pressure drop in all the pipes making up each loop add up to zero
For Loop I:
∑∆𝑝 = 0 = ∆𝑝𝐵𝐶 + ∆𝑝𝐶𝐸 + ∆𝑝𝐸𝐴 + ∆𝑝𝐴𝐵 = 0
⟹ 𝐶1 𝑓1 𝑄12 − 𝐶2 𝑓2 𝑄22 − 𝐶3 𝑓3 𝑄32 + 𝐶4 𝑓4 𝑄42 = 0
Procedure gives 1 equation for each loop for a total of 3

𝐼
𝑁𝑝
Or 2
෍ 𝐶𝐿(𝑖) 𝑓𝐿(𝑖) 𝑄𝐿(𝑖) = 0 = 𝐶1 𝑓1 𝑄12 + 𝐶2 𝑓2 𝑄22 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑁 𝐼 𝑓𝑁 𝐼 𝑄 2 𝐼
𝑝 𝑝 𝑁𝑝
𝑖=1
𝐼
𝑁𝑝 = Number of pipes in Loop I
𝐼 = 1, 2, … Number of loops (𝑁𝐿 )
𝐿 𝑖 = Line number of 𝑖
Global line number of local line number 𝑖 ≡ connectivity

𝑁𝐿 equations (nonlinear because of the 𝑄𝑖2 )
64

Note:
11) (Cont’d) Total pressure drop in all the pipes making up each loop add up to zero
Total number of equations = 𝑁𝑗 − 1 + 𝑁𝐿

𝑁𝑗 = number of joints 𝑁𝐿 = number of loops
(linear) (nonlinear)
✓ Procedure of applying continuity and the modified Bernoulli equation to Fig. 5.1 yields 7 independent linear
equations + 3 nonlinear equations
⟹ 10 equations to be solved simultaneously for 10 unknowns
✓ Method involves a trial-and-error approach requiring several iterations
▪ Could always solve these kinds of equations using techniques learnt in MEC 320 for solving a nonlinear
system of algebraic equations
✓ Successive iteration
✓ Newton-Raphson
✓ Secant method
✓ Etc
65

Procedure
▪ In pipe network analysis:
✓ A number of ways to solve the equations
✓ Hardy Cross Method (The earliest published method)
- A special case of Newton method (→spreadsheet)
✓ Hazen-Williams Method
✓ Another method involves a linearization process
NOTE ✓ Computer programs are available for solving any number of loops in a piping network
Reference Analysis of Flow in Pipe Networks, R.W. Jeppson, Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI, 1982
(Solution methods are available on the internet as well.)
66
Selected Topics – Hardy Cross Method

Procedure
a) Method begins by assuming reasonable values for several of the unknown flow rates
b) Substitute (assumed flow rates) into the equations
c) Calculate the pressure drop in each pipe of a loop, and sum
d) Use above to obtain a correction ∆𝑄
e) Obtain improved 𝑄:
𝑄 𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑄 𝑜𝑙𝑑 + ∆𝑄
f) Test for convergence 𝐼
𝑁𝑝
Sum of ∆𝑝 in each
∆𝑄 → 0 or ෍ ∆𝑝 𝑖 =0 for each Loop I loop must be zero
∆𝑄
≤ 𝜖𝑠 𝑖=1
𝑄
67
6)
▪ Consider a network shows 2 loops, each consists of 4 pipes.

▪ Joints or junctions are labeled A through F
▪ Pipes are labeled 1 through 7
Pipe 2 is common to both loops
000 𝑁𝐿 = Number of loops = 2

𝑁𝑗 = Number of joints/junctions = 6 (A, B, …, F)
𝑁𝑝𝐼 = 4, 𝑁𝑝𝐼𝐼 = 4
∑𝑁 𝐼
𝐼=1 𝑁𝑝 = 7 (Not repeating Pipe 2 in the count)
𝐿
000
68
6)

Step 1: Assume a flow direction in each pipe
▪ Calculation will provide correction if a wrong direction is assumed
Step 2: Check mass (flow rate if 𝝆 is constant) conservation for the ENTIRE network
▪ For the sample problem

𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 0.125 𝑚3 /𝑠 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.012 + 0.063 + 0.025 + 0.025 𝑚3 /𝑠
= 0.125 𝑚3 /𝑠 (checks)
69
6)

Step 3: Write the conservation equation for each joint (6 joints: 𝐀, 𝐁, …, 𝐅)
𝑄𝑖𝑛
0.125 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄4 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄5 𝑄5 = 𝑄6 + 0.012
𝑄4 = 𝑄3 + 0.025 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 𝑄7 + 0.025 𝑄6 + 𝑄7 = 0.063
▪ 6 junctions → 6 equations, but 6 − 1 = 5 LI equations
▪ Only 1 can be obtained by some linear combination of the others
70
6)

Step 4: Identify each loop and assign a positive direction
▪ Positive direction: shown in sketch as I and II
Step 5: Write pressure-drop equation for each loop assigning the assumed flow direction for each ∆𝒑
▪ Without minor losses – or added as equivalent length
∑∆𝑝 ≡ = ∑∆𝑝
∑∆𝑝 ≡
8𝜌𝐿
𝐶= for each pipe
𝜋 2 𝐷5 𝑔𝑐
▪ No explicit minor losses if they have been included as equivalent lengths

𝑉2 16𝑄2 16 𝑄 4𝑄
Note ∑𝐾 = ∑𝐾 2 4 = 2 4 ∑𝐾 ∙ 𝑄2 𝑉= =
2𝑔 𝜋 𝐷 𝜋 𝐷 𝐴 𝜋𝐷2
▪ 2 equations and the continuity equations must now be solved simultaneously
✓ “+” ⟹ clockwise direction in the loop
✓ “−” ⟹ anticlockwise direction in the loop 71

6)

Step 6: Simplify the continuity equations
▪ Assume 2 of the flow rates and solve the other flow rates in terms of these 2
▪ Let’s say we’ll assume values for 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 ; 𝑄4 = 0.125 − 𝑄1 from pane 1 𝑄6 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 − 0.012
𝑄5 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄3 = 0.1 − 𝑄1
𝑄7 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1 + 0.075
known
0.125 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄4 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 + 𝑄5 𝑄5 = 𝑄6 + 0.012
𝑄4 = 𝑄3 + 0.025 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 = 𝑄7 + 0.025 𝑄6 + 𝑄7 = 0.063
72
6)

Step 6: Simplify the continuity equations
▪ Calculate separately for each loop
4𝜌𝑄
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜋𝐷𝜇𝑔𝑐
1.1098 −2
𝜀 5.0452 1 𝜀 5.8056
𝑓 = − −2.0 log − log + 0.8981
3.706𝐷 𝑅𝑒 2.8257 𝐷 𝑅𝑒
: Chen’s equation
73
6)

Step 7: Set up a solution table to summarize the calculations (cf spreadsheet) (See pp. 228)
▪ Table 5.1(a) 𝐷, 𝐿, 𝐶, 𝜀/𝐷 for each pipe (constant properties)
▪ Table 5.1(b): Iteration one
Loop I: 𝑄, 𝑅𝑒, 𝑓, ∆𝑝, ∆𝑝/𝑄 for each pipe
Loop II: same
NOTE ✓ The inclusion of

∑∆𝑝
∆𝑄 = −
∑2∆𝑝/𝑄
in the table.
74
6)

Step 8: Determine an improved value for the flow rates; begin the next iteration
▪ Let residual 𝑅 = ∑∆𝑝
𝑑𝑅
𝑅 𝑄 𝑚+1 = 𝑅 𝑄 𝑚 + ቤ ∆𝑄 + ⋯ = 0
𝑑𝑄 𝑚
𝑚+1 𝑚
𝑅 𝑄𝑚
⟹ ∆𝑄 ≡ 𝑄 −𝑄 =−
𝑑𝑅
ฬ
𝑑𝑄 𝑚
𝑑𝑅
𝑅 𝑚 = ∑∆𝑝 𝑚
= ∑𝑐𝑓 𝑄 2 ቚ ⟹ ቤ = 2∑𝑐𝑓𝑄 𝑚
𝑚 𝑑𝑄 𝑚
Hence
𝑓(𝑄 𝑚 )
∆𝑄 = −
∑2𝑓𝑄𝑚
𝑚
𝑅𝑚 ∑∆𝑝 𝑚
∆𝑝
= =∑ = ∑𝑐𝑓𝑄 𝑚
𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚 𝑄
75
6)

𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑄 4𝑄
𝑅𝑒 = , 𝑉= =
𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝐴 𝜋𝐷2
4𝜌𝑄
⟹ 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜋𝐷𝜇𝑔𝑐
1.1098 −2
𝜀 5.0452 1 𝜀 5.8056
𝑓 = − −2.0 log − log + 0.8981
3.706𝐷 𝑅𝑒 2.8257 𝐷 𝑅𝑒
Laminar: 𝑓 = 64/𝑅𝑒
▪ Use the equation

∑∆𝑝 = ∑𝑐𝑓 𝑄 𝑚 2
⟹ 𝑅 ≡ ∑∆𝑝
Divide by 𝑄 𝑚 : ∆𝑝 And
∑ 𝑚
= ∑𝑐𝑓𝑄𝑚 𝑅 𝑄𝑚 ∑∆𝑝
𝑄 ∆𝑄 𝑚
=− =−
𝑑𝑅 ∆𝑝
ฬ 2∑ 𝑚
Thus 𝑑𝑄 𝑚 𝑄
𝑑𝑅 ∆𝑝
ቤ = 2 ∑𝑐𝑓𝑄 𝑚 = 2∑ 𝑚
𝑑𝑄 𝑚 𝑄
76
6)

▪ See table for the calculation of ∆𝑄 for Loop I and Loop II
▪ Then for each pipe in each loop: 𝑄𝑚+1 = 𝑄𝑚 + ∆𝑄𝑚
Step 9: Continue the calculation procedure until a converged solution is obtained

1
𝑁𝑠 −1 2 2
1 𝑄𝑖𝑚+1 − 𝑄𝑖𝑚
෍ ≤ 𝜖𝑠
𝑁𝑗 − 1 𝑄𝑖𝑚+1
𝑖=1
77
6)

▪ See table for the calculation of ∆𝑄 for Loop I and Loop II
▪ Then for each pipe in each loop: 𝑄𝑚+1 = 𝑄𝑚 + ∆𝑄𝑚
Step 9: Continue the calculation procedure until a converged solution is obtained

1
𝑁𝑠 −1 2 2
1 𝑄𝑖𝑚+1 − 𝑄𝑖𝑚
෍ ≤ 𝜖𝑠
𝑁𝑗 − 1 𝑄𝑖𝑚+1
𝑖=1
78
Flow in Pipe Networks

Pipes in Parallel
▪ We want to be able to increase flow rates
✓ Increase 𝐷? ⟹ ∆𝑝 should be constant! Use parallel pipes
∆𝑝1 = ∆𝑝2 = ∆𝑝3 = ∆𝑝4 = ∆𝑝5 = ⋯ = ∆𝑝𝑁
1
A B
2
Step 1: For given ∆𝑝, which is the same for all pipes in parallel, calculate the flow rate,
3
4 for each pipe in turn
5
…
𝑁 NOTE ✓ Pipes will be of different sizes in general
𝑁𝑝
Step 2: 𝑄𝑇 = ෍ 𝑄𝑖 𝑇: total
𝑖=1
79

Pipes in Parallel
𝑄𝑖
Step 3: 𝑄fraction 𝑖 = = 𝑟𝑖
𝑄𝑇
Step 4: A new desired flow rate is specified

1
A B ⟹ Flow rate in each pipe = 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑄𝑇
2 new
3
4
5 Iterative procedure: non-linear
…
𝑁
𝑅𝑒
𝑄→𝑉
𝑓
80

Pipes in Parallel
▪ Applying the continuity equation
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
▪ The pressure drop along pipes should be equal

∆𝑝1 = ∆𝑝2
𝑝𝐴 𝑔𝑐 𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐵 𝑔𝑐 𝑉𝐵2 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12 𝑉12

+ + 𝑧𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝐵 + + ∑𝐾1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑧𝐴 = 𝑧𝐵 , ∑𝐾 = 0
𝑝𝐴 𝑔𝑐 𝑝𝐵 𝑔𝑐 ∆𝑝1 𝑔𝑐 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝑉12
− = =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝐷1 2𝑔
81

Pipes in Parallel
▪ Alternatively,
𝑓1 𝐿1 𝜌𝑉12 𝑓1 𝐿1 𝜌 16𝑄12 𝑄1 4𝑄1
∆𝑝1 = = 𝑉1 = =
𝐷1 2𝑔𝑐 𝐷1 2𝑔𝑐 𝜋 2 𝐷14 𝐴1 𝜋𝐷12
or
8𝜌𝐿1
∆𝑝1 = 2 5 𝑓1 𝑄12 = 𝐶1 𝑓1 𝑄12
𝜋 𝐷1 𝑔𝐶
For the loop,
8𝜌𝐿2
∆𝑝2 = 2 5 𝑓2 𝑄22 = 𝐶2 𝑓2 𝑄22
𝜋 𝐷2 𝑔𝐶
82

Pipes in Parallel
Example 5.1
83

Pipes in Parallel
84

Pipes in Parallel
85

Pipes in Parallel
86

Pipes in Parallel
87

Pipes in Parallel
88

Measurement of Flow Rate in Closed Conditions
▪ Various types of flow rate meters:
turbine meter
rotameter (or variable-area meter)
venturi meter
Check MEC 316/317 for flow
orifice meter measurement procedure
nozzle meter
not in the textbook
totalizing meter
89

▪ Venturi meter
✓ Generate
∆𝑝
1Τ2
2𝑔 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑔𝑐 /𝜌𝑔 + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
𝑄 = 𝐴2
1 − 𝐴22 Τ 𝐴12
90

▪ Discharge coefficient
𝑄ac Actual Flow Rate
𝐶v = =
𝑄th Theoretical Flow Rate Bernoulli equation
▪ In general, 𝑄th > 𝑄ac (minor losses & frictional losses not accounted for in 𝑄th )
91

The Unsteady Draining Tank Problem
▪ Discharge coefficient
𝑑ℎ 𝐴2
= 𝐻 ℎ, 𝑡 ; 𝐻=− 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝐴1
✓ Check details in the textbook (pp. 263-266)

dividable
92

Example 5.7
93

94

95

96
Chapter 6 Pumps and Piping Systems
97
Pumps and Piping Systems

▪ Turbomachines – compressors, turbine, treated extensively in MEC 465/565
▪ Chapter could be seen as a culmination of all the topics in Chapters 1 → 5
▪ Pumps – devices used to move fluid through a pipeline
▪ Different types. (Refer to earlier lecture on pump classifications – radial, centrifugal, axial)
▪ Also have dynamic pumps & positive displacement pumps
▪ Dynamic pumps:
✓ have a rotating component that imparts energy to the fluid in the form of high velocity, high pressure or high temperature
▪ Positive displacement pumps:
✓ have “fixed-volume chambers” that take in and discharge the pumped fluid
NOTE ✓ Multistage pump – The discharge from the first or lowest impeller casing enters the second, and so fourth.
98

Positive Displacement Pumps
a) A reciprocating pump is made for pumping mud or cement. One way valves in the flow lines control the flow
direction.
b) Rotary gear pump: Another type of PD (positive displacement) pump
Pump Testing
▪ Covered earlier in the course
aime
▪ Pp. 288 – 293
▪ Example 6.1 pp. 291 (Already done in class.)
•
on 99
gateway

Pump Performance Maps (PPM)
▪ Pump manufacturer gives you this -
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊
∆𝐻 = −
𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
▪ PPM is a graph of power vs flow rate for a specific pump impeller
𝑑𝑊
Power =
(Rotational Speed) Efficiency in % 𝑑𝑡
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊 (ISO-𝜂 curves)
Maximum Efficiency
𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
⋯ = conditions at maximum efficiency
“Power”
𝝎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 ▪ Could also have a map of “𝑃” vs 𝑄 for different impeller
Total head in ft 24
(From pump) nominal diameters but one rotational speed
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊 𝐿3
▪ Figure 6.2: Plot of ሶ 𝑑𝑡
, [𝐿], versus 𝑄,
𝑚𝑔 𝑇
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊 𝑝1 𝑔𝑐 𝑉12 𝑝2 𝑔𝑐 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2
NOTE 𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
=
𝜌𝑔
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧1 −
𝜌𝑔
+
2𝑔
+ 𝑧2 − ∑
𝐷ℎ 2𝑔
− ∑𝐾
2𝑔
450
, 𝑄 (gpm) ≡ ∆𝐻 =TOTAL HEAD DIFFERENCE
(includes frictional and minor losses)
100

▪ Map of 𝑃 vs 𝑄 also exists that show the maximum efficiency regions for a number of pumps.
A specific pump
▪ Use chart to select pump:

𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊
Determine ≡ 𝑃 (from piping system!)
“Power” 𝑚𝑔
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
Total head in ft (Not from pump!)
(From pump)
∆𝑯∗
▪ Match 𝑃 with 𝑄 and select pump at intersection
𝑸∗
, 𝑄 (gpm)
(pp. 296)
101

Example 6.2
102

0 ②
@ 103

104

38.8 ft
250
105

Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
▪ The suction line of a centrifugal pump may contain a liquid at a pressure that is much lower than the atmospheric
pressure
▪ If this suction pressure is sufficiently low, the liquid will begin to boil at the local temperature
▪ For example,
✓ Water boils at 33 °𝐶 (92 °𝐹) if pressure is 5.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (0.75 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎)

Barely at the room temperature
✓ Boiling involves bubble formation – the phenomenon is called cavitation
106

▪ To avoid cavitation:
① 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎 > 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑟
available required (by the pump!)
From your Provided by pump manufacturer

piping system
𝑝2 𝑔𝑐 𝑝𝑣 𝑔𝑐 𝑝1 𝑔𝑐
② 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎 ≡ − = + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 +
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝑉12 𝑉22 𝑉 2 𝑝𝑣 𝑔𝑐
1
𝑓𝐿
− − ∑ + ∑𝐾 + 1 −
𝑉1 = 0 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷ℎ 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
same
𝑉 = velocity in the pipe
③ Obtain 𝑃𝑣 from Tables/charts (Fig. 6.7) (𝑃𝑣 vs 𝑇)
107

Example 6.3
108

0.55
90
109

Dimensional Analysis of Pumps
▪ Pump similarity rules (pp. 303)
▪ 3 Important variables
Efficiency, 𝜂
𝑚
Energy transfer rate, 𝑔∆𝐻; 𝑔∆𝐻 = ∙ 𝑚 = [KE]
𝑠2
Power, 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡
Each is a function of 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑄, 𝜔, 𝐷, 𝑔𝑐
𝜂 = 𝑓1 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑄, 𝜔, 𝐷, 𝑔𝑐 ①
𝑔∆𝐻 = 𝑓2 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑄, 𝜔, 𝐷, 𝑔𝑐 ②
𝑑𝑊
= 𝑓3 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑄, 𝜔, 𝐷, 𝑔𝑐 ③
𝑑𝑡
110

▪ For ① assume a relationship of the form:
𝑔
𝜂 = 𝑎𝜌𝑏 𝜇 𝑐 𝑄 𝑑 𝜔𝑒 𝐷 𝑓 𝑔𝑐
▪ Substitute dimensions for each parameter:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑔
𝑀 𝐹∙𝑇 𝐿3 1 𝑓
𝑀∙𝐿
0=𝑎 3 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿2 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 ∙ 𝑇2
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ∙ 𝑓𝑡
𝜂 𝑔𝑐 = 32.2 in Engineering units
(𝜂 has no units) 𝑙𝑏𝑓 ∙ 𝑠 2
▪ Equate powers of basic units:

𝑀: 0=𝑏+𝑔 𝑏 = −𝑔, 𝑐 = 𝑔, 𝑑 = −𝑒 − 𝑔, 𝑓 = 3𝑒 + 𝑔
𝐹: 0=𝑐−𝑔 or
𝐿: 0 = −3𝑏 − 2𝑐 + 3𝑑 + 𝑓 + 𝑔 1 𝑔 1 𝑔
𝜂=𝑎 𝑔
𝜇 𝑒 𝑔
𝜔𝑒 𝐷3𝑒 𝐷 𝑔 𝑔𝑐
𝑇: 0 = 𝑐 − 𝑑 − 𝑒 − 2𝑔 𝜌 𝑄 𝑄
111

▪ Group terms with like exponents:
𝑔 𝑒
𝐷𝑔𝑐 𝜇 𝜔𝐷3
𝜂=𝑎
𝜌𝑄 𝑄
▪ Write as
𝜌𝑄 𝜔𝐷3 𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑄
∙ = 𝜂 = 𝑓1 ,
𝐷𝑔𝑐 𝜇 𝑄 𝜇𝑔 𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜔𝐷3
▪ Similarly for ② and ③

𝑔 ∆𝐻 𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑄
= 𝑓2 ,
𝜔 2 𝐷2 𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜔𝐷3 𝑓1 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 accommodates nonlinear dependence on 𝜆1
and 𝜆2 , including 𝜆𝑒 , 𝑒 ≠ 1.
𝑑𝑊
𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑄
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑓3 ,
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜔𝐷3
𝑔∆𝐻 𝑄
𝜂 = efficiency, = energy transfer coefficient, = volumetric flow coefficient,
𝜔2 𝐷2 𝜔𝐷3
𝑑𝑊
𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑔𝑐
= rotational Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒𝑟 , 𝑑𝑡
= power coefficient
𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝜔 𝐷5
3
112

▪ 𝑅𝑒𝑟 has a small effect on the dependent variables, when compared with the effect of the volumetric flow coefficient
𝑄/𝜔𝐷3 . Hence
𝑄
𝑓1
T 𝜔𝐷3
𝑑𝑊
𝑔
𝑔∆𝐻 𝑐 𝑑𝑡 𝑄 SIMILARITY or AFFINITY LAWS FOR PUMPS
𝜂, 2 2 , = 𝑓2
𝜔 𝐷 𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝜔𝐷3
𝑄
𝑓3
𝜔𝐷3
▪ Usage
✓ The dimensionless ratios are the same for two pumps with the same configuration/geometry
𝑄 𝑄 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊
① ቤ = ቤ =⋯ 𝑔𝑐
𝑑𝑡 ቮ
𝑔𝑐
𝑑𝑡 ቮ
𝜔𝐷3 pump 1 𝜔𝐷3 pump 2 ③ = =⋯
𝜌𝜔 5 𝐷5 pump 1 𝜌𝜔 5 𝐷5 pump 2
𝑔∆𝐻 𝑔∆𝐻
② ቤ = ቤ =⋯
𝜔 2 𝐷2 pump 1 𝜔 2 𝐷2 pump 2
113

Example 6.4
𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑄
𝜂 = 𝑓1 , (6.19)
𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜔𝐷3
𝑔 ∆𝐻 𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑄
= 𝑓2 , (6.20)
𝜔 2 𝐷2 𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜔𝐷3
𝑑𝑊
𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝜔𝐷2 𝑄
𝑑𝑡 (6.21)
= 𝑓2 ,
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝜇𝑔𝑐 𝜔𝐷3
114

115

▪ Affinity laws are written as follows in the industry:
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄1 𝑄2
① = or =
𝐷1 𝐷2 𝜔1 𝜔2
② ∆𝐻21 = ∆𝐻22 or
∆𝐻1 ∆𝐻2
= 2
𝜔1 𝜔2 𝐷12 𝐷2
𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡 1 𝑑𝑊 Τ𝑑𝑡 2
③ = or =
𝜔13 𝜔23 𝐷13 𝐷23
116

Specific Speed and Pump Types (Very Useful)
▪ To have same criteria for the type of pump to choose for a pumping task
▪ To use pump selection chart on pp. 309, we need

Q= GMM
1) a) The specific speed 𝜔𝑠𝑠 (non-dimensional)
or
b) The specific speed 𝜔𝑠 (dimension of rpm)
2) Flow Rate (gpm)
▪ What you get from chart:
1) Type of pump to use

2) Efficiency of the pump
117

▪ Definitions
1 Τ2 3 Τ4
𝑄 𝜔2 𝐷 2
𝜔𝑠𝑠 =
𝜔𝐷3 𝑔∆𝐻
[𝑟𝑎𝑑 Τ𝑠]
[𝑓𝑡 3 /𝑠] Can be used with any unit system
𝜔𝑄1Τ2 (dimensionless)
= or SI
𝑔∆𝐻 3Τ4
[𝑓𝑡 2 /𝑠] [𝑓𝑡]
Motor speed
[𝑟𝑝𝑚]
[𝑔𝑝𝑚]
Specific 𝜔𝑄1Τ2 Can be used with engineering units
speed 𝜔𝑠 =
[𝑟𝑝𝑚] ∆𝐻3Τ4 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) → 𝑟𝑝𝑚 is arbitrarily assigned to 𝜔𝑠 !
[𝑓𝑡]
118

Example 6.5
…
…
119

120

Piping System Design Practices
A. Max ∆𝑝 allowed/𝑓𝑡
2.5 – 3.0 𝑝𝑠𝑖 per 100 𝑓𝑡 liquids

1.0 – 1.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖 per 100 𝑓𝑡 gases
0.025 – 0.030 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡 liquids

0.01 – 0.015 𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡 gases
Excessive and objectionable vibration if pressure drop exceeds

175 200
− 𝑘𝑃𝑎/𝑚 liquids these values
300 300
70 104
− 𝑘𝑃𝑎/𝑚 gases
300 300
121

B. Economic Diameter will be between two nominal sizes
Smaller size ⟹ ↓ Initial capital cost, $
Larger size ⟹ ↓ Operating cost, ↓ ∆𝑝
↑ ∆𝑝 ⇒ vibrations
↑ corrosion
Smaller size ↑ sediment deposition

↓ design flexibility
↓ changes in the specifications for volume carrying capacity
↑ operating costs
122

C. 𝑑𝑊
𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 , ∆𝑝, 𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇, ∆𝑝𝑄ሶ = Power,
𝑑𝑡
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑔𝑐 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2
∆𝐻 ≡ + + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − ∑ + ∑𝐾
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
× 𝜌:
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 𝑔𝑐 𝜌 𝑉12 − 𝑉22 𝑓𝐿 𝑉 2 𝑉2
𝜌∆𝐻 = + + 𝜌 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − 𝜌 ∑ + ∑𝐾
𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑔𝑐 𝑑𝑊
=
ሶ 𝑑𝑡
𝑄𝑔
ሶ
𝑑𝑊 𝜌𝑄𝑔∆𝐻
⟹ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑔𝑐
123

D. Need to determine (required pump power)
𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 , ∆𝑝, 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡 (if there is a pump in the system), 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎 ,
Minimum operating pressure upstream of the piping system,
Maximum operating pressure downstream of the piping system,
✓ If dealing with tanks, the min liquid level in the upstream tank (usually 2 𝑓𝑡 above pipe inlet)
– To have things settle down before pipe inlet
> 2𝑓𝑡
✓ Where gravity rather than pump is required, 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 may not apply
124

E. To avoid air being trapped in the line,
⟹ Lay out pipelines with a slight grade upward in the flow direction
so that air will tend not to remain in the line
𝜃>0
✓ Where this is not possible, a small valve should be installed at places where air or vapor might tend to
accumulate
125

▪ Piping System Design – Suggest Procedure
1. Given 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒕 , determine the economic line size
✓ Determine 𝑉𝑜𝑝𝑡 using 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡

✓ Or, use Table 6.4 (pp. 313) for the 𝑉𝑜𝑝𝑡
…
2. Determine 𝒅𝑾/𝒅𝒕 using 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒕
✓ Check to ensure that ∆𝑝 is not too excessive
- To avoid vibrations
126

3. Explore using gravity to drive the flow, with the possibility of not using a pump. May not be able to satisfy
𝑽𝒐𝒑𝒕 , 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒕 with gravity-driven flows
✓ Refer to pump characteristics/performance map – if available

✓ Superimpose the system curve on the pump performance curve to
obtain the exact operating point
✓ Use 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 data to specify the exact location of the pump
An example of the system curve
127

4. If tanks are present, specify the minimum and maximum
liquid heights in them
5. Prepare a drawing for the system and a summary of

specifications sheet that lists results of calculations only.
✓ Attach the calculations to the summary sheet.
6. Get a technician or mechanical technologist to build the

system
128

Example 6.6
129

130

131

132

0
000 / 1/11
00
;É-
0
133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

Example 6.7
144

145

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158
Chapter 7 Some Heat Transfer Fundamentals
159
Some Heat Transfer Fundamentals

Introduction to heat exchanger analysis
Resistance: Electric Analogy 𝑆
𝑑𝑇 ∆𝑇
a) 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘𝐴 𝐻
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑞 𝑇𝑠1 𝑇𝑠2 𝐴 =𝐻×𝑆
𝑇𝑠2 − 𝑇𝑠1 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
=𝑘 𝑆×𝐻 = ≡
𝐿 𝐿 𝑅
𝑘𝐴
Solid thermal conductivity, 𝑘, 𝑊 Τ𝑚 ∙ 𝐾
𝐿
Potential difference, driving force Temperature difference

𝑉 ∆𝑇
𝐼= 𝑞=
𝑅 Resistance 𝑅
Current Heat Resistance
(flow) (flow)
160

Resistance: Electric Analogy
b) Film resistance
By virtue of fluid flow,

𝑇∞
No flow, no ℎ
*Heat transfer coefficient, ℎ [𝑊 Τ 𝑚2 ∙ 𝐾 ]
ℎ low: 𝑇𝑠1 − 𝑇∞1 large
ℎ high: 𝑇𝑠1 → 𝑇∞1
𝑇∞1 𝑇𝑠1 𝑇∞2 For air (gases): ℎ is very low

For water (liquid): ℎ is somewhat low
For phase change problems: ℎ is high
161

c) Newton’s law of cooling
ℎ
𝐻
𝑇∞1 𝑇𝑠1 𝑇∞2
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 𝑉
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = ≡ ≡ =𝐼
1/ℎ𝐴 𝑅 𝑅
162

d) Radial system: Conduction
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
𝑞𝑐 = ∆𝑇 = ≡
𝑟2 ln 𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 ln 𝑟2 Τ𝑟1 𝑅
𝑇𝑠2
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑟1
𝑇𝑠1
∆𝑇 𝑇𝑠1 − 𝑇∞1
𝑇𝑠2 𝑞ℎ1 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿ℎ1 ∆𝑇 = 1
≡
𝑅1
2𝜋𝑟1 𝐿ℎ1
𝑇𝑠1
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 𝑇𝑠2 − 𝑇∞2
𝑇∞1 𝑞ℎ2 = ≡ =
1 𝑅2 𝑅1
2𝜋𝑟2 𝐿ℎ2
𝑇∞2
Note that 𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞ℎ1 = 𝑞ℎ2

163

e) Resistance in series
Resistances are in series; Therefore
𝑅total = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅5
1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3 1
ℎ1 ℎ2 = + + + +
ℎ1 𝐴 𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘3 𝐴 ℎ2 𝐴
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝑇∞1 𝑇𝑠1 𝑇𝑠3 𝑇∞3 𝑁
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3
= ෍ Resistance 𝑖
𝑖
Resistance: 1 2 3 4 5
(Area 𝐴 is assumed to be the same for all layers)
NOTE The same 𝑞 flows through each layer
164

f) Resistance in parallel
𝐿 𝐿
1 1 1 𝑅12 + 𝑅11 +
𝑘 𝐴 𝑘11 𝐴
𝑞 𝑘11 𝑅11 ⟹ = + ⟹ = 12
𝑅1 𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑅11 𝑅12 𝐿 𝐿
𝑘12 𝐴 𝑘11 𝐴
𝑘12 𝑅12 𝑅11 𝑅12
⟹ 𝑅1 =
𝑅11 + 𝑅12
𝑅1
165

f) Resistance in parallel
𝐿11
1 1 1 1
𝑞 ⟹ = + +
𝐿12 𝑅1 𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑅13
𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑅13

⟹ 𝑅1 =
𝐿13 𝑅11 𝑅12 + 𝑅11 𝑅13 + 𝑅12 𝑅13
𝑅1
Similarly for 𝑚 = 4
−1
𝑅12 𝑅13 𝑅14 + 𝑅11 𝑅13 𝑅14 + 𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑅14 + 𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑅13
𝑅1 =
𝑅11 𝑅12 𝑅13 𝑅14
And so on…
166

g) Resistance in parallel and series
𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4 𝐿5 𝐿6
31
41
𝑞 𝑞
𝑇2 32 𝑇3
𝑇1 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6 𝑇∞2
𝑇∞1 33 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅5 𝑅6 𝑅7
42
34 𝑅4
𝑅3
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5 𝑅6 𝑅7
𝑅31 𝑅32 𝑅33 𝑅34 𝑅41 𝑅42

𝑅total = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + + + 𝑅5 + 𝑅6 + 𝑅7
𝑅32 𝑅33 𝑅34 + 𝑅31 𝑅33 𝑅34 + 𝑅31 𝑅32 𝑅34 + 𝑅31 𝑅32 𝑅33 𝑅41 + 𝑅42
167

g) Resistance in parallel and series ∆𝑇net 𝑇∞2 − 𝑇∞1
𝑞= =
𝑅total 𝑅total
𝐿2 𝐿3 𝐿4 𝐿5 𝐿6 𝑇1 − 𝑇∞1 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇4 − 𝑇3 𝑇5 − 𝑇4
= = = = =
31 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
𝑇6 − 𝑇5 𝑇∞2 − 𝑇6
41 𝑞 = =
𝑞 𝑅6 𝑅7
𝑇2 32 𝑇
3 𝑇4 𝑇5 𝑇6
𝑇1 𝑇∞2 (Use this to calculate the nodal temperatures)
𝑇∞1 33
42 −1
34 1 𝐿2 1 1 1 1
𝑅1 = , 𝑅2 = , 𝑅3 = + + + ,
ℎ1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑅31 𝑅32 𝑅33 𝑅34
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5 𝑅6 𝑅7
−1
1 1 𝐿5 𝐿6 1
𝑅4 = + , 𝑅5 = , 𝑅6 = , 𝑅7 =
𝑅41 𝑅42 𝑘5 𝐴 𝑘6 𝐴 ℎ6 𝐴1
168

h) Fins
NOTE If fins are present at the surfaces:
1 1
𝑅1 = , 𝑅2 =
𝜂𝑡 ℎ𝑠1 𝐴𝑠1 𝜂𝑡 ℎ𝑠2 𝐴𝑠2
𝜂𝑡 = Fin total efficiency, 𝜂𝑡 < 1 usually ⟹ Increases resistance
Where do we use fins?
1) When ℎ is small
2) May also use fins to ↑ structural rigidity
169

i) Net conductance
𝑈: Net “conductance” or “heat transfer coefficient”
When you have many sources of resistance to heat transfer, in addition to a single film resistance
∆𝑇net
∆𝑇 1
𝑞= = ∙ ∆𝑇
𝑅total 𝑅total
𝑈𝐴 if 𝐴 is factored into 𝑅total or 𝑈 otherwise
Net ∆𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
Overall heat transfer coefficient
∆𝑇
=
1
𝑈𝐴 ≡ 𝑅total above
170

j) ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇 vs ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 or 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
𝑚𝑐
𝑇∞
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = ℎ𝐿𝑆 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
𝑆
𝑇𝑠
𝐿
ℎ
𝐿
𝑇𝑚
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = ℎ ∙ 2𝜋𝑅𝐿 ∙ 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚
𝑅
𝑇𝑠
171

j) ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇 vs ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 or 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
𝑚𝑐
𝑚ሶ 𝑘𝑔 𝐽 𝐽
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 𝑇in − 𝑇out ∗ ∙ ∙𝐾 = = [𝑊]
𝑇in 𝑇out 𝑠 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 𝑠
Qu. Where does the 𝑞 loss in ∗ go? / the 𝑞 gain come from?
Ans. To heat/cool the fluid surrounding the tube. To balance ℎ𝐴∆𝑇.
172
Chapter 8 Double Pipe Heat Exchangers
173
Double Pipe Heat Exchangers

▪ On ∆𝑇
𝑡2
∆𝑇2
Convention
𝑇 ≡ Warmer fluid temperature
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑡 = Cooler fluid temperature
"1" = Inlet
"2" = Outlet
<Counterflow>
∆𝑇1
𝑡1
Fluid 1: 𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇ℎ = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = Heat lost by warmer stream
Fluid 2: 𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = Heat gained by cooler stream
174

▪ On ∆𝑇
𝑡2
∆𝑇2
Convention
"1" = Inlet
"2" = Outlet
<Counterflow>
∆𝑇1
𝑡1
✓ Heat transferred from warm fluid to cold fluid: 𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇
✓ What is ∆𝑇 in this equation?

∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇 = , ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇1 − 𝑡2 , ∆𝑇2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑇1 ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇1
ln
∆𝑇2
Qu. Which resistances make up 1/𝑈𝐴?

175

▪ On ∆𝑇
𝑡1
∆𝑇2
Convention
"1" = Inlet
"2" = Outlet
<Parallel flow>
∆𝑇1
𝑡2
✓ What is ∆𝑇 in this equation?

∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇 = , ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇1 − 𝑡1 , ∆𝑇2 = 𝑇2 − 𝑡2
∆𝑇1
ln
∆𝑇2
176

▪ Fouling resistance (pp. 415 for Fouling Table)
1 ln 𝑟𝑗+1 Τ𝑟𝑗 ✓ Very important
Net Resistance = ∑ +∑ + 𝑅fouling
ℎ𝑖 𝐴 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ✓ Pay attention to units
177

▪ How do we obtain ℎ?
✓ From flow and heat analysis using the differential equation approach
✓ MEC 305
✓ Will come from Nusselt number, 𝑁𝑢
✓ Will pick up 𝑁𝑢 from tables and published correlations
✓ A common one for internal flow is
A. Modified Dittus-Boelter: (Turbulent Flow)

𝑛 = 0.4 if fluid is being heated
𝑛 = 0.3 if fluid is being cooled
𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑝 for tubular cross section
𝑁𝑢 𝐷 = 𝐷𝑒 for annular cross section
ℎ𝐷 4 𝑉𝐷
𝑁𝑢 ≡ = 0.023𝑅𝑒 5 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 𝑅𝑒 = > 10,000
𝑘𝑓 𝜈
𝜈 𝐿
Heat transfer by convection 0.7 ≤ 𝑃𝑟 ≤ 160; 𝑃𝑟 = ; ≥ 60
= 𝛼 𝐷
Heat transfer by conduction
178

▪ How do we obtain ℎ?
B. Sieder-Tate Equation for Laminar Flows
𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = < 2,200
𝜈
1Τ3 𝜈
ℎ𝐷 𝐷𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 ≡ = 1.86 0.48 < 𝑃𝑟 = < 16,700
𝑘𝑓 𝐿 𝛼
Properties evaluated at 𝑇 = (𝑇in + 𝑇out )/2
NOTE 𝐷ℎ = 𝐼𝐷𝑎 − 𝑂𝐷𝑝 (Friction calculation)
𝐼𝐷𝑎2 − 𝑂𝐷𝑝2 4 ∗ Flow Area 4𝜋 𝐼𝐷𝑎2 − 𝑂𝐷𝑝2

𝐷𝑒 = = =
𝑂𝐷𝑝 Heat Transfer Perimeter 𝜋𝑂𝐷𝑝
C. For Transitional 𝑹𝒆, 𝟐, 𝟐𝟎𝟎 < 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

- Use interpolation
179

Outlet temperature equations for concentric tubes (HEX)
I. For the cold fluid 𝑡2
𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
∆𝑡
Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) 𝑇1 𝑇2
General:
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑡𝑙𝑚 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (1)
ln ∆𝑇1 /∆𝑇2 <Parallel flow>
𝑡1
Counterflow:
𝑡2
𝑇1 − 𝑡2 − 𝑇2 − 𝑡1
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑡𝑙𝑚 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (2)
ln[ 𝑇1 − 𝑡2 Τ 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 ]
𝑇1 𝑇2
Equating (1) and (2), we have
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
ln[ 𝑇1 − 𝑡2 Τ 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 ] = −1 (2∗) <Counterflow>
𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1
180

II. For the warm fluid
𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅≡ = = 𝑅 (known)
= 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
known
∆𝑇 net ∆𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 = =
1/𝑈𝐴 ∑𝑅
𝐿𝑖 1 𝑟𝑗+1
✓ 𝑅 could be , , ln , or combo thereat
𝑘𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑗 𝐴𝑗 𝑟𝑗
✓ On area appears in 1/𝑈𝐴 and in the expression contained in ∑𝑅, we often assume they are the
same, or 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜 in the case of an annulus. Some small error.
No error for slabs (rectangular).
181

I. For the warm fluid 𝑡2
Counterflow: Use (2∗)
𝑇1 − 𝑡2 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 countercurrent 𝑇1 𝑇2
= exp 𝑅−1 ≡ 𝐸𝑐
𝑇2 − 𝑡1 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐
1 − 𝑅 𝑇1 + 1 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑅𝑡1
⟹ 𝑇2 = <Parallel flow>
1 − 𝑅𝐸𝑐 𝑡1
Parallel flow: 𝑡2
𝑅 + 𝐸𝑝 𝑇1 + 𝐸𝑝 − 1 𝑅𝑡1 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜
𝑇2 = , 𝐸𝑝 = exp 𝑅+1
𝑅 + 1 𝐸𝑝 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐
𝑇1 𝑇2
Balance good for both parallel and counterflow configurations,

<Counterflow>
Counterflow & Parallel flow: 𝑡1
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 +
𝑅 182

Pressure drop in pipes and annuli
𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑓𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑝tube = = ∆𝑝annulus = +1
𝐷ℎ 2𝑔𝑐 𝐼𝐷𝑝 2𝑔𝑐 𝐷ℎ 2𝑔𝑐
𝐼𝐷𝑎 − 𝑂𝐷𝑝
Note on 𝒇 (pp. 420)
▪ Laminar flow equations

64 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝐷𝑝
a) Tube: 𝑓𝑝 = ; 𝑅𝑒𝑝 = ≤ 2,200
𝑅𝑒𝑝 𝜈
𝑂𝐷𝑝 𝑉𝑎 𝐷ℎ
b) Annulus: 𝜅= , 𝑅𝑒𝑎 = < 10,000
𝐼𝐷𝑎 𝜈
1 𝑅𝑒𝑎 1 + 𝜅2 1+𝜅
= +
𝑓𝑎 64 1−𝜅 2 1 − 𝜅 ln 𝜅
183

Note on 𝒇 (pp. 420) (cont’d)
▪ Turbulent flow equations
𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑝 (If cross section is tubular)
𝐷 = 𝐷ℎ (If cross section is annular)
Use: Chen, Churchill, or Colebrook for pipe
1 𝜀 5.0452 1 𝜀 1.1098 5.8506

Chen equation: = −2.0 log − log +
𝑓 3.7065𝐷 𝑅𝑒 2.8257 𝐷 𝑅𝑒 0.8981
1
12 16 16
8 1 12 1 37530
Churchill equation: 𝑓=8 + where 𝐵 = 2.457 ln , 𝐶=
𝑅𝑒 𝐵+𝐶 1.5 7Τ𝑅𝑒 0.9 + 0.27𝜀 Τ𝐷 𝑅𝑒
1 2.51 𝜀/𝐷
Colebrook equation: = −2.0 log +
𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑓 1Τ2 3.72
184

Example 8.4
Nomenclatures
Assumptions 1. 𝑇 refers to the temperature of the warmer fluid
1. Steady-state conditions exist. 2. 𝑡 refers to the temperature of the cooler fluid
2. Fluid properties remain constant and as a first 3. 𝑤 subscript refers to the warmer fluid
attempt, are evaluated at 132°𝐹[≈ 175 + 90 Τ2] 4. ℎ subscript refers to hydraulic diameter
5. 𝑐 subscript refers to the cooler fluid
6. 𝑎 subscript refers to the annular flow area or dimension
7. 𝑝 subscript refers to the tubular flow area or dimension
8. 1 subscript refers to an inlet condition
9. 2 subscript refers to an outlet condition
10. 𝑒 subscript refers to equivalent diameter
185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

Temperature profile
I. 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 < 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐
a) Counterflow b) Parallel flow
𝑇1 𝑇1
Temperature
Temperature
∆𝑇𝑤 large ∆𝑇𝑤 large
𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑡2
∆𝑇𝑐 small 𝑡2 ∆𝑇𝑐 small
𝑡1
𝑡1
Length Length
✓ 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 < 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 ⟹ Cold fluid has smaller ∆𝑇 than the warm fluid, to have the same 𝑞
196

Temperature profile
II. 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 > 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐
a) Counterflow b) Parallel flow
𝑇1 𝑇1
𝑇2 ∆𝑇𝑤 small 𝑇2 ∆𝑇𝑤 small
Temperature
Temperature
𝑡2
𝑡2
∆𝑇𝑐 large ∆𝑇𝑐 large
𝑡1
𝑡1
Length Length
✓ 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 > 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 ⟹ Hot fluid has smaller ∆𝑇 than the cold fluid, to have the same 𝑞
197

Temperature profile
III. a) 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 → ∞ ⟹ ∆𝑇𝑤 → 0 b) 𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 → ∞ ⟹ ∆𝑇𝑐 → 0
(Relative to the cold flow) (Relative to the warm flow)
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1
Temperature
Temperature
𝑡2
𝑇2
𝑡2
𝑡1 𝑡1
Length Length
Condenser Evaporator
(Hot fluid is at constant (Cold fluid is at constant
temperature ⟹ condensing) temperature ⟹ evaporating)
c) 𝑚𝑐 ሶ for phase change in equilibrium

ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇 → 𝑚𝐿
198

Effectiveness-NTU analysis
▪ LMTD is the traditional method
▪ Effectiveness-NTU method is more popular (𝜀-NTU)
▪ The LMTD and the 𝜀-NTU methods are equivalent?
▪ 𝜀-NTU, so you wouldn’t need the outlet temperature to do analysis
NOTE ✓ The stream with the smaller 𝑚𝑐

ሶ 𝑝 limits the amount of heat that can be transferred
✓ The effectiveness, 𝐸, is dependent on which of the two fluids has the minimum mass flow rate x specific
heat, 𝑚𝑐𝑝 , since the ∆𝑇 for that stream is the numerator in the expression for the effectiveness, 𝐸
𝑚𝑐𝑝 ≡ capacitance
199

𝑡2 − 𝑡1 Temperature difference of fluid having minimum capacitance ⇒ larger ∆𝑇stream for same 𝑞
a) 𝐸=
𝑇1 − 𝑡1 Maximum temperature difference
𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 < 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 ⟹ ∆𝑡 > ∆𝑇

cold warm
minimum
capacitance
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 Ditto
b) 𝐸=
𝑇1 − 𝑡1 Ditto
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 < 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 ⟹ ∆𝑇 > ∆𝑡

warm cold
minimum
capacitance
NOTE 𝐸 ≠ 𝐸𝑝 ≠ 𝐸𝑐 defined earlier
200

▪ Actual heat transferred
𝑞 = 𝐸𝑞max = Actual heat transferred

𝑞max
= 𝐸 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 𝑇1 − 𝑡1
min
Min capacitance Max temp difference

(highest 𝐸)
𝑞max = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 min
𝑇1 − 𝑡1
𝐸
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
✓ If 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 , then 𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑇 − 𝑡1
min 𝑇1 − 𝑡1 𝑐 𝑝𝑐 1
𝑚𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐
𝑞max
201

▪ Number of transfer units (NTU), 𝑁
𝑈𝐴 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝
𝑁= min
𝐶= <1
𝑚𝑐𝑝 min 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 max
Mnemonics: 𝑞 = 𝑈𝐴 ∆𝑇
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇 through-flow heat transfer
✓ Like fraction of 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 “transferred” as 𝑈𝐴 through the wall.
𝑈𝐴
=
𝑚𝑐𝑝
✓ Remember 𝑈𝐴∆𝑇 vs 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 ∆𝑇?
202

▪ We can derive an equation for the effectiveness of the double pipe heat exchanger:
✓ For a counterflow arrangement:
𝑇1 − 𝑡2 𝑈𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
ln = −1
𝑇2 − 𝑡1 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝𝑐 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑈𝐴
If 𝑚𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 min
= 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 , then, 𝑁 =
𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐
ሶ 𝑝 min
ln =𝑁 − 1 ≡ 𝑁 𝐶 − 1 = −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
ሶ 𝑝 max
Take exponent: 𝐶
𝑇1 − 𝑡2
⟹
𝑇2 − 𝑡1
= exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶 ∗∗
203

𝑞 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤
⟹ 𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + 𝑇 − 𝑇2
𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 1
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
= 𝑡1 +
𝐶
𝐶𝑡1 + 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
⟹ 𝑡2 =
𝐶
Substitute this into ∗∗
𝐶𝑡1 + 𝑇2 − 𝑇2 Τ𝐶
⟹ 𝑇1 − = exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
𝑇2 − 𝑡1
𝐶𝑇1 − 𝐶𝑡1 − 𝑇1 + 𝑇2
⟹ = exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
𝐶 𝑇2 − 𝑡1
Qu. Heat ???? vs flow area calculation

204

𝑇1 − 𝑡1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
⟹ − = exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
𝑇2 − 𝑡1 𝐶 𝑇2 − 𝑡1
1 1 𝐸𝐶
−
1 − 𝐸𝐶 𝐶 1 − 𝐸𝐶
1−𝐸
⟹ = exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
1 − 𝐸𝐶
1 − exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
⟹𝐸= (Counterflow) ∗1
1 − 𝐶 exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
Similarly, can show that
1 − exp −𝑁 1 − 𝐶
⟹𝐸= (Parallel flow) ∗2
1+𝐶
(Note that 𝑁 and 𝐶 do not depend on 𝑇2 , 𝑡2 .)

205

Calculating the outlet temperatures
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + 𝐸 𝑇1 − 𝑡1 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
If 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 < 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 with 𝐸 = from ∗ 1 , ∗ 2
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝐶 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑇1 − 𝑡1
and
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 − 𝐸 𝑇1 − 𝑡1
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
If 𝑚ሶ 𝑐 𝑐𝑝𝑐 > 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝𝑤 with 𝐸 = from ∗ 1 , ∗ 2
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + 𝐶 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇1 − 𝑡1
✓ See Table 8.4 (pp. 443) for the 𝐸𝑠 for shell and tubes, cross-flow
206

207

Qu. Have we done any design calculations/sizing or concentric tubes so far?

Design – You’re given one outlet temperature – can calculate 𝐿, 𝐷, 𝐴
Qu. Equation for 2-phase calculation

Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2,260 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
208

Example 8.5
209

210

211

212

213

214

215

Example 8.6
216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

Mec 422 Lecture Summary (Chap 4 - Chap 8)

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MEC 422 Thermal System Design (LECTURE 6)

Lecture Summary for Midterm II

Chapter 4 Piping Systems II

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

▪ Usually involve 6 variables

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

▪ This diameter is called the Optimum Economic Diameter, 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒕

▪ Obtaining this diameter is an optimization problem

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Overcomes friction losses,

▪ Will formulate on a cost-per-year basis

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

✓ It must be repaid (amortized) with 𝑚 yearly payments

▪ The annual cost (or annuity) to repay a loan of $ 1 over 𝑚 years is

𝑖 𝑖 = annual interest rate, e.g., 0.09 or 9/100

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Total money repaid after 7 years is $𝟕 × 𝟏, 𝟗𝟖𝟕 = $𝟏𝟑, 𝟗𝟎𝟗.

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

▪ Installed pipeline costs in $/𝑓𝑡,

▪ Total cost of pipe, fittings, valves, supports, pumps,

Initial/First cost of the system

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

▪ Call this fraction “𝑏”

Amortization Annual cost of pipe + fittings

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

𝐶2 = cost of energy in MU/(F∙L) ($Τ(𝑘𝑊 ∙ ℎ𝑟))

= cost per unit of energy

𝜂 = efficiency of the pump

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Energy used 377 𝑘𝑊ℎ 3. Washington 8.2 ∗ 38. Maryland 13.7

October 28, 2011

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

No 𝐷 here Friction part

▪ Minimum cost is given by 𝑑𝐶𝑇 Τ𝑑𝐷 = 0

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

3. Diameter is unknown ⇒ trial-and-error

▪ Can write the 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑡 equation as

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

NOTE ✓ Chen equation is used for graph

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter

Piping Systems – Optimization & Economic Pipe Diameter