1

Standards and Quality

1. Basic concept of quality
a. What is quality
• Definition of quality
¨ It is perfection, fast delivery of product, elimination of waste in product, consistency in
performance and total customer service and satisfaction.
• Consequences of poor quality
¨ Product failure, delay in supply, market value decreases, damage or injuries and loss of
business.
• Customers
¨ External customers: uses end product and services.
¨ Internal customers: every function within organisation whether it is engineering, order
processing or production has an internal customer. Functional team is the customer of other
functional team.
• Dimensions of quality
¨ As per David Garvin quality of a product can be judged by following eight quality criteria.
¨ Performance, aesthetic, special feature, conformance, reliability, durability, perceived
quality, serviceability.
b. Traditional vs Modern
• Traditional view: Low quality due to poor working people, production only, minor defects
acceptable, and quality control department is separate unit.
• Modern concept:
¨ Low quality may be due to poor labour management.
¨ Quality depends on all phases of production process and design.
¨ Goal is defect free product and service.
¨ Quality is everyone’s business.
c. Types of quality
• Quality of Design– It is all about set conditions that the product or service must minimally have,
to satisfy the requirements of the customer.
• Quality of conformance– It is basically meeting the standards defined in the design phase after
the product is manufactured or while the service is delivered.
• Quality of Performance– It measures the degree to which the product or Service satisfies the
customer expectation.
d. Quality cost: these are those costs that are associated with the non-achievement of product or service
standards and targets to meet customer expectations.
• Cost of conformance
¨ Prevention cost: costs associated with attempts made to prevent failure. Whatever the
expenditure is made with in production system in order to minimize failure.
¨ Appraisal cost: it is cost associated with measuring, evaluating discovering the defective
parts within the production system. It includes cost of inspection and auditing.
• Cost of Non-conformance
¨ Internal failure: if the defect is detected inside the production system. It includes cost
related to defective product before they are delivered to customer.
¨ External failure: it is defect detected by the customer while using the product. it is cost
related to return goods, replacement, warranty, liability cost.
e. Quality processes
• Quality control
¨ It is generally the responsibility of the operational units. It is used during manufacturing,
packaging, distribution and field services.
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¨ It is an ongoing effort to maintain integrity of a process to maintain the reliability of
achieving the output.
• Quality assurance
¨ It is planned or systematic action necessary to provide enough confidence that a product or
service will satisfy the given requirements of quality.
¨ It includes actions related to– finance, maintenance, legal, service, personnel, corporate.
• Quality engineering
¨ It refers to purposeful change of a process to improve the reliability of achieving an
outcome.
¨ It is included in production design, process design and procurement.
f. Methods of generating solution to improve quality
• Benchmarking: it is comparing and improving with some industry standard products or service.
• Quality circle:
¨ Kaoru Ishikawa
¨ It is a group of workers who voluntarily meet to discuss way of improving products or
process.
¨ These are less structured and more informal. They identify analyse, recommend and carry
out management approved changes.
• Brainstorming
¨ It is one of technique of generating free flow of ideas.
• Track mistakes
¨ Analyse previous data and identify the mistakes which leads to substandard product.
g. House of quality
• The outside walls of the house are shown as the customer requirements and their priorities. On the
left side is a listing of voice of customer.
• On the right side is the prioritized customer requirement, which is derived from customer survey.
• The ceilings of the house contain the technical descriptors or requirements with expert's priorities.
• The central or interior walls of the house
are the relationships between customer
requirements and technical requirements.
• Customer voices (customer requirements)
are translated into engineering
requirements (technical descriptors).
• The roof of the house is the
interrelationship between independent
technical requirements. Here the trade-
offs between similar and/or conflicting
technical requirements are identified. The
aim of the house is to determine
prioritized technical requirements.
2. Quality thinkers and approaches
a. Introduction
• Dr. W. Edward Deming
¨ Deming cycle: it provides a framework for the improvement of a process or system. It was
originally conceived by Walter Shewart in 1930s and later adopted by W.E. Deming
o PDCA:
§ Plan > Do > Check > Act
o PDSA
§ Plan > Do > study > Act
• Joseph M. Juran
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¨ Parato principle: 80% of the problem is caused by 20% of the causes.
¨ Juran trilogy: he was first to explain cost of poor quality.
o Quality planning
o Quality control
o Quality improvement
• Philip Crosby approach
¨ He popularized the idea of cost of poor quality. (fun uncle of quality revolution). He
focused on the principle of doing it right the first time.
¨ Concept of zero defect
¨ Quality is free
¨ Cost of quality
• Kaoru Ishikawa Philosophy of quality
¨ Major contribution is
o Quality circle
o Seven quality control tools
o Fishbone diagram
• Genichi Taguchi
¨ Quality loss function
¨ Robust design
b. Other approaches
• JIT vs MRP
¨ MRP stands for material required planning and JIT stands for just in time
¨ MRP is push system approach, JIT is pull system approach.
¨ MRP focuses on keeping safety stock and inventory and can handle dynamic situation
(when demand changes suddenly)
¨ JIT focuses on elimination of safety stock and cannot handle increase in demand.
Experienced workers are required. And suited for mass production system.
¨ MRP is best suited for job or batch type production system.
• Kanban
¨ Japanese word meaning card or sign.
¨ The purpose of Kanban is to signal the need for more parts and to ensure that those parts are
produced in appropriate time to support further assembly
• Kaizen
¨ It means continuous improvement
• Poka-Yoke
¨ Mistake proofing
3. Statistical tools and control charts
a. Quality control tools
• Professor Kaoru Ishikawa a Japanese expert developed seven quality control tools to improve the
quality. These tools provide some very specific benefits such as improved process information,
improved communication, discussion based on facts, etc.
¨ Histogram: uses bins to show continuous
type of data. Tool DMAIC application
¨ Flow chart: it gives a visual Pareto chart Analyse
representation of the sequence of steps Cause-and-effect diagram Analyse
and decisions need to perform a process. Check sheet Measure, analyse
¨ Check sheet: the main purpose of check Histogram Measure, analyse
sheet is to ensure that the data collected Scatter diagram Analyse, improve
carefully and accurately by operating Control chart Control
personnel.
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¨ Pareto chart: (80-20)
o This approaches a problem systematically, discovers the sources that may cause the
majority of problems.
¨ Scatter diagram: useful in finding correlation between two variables.
¨ Cause and effect or Fishbone diagram
o Also known as Ishikawa diagram, offers approach for searching the possible cause of
problem. It identifies the potential cause. Analyse actual condition for quality
improvement. Eliminates conditions which causes non-conformity.
b. Control charts
• Introduction
¨ It is a graph used to study how the process changes over time in which observation are
plotted in time order. Control chart is a statistical process control tool to process monitoring
and variability reduction. It has average, upper control limit (UCL), lower control limit
(LCL).
¨ Variables vs attribute
o Variables: these data include numerical measurement about a product or item. These
data can be measured on continuous scale
o Attribute: these data are counted, that cannot have fraction or decimal values.
Attribute data consider the quality of product or item rather than quantifiable number.
• Types
¨ Variable chart: these charts follow normal distribution, they usually lead to more efficient
control procedures and provide more information about process performance than attribute
control chart.
o X chart– Mean chart
§ It is used for controlling average quality of product.
∑𝑥 UCL 𝑥̅ + 3𝜎)̅
𝑥̅ =
𝑛
𝜎 CL 𝑥̅
𝜎)̅ =
√𝑛 LCL 𝑥̅ − 3𝜎)̅
o R chart
§ It shows the variation in the range of samples. Measures the dispersion of
sample.
∑𝑅. UCL 𝐷0 𝑅-
𝑅- =
𝑛
CL 𝑅- = 𝜎-𝑑2

LCL 𝐷3 𝑅-
¨ Attribute chart: These charts are counted and cannot be fraction or decimal. These are
applied where we want to find the presence or absence of something like success or failure,
good or bad, defective or non-defective.
o P-chart (proportion or fraction defective)
§ It follows binomial distribution (sample size more than 50)
∑𝑑 UCL 𝑝̅ + 3𝜎6
𝑝=
𝑁
CL 𝑝̅
𝑝𝑞
𝜎6 = 7
𝑛 LCL 𝑝̅ − 3𝜎6
o np-chart (number of defective)
§ These charts are used where sample size is constant.
∑𝑑 UCL 𝑛𝑝̅ + 39𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
𝑝=
𝑁
CL 𝑛𝑝̅
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𝑝𝑞
𝜎6 = 7 LCL 𝑛𝑝̅ − 39𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
𝑛
o C-chart (count or defect chart)
§ This chart is used when number of defects per unit are counted. They are not
classified as defective or not defective. A unit may contain one or more
defects.
§ It follows Poisson distribution
∑𝑑 UCL 𝐶̅ + 39𝐶̅
𝑚=
𝑁
CL 𝐶̅
𝜎 = √𝑚
LCL 𝐶̅ − 39𝐶̅
c. New Quality control tools
• Seven new Quality Control tools often called as management and planning tools are used for
problem solving have proved useful in areas such as product quality improvement, cost reduction,
new product development and policy deployment. They are beneficial to the top and middle
management in an organization for strategic planning, goal setting and problem solving. They are
not replacements for the old seven tools. Seven new quality control tools are given below:
¨ Affinity diagram: it is used to organise abstract thinking about a project
¨ Relationship diagram: it shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps to analyse the
natural links between different aspects of a complex situation.
¨ Systematic/tree diagram: for systematically pursuing best strategies for attaining an
objective
¨ Matrix diagram: to clarify problems by thinking multidimensionally.
¨ Matrix data analysis method: Prioritization Matrix is used by teams to narrow down options
through a systematic approach of comparing choices by selecting, weighting, and applying
criteria.
¨ Arrow diagram: it is a derivative of PERT and CPM techniques. For working out optimum
schedule and controlling them effectively.
¨ Process decision program chart: are used for planning the activities needed to solve
problem when information is incomplete or the situation is fluid and hard to forecast.
4. Acceptance sampling
a. Sampling
• It is a technique in which samples are drawn random. It is done not to measure the quality of the
lot but to either accept or reject the lot.
¨ For a lot size = N
¨ Sample size = n
¨ Acceptance number = C
b. Inspection
• Types of inspection of standard sampling plan are Normal inspection, Tightened inspection and
Reduced inspection.
¨ Normal inspection is used at the start of inspection unless otherwise directed by the
responsible authority. As long as the product quality level is at AQL or better, Normal
inspection continues.
¨ Tightened inspection is used when recent quality history of the producer shows
deterioration. This forces vendors to submit products at a quality level that is at least equal
to the AQL.
¨ Reduced inspection is used when the producer’s recent quality history has been
outstanding. Reduced inspection uses a smaller sample size and cuts inspection costs.
c. Acceptance sampling
• It was popularized by Dodge and Roming during world war II, for testing bullets.
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• Types of sampling plan
¨ Single sampling plan
o When a decision for acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on the basis of only
one sample.
¨ Double sampling plan
o The decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is based on two samples.
o If number of defectives is lower than lower limit, accept the lot.
o If number of defectives is more than upper limit, reject the lot.
o For in between, go for second sample, if cumulative defect is less than upper limit
then, accept, else reject
¨ Multiple sampling plan
o In this plan, a decision to accept or reject a lot is taken after inspecting more than two
samples.
o In this case, if the cumulative number of defectives in a sample is more than the
upper limit specified for the sample, the sampling procedure is terminated and lot is
rejected.
o If less than lower limit then lot is accepted.
¨ Sequential sampling
o It is an extension of multiple sampling plan, in this item are selected from a lot one at
a time and after inspection of each sample a decision is made to accept the lot or
reject the lot or to select another item.
¨ Skip lot sampling, only a small fraction of the lots submitted are inspected.
d. Sampling terms and definitions
• Acceptance quality level (AQL)
¨ It represents the maximum proportion of defectives, which the customer finds definitely
acceptable. AQL can also be defined as the maximum percent defectives that for the
purpose of sampling inspection can be considered satisfactory as a process average.
• Rejectable quality level (RQL)
¨ It is also called Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD). This is a definition of
unsatisfactory quality. It represents the proportion of defectives, which the consumer finds
definitely unacceptable. As RQL is an unacceptable quality level, the probability of
acceptance for an RQL lot should be low, and it represents the consumer’s risk.
• Indifferent quality level (IQL)
¨ This is a quality level somewhere between AQL and RQL. It is frequently defined as the
quality level with an acceptance probability of 0.5 for a give sampling plan.
• Average outgoing quality (AOQ)
¨ It represents the average percent defective in the outgoing product after inspection,
including all accepted and rejected lots, which have been 100 percent inspected and the
defectives have been replaced by non-defectives.
N−n
AOQ = pC pD E H
N
• Producers risk 𝛼: it represents the probability that a lot containing the acceptable quality level is
rejected. (Type I error)
• Consumers risk 𝛽: it represents the probability that a lot containing the defectives exceeding the
LTPD, will be accepted. (Type II error)
e. OC curve
• Increasing the number of samples increases the slope of OC curve.
• If the acceptance number is increased, curve moves to right, and producers risk decreases.
• Decreasing the acceptance number is always preferred over increasing sample size.
f. Process capability studies
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• The process capability is defined as the performance of a process over a certain period of time
while in the statically controlled state. It is the repeatability and consistency of a manufacturing
process relative to customer requirements. This is used to objectively measure the degree to
which a process is or is not meeting the requirement
• Process capability indices
¨ It lets you place the distribution of your process in relation to the product specification
limits.
¨ 𝐶6 Index
o This measures the potential or inherent capability of a production process. It
evaluates the ability of a process to meet two-sided specification limits.
𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶6 =
6𝜎
o While it relates the spread of the process relative to the specification width, it does
not address how well the process average, 𝑋 is centered to the target value. 𝐶6 is
often referred to as process potential.
¨ 𝐶6P index
o This measures the realized process capability relative to the actual production. It is
used to summaries the ability of a process to meet two sided specification limits.
o 𝐶6P measures not only the process variation w.r.t. allowable specifications, it also
considers the location of process average.
o 𝐶6P is taken as the smaller of
𝑋 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝑋
𝐶6Q = 𝑜𝑟, 𝐶6V =
3𝜎 3𝜎
o 𝐶6Q , 𝐶6V ≥ 1 for a capable process.
5. Quality management
a. Introduction
• Total quality management is a systematic approach to ensuring quality in an organisation. TQM
was first major quality management initiative which is based on top management’s direct
involvement, strong customer orientation, systematic problem-solving approach, companywide
participation and continuous improvement. But in TQM quantization of incentives is missing.
• Small q and Big Q
¨ Small q focusses on production only and inspection
¨ Bis Q focusses on how to eliminate defects and increase the total quality.
• Improvement vs control
¨ Control means a certain level of performance while improvement means achieving a higher
level of performance.
b. Principles of TQM
• Leadership, Customer focused organisation (customer satisfaction), Involvement of people at all
levels. Process improvement, Kaizen or continuous improvement, Factual approach to decision
making, Mutually beneficial supplier relationship, and
• Systems approach to management
¨ It is an approach to identify, understand and manage a system of interrelated processes for a
given objective contributions to the efficiency of the organisation.
c. Taguchi approach in TQM
• Genichi Tagichi has had an important influence on quality development, especially in the design
area. (product and process design)
• Taguchi developed two method for quality improvements.
¨ Robust design
o This method helps to set specifications on product and processes parameters to create
a design that can resist failure or reduce performance in the face of variations.
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o Taguchi says the variations can be noise factors. A noise factor is a source of
variation that is impossible or difficult to control and affects the functional
characteristic of the product. (unit-to-unit noise factor, internal noise factor, external
noise factor)
¨ Taguchi loss function
o It defines that the loss of a product costs society from the time the product is released
for shipment. It is a useful concept intolerance design.
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑇)2
d. Other methods
• The Shingo system (fail safe design)
¨ Shingo’s argument for TQM
o SQC (statistical quality control) do not prevent defects.
o Defects arises when people make errors.
o Defects can be prevented by providing workers with feedback on errors.
• Poka-Yoke (mistake proofing)
e. Business process re-engineering
• Hammer and champ define BPR – as the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of the
business process to achieve dramatic improvements in critical, contemporary measures of
performance, such as cost, quality service and speed.
• Information management is a key factor to BPR, the BPR efforts are enabled and supported by
variety of IT solution.
• Benefits/expected results of BPR
¨ Reallocation of jobs and processes so as to be combined into fewer to be executed in natural
order, simultaneously and by the least possible number of employees.
¨ Re-organisation of the structure of company and employee empowerment.
¨ Jobs and processes become flexible so as to be executed according to needs of each case,
need of company and customer.
• BPR vs Benchmarking
¨ BPR is looking internally and improving process and gaining efficiencies.
¨ Benchmarking is the process of looking externally and taking the best in the industry by
checking their performance levels and hen trying to match up to them.
f. Obstacles while implementing TQM
•
6. ISO standards
a. Iso standards to remember
ISO 9000 Fundamentals and vocabulary
ISO 9001 Quality management Requirements
ISO 9004 system Guideline for performance improvement
ISO 19011 It provides guidelines on auditing management systems
ISO 14000 Specifications of environmental management system
ISO 14004 Guideline standard
ISO 14010- Auditing and related activities
14015
ISO 14020- Environmental leveling
Environmental
14024
responsibility
ISO 14031- Environmental performance evaluation
14032
ISO 14040- Life cycle assessment
14043
ISO 14050 Terms and definitions
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OHSAS It is not an ISO, it was developed by OHSAS project group and British
18000 standards. It provides framework to identify, control and decrease the risk
associated with health and safety within company.
CGMP It refers to the current good manufacturing practice regulations enforced by the
US food and drug administration.
It provides for systems that ensures proper design, monitoring and control of
manufacturing process and facilities.
CMMI Capability maturity model integration
It is used as a benchmark for comparison and as an aid to understanding for
software development.
AS 9100 QMS for aerospace industry
ISO 31000 Risk management assurance and guidelines
ISO 16949 Automotive industry
b. Certificate marks
• BIS hall mark: purity of metal (gold silver)
• ISI mark: industrial product
• Non-polluting vehicle mark: BS norms
• Eco mark: eco label
• Ag mark: agricultural products
• FPO mark: processed fruit products
• India organic: organically farmed food
• Silk mark: for silk textile
7. Six Sigma
a. Introduction
b. Methodology
c. Levels
• The six sigma belts denote the different levels an individual can achieve in six sigma.
• Master Black Belt: Trains and coaches Black Belts and Green Belts. Functions more at the Six
Sigma program level by developing key metrics and the strategic direction. Acts as an
organization’s Six Sigma technologist and internal consultant.
• Black Belt: Leads problem-solving projects. Trains and coaches project teams.
• Green Belt: Assists with data collection and analysis for Black Belt projects. Leads Green Belt
projects or teams.
• Yellow Belt: Participates as a project team member. Reviews process improvements that support
the project.
d. Other
• Lean management
• Design of experiment
• DOE vs Statistical process control
8. Inventory management
a. Introduction and types
b. Inventory cost
c. Harris-Wilson Model (EOQ model)
d. Selective inventory management
• Inventories of an organisation can be controlled in various ways. All the items are not of equal
importance, a high degree control on inventories of each item is neither applicable nor useful. So
it becomes necessary to classify the items in groups depending upon their utility importance.
¨ ABC (always better control)
o It is based on Pareto’s law.
A Most costly (10% costs 75%), ordered frequently in small numbers
B Average consumption value (15% costs 15%)
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C Low value (75% costs 10%)
¨ VED
o Based on criticality of item
Vital If not available, they make the whole system inoperative
Essential If not available reduces efficiency of system
Desirable Neither stops the system, nor reduces its efficiency.
¨ FNSD
o Based on usage rate
Fast moving
Normal
Slow
Dead
o Useful to combat obsolete items
¨ XYZ
o It is based on closing inventory value of the items.
o This analysis helps us in identifying the items which are being stocked extensively.
X Items with high inventory value
Y Items with moderate inventory value
Z Items with low inventory value
¨ SDE
o Scarce difficult and easy, is based on availability.
e. Line balancing
f.
9. Manufacturing
a. Service quality
10. Maintenance and reliability
a. Reliability
• Reliability function: Reliability can be defined as the probability that a product will perform
required function under specialized conditions for a certain period of time.
¨ 𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑒 \]^
• Failure rate (𝜆): the rate at which failure occurs. Failure is non-conformance to some defined
performance criteria.
`abCc defghi aj jCkceih
¨ 𝜆 = `abCc lefecCbkmh agnhimhD bkfh
• Mean time to failure (MTTF): it applies to non-repairable items or devices and is defined as the
average time an item may be expected to function before failure.
qr^sQ ^.tu z
¨ 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹 = ^r^sQ vVtwux ry ys.QVxu = ]
• Mean time between failure (MTBF): it refers to time between failure for repairable items.
z
¨ 𝜆 = {q|} rx {qq}
¨ 𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 = 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹 + 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅
• Mean time to repair (MTTR): it is total repair time by total number of repairs
^• €^• €⋯
¨ 𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑅 = ƒ
b. Bathtub curve
• It is a graphical representation of lifetime of a population of product, which describes the relative
failure rate of entire population, overtime. It is also called failure rate curve or equipment profile.
• It is divided into three phases
¨ Infant mortality phase or run-in phase: high level of failures in this phase is due to
inadequate quality control, manufacturing method and material. Wrong assembly and
inadequate handling method.
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¨ Useful life phase: less and constant failure rate is present, only due to random and
unpredictable reasons. Human error, low safety factor or higher random stresses.
¨ Wear-out phase: in the final stage, failure rate increases as the product begins to wear out
because of age or lack of maintenance.
c. System reliability:
• The method of arranging the components affect the reliability of entire system. To be able to
predict reliability of a system, the system is represented as a number of functional block that are
interconnected according to effect.
¨ Elements in series: even if the reliability of individual components is high, the reliability of
system drops.
o 𝑅„…„ = 𝑅s 𝑅w …
¨ Elements in parallel: system continue to function after failure of one component. Reliability
of system is more than individual components
o 𝑅„…„ = 1 − (1 − 𝑅s )(1 − 𝑅w ) …
¨ Mixed connection
d. Maintainability
e. Availability:
• The fraction of a given period of time during which an item was available to perform required
functions is commonly used measure of availability. It is a function of reliability, maintainability
and supply effectiveness.
{q|}
¨ 𝐴 = {q|}€{qqˆ€{q‰Š
¨ 𝑀𝑇𝑊𝑆 is mean time waiting for spares, reflecting supply
f. Maintenance
• It is defined as the combination of all technical and corresponding administrative actions intended
to retain an item in or restore it to a state in which it can perform its required functions
• Maintenance scheme
¨ Preventive maintenance: routine servicing on a planned schedule to prevent failure. It is to
preserve and enhance equipment reliability. Within a maintenance organisation PM usually
accounts for a major proportion of total maintenance. Main objective of PM are: enhanced
capital equipment productive life, reduce critical equipment breakdown, allow better
planning and scheduling of needed maintenance work, minimize production loss due to
equipment failure. Elements of PM are: inspection, servicing, calibration, testing,
alignment, installation.
¨ Reactive/Breakdown/Corrective maintenance:
o Run it till it breaks. It is unscheduled. Low cost and manpower needed as continuous
monitoring is not required. Cost due to unplanned down time, possible secondary
equipment or process damage from equipment failure.
¨ Predictive maintenance
o Measurements that detects the onset of system degradation thereby allowing causal
stresses to be eliminated or controlled prior to any significant deterioration in the
component physical state. There is increased investment in diagnostic equipment,
increased investment in staff training and saving potential not readily seen by
management.
¨ Condition based maintenance (CBM): it takes predictive maintenance one step further by
performing the inspection in a real time mode. It is of two type
o On-load monitoring technique: monitoring scheme performed during operation.
Example: visual inspection, temperature, lubricant vibration and noise monitoring.
o Off-load monitoring technique: performed during non-operation period of a system.
Ex: ultrasonic detection, radiographic examination, Eddy current.
• Reliability centered maintenance:
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¨ It is a method of planning to priorities resources and actions.
• Total productive maintenance (TPM)
¨ It is a concept which aims at zero down time. This demands a devoted participation of all
concerned units and individuals at all levels.
¨ Total in TPM means: total employee involvement, total equipment effectiveness, a total
maintenance delivery system.
11. Construction services
a. A
12. Non-destructive testing
a. Dye penetration test
• Dye penetration test is surface type NDT. Advantages of Dye penetration include high sensitivity
to small flaws, ease and flexibility. All sort of surface like metals, ceramics, glass rubber and
plastics are checked. It is economical but surface finish and roughness can affect the result.
•
13. Miscellaneous
a. Test series answers
• Control chart for variables i.e. x and R chart → Follows normal distribution
• Control chart for attributes i.e. → p-chart and np-chart follow Binomial distribution. → c-chart
follows Poisson’s distribution.
• According to the six sigma methodology, any process rarely stay centered. The center tends to
shift above and below the target ‘μ’. But if the process has shifted within the range of 1.5σ above
and 1.5σ below the target, 99.9996600% of the product output or service output characteristic will
be between specifications and the non-conformance rate will be 3.4 DPMO (defect per million
opportunities).
• Total Quality management is a comprehensive management system which:
¨ Focuses on meeting the needs of the owners’ or customers’ by providing quality services at
a cost that offers value to the owners/customers.
¨ Is driven by the quest for continuous improvement in all operations.
¨ Recognizes that everyone in the organization has internal or external owners or customers.
¨ Views an organization as an internal system with a common aim rather than as individual
department acting to maximize their own performance.
¨ Focuses on the way of tasks that are accomplished rather than simply on what tasks are
accomplished. Emphasizes on teamwork.
Prevention cost Appraisal cost
1. Product/process design 1. Inspection and test of incoming material
2. Process control. 2. Product inspection and test.
3. Burn-in. 3. Material and services consumed.
4. Training 4. Maintaining accuracy of test equipment.
5. Quality data acquisition and analysis.
• Certain practices of management are labeled by Deming as deadly diseases or sins. These are
¨ management by visible figures only,
¨ lack of constancy of purpose,
¨ performance appraisal by numbers,
¨ a short-term view of organization, and
¨ mobility of management.
• Some general reasons for lack of conspicuous success of TQM include:
¨ lack of top down, high- level management commitment and involvement;
¨ inadequate use of statistical methods and insufficient recognition of variability reduction as
a prime objective;
¨ diffuse as opposed to focused, specific objectives; and
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¨ too much emphasis on widespread training as opposed to focused technical education and
actual implementation.
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