MODULE CALCULUS 1 WITH ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

CHAPTER 6
LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

6.1. INTUITIVE MOTIVATION FOR LIMITS

Objectives:

• Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the tangent line

and the limit.
• Demonstrate an understanding of the area between a curve and the x axis.
• Understand the notion of the limit of a function as an independent variable.

Limits is one of the most fundamental concepts of calculus. The foundation of

calculus was not entirely solid during the time of Leibniz and Newton, but later
developments on the concept, particularly the ε-δ definition by Cauchy, Weierstrass and
other mathematicians established its firm foundation. In the discussion below, I shall
introduce the concept of limits intuitively as it appears in common problems.

Circumference and Limits

If we are going to approximate the circumference of a circle using the perimeter of an

inscribed polygon, even without computation, we can observe that as the number of sides of the
polygon increases, the better the approximation. In fact, we can make the perimeter of the
polygon as close as we please to the circumference of the circle by choosing a sufficiently large
number of sides. Notice that no matter how large the number of sides our polygon has, its
perimeter will never exceed or equal the circumference of the circle.

As the number of sides of the polygons increases, its perimeter gets closer to the circumference
of the circle.

Functions and Limits

1
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where x is a natural number. Calculating the values of the
function using the first 20 natural numbers and plotting the points in the xy-plane.

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Tangent line and Limits

Recall that the slope of a line is its “rise” over its “run”. The formula of slope m of a line is
𝑦2 −𝑦1
𝑚= , given two points with coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ). One of the famous ancient
𝑥2 −𝑥1
problems in mathematics was the tangent problem, which is getting the slope of a line tangent
to a function at a point. In the Figure3, line n is tangent to the function f at point P.

Area and Limits

Another ancient problem is about finding the area under a curve. During the ancient
time, finding the area of a curved plane was impossible.

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Numbers and Limits

We end with a more familiar example usually found in books. What if we want to find the
limit of 2𝑥 + 1 as x approaches 3?
To answer the question, we must find the value 2𝑥 + 1where x is very close to 3. Those
values would be numbers that are very close to 3– some slightly greater than 3 and some
slightly less than 3.Place the values in a table we have

As x approaches 3, 2𝑥 + 1 approaches 7.

For further understanding visit these links

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-limits-new/ab-
limits-optional/v/limit-intuition-review
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDJ8XNg9KTU

6.2. FORMAL DEFINITION (EPSILON-DELTA)

Objectives:

• Given a real value c and a real-valued function f, determine a positive δ

that satisfies the formal definition of a limit for different values of positive ϵ
• Compose a proof of a limit using the formal definition for certain simple
functions.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined on an open interval around

𝑥0 (𝑓 (𝑥0 ) need to be defined). We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as x
approaches 𝑥0 is L, i.e.

DEFINITION 6.2 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿,

𝑥→𝑥0

If for every 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝛿 > 0 such that for all x

0 < |𝑥 = 𝑥0 | < 𝛿 → |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| < 𝜀

In words, the definition states that we can make values returned by the function f(x) as
close as we would like to the value L by using only the points in a small enough intervals around

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𝑥0 .One helpful interpretation of this definition is visualizing an exchange between two parties,
Alice and Bob. First, Alice challenges Bob, "I want to ensure that the values of f(x) will be no
farther than 𝜀 > 0 from L" If the limit exists and is indeed L, then Bob will be able to respond by
giving her a value of 𝛿, "If for all points x is within an 𝛿-radius interval of 𝑥0 , then f(x) will always
be within an 𝜀 -interval of L." If the limit exists, then Bob will be able to respond to Alice's
challenge no matter how small she chooses 𝜀.
For example, in the graph for function f(x) below, if Alice gives Bob the value 𝜀, then
Bob gives her the number 𝛿 such that for any x in the open
interval 𝑥0 − 𝛿, 𝑥0 + 𝛿, the value of f(x) lies in the interval
𝐿 − 𝜀, 𝐿 + 𝜀. In this example, as Alice makes 𝜀 smaller and
smaller, Bob can always find a smaller 𝛿 satisfying this
property, which shows that the limit exists
The exchange between Alice and Bob
demonstrates, Alice begins by giving a value of 𝜀 and then
after knowing this value, Bob can determine a
corresponding value for 𝛿. Because of this ordering of
events, the value of 𝛿 is often given as a function of 𝜀.
Note that there may be multiple values of 𝛿 that Bob can
give.
If there is any value of 𝜀 for which Bob cannot find
a corresponding 𝛿,then the limit does not exist.

For further understanding visit these links

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-limits-new/ab-
limits-optional/v/epsilon-delta-definition-of-limits
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejyell0i5c

6.3. THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Objectives:

• Know the basic theorems and how to apply them to evaluate limits.

If m and n are any constant, lim (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏

THEOREM 1 𝑥→𝑎

Example 1 lim (3𝑥 + 5) = (3)(2) + 5 = 11

𝑥→2

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If c is a constant, then for any number a, lim 𝑐 = 𝑐

THEOREM 2 𝑥→𝑎

Example 2 lim 7 = 7
𝑥→5

lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
THEOREM 3 𝑥→𝑎

Example 3 lim 𝑥 = −6
𝑥→−6

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ± 𝑀]

THEOREM 4 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 , … , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) =

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑛
THEOREM 5 𝐿𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓1 (𝑥) ± 𝑓2 (𝑥) … ± 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐿1 ± ⋯ ± 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿𝑀]

THEOREM 6 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Example 4
lim [𝑥(2𝑥 + 1)] = lim 𝑥 lim (2𝑥 + 1) = 3(7) = 21
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 , … , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) =

THEOREM 7 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑛
𝐿𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim [𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑥) … 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐿1 𝐿2 … 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎

If lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿 and n is any positive integer, then

THEOREM 8 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛 ]
𝑥→𝑎

Example 5
4
lim (5𝑥 + 7)4 = [ lim (5𝑥 + 7)] = (−3)4 = 81
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

If lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 9
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
lim = 𝑖𝑓 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀

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Example 6

𝑥 lim x 4
𝑥→4
lim = =−
𝑥→4 −7 + 1 lim (−7𝑥 + 1) 27
𝑥→4

𝑛
If n is a positive integer and lim 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝐿, then lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 10
with the restriction that if n is even, 𝐿 > 0

Example 7

3
3 𝑥 3 𝑥 3 4 √4
lim √ = √lim = √− =−
𝑥→4 −7𝑥 + 1 𝑥→4 −7𝑥 + 1 27 3

For further understanding visit these links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwrLLAQrXEHc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xn4r4eagvnU

6.4. ONE – SIDED LIMITS

Objectives:

• Evaluate one sided limit.

• Limit in general Two-sided limits and one-sided limits how to find limits
numerically and graphically how to determine if the limit exists.

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open

DEFINITION 6.4.1 interval (a, c).Then the limit of f(x), as x approaches a from the
right, is L, written lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if for any 𝜖 > 0, however small,
𝑥→𝑎
there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such that if 0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝛿 then |𝑓(𝑥)| − 𝐿 < 𝜖

|𝑥| 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 0
Example 1 Let g be defined by 𝑔(𝑥 ) = {
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of g
(b) Find lim− 𝑔(𝑥) if it exists
𝑥→0

Solution:

(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of g

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(b) Find lim− 𝑔(𝑥) if it exists

𝑥→0
lim− 𝑔(𝑥) = lim− (−𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
lim+ 𝑔(𝑥) = lim+(𝑥 ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

4 − 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
Example 2 Let h be defined by ℎ(𝑥 ) = {
2 + 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑓 1 < 𝑥
(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of h
(b) Find each of the following limits if they exist:
lim− ℎ(𝑥); lim+ ℎ(𝑥 ); lim ℎ(𝑥 )
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Solution:

(a) Draw a sketch of the graph of h

(b) lim− ℎ(𝑥 ) = lim− (4 − 𝑥 2 ) = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
lim+ ℎ(𝑥 ) = lim+ (2 + 𝑥 2 ) = 3
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

For further understanding visit these links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rp4e_RySr0g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bV0RTtywt4g

6.5. INFINITE LIMITS

Objectives:

• Evaluate infinite limits.

• Interpret the behavior of functions using limits involving infinity.

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open

interval l containing a, except possibly at the number a itself. As x
DEFINITION 6.5.1 approaches a, f(x) increases without bound, which is written
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞ if for any number 𝑁 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such
𝑥→𝑎
that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎 | < 𝛿 then 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑁

−𝟑
Example 1 𝒈(𝒙) = (𝒙−𝟐)𝟐

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−𝟑
The function value given by 𝒈(𝒙) = are the negative of
(𝒙−𝟐)𝟐
𝟑
the function values given by 𝒇(𝒙) = . So, for the function g as x
(𝒙−𝟐)𝟐
approaches 2, either from the right or the left, g(x) decreases without
−𝟑
bound, and we write lim = −∞
𝑥→2 (𝒙−𝟐)𝟐

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open

interval l containing a, except possibly at the number a itself. As x
approaches a, f(x) decreases without bound, which is written
DEFINITION 6.5.2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ if for any number 𝑁 > 0 there exists a 𝛿 > 0 such
𝑥→𝑎
that if 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎 | < 𝛿 then 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑁

𝟐𝒙
Example 2 𝒉 ( 𝒙) =
𝒙−𝟏

𝟐𝒙
lim− = −∞
𝑥→1 𝒙−𝟏
𝟐𝒙
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→1 𝒙−𝟏
That is, for the function defined, as x approaches 1 through values less than 1, the
function values decrease without bound, and as x approaches 1 through values greater than 1,
the function values increase without bound.

If r is any positive integer, then

1
(i) lim+ 𝑥 𝑟 = +∞
6.5.3 LIMIT THEOREM 11 𝑥→1
1 −∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
(ii) lim+ 𝑥 𝑟 = {
𝑥→1 +∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

Illustration 1 From Limit Theorem 11

1 1
(i) It follows that lim+ = +∞ and lim+ 𝑥 4 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 3 𝑥→0
1 1
(ii) lim− 𝑥 3 = −∞ and lim− 𝑥 4 = +∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

If a is any real number, and if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑐,

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
where c is a constant not equal to 0 then
6.5.4 THEOREM
(i) If 𝑐 > 0 and if 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 through positive values of 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
lim = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)

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(ii) If 𝑐 > 0 and if 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 through positive values of 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
lim = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)
(iii) If 𝑐 < 0 and if 𝑓(𝑥) → 0 through positive values of 𝑓 (𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥)
lim = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)

Example 3
Find:
𝑥 2+𝑥+2 𝑥 2+𝑥+2
(a) lim+ 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 (b) lim− 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

Solution
𝑥 2+𝑥+2 𝑥 2+𝑥+2
(a) lim+ = lim+ (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)
𝑥→3 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 𝑥→3

The limit of the denominator is 0, and the denominator is approaching 0 through positive
values. Then from Limit Theorem 12(i),
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
𝑥 2+𝑥+2 𝑥 2+𝑥+2
(b) lim− = lim− (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)
𝑥→3 𝑥 2−2𝑥−3 𝑥→3

As in part (a), the limit of the numerator is 14.

lim (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = lim−(𝑥 − 3) lim−(𝑥 + 1) = 0(4) = 0
𝑥→3− 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

In this case, the limit of the denominator is 0, but the denominator is approaching 0
through negative values. Then from Limit Theorem 12(ii),

𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2
lim = −∞
𝑥→3− 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3

(i) If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞, lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
constant, then lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = +∞
6.5.5 THEOREM 𝑥→𝑎
(ii) If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −∞, lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
constant, then lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = −∞
𝑥→𝑎

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1 1 1
Illustration 2 Because lim+ = +∞ and lim+ 𝑥+2 = 4, it follows
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2
1 1
from Theorem 6.5.4 (i) that lim+ [𝑥−2 + 𝑥+2] = +∞
𝑥→2

If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞, lim 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any constant

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
except 0, then
6.5.6 THEOREM
(i) If 𝑐 > 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = +∞;
𝑥→𝑎
(ii) If 𝑐 < 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎
The Theorem is also valid if "𝒙 → 𝒂" is replaced by
"𝒙 → 𝒂+ " or "𝒙 → 𝒂− "

5 𝑥+4
Illustration 3 lim = +∞ and lim 𝑥−4 = −7
𝑥→3 (𝑥−3)2 𝑥→3

5 𝑥+4
Therefore, from Theorem 6.5.6 (ii), lim [( ) (𝑥−4)] = −∞
𝑥→3 (𝑥−3)2

If lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −∞, lim 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐, where c is any constant

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
except 0, then
6.5.7 THEOREM
(iii) If 𝑐 > 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = −∞;
𝑥→𝑎
(iv) If 𝑐 < 0, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎
The Theorem is also valid if "𝒙 → 𝒂" is replaced by
"𝒙 → 𝒂+ " or "𝒙 → 𝒂− "

√4−𝑥 2
Illustration 4 lim = −∞
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
𝑥−3 1
Furthermore, lim 𝑥+2 = − 4
𝑥→2

√4−𝑥 2 𝑥−3
Thus, from Theorem 6.5.7 (ii) it follows that , lim [( ) (𝑥+2)] = +∞
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

For further understanding visit these links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rp4e_RySr0g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bV0RTtywt4g

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6.6. ASYMPTOTE

Objectives:

• Calculate the limit of a function as increases or decreases without bound.

• Recognize a horizontal asymptote on the graph of a function.
• Estimate the end behavior of a function as increases or decreases without
bound.
• Recognize an oblique asymptote on the graph of a function.
• Analyze a function and its derivatives to draw its graph.

The line x=a is said to be vertical asymptote of the graph of the

function if at least one of the following statements is true:

DEFINITION 6.6.1 (i) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞

𝑥→𝑎 +
(ii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = −∞
𝑥→𝑎 +
(iii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +∞
𝑥→𝑎 −

Example 1 Find the vertical asymptote and draw a sketch of the graph of the
function defined by
3
𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥−3
Solution:
3 3
lim+ = +∞ lim− = −∞
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 𝑥→3 𝑥−3
It follows from Definition 6.6 that the line x=3 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.

The line y=b is said to be horizontal asymptote of the graph of

the function if at least one of the following statements is true:

(i) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏, and for some number N, if 𝑥 > 𝑁,

𝑥→+∞
DEFINITION 6.6.2 then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑏
(ii) lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑏, and for some number N, if 𝑥 < 𝑁,
𝑥→−∞
then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑏

Example 2 Find the horizontal asymptotes and draw a sketch of the graph of the function
𝑥
defined by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 2
√𝑥 +1

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Solution

First, consider lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑟

𝑥→+∞
𝑥
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥2 + 1
We divide the numerator and denominator by √𝑥 2 and we have
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 √𝑥2 |𝑥|
lim = lim = lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥2 +1 𝑥→+∞ 2 𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥2 + 12 √𝑥 +
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2
Because x → +∞, x > 0; therefore |x| = x. Thus
𝑥
𝑥 |𝑥|
lim = lim
𝑥→+∞ √𝑥2 +1 𝑥→+∞ 1
√𝑥 +
𝑥2
lim 1
𝑥→+∞
=
1
lim 1 + lim
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2

1
= =1
√1 + 0
Therefore, by Definition 6.6.2 (i), the line y=1 is a horizontal asymptote.

For further understanding visit these links

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt67Y2FpSI0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIEFmfiNis

REFERENCES

Louis Leithold. The Calculus With Analytic Geometry. Sixth Edition.

CHAPTER 6 12