Frog

Comparative Vertebrate Embryology SY 2014-2015
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG EMBRYO

4MM FROG EMBRYO
WHOLE MOUNT
 characterized by the presence of tail, neural tube, notochord, and segmented
mesoderm and fin folds
 neural system: prosencephalon – foremost part, mesencephalon – middle part,
rhombencephalon – hind part
 epiphysis – slight mid-dorsal evagination of the brain vesicle, will become the
pineal body in adult
olfactory placodes
 thickenings on the lateral surface of the head anterior
 have cavities known as olfactory pits
lens placode
 paired thickenings of the head endoderm
 will evaginate to form the lens vesicle, then eye lens
notochord
 extends from the midbrain up to the posterior end of
the body
 somites – subdivided mesoderm that flanks the
notochord on each side
TRANSVERSE SECTION
Level of Prosencephalon and Nasal Rudiments
prosencephalon
 anterior part of the embryonic brain
 cavity is prosocoel
mesenchyme
 embryonic connective tissue
 mesoderm and neural crest cell derived
 later forms predominantly connective tissues
head mesenchyme
 fills the spaces between the presumptive epidermis and walls of prosencephalon
olfactory placodes
 paired pigment invaginations on either sides of prosocoel
epidermis
 outermost skin layer
 ectoderm derived
Level of Mesencephalon and Optic Cups
mesencephalon
 appears dorsal to portion of prosencephalon called infundibulum
 mid-region of the developing embryonic brain with thick roof
 mesocoel – brain cavity
 also known as midbrain
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oral cavity
 cavity at the cranial end of alimentary canal
 more or less spherical in appearance
stomodeum
 ectodermal rudiment of mouth
 formed by invagination of ectoderm at anteroventral region of head
hypophysis
 small knot of tissue ventral to infundibulum, develops as an inward growing cord
of ectoderm from
stomodeum, will form anterior portion of pituitary gland
 solid ingrowth or nodular aggregation of cells lying between the oral and brain
cavity
 may be used to describe:
o invagination of the stomodeum which fuses with the infundibulum to form pituitary
gland
o endocrine gland formed from an ingrowth from the stomodeum (Rathke’s pocket) and
infundibulum
 also known as pituitary gland
infundibulum
 funnel-like depression of prosencephalon, part of which forms the posterior lobe
of pituitary gland together with
stomodeum
 seen as smaller, ventral component of diencephalon with thin roof and thick sides
mandibular arch
 most cranial branchial arch
 forming the caudal border of stomodeum
 maxillary process cranial to stomodeum
adhesive glands
 paired ectodermal thickenings found in ventral surface of anuran embryos
 secrete adhesive mucus for attachment to floating objects
 also known as cement glands, mucous glands, oral suckers
optic vesicle
 evagination from lateral wall of prosencephalon
 first indication of formation of eye
 its walls will give rise to various ectodermal parts of eye, except lens and
cornea
optic cup
 double-walled structure formed by invagination of distal portion of optic vesicle
 inner layer should be thicker than outer layer
optic stalk
 connection of optic cup with the brain
Level of Rhombencephalon
Section through the anterior pharynx
rhombencephalon
 most caudal region of the brain of developing embryo with a thin roof
 rhombocoel – cavity
 also known as hindbrain
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notochord
 round structure originating from mesoderm
 lying dorsal to gut and ventral to hindbrain
 defines the anterior/posterior axis in developing embryo
 provides skeletal support during early development
pharynx
 broad region of foregut
 paired evagination corresponds to pharyngeal pouches
otic
 paired invagination of otic placode
 laterally located and slightly ventral to brain
 when separated from head ectoderm, will form inner ear
 also known as auditory vesicle
Section through the embryonic heart
heart
 located beneath enlarged foregut
 appears suspended within pericardial coelom by dorsal mesocardium
 pericardial coelom delimited by thin layer of somatic mesoderm called pericardium
(membrane enclosing the
heart)
 pericardium – formation is brought about by migration of heart mesoderm to
midventral region of pericardial
cavity
 two layers of the heart
o endocardium – inner endothelial layer of heart, will form the lining of heart
wall
o epimyocardium – outer layer, will form the muscle
Section through the liver diverticulum
mesomeres
 paired bulges of tissue just below the horizontal level of notochord
 have begun to develop pronephric tubules
 may be called pronephros or pronephric kidney
liver diverticulum
 extremely deep groove at the floor of the pharynx
 rudiment of the liver
Section through the pronephros
spinal cord
 cavity that replaces the hindbrain
 smaller than the hindbrain
 thick lateral sides almost touches at the roof part
pronephros
 paired structure located on lateral side of specimen
 appear as spherical/elongated structures clustered together
 initial organ found in developing vertebrate embryos
 functional in larval amphibians and fish
 degenerates and is replaced by mesonephric kidney in adults
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somites
 segmented mesodermal blocks located on either side of spinal cord
 arise from dorsal mesoderm
 will differentiate into:
o sclerotome – located above the neural tube and notochord, forms part of the axial
skeleton
o myotome – forms muscle
o dermatome – forms the dermal layer of skin
Section though the midgut
spinal cord
 gradually tapers off in diameter form rhombencephalon to caudal end
 diameter approximates that of notochord
subnotochordal rod
 small knot of cells wedged between notochord and midgut
 transient structure of endodermal origin
 unknown function, will later disappear
Section through the hindgut
proctodeum
 ectodermal invagination that meets with the endoderm of the hindgut
cloacal membrane (ectodermal and endodermal plate)
 delicate strands of tissue between proctodeum and hindgut
 will become perforated to form the posterior opening of the digestive tract
dorsal fin
 flat extension of the body wall along the dorsal midline of the trunk and tail
 degenerates during the metamorphosis of tadpole
hindgut
 posterior most region of embryonic gut
 will form cloaca, colon, small intestine, and rectum
proctodeum
 ectodermal invagination on the ventral side of the trunk at the base
 later breaks into the hindgut forming the anus
 also known as anal pit
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7MM FROG EMBRYO

WHOLE MOUNT
well-formed external gills and a functional heart
embryo has changed its shape and has become a tadpole
tail – serves as a powerful swimming organ, provided with lateral segmented somites
and finfolds on the dorsal
ventral sides
forebrain – has further differentiated into telencephalon (two hemispheres) and
diencephalon
stomodeum – deeply invaginated
olfactory pit – surrounded by large
pigmented cells
epiphysis – formed by circular knob of cells
that are separated from the brain
notochord extends up to tail, head and
trunk are bloated, midgut is excluded
hindgut does not lose its cavity but persists
as cloaca
dorsal wall of hindgut becomes extended
into tail rudiment as post anal gut, which
later is broken down and will disappear
in amphibians, hindgut gives rise to ventral
evagination, urinary bladder
TRANSVERSE SECTION
Level of the Telencephalon and Olfactory Pits
 large indentation on the ventral surface of the embryo marks the beginning of the
oral cavity
 oral plate has become perforated
 embryo now has an open mouth
telencephalon
 paired hemispheres occupying the anterior region of forebrain
diencephalon
 posterior division of the prosencephalon
olfactory pit
 will subsequently develop into nasal passages with olfactory receptors
 appears as a cavity on the lateral surface of the head
epiphysis
 slight middorsal evagination of the brain vesicle
 will become the pineal body in the adult
head mesenchyme
 loose mesenchymal cells formed between the head ectoderm and the brain
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Level of the Diencephalon and Optic Cups
 oral cavity is visible surrounded by presumptive jaw cartilages
diencephalon
 posterior half of forebrain
 appears as deep, laterally compressed region
 optic stalks, infundibulum, and epiphysis are attached
mesencephalon
 part of brain located posterior to the eye
 center for reflexes associated with vision, hearing, and movement of head
optic cup
 seen lateral to the brain
 outer pigmented layer and inner retinal portion of the optic cup can be
distinguished
 lens vesicle – lies in its concavity
pharynx
 large and more rounded
 clustered mass of cells on each side will give rise to mandibular arch (posterior
border of stomodeum)
stomodeum
 appears as deep invagination of the pigmented, midventral ectoderm at the
anterior end of pharynx
adhesive glands
 paired ectodermal thickenings found on ventral surface of head
 secrete adhesive mucus for attachment to floating objects
 also known as cement glands, mucous glands, oral suckers
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Level of the Rhombencephalon

Section through the thyroid
below mesencephalon, small portion of the wall f infundibulum is evident
lateral to floor of mesencephalon, developing cranial nerve ganglion can be
observed
cranial nerve ganglion – part of the peripheral nervous system, derived from neural
crest cells
shape of pharynx – width of pharyngeal cavity greatly exceeds the height
thyroid – arises as an invagination of the endodermal cells from pharyngeal floor
Section through the otic vesicle

rhombencephalon
 roof composed of single layer of flat cells
 third brain vesicle which expands anteriorly to form the IV ventricle
 internal organization shows an unmistakable similarity to that of the spinal cord
 will further differentiate into the metencephalon (anterior) and myelencephalon
(posterior)
notochord
 defines the anterior/posterior axis in the developing embryo
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otic vesicle
 irregularly hallow organ on each side of hindbrain
 closed chamber formed by invagination of the otic placode
 will develop into inner ears
heart
 lies beneath the pharynx
 truncus arteriosus – most anterior part, evident within pericardial coelom
 has four subdivisions (anterior-posterior):
o truncus arteriosus
o ventricle
o atrium
o sinus venosus
 blood flows through embryonic heart from posterior to anterior
bulbus cordis
 most anterior heart chamber
pericardial coelom
 cavity that surrounds the heart
 bounded by pericardium
Section through the heart
esophageal plug
 mass of cells that temporarily blocks the esophagus before the amphibian larva
begins to feed
atrium
 chamber of the heart that receives blood from the sinus venosus and delivers
blood to the ventricle
 seen above the ventricle, observed as thin-walled chamber almost filled with
blood
external gills
 filamentous respiratory organ, has finger-like projections that protrude from
sides of the head
 arises from the branchial arches 3 to 6
 replaced by internal gills
Level of the Spinal Cord
Section through the pronephros and midgut
glomus
 two triangular-shaped structures seen ventral to dorsal aorta that hang down into
the coelomic cavity
 tufts of small blood vessels surrounded on their lateral and ventral surfaces by
thin wall of coelom
 functional components of pronephric kidney
 where waste products are diffused from into the coelomic fluid
spinal cord
 arises from the posterior most region of neural tube
somite
 segmented mesodermal blocks located on either side of developing spinal cord
 arises from dorsal mesoderm
 will differentiate into: sclerotome (located above neural tube and notochord)
which forms part of the axial
skeleton, myotome which forms muscle, and dermatome which forms the dermal layer of
skin
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dorsal aorta
 primitive, paired longitudinal arteries of the trunk
 lying beneath notochord anterior to gut
pronephros
 initial excretory organ found in developing vertebrate embryos
 nitrogenous wastes are passed from pronephric tubules → pronephric ducts →
hindgut (cloaca) → exterior
 functional in larval amphibians and fish
 later replaced by mesonephric kidney
nephrostomes
 funnel-shaped opening of pronephric tubules
 where coelomic fluid is swept
midgut
 middle part of gut with a small lumen and having a thick, yolky floor
 derived from archenterons
 will give rise to small intestine
Section through cloaca
dorsal fin
 extension of body wall along mid-dorsal side of trunk and tail
 degenerates in older specimens
cloaca
 posteriormost chamber in the vertebrate digestive system
proctodeum
 ectodermal invagination on the ventral side of the trunk at the base of the tail
 will give rise to anus
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10MM FROG EMBRYO
WHOLE MOUNT
(same as whole mount 7mm)
TRANSVERSE SECTION
Level of the Telencephalon and Olfactory Organs
telencephalon
 anterior division of the prosencephalon
 is paired and each unit is roughly hemispherical but flattened at midline
 each contains a cavity (lateral ventricle) formed by evagination of side of
neural tube at the anterior end of
neurocoel
Layers of brain wall:
 ependymal layer
o one-cell think, ciliated layer immediately surrounding the neurocoel
o cilia – aid in movement of cerebrospinal fluid in ventricles of brain and in
central canal of the spinal cord
 mantle layer
o broad layer adjacent to ependymal layer
o will form gray matter of central nervous system
 marginal layer
o outermost layer
o contains neuroblasts from inner layers and fibers
o will form the white matter of central nervous system
nasal organ
 found at the region of telencephalon and lying ventrolateral to it
 tubular organ formed by invagination of ectoderm
 olfactory nerve connecting the olfactory lobes to the brain arises from the
olfactory epithelium
 also known as olfactory organ
external naris
 opening of the nasal cavity to the outside
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 marks the point of original ectodermal invagination
internal naris
 opening of the nasal cavity into the buccal region
 also known as choana
frontal organ
 arises as an evagination of diencephalic roof together with epiphysis
 beneath epidermis, migrates forward from region of diencephalon to region of
telencephalon
 contains photoreceptors and may function as a “third eye”
Jacobson’s organ
 saccular structure formed by evagination of nasal organ
 may function in picking up the smell of food from buccal region
 also known as vomeronasal organ
buccal cavity
 region where nasal cavity and mouth opens
 lined with epithelium and is derived from stomodeum
 jaws are tipped with horny material and tooth germs
 oral papillae – lobose structures external to jaws
prechordal cartilage
 hyaline cartilage beneath telencephalon
 will form cartilaginous cranium (chondrocranium)
 also known as trabecular cartilage
melanocytes
 stellate cells scattered over dorsolateral region of brain and lateral to nasal
organs
 fine granules of melanin – light brown individually, black in aggregate
mesenchyme
 stellate, mesodermal cells filling up the space between organs and epidermis
 form a loose reticulum, with outermost cells forming the dermis of integument
epidermis
 outer layer of skin composed of two strata of ectodermal cells
Level of the Diencephalon and the Eye
diencephalon
 posterior subdivision of prosencephalon
 ventrally elongated and possesses a cavity (III ventricle)
infundibulum
 funnel-like evagination of diencephalic floor
 subsequently evaginates posterior or neural lobe of pituitary together with
stomodeum
 in more posterior sections, seen as smaller, ventral component with thin roof and
thick sides
mesencephalon
 middle region of brain dorsal to diencephalons
rd
th
 bears 3 and 4 cranial nerves
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 possesses a cavity known as cerebral aqueduct
pituitary body
 oval mass beneath the thin floor of infundibulum
 endocrine gland derived from infundibulum and solid ingrowth from stomodeum
 also known as hypophysis
Structures of eye:
 optic cup
o retina – thick inner layer of optic cup, differentiated into following layers:
 layer of ganglian cells – innermost sublayer of retina, axons of nerve cells in
this sublayer form the optic
nerve, optic chiasma is the region where optic nerves cross in the floor of
diencephalon
 layer of bipolar neurons – middle layer of cells that will synapse the receptor
and ganglian cells
 rods and cones – outermost sublayer of retina where photoreceptoral process is
formed
o pigmented epithelium – outer wall of optic cup formed from medial half of optic
vesicle, forms iris of the eye
 lens – spherical body, partly enclosed by optic cup is formed by thickenings of
inner wall of lens vesicle
o lens epithelium – one-cell thick outer layer
o lens fibers – columnar cells at the core of lens, will become long fibers
arranged in layers
 cornea – superficial covering of eye formed by assembly of ectodermal and
mesodermal cells between ectoderm
and lens
 choroid and sclera – outer investments of optic cup, represented by mesodermal
cells aggregating outside the
pigmented epithelium
pharynx
 broad gut
 lined by endodermal cells
hypobranchial cartilages
 long masses of cartilages under the floor of foregut
 make up parts of visceral skeleton and support the pharynx
thyroid
 pair of small endocrine bodies associated with pharynx
 located beneath hypobranchial cartilages
skeletal muscle
 mesodermal masses lying on lateral and ventral side of pharynx
oral suckers
 pair of glandular structures on ventral surface of tadpole
 composed of elongated columnar cells
 produce a sticky slime for attachment to floating objects
 also known as cement glands, mucous glands, adhesive glands
Level of the Myelencephalon and Auditory Vesicle
myelencephalon
 most posterior region of brain with a thick floor (basal plates)
 thin roof becomes vascularized to form posterior choroids plexus
 cavity is the IV ventricle
auditory vesicle – completely hallow organ on each side of medulla
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 endolymphatic duct – thick-walled tube between medulla and ear vesicle, marks the
course of invagination of
auditory vesicle form ectoderm
 utriculus – large dorsal chamber of ear vesicle
 semicircular canals – three mutually perpendicular folds of auditory vesicle,
sensory epithelium is the thickened
horizontal canal
 sacculus – ill-defined ventral chamber of auditory vesicle, forms the lagena in
lower invertebrates, gives rise to
cochlea in higher vertebrates
auditory capsule
 mesenchymal cells surrounding the auditory vesicle
 will form the cartilaginous ear capsule that surrounds and protects the inner ear
auditory ganglion
 mass of nerve cells in medial side of auditory vesicle
 also known as acoustic ganglion
notochord
 defines the anterior/posterior axis in the developing embryo
 mesenchymal cells will give rise to notochordal sheath
parachordals
 cartilages flanking the notochord on each side
heart – lightly coiled tube twisted to the right
 pericardial cavity – chamber enclosing the heart
 conus arteriosus – most anterior region of heart connecting the ventricle with
the ventral aorta, also known as
bulbus cordis
 ventricle – heart chamber with thick muscular wall that follows and is connected
to conus
 atrium – dorsal, thin-walled chamber that receives blood from sinus venosus and
delivers it to ventricle
 sinus venosus – most posterior chamber lying on the right, anterior to liver,
receives venous blood and delivers it
to atrium
opercular cavity
 paired chamber continuous with gut and lying on each side of the heart
 contains internal gills with branchial blood vessels
 also known as gill chamber
dorsal aorta
 blood vessel located above each gill chamber
aortic arches
 blood vessels lying within the branchial arches and encircling the pharynx
 connect the dorsal aorta with ventral aorta
ganglia
 facial ganglion (VII) – large mass of nerve cell bodies anterior to auditory
ganglion, acoustico-facialis ganglion is
the body arising from fusion of facial and auditory ganglia, also known as
geniculate ganglion
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 trigeminal ganglion (V) – larger mass of nerve cell bodies anterior and dorsal to
acoustico-facialis ganglion, also
known as semilunar ganglion
 glossopharyngeal ganglion (IX) – mass of nerve cell bodies below each auditory
vesicle
operculum
 external wall of opercular cavity formed by body fold
metencephalon
 anterior subdivision of rhombencephalon, lies behind optic lobes and medial to V
ganglion
Level of the Pronephros and the First Spinal Ganglion
spinal cord
 derived from posterior region of neural tube
neural canal
 cavity that is laterally compressed by thick lateral walls of spinal cord
 ependymal cells that line the central canal possess cilia and pigment granules
 also known as central canal
gray matter
 inner layer of spinal cord close to ependyma
 composed of compact mass of neuroblast and neuroglia
white matter
 peripheral layer of spinal cord
 containing axons of neurons in gray matter
meninges
 membranous covering of central nervous system
first spinal ganglia
 masses of nerve cell bodies ventrolateral to spinal cord
myotomes
 thickened primordial of skeletal muscles on each side of notochord
 skeletal muscle fibers are arranged longitudinally
pleuroperitoneal cavity
 coelomic cavity containing viscera except heart
 pleural cavity that contains lungs and peritoneal cavity that contains digestive
organs, associated glands, kidney,
and reproductive organs are still continuous
esophagus
 tubular organ with folded mucosal lining located below notochord
dorsal aorta
 paired blood vessel between notochord and esophagus
 will fuse into a single blood vessel posteriorly
pronephros
 paired excretory organs that arise from nephrotome
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 located at ventrolateral region of body cavity
pronephric tubules
 ducts of pronephros lined by cuboidal epithelium
posterior cardinal veins
 blood vessels within pronephros
 supplies latter with blood
nephrostome
 opening of pronephric tubules into coelom
nephric duct
 lone duct observed at most caudal section of pronephros
 moves medially and eventually joins cloaca where it empties its contents
glomus
 two triangular-shaped structures seen ventrally to dorsal aorta that hang down
into the coelomic cavity
 tufts of small blood vessels surrounded on their lateral and ventral surfaces by
thin wall of coelom
 functional components of pronephric kidney
 where waste products are diffused from into the coelomic fluid
stomach
 posterior continuation of esophagus with folded lining and thick muscular walls
 evaginations of endodermal lining form rudiments of gastric glands
duodenum
 region of gut between the pyloric end of stomach and intestine
 represented in upper right corner of body cavity
intestine
 located posterior to duodenum
 filled with abundant yolk platelets
liver
 highly vascularized and enlarged organ to the right of midline
 sinusoids – spaces
gall bladder
 once-cell thick, large vesicle associated with liver
bile duct
 thick-walled tube that appears in place of gall bladder
pancreas
 large organ within curvature of stomach
 located to the right of liver and bile duct
 identified by presence of nest cells (alveoli) surrounding small ducts
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Comparative Vertebrate Embryology SY 2014-2015

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG EMBRYO

7MM FROG EMBRYO

Level of the Rhombencephalon

Section through the otic vesicle

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