THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Special Paper 416 OF AMERICA

Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes
and Palustrine Carbonates

edited by

Ana María Alonso-Zarza

Departamento Petrología y Geoquímica
Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas
Universidad Complutense de Madrid
28040 Madrid
Spain

Lawrence H. Tanner
Department of Biological Sciences
Le Moyne College
Syracuse, New York 13214
USA

Special Paper 416

3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140 Boulder, Colorado 80301-9140, USA

2006
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Paleoenvironmental record and applications of calcretes and palustrine carbonates / edited by

Ana María Alonso-Zarza, Lawrence H. Tanner.
p. cm.--(Special paper; 416)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-10 0813724163 (pbk.)
ISBN-13 9780813724164 (pbk.)
1. Calcretes. 2. Rocks, Carbonate. 3. Paleopedology. I. Alonso-Zarza, Ana María, 1962-.
II. Tanner, Lawrence H. III. Special papers (Geological Society of America) ; 416.

QE471.15.C27.P35 2007
552/.58--dc22 2006041338

Cover: View of laterally continuous pedogenic calcretes in the Upper Triassic (Norian) Owl Rock
Formation (Chinle Group), northern Arizona. Photo by L.H. Tanner. Back cover: Recent vertical
calcrete formed by the penetration of tree roots on Miocene deposits of the Madrid Basin,
Guadalajara, Spain. Photo by A.M. Alonso-Zarza.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ii
 Contents
Preface .........................................................................................................................................................v

Ancient Landscapes, Climate and Sequence Boundaries

1. Calcic pedocomplexes—Regional sequence boundary indicators in Tertiary deposits

of the Great Plains and western United States ...................................................................................1
D.L. Hanneman and C.J. Wideman

2. A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate controls on paleosol morphology and
chemistry across the Carnian-age Ischigualasto–Villa Union basin, northwestern Argentina .....17
N.J. Tabor, I.P. Montañez, K.A. Kelso, B. Currie, T. Shipman, and C. Colombi

3. Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols:

A case study in paleosol taphonomy from the Lower Old Red Sandstone .......................................43
S.B. Marriott and V.P. Wright

4. Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group, Four Corners region, southwestern
United States: Climatic implications .................................................................................................53
L.H. Tanner and S.G. Lucas

5. Estimates of atmospheric CO2 levels during the mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope
composition of paleosol calcite from Israel ......................................................................................75
A. Sandler

6. Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till in Taylor Valley, Southern

Victoria Land, Antarctica ..................................................................................................................89
K.K. Foley, W.B. Lyons, J.E. Barrett, and R.A. Virginia

Sedimentary Environments and Facies

7. Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in Upper Oligocene alluvial fans of

the Montgat area (Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain) .......................................................................105
D. Parcerisa, D. Gómez-Gras, and J.D. Martín-Martín

8. The role of clastic sediment influx in the formation of calcrete and palustrine facies:
A response to paleographic and climatic conditions in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin
(northern Spain) ..............................................................................................................................119
I. Armenteros and P. Huerta

9. The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones in Upper Silesia (southern Poland) and their
paleoenvironmental context ............................................................................................................133
J. Szulc, M. Gradziński, A. Lewandowska, and C. Heunisch

iii
iv Contents

10. A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments: The Quaternary deposits
of Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands, Ciudad Real, Spain ................................................................153
A.M. Alonso-Zarza, M. Dorado-Valiño, A. Valdeolmillos-Rodríguez, and M. Blanca Ruiz-Zapata

11. Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine sedimentation around the K-T

boundary (Faciès Rognacien, northeastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France)..............169
D. Marty and C.A. Meyer

12. Reworked Microcodium calcarenites interbedded in pelagic sedimentary rocks (Paleocene,

Subbetic, southern Spain): Paleoenvironmental reconstruction ...................................................189
J.M. Molina, J.A. Vera, and R. Aguado

Dating of Calcretes: Applications

13. Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete in the Triassic New Haven Arkose
(Newark Supergroup) ......................................................................................................................203
E.T. Rasbury, E.H. Gierlowski-Kordesch, J.M. Cole, C. Sookdeo, G. Spataro, and J. Nienstedt

14. Calcrete features and age estimates from U/Th dating: Implications for the analysis of
Quaternary erosion rates in the northern limb of the Sierra Nevada range (Betic Cordillera,
southeast Spain) ...............................................................................................................................223
J.M. Azañón, P. Tuccimei, A. Azor, I.M. Sánchez-Almazo, A.M. Alonso-Zarza, M. Soligo,
and J.V. Pérez-Peña
 Preface

The study of ancient soils continues at an accelerating pace as more geologists recognize the value of
these ancient land surfaces as archives of important paleotopographic, paleoenvironmental, and paleoclimatic
information. Indeed, a survey of one database yields over 600 citations containing the keyword “paleosol”
for just the first half of this decade, compared to only one-fourth this number from the first half of the 1990s!
Not all of these publications presented detailed descriptions and interpretations of paleosols, certainly, but
many were broader studies that incorporated the description of ancient soil surfaces into examinations of
tectonics, basin evolution, sedimentary processes, or climate change. Clearly, the variety of paleosols and
their potential applications to geological problems is enormous. Given the breadth of this subject, we chose
to focus this volume on the topic of calcretes and the closely related subject, palustrine carbonates.
Calcretes are perhaps the most commonly described of paleosols, owing to their ready preservation
in the rock record and relative ease of recognition. The term calcrete, synonymous with caliche, is widely
applied, although it is neither the name of a soil order nor of a soil horizon. In a broad sense, calcretes are,
as proposed by Watts (1980, p. 663; after Goudie, 1973), “terrestrial materials composed dominantly, but
not exclusively, of CaCO3, which occurs in states ranging from nodular and powdery to highly indurated,
and result mainly from the displacive and/or replacive introduction of vadose carbonate into greater or
lesser quantities of soil, rock, or sediment within a soil profile.” This definition was restricted to calcretes
of pedogenic origin, however Wright and Tucker (1991) later expanded the term calcrete to include, as
initially recommended by Netterberg (1980), the effects of shallow groundwater. This broader sense sug-
gests the importance of the interaction between sediments undergoing active pedogenesis and shallow
groundwaters.
Palustrine carbonates exhibit many similarities with calcretes. As described by Freytet (1984, p. 231),
a palustrine limestone “must show the characteristics of the primary lacustrine deposit (organisms, sedi-
mentary features) and characteristics due to later transformations (organisms, root traces, desiccation, pedo-
genic remobilizations).” Palustrine carbonates are common in alluvial sequences, often in association with
calcretes, but their widespread recognition has been attained more slowly. Indeed, much of the research on
alluvial carbonates has focused exclusively on either palustrine carbonates or calcretes, when in fact there is
often a spatial transition from one to the other, revealing an interplay between pedogenic, sedimentary, and
diagenetic processes.
Indisputably, these deposits contain information that is significant to the interpretation of the sedimen-
tary record and the evolution of the landscape in both recent and ancient settings (Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
These terrestrial carbonates are widely distributed on floodplains and in the distal reaches of alluvial basins.
Their presence and characteristics can be used as indicators of aggradation, subsidence or changing accom-
modation rates, and therefore as indicators of different tectonic regimes. Although calcretes and palustrine
carbonates are both commonly associated with semiarid climates, more detailed climatic information can
be obtained from the depths of the carbonate-bearing horizons within paleosol profiles and from the oxygen
isotope signature of the carbonate. The carbon-isotope composition, on the other hand, has been used quite
successfully to track changes in atmospheric pCO2 through the Phanerozoic. Vegetation is important to the
formation of many of these types of carbonates, and data on the prevailing vegetation may be obtained some-
times from the analysis of the micro- and macrofabric of the carbonate.
This volume was inspired by a technical session on the topic of calcretes and palustrine carbonates
(chaired by us) that was held at the 32nd International Geological Congress in Florence in August 2004. Six
of the contributions presented here were first delivered at this meeting, and the volume grew with additional
v
vi Preface

contributions that provided both a broad overview of calcretes and palustrine carbonates and the “state of the
art” of their application. The papers presented here cover a wide array of environmental settings and ages
of deposits where calcretes and palustrine occur. Moreover, the papers included in this monograph discuss
a number of interesting applications, including: a possible modern analogue for palustrine carbonates, the
interplay between palustrine, pedogenic and diagenetic processes, the utility of radio-isotopic dating of pedo-
genic carbonates and its application to understanding the evolution of recent landscapes, the reconstruction
of a diagenetic sequence, and the climatic and geomorphic controls on calcrete formation. The papers have
been arranged in three groups.
Papers that apply calcretes and palustrine carbonates to the reconstruction of ancient landscapes, climate
and sequence boundaries comprise the first group. Hanneman and Wideman illustrate the utility of calcic
pedocomplexes in delineating regional unconformities that are large-scale sequence boundaries. Their study,
focused on the Tertiary of the Great Plains, shows that these pedocomplexes have distinct physical proper-
ties that allow their identification in seismic sections and well logs. Tabor and co-authors demonstrate that
the distribution of the fluvial channel sandstones and the characteristics of the paleosols are both controlled
by geomorphic evolution during deposition of the Triassic Ischigualasto Formation in northwest Argentina.
The preservational bias in paleosol formation is described in the contribution by Marriott and Wright. These
authors analyzed mid-Paleozoic paleosols from the Lower Old Red Sandstone and show that reactivated,
truncated cumulate horizons provide a means of assessing the dynamics of floodplains, including those from
before the advent of rooted vascular plants in the mid-Paleozoic. The fourth paper, by Tanner and Lucas,
relates the potential climatic control on the morphology of Upper Triassic paleosols in the Chinle Group of
the southwestern United States. Temporal changes in the types of paleosols and the maturity of calcretes
suggest a gradual aridification across the Colorado Plateau during the Late Triassic. Sandler uses the isotopic
composition of Mid-Turonian paleosol carbonate to estimate the atmospheric pCO2 level for this interval.
His results, which indicate high mid-Turonian pCO2, correspond with the high temperatures that prevailed at
that time. The last paper of this group, by Foley and co-authors, demonstrates that the relatively low carbon-
ate concentrations in Antarctic polar desert soils can be attributed to the shallow active layer, low rates of
weathering, and the extreme aridity of the landscape. Moreover, the differences in CaCO3 concentrations in
these soils correlate with landscape position with respect to elevation and distance from the coast.
Six papers dealing with the sedimentary environments and facies of calcretes and palustrine carbonates
comprise the second group. These papers provide an overview of the interrelationships between calcretes
and palustrine carbonates in terrestrial environments, focusing on their similarities and on problems in their
interpretations. Notably, some papers discuss the lack of a recent analogue for ancient palustrine carbon-
ates. In the first contribution to this group, Parcerisa and co-authors analyze the geochemistry of calcretes,
oncolites and lacustrine limestones formed during the Upper Oligocene in two coalescent alluvial fans. They
find that the trace element and isotopic composition of the limestones were controlled mainly by the fluvial
regime and the lithology and altitude of the catchment areas in the sedimentary basin. Armenteros and Huerta
studied calcretes and associated palustrine of the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin. The characteristics of
both carbonate facies indicate their accumulation in semiarid climates with scarce clastic sediment supply,
and that meter-scale cyclicity of the carbonate and siliciclastic sediments was controlled mostly by climate.
The interrelationship between spring, fluvial, palustrine, and pedogenic facies is discussed by Szulc and col-
laborators in their study of the Upper Triassic freshwater carbonates from the Upper Silesian basin. These
carbonates were deposited within a shallow swampy depression, fed by springs of deep-circulating ground-
water. Alonso-Zarza and co-authors focused their study on a recent core in Las Tablas de Daimiel, Spain, one
of the few freshwater wetlands preserved in southern Europe. Their studies of the core, including mineral-
ogy, petrography, stables isotopes and pollen analyses indicates that these sediments are similar of those of
ancient palustrine sequences, suggesting that Las Tablas is a suitable recent analogue for freshwater palus-
trine sequences. Marty and Meyer analyze in detail a palustrine sequence (Faciès Rognacien) encompassing
the K-T boundary in southwestern France. The facies association indicates a seasonal, palustrine wetland
system, with ephemeral ponds surrounded by vegetated areas of freshwater marshes under subarid to inter-
mediate climates. The last paper of this group, by Molina and co-authors, describes an unusual occurrence
of various types of calcarenites containing reworked Microcodium prisms. Their study of Paleocene marine
deposits from southern Spain indicates that the Microcodium was reworked from exposed inland areas, thus
providing evidence of emersion and clarifying the palebathymetry of the adjacent pelagic deposits.
 Preface vii

The final section contains two papers on different types of calcretes to which radio-isotopic dating
techniques have been applied. Rasbury and co-authors describe the importance of cement stratigraphy to
the application of U-Pb dating of calcite in Triassic calcretes from the New Haven Arkose, and demonstrate
further that this analysis is a useful tool for distinguishing between pedogenic versus nonpedogenic calcrete.
U-Th dating of calcretes is used to constrain the evolution of the Quaternary Ranges in the Betic Cordillera
by Azañón and co-authors. These authors describe how rapid incision by the rivers, and subsequent capture
of the Guadix by the Guadalquivir River is constrained by initial dissection of a calcrete layer dated at 42
ka. This age is used to calculate the incision and erosion rates, demonstrating once again that calcretes play
a major role in the evolution of landscape in many arid and semiarid regions.
This collection of papers in its final form would not have been possible without the work of the review-
ers who dedicated their time to careful reviews and revisions. We were truly lucky to have the help of the fol-
lowing colleagues: J. Andrews, C. Arenas, B. Barclay, J. Bockheim, G. Bowen, Ll. Cabrera, J. Casanova, E.
Cheney, C. De Wet, S. Dunagan, M.A. García del Cura, P. Ghosh, R. Goldstein, A.D. Harvey, M. Joeckel, A.
Kosir, J. López, G. Marion, A. Martín-Algarra, P. McCarthy, D. Nash, R. Palma, T. Peryt, N. Platt, G. Retal-
lack, D. Royer, Y. Sánchez-Moya, P.G. Silva, A.R. Soria, R. Swennen, M. Talbot, S.K. Tandon, A. Travé, D.
Valero-Garcés, D. Varrone, and J. Wilkinson. Our sincere thanks also go to our departments: Departamento
de Petrología y Geoquímica de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid and the Department of Biological
Sciences of Le Moyne College. We also have a special remembrance for F. Calvet, one of the pioneers in
the studies of calcretes in Spain who passed away a few years ago. His ideas are tangibly present throughout
this volume.
We hope the reader finds this collection of papers both stimulating and informative. This collection will,
ideally, constitute a base for understanding how calcretes and palustrine carbonates form an integral part of
ancient and recent landscapes and contribute to the broader knowledge of continental basins and their geo-
morphic features.

REFERENCES CITED

Alonso-Zarza, A.M., 2003, Palaeoenvironmental significance of palustrine carbonates and calcretes in the geological record: Earth-
Science Reviews, v. 60, p. 261–298, doi: 10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00106-X.
Freytet, P., 1984, Les sédiments lacustres carbonatés et leurs transformations par émersion et pédogénèse: Importance de leur identi-
fication pour les reconstitutions paléogéographiques: Bulletin Centres Rechercher Exploration-Production Elf-Aquitaine, v. 8,
no. 1, p. 223–246.
Goudie, A.S., 1973, Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtropical Landscapes: Clarendon, Oxford, 174 p.
Netterberg, F., 1980, Geology of southern African calcretes: 1. Terminology, description, macrofeatures and classification: Transac-
tions of the Geological Society of South Africa, v. 83, p. 255–283.
Watts, N.L., 1980, Quaternary pedogenic calcretes from the Kalahari (southern Africa): mineralogy, genesis and diagenesis: Sedi-
mentology, v. 27, p. 661–686.
Wright, V.P., and Tucker, M.E., 1991, Calcretes: an introduction, in Wright, V.P., and Tucker, M.E., eds., Calcretes: IAS Reprint
series 2, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, p. 1–22.

Ana M. Alonso-Zarza
Lawrence H. Tanner
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Calcic pedocomplexes—Regional sequence boundary indicators in

Tertiary deposits of the Great Plains and western United States
Debra L. Hanneman
Whitehall Geogroup, Inc., Whitehall, Montana 59759, USA

Charles J. Wideman
Professor Emeritus, Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Butte, Montana 59701, USA

ABSTRACT

Calcic pedocomplexes are associated with regional unconformities in the Great

Plains and western United States that have approximate ages of 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and
4 Ma. In southwestern Montana, the calcic pedocomplexes are readily identifiable
on the surface, and a pedocomplex typically contains several partial soil profiles. In
the most complete scenario, an individual profile may contain an argillic or argil-
lic/calcareous (Bt or Btk) horizon, a K horizon, and a C horizon. Often, however, the
Bt(k) horizon is truncated or can be entirely absent from an individual profile. The K
horizon contains an upper laminated zone that is underlain by an indurated carbon-
ate sheet. Carbonate nodules and chalky micritic matrix materials underlie the sheet
carbonate. The calcic paleosols display carbonate morphology ranging from stage IV
to stage VI.
The calcic pedocomplexes also possess distinct physical properties that aid in
subsurface identification. The combined density and velocity differences between
paleosols and nonpedogenic strata result in bright reflections on seismic sections and
distinct well-log signatures.
Although the calcic pedocomplexes and regional unconformity associations were
first described within Tertiary strata of southwestern Montana, the same associa-
tions exist in numerous localities in the Great Plains and in other parts of the western
United States. The extensive occurrence of the calcic paleosols and regional uncon-
formity associations throughout this large area underscores their utility as a regional
correlation tool. Moreover, the delineation of regional unconformities that are large-
scale sequence boundaries by pedocomplexes has broad implications for continental
sequence stratigraphy.

Keywords: calcic, paleosol, sequence, Tertiary, pedocomplex.

RESUMEN

En las Great Plains y oeste de Estados Unidos, los complejos edáficos cálcicos
están asociados con las discontinuidades regionales cuyas edades aproximadas son:
30 Ma, 20 Ma, y 4 Ma. En el suroeste de Montana, estos edafocomplejos cálcicos se
observan fácilmente en afloramientos de superficie y contienen varios perfiles edáficos

Hanneman, D.L., and Wideman, C.J., 2006, Calcic pedocomplexes—Regional sequence boundary indicators in Tertiary deposits of the Great Plains and western
United States, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological
Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 1–15, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(01). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society
of America. All rights reserved.

1
2 Hanneman and Wideman

incompletos. En los casos en los que estos complejos edáficos están más completos, un
perfil individual puede contener un horizonte argílico (Bt) o argílico/calcáreo (Bt[k]),
un horizonte K, y un horizonte C. Sin embargo, a menudo el horizonte Bt(k) está
truncado o puede estar ausente totalmente en un perfil determinado. El horizonte K
tiene una zona superior laminada que se sitúa por encima de una capa carbonática
endurecida. Por debajo de la capa dura se reconocen nódulos carbonáticos y mate-
rial micrítico pulverulento. Los paleosuelos carbonáticos tienen estadios morfológicos
que varían entre IV y VI.
Los complejos edáficos cálcicos también presentan propiedades físicas que facili-
tan su identificación en el subsuelo. Las combinación de las variaciones de densidad y
velocidad en paleosuelos y estratos sin paleosuelos da lugar a reflexiones importantes
en los perfiles sísmicos y a rasgos distintivos en sondeos.
Si bien la asociación entre complejos pedocálcicos y las discontinuidades region-
ales se describió por primera vez en estratos Terciarios del suroeste de Montana, estas
mismas asociaciones se reconocen también en muchas otras zonas de las Great Plains
y en otras partes del oeste de Estados Unidos Norteamericanos. La frecuente presen-
cia de estas asociaciones en una zona tan amplia indica su utilidad como herramienta
de correlación regional. Además, la delimitación de las discontinuidades regionales
que constituyen límites de secuencias de gran escala, y que están marcados por estos
complejos edáficos, tiene implicaciones importantes para aplicar en la estratigrafia
secuencial de cuencas continentales.

Palabras clave: paleosuelos cálcicos, secuencias, Terciario, edafocomplejos.

INTRODUCTION sols in the Cenomanian Dunvegan Formation of British Colum-

Tertiary continental strata of the Great Plains and western
United States typically contain a multitude of various types of
paleosols. In southwestern Montana, Tertiary paleosols com-
monly contain cambic, argillic, and calcic horizons; oxic hori-
zons occur only within the basal portions of the Tertiary section
(Hanneman, 1989). Of particular interest within these Tertiary
continental deposits are calcic paleosols. Because of a marked
climatic change to drying and cooling conditions within much
of this area from ca. 33 Ma to ca. 4 Ma (Prothero, 1994, 1998;
Wing, 1998; Retallack, 1992, 1998; Retallack et al., 2000), calcic
paleosols commonly occur throughout the age equivalent part of
the Tertiary section.
Calcic paleosols with carbonate morphology stages IV and
V occur within pedocomplexes at particular times within Ter-
tiary basin fill of southwestern Montana. These times equate to
regional unconformities in the northwestern United States that
occurred at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma (Hanneman and Wide-
man, 1991; Hanneman et al., 1994, 2003). Consequently, these
pedocomplexes mark sequence boundaries within continental
Tertiary strata in southwestern Montana (Hanneman and Wide-
man, 1991; Hanneman et al., 1994); the sequence boundaries
noted in southwestern Montana have recently been extended into
central Washington (Hanneman et al., 2003) using criteria other
than unconformity-bounding paleosols.
The concept of using paleosols to define sequence boundar-
ies in nonmarine strata has also recently been applied to other
geologic settings. McCarthy et al. (1999) used interfluve paleo-
bia to define sequence boundaries. Weissmann et al. (2002)
marked sequence boundaries in Quaternary Kings River alluvial
fan strata near Fresno, California, by laterally extensive, mod-
erately mature paleosols and incised valley bases. Demko et al.
(2004) used laterally continuous, mature paleosols to delineate
regional unconformities within the Jurassic Morrison Formation
of the U.S. Western Interior.
Specifically for calcic paleosols, Gulbranson (2004) noted
that calcretes within the Chinle Formation of the southwestern
United States signify unconformities and delineate a terres-
trial sequence stratigraphy for members of the Chinle Forma-
tion. Tandon and Gibling (1997) observed pedogenic nodular
and underlying groundwater calcretes at sequence boundaries
in Upper Carboniferous cyclothems in the Sydney Basin of
Atlantic Canada.
The purpose of this paper is to initially describe the calcic
pedocomplexes in Tertiary basin fill of southwestern Montana.
Because the calcic pedocomplexes do delineate regional uncon-
formities, we will then detail their use as sequence boundary indi-
cators in continental strata. The utility of using calcic pedocom-
plexes as sequence boundary markers will be further enhanced
by documenting their existence within Tertiary strata of the Great
Plains and western United States.
CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES
Calcic paleosol pedocomplexes typically occur within the
Tertiary basin fill of many valleys in southwestern Montana
 Calcic pedocomplexes 3

(Fig. 1). The calcic pedocomplexes contain at least two calcic
paleosols that are generally separated by small thicknesses of C
horizon material. We define calcic paleosols informally as paleo-
sols that have a large amount of secondary carbonate present in
the form of calcic horizons (Machette, 1985). Although calcic
paleosols have been placed into classifications such as Aridosols
(Retallack, 1993), Calcisols (Mack et al., 1993), or paleo-Ari-
dosols (Nettleton et al., 2000), we have not yet identified an A
horizon within individual profiles of the southwestern Montana
paleosol stacks, and there is typically, at best, only a truncated
part of a B horizon within the profiles. Gardner et al. (1992) also
noted the absence of the A and B horizons in Neogene calcic
paleosol stacks of western Nebraska. These authors suggested
that their absence may result from several factors such as: (1)
the horizons generally not being well developed or very thick in
some Aridosols, (2) the upward growth of the calcic horizon may
overprint the A and B horizon, and (3) the A and B horizons are
more prone to erosion than petrocalcic horizons are. In any event,
with the absence of a diagnostic surface horizon in the paleosol
profile, we find that “calcic paleosols” is the most appropriate
term for these paleosols.
In former publications, we referred to the vertical configura-
tion of calcic paleosols that we observed in southwestern Mon-
tana as calcic paleosol stacks (Hanneman and Wideman, 1991;
Hanneman et al., 1994, 2003). However, instead of the term
“paleosol stack,” we now prefer to use the term calcic “pedo-
complexes” in accordance with the definition for pedocomplex
as proposed to the Paleopedology Commission of International
Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA). The proposed defini-
tion states that a pedocomplex is composed of two or more paleo-
sols that are separated over large areas by a thin deposit of C hori-
zon material, and are overlain and underlain by greater amounts

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Figure 1. Location map for southwestern Montana valleys, with selected valleys identified on a digital relief image of southwestern Montana
(Montana State Library, NRIS data bank, 2001).
A C

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PC

IP
IP
Legend
PC = Pedocomplex
IP = Individual Paleosol IP
Ku = Upper Part of K Horizon
in Individual Paleosol
Kl = Lower Part of K Horizon
in Individual Paleosol D
E
Figure 2. Calcic pedocomplexes and individual paleosols within
the pedocomplexes, southwestern Montana (detailed locations
for calcic pedocomplexes are given in Table 1). (A) Calcic pedo-
complex located in lower Madison Valley, Madison Bluffs area.
PC Maximum outcrop thickness of pedocomplex (PC) in photograph
is ~6 m. (B) Closer view of individual calcic paleosols (IP) within
the Madison pedocomplex. Note irregular boundaries on paleo-
sols and the presence of C horizon material between the indi-
vidual paleosols. Backpack at base of outcrop is 0.5 m in height.
IP Maximum outcrop thickness of pedocomplex in photograph is
~5 m. (C) Calcic pedocomplex located in the upper Ruby Valley.
Ku (D) Individual calcic paleosols within the Ruby pedocomplex be-
come welded when traced laterally. Global positioning system
(GPS) unit at base of section is 15 cm in length. (E) Calcic pedo-
complex located in the central Deer Lodge Valley. Outcrop thick-
ness is ~5 m. (F) An individual calcic paleosol from the Deer
Lodge pedocomplex that contains laminae within the upper part
Kl of the K horizon (Ku) and is underlain by a well-indurated car-
bonate sheet in the lower K horizon (Kl). Portion of Jacob staff in
F photo is 1 m in length.
 Calcic pedocomplexes
of strata that contain weak to no evidence of soil development
(Catt, 1998). Additionally, individual paleosols within a pedo-
complex often are “…discontinuous, being in places truncated or
cut out by small disconformities and/or amalgamated with other
paleosols” (Morrison, 1998, p. 31). The term “pedocomplex” is
synonymous with other terminology used in paleosol studies,
such as compound and multistory paleosols.
Figure 2 depicts calcic pedocomplexes found in some val-
leys of southwestern Montana. Each pedocomplex (Figs. 2A and
2C) contains at least two calcic paleosols and occurs between
thick sections of nonpedogenically modified strata. And, as pre-
viously noted, individual paleosols (Figs. 2B, 2D, and 2F) may
be discontinuous and/or amalgamated (amalgamated is syn-
onymous with the terms “welded” and “composite”; see North
American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 1983;
Morrison, 1998, p. 31) even when traced laterally over short dis-
tances. Nonetheless, the pedocomplex itself may be traced over a
considerable distance.
Surface Calcic Pedocomplex Paleosol Profiles
The pedocomplexes characteristically contain several partial
soil profiles. An individual profile may include in the most ideal-
ized scenario, in descending order, (1) an argillic (Bt) horizon, (2)
an argillic/calcareous (Btk) horizon, (3) a K horizon, and (4) a C
horizon (Fig. 3A).
An argillic diagnostic subsurface B horizon (Bt) may be
present in an individual soil profile of a pedocomplex. Bt hori-
zons contain blocky structure; illuviated clays form bridges
between grains and coat ped faces. The majority of Bt horizons
in southwestern Montana Tertiary deposits are developed within
tuffaceous mudstone, and thus their color range is very similar to
pedogenically unmodified mudstone beds with very pale brown
(10YR 5/4) to yellow gray (10Y 5/2) colors. In a few sections, Bt
horizons are developed on sandy parent material, and the color
range is more varied, from light reddish brown (5YR 6/3) to light
brown (10YR 7/3). Root traces are common within the Bt hori-
zon. Although the root casts and rhizoconcretions are typically
calcareous, they may be also be composed of silica or sediments.
Where these root structures are calcareous and are numerous, the
horizon is better termed a Btk horizon. Root traces are from 0.1
cm to 2 cm in diameter and range up to 30 cm in length. The
Bt(k) horizon is commonly truncated within the pedocomplex
and can be entirely absent from a soil profile within the pedocom-
plex. However, where the horizon is preserved, it has a maximum
observed thickness of 0.3 m.
The K horizon (Fig. 3B) is the locus of secondary carbon-
ate accumulation within the profile. As originally noted by Gile
et al. (1965, p. 74) the carbonate is “present as an essentially
continuous medium. It coats or engulfs, and commonly sepa-
rates and cements skeletal pebbles, sand, and silt grains….” This
type of carbonate is a K-fabric, and according to the definition
originally set forth by Gile et al. (1965), a K horizon must have
more than 90% K-fabric. Even though the K horizon has never
5
been formally accepted as a master horizon into Soil Taxonomy
(Soil Survey Staff, 1975), we find it extremely helpful for use in
separating the more weakly developed calcic horizons (Bk) from
those horizons with major authigenic carbonate accumulations.
The uppermost part of the K horizon contains laminations
that range in thickness from 0.2 cm to 3 cm. The laminated part
of the K horizon attains a maximum thickness of 0.3 m. A well-
indurated sheet of carbonate occurs below the laminated zone.
Floating skeletal grains, clasts, pisoliths, root casts, and some
laminations are contained within the carbonate sheet (Figs. 3C
and 3D). The hardpans are often fractured and brecciated. Maxi-
mum thickness of the hardpan part of the K horizon is 1 m.
Powdery to indurated carbonate nodules are often present
below the carbonate sheet (Fig. 3E). The nodular zone may also
include micrite matrix material. More commonly, the chalky
micritic matrix horizon underlies the nodular zone. This K hori-
zon profile is similar to the pedogenic calcrete idealized profiles
detailed by Esteban and Klappa (1983), Goudie (1983), and sum-
marized by Alonso-Zarza (2003).
Secondary silica, in the form of nodules, stringers, and silici-
fied root traces commonly occurs in association with the K hori-
zons (Fig. 3F). The silica nodules range from 5 to 20 cm along
the long axis; the stringers vary from 1 to 5 cm in thickness. Both
the nodules and stringers are usually located in the K-C horizon
transition zone. The silicified root traces occur throughout the K
to upper C horizon. Contact of the K horizon with the underlying
C horizon is gradational.
As stated already, the paleosol profile described here and
shown in Figure 3 is an idealized profile. Not all features noted
for the profile are typically found in every southwestern Mon-
tana calcic paleosol. The upper surface of the K horizon can be
extremely irregular (Fig. 2B), and the entire paleosol can even
be truncated when traced laterally. Individual paleosols become
welded with other paleosols (Fig. 2D) within some pedocom-
plexes. However, there are usually enough profile characteristics
present in field exposures to identify calcic paleosols.
Subsurface Calcic Pedocomplexes
Hanneman et al. (1994) documented the identification of cal-
cic paleosol stacks, now termed calcic pedocomplexes herein, in
the subsurface of the Deer Lodge Valley, southwestern Montana
(Fig. 4A). Calcic pedocomplexes with accumulated thickness
in excess of 10 m appeared in the subsurface as a collection of
several relatively thin, high-velocity–high-density zones within
the basin fill. Zone thickness ranged from 1 to 1.5 m. Density
varied within the zones by as much as 0.6 g/cm3, and differed
by as much as 0.9 g/cm3 from material immediately above these
zones. Velocity differed by as much as 10 ft/ms (3.3 m/ms) from
the overlying material and caused bright reflections on seismic
sections. Synthetic seismograms were used to tie well-log and
seismic data (Fig. 4B).
The high-velocity–high-density zones in the Cenozoic basin
fill were interpreted to be calcic paleosols based on data extracted
6 Hanneman and Wideman

B K Horizon - C K Horizon - Floating Clasts in D K Horizon - Root Casts

Horizons

Laminations Carbonate Sheet

Bt
or
Btk

K
Legend
K-C Blocky Peds
transi-
tion Rootlets
Laminations
C Floating Grains
Nodules
Silica Stringers
F K - C Transition Zone - E K Horizon - Chalky/Nodular
Mudstone Silica Stringers
A Zone
Figure 3. (A) Idealized calcic paleosol profile (detailed locations for features in profile are given in Table 1). (B) Laminations in upper part of K
horizon, lower Madison Valley. (C) Floating skeletal clasts in micrite of indurated sheet portion of K horizon, central Deer Lodge Valley. Lens
cap is 67 mm in diameter. (D) Root casts in indurated sheet portion of K horizon, central Deer Lodge Valley. Film cap is 35 mm in diameter.
(E) Chalky/nodular zone (indicated by arrow) present beneath indurated sheet of K horizon, lower Madison Valley. Quarter for scale. (F) Silica
stringers (indicated by arrows) of the K horizon–C horizon transition zone, Jefferson Valley. Hammer is ~0.45 m in length.

from a suite of well logs that included sonic, density, resistivity,
neutron, and lithology logs, and from well-cutting analyses (Fig.
4C). The pedogenic origin of the zones was shown by (1) well-
cutting chips from the high-velocity–high-density zones that
exhibited pedogenic features associated with calcic paleosols, (2)
paleosol horizonation interpreted from well-log analysis, (3) the
absence of minerals normally associated with lacustrine deposits,
and (4) comparison with surface paleosols (Fig. 4D).
Morphology of Calcic Paleosols
The calcic paleosols within the calcic pedocomplexes of
Tertiary basin fill in southwestern Montana have calcium carbon-
ate morphologies consistent with the stage IV to stage V mor-
phologies as outlined by Machette (1985, p. 5; Table 1 therein).
The stage IV morphology characteristics include laminae up to
1 cm in thickness in the upper part of the K horizon, with some
laminae draped over fracture surfaces. Laminae of stage V are
up to 3 cm in thickness. Fractures in the K horizon are typically
coated with laminae, and pisolites are present. Thickness of the
K horizon ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 m.
Lateral Variation within Paleosol Stacks
Although a calcic pedocomplex can be traced for several
miles within a basin, lateral variation commonly occurs. The
variance may be within individual paleosol profiles of the pedo-
complex, in the vertical succession of horizons within a
 Calcic pedocomplexes 7

A B MS 1-25
S N
0.7

1.0

1.5

Travel Time
Two-Way
0 Kilometers 1.0

Resistivity
1 ohms 70 Measured Surface Section
0 % Calcite 100
CNL Calcic Pedocomplex
0.13 NPHI 0.62
924 Deer Lodge Valley 100 % Quartz 0
915
% Calcite K Horizon
Interpreted Pedo- 0 100 Non-K Horizon
930 complex 930
Depth (m)

20
Depth (m)

930
Meters

Depth (m)
10
945 945
Argillic Horizon Lithology Log
MSP 1-25
K Horizon MSP 1-25 945
0
C Horizon D MSP 1-25

Figure 4. Hanneman et al. (1994) used well-log data, seismic data, and well cuttings analyses to define calcic paleosols and pedocomplexes in the sub-
surface of the Deer Lodge Valley, southwestern Montana. (Figure was modified from Hanneman et al., 2003.) (A) Geologic setting of the Deer Lodge
Valley, southwestern Montana. Location of Montana State Prison (MSP) 1-25 well and seismic line of 1B are also shown. (B) Seismic-reflection line
from the Deer Lodge Valley. Synthetic seismogram generated from well-log data of MSP 1-25 is tied to bright reflectors that occur on the seismic data at
1.0–1.1 s (~930–980 m in depth). (C) Paleosol profile delineated by resistivity and neutron log data. Argillic paleosol horizons are interpreted to have low
resistivity; K horizons are interpreted where porosity is low on the neutron log. The overlay of these two logs depicts individual profiles within the mature
pedocomplex. The K horizons also correspond to the interval’s high calcium content on the lithology log. CNL—compensated neutron log; NPHI—neu-
tron porosity. (D) Matrix identification depth plot correlated with a surface pedocomplex measured in the northern Deer Lodge Valley. The thickness and
frequency of increased calcite-content zones compare reasonably well with the K horizons of the surface pedocomplex.

complex, and in the overall thickness of the pedocomplexes
(Fig. 5). Within individual profiles, soil descriptive features such
as texture, color, root trace concentration, and horizon bound-
ary distinctness often vary laterally, particularly within the Bt(k)
horizons (Fig. 5A shows K horizon termination; Fig. 5B shows
scoured K horizon top). These changes can be related to local
soil-forming controls, such as topography, parent material tex-
ture, and scour events (McCarthy and Plint, 1998; McCarthy et
al., 1999). Lateral changes that affect soil horizon succession
and overall pedocomplex thickness may be correlated to calcic
profile initial development position and the variable deposition
and/or erosion events associated with calcic profile formation.
Typically, soil profile development begins on stabilized areas
within a basin, such as interfluves or distal portions of alluvial
fans (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998; McCarthy et al., 1999). How-
ever, in order to generate a pedocomplex, episodic sedimentation
8 Hanneman and Wideman
needs to occur. Periodic deposition of sediment over the initial
calcic soil profile provides more space for plant growth, and new
cycles of calcic soil formation are begun. Given time, calcic soils
will form over large parts of a basin, wherever surfaces become
inactive. With episodic sedimentation, calcic pedocomplexes
will eventually build over this larger area.
The result of this soil-forming activity on a basin-wide scale
is that (depending on a variety of factors, such as differential sub-
sidence, climate, hydrology, parent materials) over time, thicker
sections of calcic soils, and soils with somewhat different pro-
files, may exist in different areas. Alonso-Zarza et al. (1998) doc-
umented this pedocomplex variability on Pleistocene alluvial fan
surfaces of the Campo de Cartagena–Mar Menor Basin, Murcia,
southeast Spain. These authors noted the formation of different
calcrete profiles in proximal and distal fan areas. These differ-
ences resulted from the interplay of erosion and deposition on
the fan surfaces. In proximal fan areas, some soil horizons were
stripped from a profile, while on the more stable areas, rework-
ing and brecciation occurred, which would presumably produce
a brecciated horizon. Conversely, in the distal fan areas, episodic
sedimentation initially disrupted calcic soil formation, leading
to another cycle of calcic soil formation. Collectively, these dif-
ferences in the individual soil horizons of the various fan areas
resulted in complex composite profiles being thicker in the distal
fan areas than in proximal areas.
CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES AS SEQUENCE
BOUNDARY INDICATORS
The calcic pedocomplexes present in the Tertiary basin fill of
southwestern Montana developed over extended periods of time
as evidenced by their advanced carbonate morphology stages.
Soil development ceased for brief intervals because of sediment
A B
Scoured K horizon
K horizon
termination
Glove for scale
influx, but then resumed, adding yet another soil profile to the
pedocomplex. Collectively, the individual paleosol profiles con-
tained within a pedocomplex represent significant breaks within
the Tertiary basin-fill record. Consequently, the calcic pedocom-
plexes mark unconformities that occur between large-scale sedi-
mentary packages.
The age of each unconformity is constrained by paying strict
attention to well-documented fossil vertebrate and radioisotopic
age data taken from units occurring on both sides of the uncon-
formity. The regional unconformities marked by calcic pedocom-
plexes occur at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma. The magnitude
of each hiatus represented at these regional unconformities in
southwestern Montana is estimated to be ~3–4 m.y. where all
sequences are present. Because age data are derived not directly
from the bounding surface itself but from strata that occur at
some distance above and below pedocomplexes, there is yet a
degree of uncertainty that exists for exact ages of the sequence
bounding surfaces. Consequently, we are constantly looking for
better age constraints on the regional unconformities.
Montana Unconformity-Bounded Sequences
Five unconformity-bounded sequences were initially delin-
eated within continental Tertiary strata in southwestern Mon-
tana (Hanneman and Wideman, 1991; Hanneman et al., 2003).
The sequences have upper and lower bounding surfaces that are
unconformities of regional extent. We refer to these unconfor-
mity-bounded sequences as large-scale sequences, because they
contain sizeable packages of basin-fill material. The unconfor-
mity-bounded sequences can include several hundred meters of
strata, many different lithologies, and represent several million
years of the geologic record. Calcic pedocomplexes mark the
unconformities that separate four of these unconformity-bounded
Figure 5. Examples of lateral variability that
occurs within calcic pedocomplexes located
in the lower Madison Valley of southwestern
Montana (location of pedocomplex given in
Table 1). (A) K horizon termination in a 20 Ma
calcic pedocomplex. Terminated K horizon is
~0.3 m in thickness. (B) Scoured K horizon
top (laminar zone and a part of the carbonate
sheet). Glove is 24 cm in length.
 Calcic pedocomplexes 9

sequences. The regional unconformity-bounded sequences
delimited by calcic paleosol stacks are informally designated as:
sequence 2—middle/late Duchesnean to Whitneyan (ca. 38–30
Ma), sequence 3—Arikareean (ca. 27–20 Ma), sequence 4—Bar-
stovian to Blancan (ca. 16–4 Ma), and sequence 5—early Quater-
nary (ca. 1.8 Ma) to the present (Fig. 6). Locations for examples
of these calcic pedocomplexes and unconformity associations are
given in Table 1.
There are some differences among the calcic pedocomplexes
that occur on the upper bounding surfaces of sequences 2, 3, and
4 in southwestern Montana. Where sequence 3 directly overlies
sequence 2, pedocomplex development at the top of sequence 2
typically contains a maximum of three paleosol profiles. The K
horizon in these profiles has carbonate morphology equivalent
to stage IV. However, in many locations, sequence 2 is overlain
directly by sequence 4. In these areas, calcic paleosol stacks have
several paleosol profiles and K horizons attain a carbonate mor-
phology stage V.
Calcic pedocomplexes at the top of sequence 3 have sev-
eral paleosol profiles, and the K horizons in each profile reach a
carbonate morphology stage V. It should be noted that in some
past studies of southwestern Montana Tertiary basin fill, paleo-
sols at this same stratigraphic level have been described as “red,
saprolitic, and kaolinite-rich” (Thompson et al., 1982, p. 415;

North American
Land Mammal Southwestern
Epoch Ma Ages Ma Ma Montana Washington
Holocene Rancholabrean
0.01 0.1 Sequence
Pleistocene Irvingtonian 5 High
1.75 1.75 Cascade
Pliocene Blancan
5.3 4.9 5
Hemphillian
9
Clarendonian Sequence Walpapi Legend
11.5 4
Miocene Calcic pedocomplexes
Barstovian 15
15.9 4 Ma
Hemingfordian 20 Ma
19
30 Ma
Sequence Upper
23.8 Arikareean 25 Approximate
3 Kittitas
time and
Oligocene duration
30 of hiatus
Whitneyan
Orellan
32 Newly
33 Sequence Lower defined
33.7
Chadronian 35 2 Kittitas hiatus
37
Duchesnean
40
Eocene
Uintan 45 Challis
47 Sequence
Bridgerian 1
50.4
Wasatchian
54.8 55
Clarkforkian 55.5
56.2
Tiffanian
Paleocene 60.5
Torrejonian
63.5
Puercan 65
65 65
Figure 6. Correlation of southwestern Montana sequences with central Washington (CW) sequences. The dashed lines within the CW Kittitas represent the
newly recognized 30 Ma to 27 Ma hiatus. The gray area in between some of the wavy lines represents the estimated magnitude of the hiatus. Age estimates
for the Cenozoic epochs are ones proposed by Berggren et al. (1995). Age estimates for Paleogene North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMA) are
based on those given by Prothero (1995). Age estimates for Neogene NALMA are those delineated by Woodburne and Swisher (1995).
10 Hanneman and Wideman

TABLE 1. LOCATIONS FOR EXAMPLES OF TERTIARY CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES (PC)

AND ASSOCIATED UNCONFORMITIES IN SOUTHWESTERN MONTANA
Approximate age of Valley Section, township – NAD 1927, Zone 12, UTM U.S. Geological Remarks
unconformity location range easting/northing coordinates Survey 7.5ƍ
(Ma) quadrangle
4 Jefferson– SE ¼ section 34, T 387150 m E; 5031420 m N Beaverhead Rock, Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Biltmore area 4 S, R 7 W Montana Hemphillian; mapped
Quaternary gravels are above
PC.
20 Upper Ruby NE ¼ section 3, T 9 406085 m E; 4992985 m N Belmont Park Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Valley S, R 5 W Ranch, Montana late Arikareean; vertebrate
fossils above PC are
Barstovian.
20 Central Deer NW ¼ section 31, T 363500 m E; 5142162 m N Conleys Lake, Barstovian fossils are above
Lodge 3 N, R 9 W Montana PC; mapped Arikareean strata
are below PC.
? 20 (Lower Lower SW ¼ section 34, T 463440 m E; 5070289 m N Manhattan SW, Barstovian vertebrate fossils
boundary age Madison– 1 N, R 2 E Montana are above PC; no age
unconstrained) Madison constraints were found below,
Bluffs area so they could range from
Chadronian to Arikareean in
age (37–19 Ma).
30 Jefferson– SE ¼ section 29, T 422640 m E; 5082290 m N Black Butte, Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Golden 2 N, R 3 W Montana Chadronian; fragmentary
Sunlight Mine oreodont fossils above PC
most likely are Arikareean (W.
Coppinger, July 2004,
personal commun.).
30 Jefferson– NE ¼ section 28, T 413542 m E; 5073180 m N Whitehall, Vertebrate fossils below PC are
Renova area 1 N, R 4 W Montana Chadronian; thin veneer of
Quaternary loess is above
PC.

Fields et al., 1985). Strata at the locations sampled for the oxic
horizon were originally thought to be ca. 21–17 Ma. Later map-
ping with more-detailed age control revealed that strata at these
sample localities are much older than previously thought. Conse-
quently, recent work has shown no evidence for an oxic horizon
at this stratigraphic level and that the regional unconformity at ca.
21–17 Ma is instead marked by calcic pedocomplexes (McLeod,
1987; Hanneman, 1989; Hanneman and Wideman, 1991; Portner
and Hendrix, 2004).
Calcic pedocomplexes that mark the upper surface of
sequence 4 are similar to those at the top of sequence 3. How-
ever, these pedocomplexes are often absent in the southern areas
of southwestern Montana, where there are no reported uppermost
Tertiary strata and there are scant Quaternary age sediments. It
may well be that much of this part of the section (including the
calcic pedocomplexes) has been stripped from the basins due to
recent uplift of the Yellowstone–Snake River Plain area of Idaho,
Wyoming, and Montana.
Washington Unconformity-Bounded Sequences
The Cenozoic unconformity-bounded sequences identi-
fied in Montana extend into central Washington based upon
work originally done by Cheney (1994, 2000). Hanneman et al.
(2003) recognized that there are equivalent interregional uncon-
formity-bounded sequences in this area: Lower Kittitas—ca.
36–30 Ma, Upper Kittitas—ca. 27–22 Ma, Walpapi—ca. 20–4
Ma, and High Cascade—ca. 4 Ma to present (Fig. 6). Although
Cheney (1994, 2000) emphasized the importance of changes
in lithology and provenance in initially delineating the Wash-
ington unconformity-bounded sequences rather than using the
identification of pedocomplexes, the literature reports a caliche
constraining the upper surface of the Walpapi Sequence at the
Hanford Site (Pasco Basin) in south-central Washington. The
caliche is developed on the Miocene-Pliocene Ringold Forma-
tion, and middle to late Pleistocene sediments overly it. The
thickness of the caliche ranges from 0 to 20 m, and the unit is
bounded by irregular surfaces having as much as 25 m of relief.
The number of carbonate layers differs with the thickness of the
deposits. Carbonate morphology of the layers varies from stage
I to stage V. The caliche is interpreted to be pedogenic, although
some modification to the paleosols by groundwater processes
may have occurred (Slate, 1996).
EXTENSION OF SEQUENCE BOUNDARIES
DELINEATED BY CALCIC PEDOCOMPLEXES
INTO THE GREAT PLAINS AND OTHER WESTERN
U.S. AREAS
The unconformity-bounded sequences cited above have
been extended into the western United States and the northern
Great Plains in previous studies by Hanneman and Wideman
 Calcic pedocomplexes 11

(1991), Cheney (1994, 2000), and Hanneman et al. (2003). Con-
stenius et al. (2003, see their Fig. 19) expanded on these investi-
gations and documented age-equivalent unconformity-bounded
sequences throughout the Cordilleran orogenic belt that extends
from southern Canada to Mexico. Based upon the interpretation
of extensive structural data, Constenius et al. (2003) showed that
the unconformity-bounded sequences record plate-tectonic inter-
actions and continental deformation.
Because age-equivalent Cenozoic unconformity-bounded
sequences can be extended throughout the Great Plains and west-
ern United States, we expect that where equivalent soil-forming
conditions prevailed, calcic pedocomplexes should delineate
regional unconformities. A recent literature search revealed the
likely identification of the paleosol–regional unconformity asso-
ciations. Several occurrences of the calcic paleosol–regional
unconformity associations at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma from
these areas are listed next. It is possible that many other occur-
rences of paleosol–regional unconformity associations are pres-
ent in these areas. The locations of the paleosol–regional uncon-
formity associations are shown in Figure 7.
Regional Unconformity at ca. 30 Ma
Pinnacles Lookout, Badlands National Park, Southwestern
South Dakota
Pinnacle Series paleosols occur in the top of the Poleside
Member (early Oligocene) of the Brule Formation. The Pinnacle
Series contains calcic paleosols that have prominent horizons of
hard calcareous nodules at shallow depths. Elongate calcare-
ous concretions that are interpreted as rodent burrows are
also abundant in the paleosols. The calcic horizons probably
only correspond to a stage II or at maximum stage III carbonate

WASHINGTON NORTH
MONTANA DAKOTA LEGEND
Calcic Pedocomplexes/
Regional Unconformity
SOUTH Associations
DAKOTA
OREGON IDAHO 4 Ma

WYOMING 20 Ma

NEBRASKA 30 Ma
Southern High
NEVADA Plains with
UTAH COLORADO 4 Ma association
KANSAS
Southwestern
Montana - All
CALIFORNIA Associations
OKLAHOMA Are Present
ARIZONA
NEW MEXICO

TEXAS

0 500

Kilometers N

Figure 7. Locations of calcic pedocomplexes and regional unconformities in the Great Plains and western United States. Details of locations and
age constraints for the calcic paleosol pedocomplexes and regional unconformities are given in text.
12 Hanneman and Wideman
morphology. The Rockyford Ash (which has a radioisotopic
age of close to 29 Ma) of the Sharps Formation unconform-
ably overlies the Poleside Member of the Brule Formation
(Retallack, 1983).
Banner County, Western Nebraska
The top of the upper Eocene to early Oligocene Brule Forma-
tion is locally cemented here with pedogenic nodular caliche.
The Brule is overlain by gravel of the Neogene Ogallala Group
(Gardner et al., 1992).
Medicine Lodge Creek Valley, South-Central Idaho
Nodular limestone armors the top of Medicine Lodge
beds present in the Medicine Lodge Creek Valley, in Clark
County, Idaho, and in sparse locations to the southwest as
far as the southern Lemhi Range (Hodges and Link, 2002).
The nodular limestone is ~2 m thick at the head of the south
fork of Deep Creek, where it lies stratigraphically above a
tuffaceous mudstone unit that has yielded a 40Ar/39Ar age
of 30.23 ± 0.45 Ma. The nodular limestone is most likely
pedogenic in origin (Hodges et al., 2004; M.K.V. Hodges, 2005,
personal commun.).
Regional Unconformity at ca. 20 Ma
South Killdeer Mountains, Southwestern North Dakota
(Medicine Hole Plateau, Dunn County)
The Arikaree Formation contains a ledge-forming bed of
carbonate/sandstone that is ~9 m in maximum thickness. This
unit is known as the burrowed marker unit because it contains
abundant fossil burrows (Forsman, 1986; Murphy et al., 1993).
Delimata (1975) noted that this bed is an exceptional stratigraphic
marker for the South Killdeer Mountains. He described the unit
as containing tuffaceous limestone, nodular limestone, and
banded limestone. Although Delimata interpreted the burrowed
marker unit as a lacustrine deposit, its described features are
more consistent with a pedogenic interpretation for the unit. The
same marker bed may be present at White Butte, North Dakota,
~130 km southwest of the South Killdeer Mountains (Murphy
et al., 1993). Presently, the burrowed marker unit is age con-
strained by: (1) a fission-track age of 25.1 ± 2.2 Ma taken from
the base of the burrowed marker unit, and (2) the occurrence of
two genera of oreodonts, Merychyus and Merycochoerus, located
~27 m above the stratigraphic position of the fission-track age.
The range zones of these oreodonts overlap in the latest Arika-
reean to earliest Hemingfordian (Hoganson et al., 1998).
Monroe Canyon, Nebraska
The “terminal” paleosol at the head of Monroe Canyon,
along the high rim, is ~4.6 m in thickness and is developed on
the Harrison Formation. The paleosol appears to be a silcrete-
calcrete intergrade (Nash and Shaw, 1998), and it contains con-
centrations of rhizoliths and burrows, an upper laminar petrocal-
cic horizon, and a surface cemented as silcrete. Remnants of this
paleosol, the terminal Harrison paleosurface, are on flat-topped
hills and buttes from Monroe Canyon west to the Nebraska-
Wyoming state boundary (a distance of ~20 km). The Eagle
Crag Ash, with a fission-track age of 19.2 ± 0.5 Ma, overlies the
Harrison paleosurface by ~2 m; the Agate Ash, with a 40K/40Ar
age of 21.9 Ma, occurs ~10 m below the Harrison paleosurface
at Agate National Monument, in the Hoffman channel section
(Hunt, 1990; MacFadden and Hunt, 1998).
Regional Unconformity at ca. 4 Ma
Kimball and Banner Counties, Western Nebraska
Pedocomplexes of calcareous paleosols are present in the
uppermost Neogene Ogallala Group, at the top of the Ash Hol-
low Formation, western Nebraska. The pedocomplexes are ~12
m thick, contain up to four paleosols, and each paleosol is ~1
m thick. The uppermost calcic paleosol in a pedocomplex has
reached stage IV carbonate morphology, and the lower paleosols
are between a stage III and IV carbonate morphology (Gardner
et al., 1992).
Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument,
Southwest Idaho
A caliche is developed on Pleistocene-Pliocene gravels
and forms a cap rock in most of the monument and the sur-
rounding area. The caliche averages several meters in thick-
ness, but thins to less than a meter locally. It is a very dense
layer and contains vertical fractures that are often recemented
(Farmer and Riedel, 2003).
Southern High Plains, Texas and New Mexico
The uppermost late Tertiary Ogallala Formation typi-
cally includes a stage V paleosol or up to two stage IV “cap-
rock” calcic paleosols, and may have a stage VI calcic paleosol
where the Quaternary Blackwater Draw Formation overlies it.
Where the Blackwater Draw Formation is only a thin veneer or
is entirely absent (as is the case in large portions of the western
High Plains), the Ogallala calcic paleosol cap rock is 1.5–10 m
thick, and has stage VI carbonate morphology. In these areas,
it is probable that the pedogenic carbonate accumulations pres-
ent within “…numerous buried calcic soils and the surface
calcic soils of full sections of the Blackwater Draw have been
welded onto the uppermost Ogallala calcrete” (Gustavson, 1996,
p. 37). It is also possible that in certain areas, the Ogallala cap
rock may range in age from late Miocene to late Quaternary.
Roswell-Carlsbad, Southeastern New Mexico
Stage VI calcic paleosols are developed on the top of the
Ogallala Formation in this area. The age of the calcic paleosol is
thought to be late Pliocene (Bachman, 1976; Machette, 1985).
Morman Mesa, Southeastern Nevada
The Morman Mesa calcic paleosol is ~2.5 m thick and has
stage VI carbonate morphology. It is developed on red quartz sand
 Calcic pedocomplexes
of the Muddy Creek Formation. The age of the calcic paleosol
is thought to be late Pliocene (Gardner, 1972; Machette, 1985).
Vertebrate fossil remains of medial Hemphillian (late Miocene)
age have been reported for the Muddy Creek Formation in the
Morman Mesa area (Williams et al., 1997).
Vidal Junction, Southern California
A stage VI calcic paleosol is developed on the top of the
Miocene–early Pliocene Muddy Creek Formation in this area.
The age designated for this calcic paleosol is late Pliocene (Bull,
1974; Machette, 1985).
DISCUSSION
The significant areas of discussion that follow from our work
on calcic pedocomplexes and their association with regional
unconformities center on the usefulness of calcic pedocomplexes,
or in fact, any type of mature paleosol, as sequence stratigraphic
tools. Even with lateral variation of pedocomplexes, sequence
boundaries can be defined when one combines other techniques
for mapping unconformities. Additionally, although the primary
control on the sequences described herein is tectonic, higher-
resolution work on the pedocomplexes, their adjacent strata, and
better age constraints will help in understanding secondary con-
trols of sequence and pedocomplex formation.
Calcic pedocomplexes and calcic paleosols with stage IV to
stage VI carbonate morphology are associated with regional uncon-
formities of ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma from the Great Plains
through a large part of the western United States. These paleo-
sol–unconformity associations mark large-scale regional sequence
boundaries and consequently aid in surface and subsurface mapping
of regional sequences. The calcic paleosols are easily identifiable
in surface sections and have distinct physical properties that can
be recognized in various types of geophysical data. Where basins
contain several thousand feet of fill, and only have basin margins
sections exposed, the ability to identify calcic pedocomplexes and
use them to separate the subsurface geology into at least large-scale
unconformity-bounded sequences is extremely advantageous in
basin research. Additionally, the widespread extent of the calcic
paleosols–regional unconformities associations enhances their util-
ity as a regional correlation tool.
It is important to note that the regional hiatuses recognized
at ca. 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma are marked by many different
sets of calcic pedocomplexes. Some of these pedocomplexes are
laterally extensive over large areas, such as the Great Plains, but
others formed within discrete depositional basins. Depositional
basins began to form in the Cordilleran foreland fold-and-thrust
belt by ca. 49 Ma (Hanneman, 1989; Hanneman and Wideman,
1991; Constenius, 1996; Constenius et al., 2003; O’Neill et al.,
2004). Thus, pedocomplexes that formed in discrete depositional
basins may be physically traced only within a particular basin.
The pedocomplexes that mark these regional hiatuses were
probably developed at similar times in various locations due to
regional tectonic and climatic controls.
13
Because the regional unconformities defined at ca. 30 Ma,
20 Ma, and 4 Ma can be recognized throughout the Great Plains
and the western United States, other types of mature paleosols
should mark these same unconformities where climatic condi-
tions differed. For example, in the Painted Hills of central Ore-
gon, the 30 Ma regional unconformity separates the upper Big
Basin Member of the John Day Formation from the overlying
Turtle Cove Member of the John Day Formation. Mature iron-
rich paleosols are in the middle Big Basin Member and within the
Big Basin Member, and the last one is located at the contact of
the Big Basin Member and the overlying Turtle Cove Member of
the John Day Formation (Bestland, 1997; Retallack et al., 2000).
Even though a pedocomplex can be traced for up to sev-
eral miles within a basin, lateral variation commonly occurs.
The variance may be within individual paleosol profiles of the
pedocomplex, in the vertical succession of horizons within a
pedocomplex, and in the overall thickness of the pedocomplexes.
The lateral variation is most likely related to factors such as the
location of initial pedocomplex development within a basin, or
the complex interplay of erosion and deposition rates (Tandon
and Gibling, 1997; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998; McCarthy et al.,
1999; Weissmann et al., 2002). Although the lateral variance is
easily recognized on the surface, the resolution of subsurface
data may mask these differences. Where calcic paleosols or ped-
ocomplexes are not present, angular stratal relationships, abrupt
changes in provenance or lithologies, and the bases of incised
valleys can also define sequence boundaries. These features can
be mapped on the surface, and geometric patterns as indicators of
unconformities can be recognized on seismic data. Collectively,
these data types can be combined with paleosol information to
complete the delineation of a sequence boundary.
The calcic paleosols observed in southwestern Montana at
the 30 Ma boundary are not as well developed (in regard to car-
bonate morphology and number of soil profiles within a pedo-
complex) as those that mark the 20 Ma and 4 Ma regional uncon-
formities. This appears to be a consistent feature of those bound-
aries throughout the Great Plains and western United States. The
cause for this may be related somehow to a broad range of cli-
mate and/or tectonic controls, but presently, the actual reason for
this difference in degree of paleosol development is not known.
As stated previously, Constenius et al. (2003) have shown that
the large-scale unconformity-bounded sequences defined in the
northwestern United States by Hanneman and Wideman (1991),
Cheney (1994, 2000), and Hanneman et al. (2003) are tectoni-
cally controlled sequences. However, future high-resolution
work on these sequences will probably lead to an understanding
of other secondary controls on their formation.
The ages of the regional unconformities are given as
approximate ages and are based upon currently available age
constraints derived from radioisotopic age data and verte-
brate faunal assemblages initially established in southwest-
ern Montana. The ages appear to be fairly consistent across
the Great Plains and western United States, but there is some
range to these age designations. Historically, radioisotopic age
14 Hanneman and Wideman
data have been acquired in these geographic areas in order to
place constraints on defining North American Land Mammal
boundaries, the Cenozoic time scale, and the Cenozoic magne-
topolarity time scale. Sparse attention has been paid to refining
age constraints on regional unconformities. With additional
age constraints, it may become apparent that there are timing
differences among the regional unconformities. If the timing
differences exist, they may be correlated to the time sweep on
unconformity-bounded sequences boundaries noted by Con-
stenius et al. (2003) and linked to regional tectonic events, or
they may be indicators of timing differences in regional cli-
matic change.
In relation to the development of calcic pedocomplexes that
mark regional unconformities, we find it of interest to contem-
plate the many Cenozoic relict calcic soils listed by Machette
(1985, p. 11, Table 2 therein) for regions within the southwest-
ern United States. These calcic soils may be young examples
of the much older Tertiary calcic pedocomplexes. They may
represent the different soils that could become pedocomplexes
in a future geologic record.
SUMMARY
Calcic pedocomplexes with a maximum carbonate morphol-
ogy of stage VI are associated with regional unconformities that
have approximate ages of 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma. The cal-
cic paleosols are easily identifiable in surface sections and have
distinct physical properties that can be recognized in various
types of geophysical data in the subsurface. The recognition of
the calcic paleosol–unconformity association enables the separa-
tion of Cenozoic basin fill into at least large-scale unconformity-
bounded sequences, which can greatly enhance both surface and
subsurface basin research.
Although the 30 Ma, 20 Ma, and 4 Ma calcic pedocom-
plexes–regional unconformity associations were initially
described in southwestern Montana, they can be traced through-
out the Great Plains and western United States. The widespread
extent of the calcic paleosols–regional unconformities associa-
tions enhances their utility as a regional correlation tool. Because
the pedocomplexes delineate regional unconformities that are
also large-scale sequence boundaries, the identification of the
pedocomplex–unconformity association has broad implications
for continental sequence stratigraphy.
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Hardenbol, J., eds., Geochronology, time scales, and global stratigraphic
correlations: Unified temporal framework for an historical geology: Tulsa,
Oklahoma, Society for Sedimentary Geology, SEPM Special Publication 54,
p. 337–364.
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate controls

on paleosol morphology and chemistry across the Carnian-age
Ischigualasto–Villa Union basin, northwestern Argentina
Neil J. Tabor
Department of Geological Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275-0395, USA

Isabel P. Montañez
Kelley A. Kelso
Department of Geology, One Shields Ave., University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA

Brian Currie
Department of Geology, Miami University, 114 Shideler Hall, Oxford, Ohio 45056, USA

Todd Shipman
Arizona Geological Survey, 416 West Congress, Suite 100, Tucson, Arizona 85701, USA

Carina Colombi
Instituto y Museo de Ciencias Naturales (CONICET), Espana 400(N) Ciudad San Juan, CP5400, Argentina

ABSTRACT

The thicknesses of stratigraphic sections of the Late Triassic (Carnian) Ischigual-

asto Formation change significantly, from ~300 to 700 m, along a 15 km transect in the
Ischigualasto Provincial Park, San Juan, NW Argentina. Channel sandstone deposits
dominate the thickest section, whereas pedogenically altered layers dominate the thinnest
stratigraphic section. Eight paleosol types have been recognized in the study area, and they
are unevenly distributed across the basin. In particular, paleosol B horizons are thinner
and redoximorphic soil morphologies dominate in the thickest, whereas B horizons are
thickest and argillic and calcic morphologies dominate in the thinnest stratigraphic sec-
tion. These observations suggest that the geomorphic evolution of the Ischigualasto basin
exerted the primary control on sediment distribution, depositional rate, soil drainage, and
depth of the groundwater table through most of Late Triassic time in the Ischigualasto
basin. In addition, δ18O values of paleosol calcite nodules are similar to modern soil calcites
that form in frigid to cool climates between ~0 °C and 10 °C.
Considering both lateral and stratigraphic distribution of paleosol morphological
variability, there appears to be three different general modes of climate recorded through-
out deposition of the Ischigualasto Formation: (1) Humid conditions recorded by Argilli-
sols, Gleysols, and Vertisols in the lower quarter of the formation; (2) relatively dry condi-
tions recorded by Calcisols, calcic Argillisols, and calcic Vertisols in the middle half of the
formation; and (3) generally more humid conditions in the upper quarter of the formation
recorded by Argillisols, Gleysols, and Vertisols.

Keywords: paleosols, catena, paleoclimate, Triassic, Argentina.

Tabor, N.J., Montañez, I.P., Kelso, K.A., Currie, B., Shipman, T., and Colombi, C., 2006, A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate controls on paleo-
sol morphology and chemistry across the Carnian-age Ischigualasto–Villa Union basin, northwestern Argentina, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds.,
Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 17–41, doi:
10.1130/2006.2416(02). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

17
18 Tabor et al.

RESUMEN

La Formación Ischigualasto del Triásico Superior (Carniense) presenta cambios

importantes de espesor (de 300 a 700 m), a lo largo de una transversal de 15 km dentro
del Parque Provincial de Ischigualasto, San Juan, en el noroeste de Argentina. En las
zonas en las que la Formación es más potente dominan los canales de areniscas, mien-
tras que en las zonas en las que el espesor de la Formación es menor dominan los niveles
edáficos. Se han reconocido ocho tipos distintos de paleosuelos, que se distribuyen de
forma desigual a lo largo de la cuenca. En particular, los horizontes B de los paleosuelos
son menos potentes y presentan morfologías redoximórficas en las secciones estratigrá-
ficas de mayor espesor; por el contrario, en las secciones estratigráficas de menor espe-
sor los horizontes B son más potentes y argílicos y en ellos son frecuentes los rasgos
calcáreos. De forma conjunta, la distribución de los depósitos canalizados de areniscas
y la morfología de los paleosuelos a lo largo de la Formación Ischigualasto indican que
la evolución geomorfológica de la cuenca fue el principal factor de control sobre la
distribución de los sedimentos, la tasa de sedimentación, el drenaje de los suelos y la
profundidad del nivel freático durante la mayor parte del Triásico.

Palabras clave: paleosuelos, catena, Triásico, paleoclima, Argentina.

INTRODUCTION In this work, we document the distribution of paleosols

Soil morphologies vary across the modern landscape in
response to local and regional variations in depositional envi-
ronment, soil drainage, and geomorphology (Jenny, 1941; Soil
Survey Staff, 1975; Buol et al., 1997; Birkeland, 1999, and many
others). Soil scientists have long recognized that landscape posi-
tion is a primary factor of soil formation, and the term “soil cat-
ena” is reserved for specific instances where lateral variations
in the development of a suite of contemporaneous soil profiles
occur in accord with the position of those soils on the landscape
(Steila, 1976). It is often difficult to document the catenary rela-
tionships of ancient sedimentary basins, because (1) accurate
correlation and demonstration of contemporaneity between out-
crops is often not feasible and (2) an ancient soil catena may be
erased by the terrestrial sedimentary record’s bias toward pres-
ervation of low-lying areas. Several studies, however, provide
persuasive evidence that variations in paleosol development in
ancient sedimentary basins can reflect lateral changes in depo-
sitional rates across the paleolandscape, both of which can be
related to landscape position and the location of the groundwater
table (Allen, 1974; Leeder, 1976; Retallack, 1976, 1977, 1983;
Bown and Kraus, 1981; Kraus, 1987; Besly and Turner, 1983;
Atkinson, 1986; Tabor and Montañez, 2004; McCarthy and Plint,
2003; Demko et al., 2003). Although they are called by different
names (e.g., pedofacies), these basin-scale studies of terrestrial
sedimentary rocks demonstrate that catenary relationships can be
recognized in ancient sedimentary records, even when the con-
temporaneity of individual paleosol horizons cannot be demon-
strated. This recognition is important given the impact that paleo-
sol morphology and composition have on paleoenvironmental
and paleoclimatic reconstructions (e.g., Retallack, 1990; Mack
and James, 1994).
across the Late Triassic (Carnian) Ischigualasto Formation of
the Ischigualasto–Villa Union basin, northwestern Argentina.
The spatial and temporal distribution of paleosol morphologies
establishes a basis for inferred lateral changes in soil drainage
and depositional rates indicative of a paleosoil catena. In particu-
lar, lateral variations in the stratigraphic distribution of channel
sandstones, pedogenic alteration, redoximorphic features, and
pedogenic calcrete profiles appear to provide a sensitive record
of changes in soil drainage during Ischigualasto Formation depo-
sition. Overall, paleosol morphologies indicate that soils were
generally better drained in areas of decreased accommodation,
most likely reflecting the effects of a deeper groundwater table
and generally drier conditions in the shallow subsurface away
from the basin depocenter. Enhanced soil drainage and a reduc-
tion in the overall sediment-accumulation rate allowed more
illuvial Ca2+ to accumulate as pedogenic calcite precipitation
in paleosols developed on the alluvial landscape away from the
basin center.
BACKGROUND
Tectonic Setting, Stratigraphy, and Age
The study area is located along the southern edge of the
Ischigualasto–Villa Unión basin in northeastern San Juan Prov-
ince, Argentina, and lies within the boundaries of the Ischigual-
asto Provincial Park (Fig. 1). During Mesozoic time, oceanic-
continental plate interactions along the southwestern margin
of Pangea produced a region of extensional deformation cra-
tonward of the proto-Andean magmatic arc (Ramos and Kay,
1991; López-Gamundí et al., 1994). Extension focused along the
NW-trending boundary between Paleozoic accreted terranes and
 A Late Triassic soil catena 19

Figure 1. Location maps of the Ischigualasto basin. (A) Map of San Juan Province, Argentina. White rectangle shows location of Figure 1C. (B)
Distribution of Triassic basins in southern South America. “I.B.” marks the position of the Ischigualasto–Villa Unión basin in NW Argentina.
(C) Geologic map of the southern part of the Ischigualasto–Villa Unión basin. Ischigualasto Formation measured sections 1–3 are shown in
Figure 3. Figure was modified from Alcober (1996).

the Precambrian Gondwanan craton (Uliana et al., 1989). The

Ischigualasto–Villa Unión basin of northwest Argentina is one of
a series of continental-rift basins that developed in the region as a
result of this extension (Fig. 1B) (Uliana and Biddle, 1988).
Rift-related deposition in the Ischigualasto basin began dur- Stage Radiometric
Ma Period Formation/Member
ing Early Triassic time as normal displacement on the paleo– Age (Ma)
Valle Fértil fault led to the development of a structural half-gra- Norian
Los Colorados
ben (Milana and Alcober, 1994). Deposition in the basin con- 223.0±0.4
tinued throughout Triassic time and resulted in accumulation of
up to 3.5 km of nonmarine and volcanic strata (Alcober, 1996). Carnian Ischigualasto
The Triassic System in the basin consists of the Lower Triassic
Talampaya and Tarjados Formations, the Middle Triassic Cha- 227.8±0.3
ñares-Ischichuca and Los Rastros Formations, and the Upper
Triassic Ischigualasto and Los Colorados Formations (Fig. 2) Ladinian Los Rastros
(Stipanícic and Bonaparte, 1979).
Quaternary shortening in the Andean foreland produced
reverse-displacement reactivation of Mesozoic normal faults and
structural inversion of Ischigualasto basin strata (Zapata and All- Anisian Chanares
mendinger, 1996). The rocks of the Ischigualasto basin are exposed
in the hanging wall of the Valle Fértil and Alto faults, both of which
are interpreted to be reverse-reactivated zones of Triassic normal Olenekian
faulting (Milana and Alcober, 1994; Zapata and Allmendinger,
1996). The Valle Fértil fault is interpreted as the main basin-bound- Induan
ing normal fault separating Proterozoic-Paleozoic crystalline and
sedimentary rocks of the footwall from the Mesozoic sedimen-
tary rocks of the hanging wall. The paleo–Alto fault is interpreted Figure 2. Time-stratigraphic chart for Triassic rocks of the Ischigualasto
as a W-NW–dipping normal fault (Milana and Alcober, 1994) basin including relative position of radiometrically dated horizons. Time
that merged with the Valle Fertíl fault to the south (Fig. 1). scale was adapted from Gradstein et al. (1995) and Alcober (1996).
20 Tabor et al.
The focus of this investigation is the Ischigualasto Forma-
tion, which consists of ~300–700 m of mudstone, sandstone,
conglomerate, and extrusive basalt (Fig. 3). The basal Ischigual-
asto Formation is defined as the first occurrence of pebble-cobble
conglomerate-conglomeratic sandstone or smectitic mudstone
overlying the carbonaceous sandstones and mudstones of the Los
Rastros Formation, whereas the upper contact of the Ischigual-
asto Formation is positioned at the top of the final variegated
mudstone below the dominantly red-colored sandstones and
mudstones of the Los Colorados Formation. The Ischigualasto
Formation appears to have conformable contacts with underly-
ing and overlying formations (Alcober, 1996), and it is inter-
nally divided into four members (Fig. 3). In stratigraphically
ascending order, these members are (1) Unit I, which consists of
~30–50 m of tan/gray pebble-cobble conglomerate, conglomer-
atic sandstones, and green/gray smectitic mudstone; (2) Unit II,
which consists of 65–125 m of mudstone and sandstone with rare
interbeds of bentonite and basalt; (3) Unit III, which consists of
250–470 m of mudstone and sandstone, the lithostratigraphy
of which is dominated by smectitic mudstones in the east and
channel and overbank sandstone deposits in the west portions
of the study area; and (4) Unit IV, which consists of 35–65 m
of variegated mudstone and sandstone.
An Upper Triassic age of the Ischigualasto Formation is
based on vertebrate fossils and radiometric ages of altered ash
beds from the unit. Abundant vertebrate fossils from the lower
two-thirds of the formation indicate a Carnian age of deposition
(Rogers et al., 1993; Alcober, 1996). Altered ash beds in the
Ischigualasto Formation have provided additional chronostrati-
graphic control. Sanidine crystals from a bentonite sampled
~80 m above the base of the formation yielded an 40Ar/39Ar date
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Los Colorados Fm
Unit IV
Ischigualasto Formation
7 km 8 km
Unit III
Unit II
Unit I
OLDER TRIASSIC
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of changing sedimentary thickness across
the Ischigualasto Formation, position of informal lithostratigraphic
members, and measured sections 1, 2, and 3. See Figure 1 for location.
of 227.8 ± 0.3 Ma (Rogers et al., 1993), while plagioclase crys-
tals from a bentonite ~70 m from the top of the formation
yielded a date of 218 ± 1.7 Ma (Shipman, 2004). Collectively,
these data support a Carnian age of deposition based on the
Triassic time scale of Gradstein et al. (2004; Fig. 2).
Paleoclimate
Paleomagnetic evidence from intraformational basalt
flows within the upper Chañares Formation, near the base
of the Ischigualasto Formation, place the basin at 30°S dur-
ing the Middle Triassic (Veevers et al., 1994; Valencio et al.,
1975; López-Gamundí et al., 1994). Stipanícic and Bonaparte
(1972) suggested that sediments in the Ischigualasto basin
were deposited as a single climatic cycle, from relatively dry
and seasonal, to more humid and back again, with tempera-
tures ranging from moderate to hot. Stipanícic and Bonapar-
te’s (1972) reconstruction primarily relied on lithologic and
flora/faunal evidence in the Agua de la Peña Group. They also
considered the possibility that some of the change in the rock
record could be a result of tectonic influences and that cli-
mate was relatively uniform. Volkheimer (1969) supported an
interpretation of moderate to hot temperatures mostly based
on paleofloral data.
Previous researchers argued that the Ischigualasto Forma-
tion (Fig. 2) was subject to a water-limited, seasonal climate.
Based on the morphology, mineralogy, and light stable iso-
tope geochemistry of pedogenic minerals from a paleo-Verti-
sol, Tabor et al. (2004) suggested that the Lower Ischigualasto
Formation was deposited in a seasonal, humid, and cool cli-
mate. Root sizes of rhizoliths in the Ischigualasto Formation
indicate mean annual precipitation from 500 to 800 mm (Alc-
ober et al., 1997). Bossi (1971) proposed a dominantly fluvial
setting that experienced seasonal variations in water availabil-
ity, while Martínez (1994) suggested an arid climate with sea-
sonal precipitation, supported by lithological evidence such as
secondary paleosol carbonate, slickensides, and blocky peds.
Further, Spalletti et al. (1999) presented biozonation in relation
to the chronostratigraphy of the basin that indicated a mixed
forest plant assemblage for the Ischigualasto Formation. The
landscape of the Ischigualasto Formation was sparsely for-
ested with a dominance of herbaceous plants, although some
large trees, represented by Rexoylon, are common in the upper
half of the formation, and Spalletti et al. (1999) interpreted the
deposition of the Ischigualasto Formation to have occurred in
a dry, and moderate to hot, seasonal climate.
METHODS
Three detailed stratigraphic sections were measured
through the Ischigualasto Formation in the eastern part of the
Ischigualasto Provincial Park (Currie et al., 2001). The sec-
tions, each separated by ~7–8 km, are labeled 1, 2, and 3 from
west to east.
 A Late Triassic soil catena
Paleosol tops were identified on the basis of the upper
limit of observed pedogenic features or by the presence of an
erosional contact with an overlying bed, whereas profile bases
were delineated at the lowest occurrence of unaltered parent
material. Field descriptions of paleosols (e.g., thickness, color,
type, and distribution of mottling, soil structure, and mineral-
ogy, size, morphology, and distribution of authigenic miner-
als) were completed following established methods (Tabor and
Montañez, 2004). Paleosol and lithologic colors were identified
from dry samples using Munsell color charts (Munsell Color,
1975). Paleosol classification followed the system defined by
Mack et al. (1993), and the closest estimate of a modern soil
taxonomic equivalent of the paleosol profiles is given within
the context of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Tax-
onomy (USDA) (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
For clay mineral identification, suspensions of the <2 μm
fraction were split into 3 aliquots that were concentrated by fil-
tration and prepared as oriented mounts using the filter mem-
brane peel technique. Each aliquot was treated either with 1 M
KCl, 0.5 M MgCl, or a mixture of 0.5 M MgCl and 1:4 glycerol-
water solution to delineate changes in basal thickness of differ-
ent clay minerals with X-ray diffraction. The 1 M KCl aliquots
were analyzed at room temperature, and reanalyzed after heat-
ing to 550 °C for 2 h, to determine clay mineralogy based on
temperature stability (Moore and Reynolds, 1997). Clay min-
eral samples were analyzed at Southern Methodist University
(SMU) with a Rigaku Ultima III X-ray diffractometer using
CuKα radiation between 2° and 14° 2Θ at a rate of 1° 2Θ per
minute. Identification of clay mineralogies was made based
upon the methods described in Moore and Reynolds (1997).
Carbonate nodules and tubules were collected near the
base of each carbonate-nodule–bearing horizon associated with
paleosol profiles. Doubly polished thin sections were analyzed
petrographically to differentiate pedogenic carbonate fabrics
from groundwater and diagenetic calcite cements following
the methods in Deutz et al. (2001) and Moore (2003). Micro-
samples were obtained from pedogenic micrite in carbonate
nodules and tubules; replacement of micrite and microspar or
sparry calcite cements was avoided. Samples were drilled from
thin sections or matching billets with a hand-held dental drill
equipped with faceted 100 μm diamond bits. Approximately
50 μg of carbonate powder was roasted at 375 °C for 3 h to
remove organics. Oxygen isotope analysis was carried out on
a Fisons-Optima infrared gas source mass spectrometer in the
Department of Geology at the University of California–Davis
and is reported in per mil notation, where
⎡R ⎤ content to have undergone reducing conditions (PiPujol and Buur-
δ 18O = ⎢ sample − 1⎥ × 1000
⎢⎣ Rstandard ⎥⎦
and R = 13C/12C. The standard used to report δ18O values of cal-
cite is the Peedee belemnite (PDB; Craig 1953), and interpreted
meteoric water δ18O values are given relative to the standard
mean ocean water (SMOW; Gonfiantini, 1978). Replicate analy-
21
sis of NBS 19 yielded δ18OPDB values of −2.07 ± 0.06 (n = 39)
over the period of analysis.
RESULTS
Overview of Relevant Pedogenic Features
Major diagnostic indicators of pedogenesis in Carnian-age
strata of the Ischigualasto Formation are pedogenic horizons, soil
structure, and fossil root traces. Profiles are subdivided into hori-
zons on the basis of color, distribution of redoximorphic features,
and translocated or authigenic minerals, and density of rooting
structures, as well as the presence and down-profile change in
paleosol structure and fossil root trace distribution. The presence
of horizons indicates that soil-forming processes operated on a rel-
atively stable substrate for sufficient time to reorganize the parent
material into zones of alteration, accumulation, and removal (e.g.,
Buol et al. 1997; Retallack, 1990; Mack and James, 1994).
The fundamental component of soil structure, the ped, and
its pedogenic coatings, cutans, can be important indicators of the
soil-forming environment and soil drainage conditions (Brewer
1976; Buol et al., 1997; Retallack 1988, 1990). Paleosols from the
Ischigualasto basin exhibit platy, massive, angular, prismatic,
and wedge-shaped peds with carbonate, iron- and/or manganese-
oxide, and clay cutans. The wide range in density, morphology,
and structure of root traces present within paleosols from the study
area delineates both the relative position of the paleo–water table
and the paleoenvironmental conditions of plant growth (e.g., Retal-
lack, 1990).
A good indicator of soil moisture regime and drainage is the
presence or absence of gley colors and redoximorphic morpholo-
gies (e.g., Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1998). Those portions of a soil
profile that contain gley colors (chroma < 2 and value > 4 on the
Munsell color charts) and/or mottling consistent with modern
surface-water gley in modern soil systems (see Retallack, 1990;
Vepraskas, 1994; PiPujol and Buurman, 1994) are referred to as
redoximorphic zones (e.g., Vepraskas, 1994). In modern soils,
redoximorphic features form in seasonally saturated portions
of profiles through removal of Fe and Mn from areas of low Eh
(redox depletions) and reprecipitation as Fe- and Mn-oxides (redox
concentrations) in more oxidized areas. Gley matrix colors indi-
cate reduced conditions, which are typical of relatively prolonged
saturation (25–50% of the year), whereas yellow-brown to reddish
mottles record seasonal soil drying (Daniels et al., 1971; Duch-
aufour, 1982). Using modern soils as an analogy, redoximorphic
features in paleosols are interpreted to have formed in seasonally
saturated portions of the profile that contained sufficient organic
man, 1994).
Soil Mineralogy
Quartz, feldspars, and micas are the dominant detrital silic-
iclastic minerals in both fluvial channel sands and paleosol
22 Tabor et al.
profiles based on petrographic and X-ray diffraction analyses
(Moore, 2003; Shipman, 2004). These detrital siliciclastic miner-
als also comprise a significant fraction of the clay mineralogy in
soils that formed over sedimentary parent materials in the
Ischigualasto Formation (pedotypes A–F described in next sec-
tion; see also Moore, 2003). However, two different paleosol
types (pedotypes G and H described in next section) apparently
preserve in situ weathering products of volcanic ash and basalt
and therefore have little or no detrital siliciclastic component.
The mineralogical composition of each pedotype horizon
is given in Table 1 based upon the response of the respective
<2 μm size fractions to various chemical and thermal treatments
discussed in the methods section. Figure 4A–C presents X-ray
diffractograms of <2 μm clay mineral fractions from pedotypes
C, G, and H (see description in next section). The majority of
paleosols is dominated by 2:1 phyllosilicate mineralogies. Expan-
sion of X-ray diffraction peaks near 12–15 Å in Mg-treated sam-
ples to 17.5–17.9 Å in Mg + glycerol treated samples corresponds
to d(001) spacing of smectite-group minerals (Fig. 4A–C, Table
1), probably montmorillonite (Tabor et al., 2004). The persistence
of an ~10 Å peak after Mg + glycerol treatment in pedotype D
corresponds to the d(001) of a mica-like mineral (MLM in Table
1), similar to muscovite (Fig. 4A). In addition, the invariant posi-
tion of the peak near 7.2 Å in pedotype H (Fig. 4C), and its disap-
pearance after heating at 550 °C, corresponds to the d(001) peak
of kandite group minerals, probably kaolinite (Tabor et al., 2004).
Note that MLM, which is likely a detrital siliciclastic component
not associated with pedogenic processes (Tabor et al., 2004), is
an important constituent of paleosol profiles in the fluvial-allu-
vial association, whereas it is an insignificant constituent of
paleosols in the volcanic association (see paleosol associations in
next section).
Paleosol Descriptions, Classifications, and Interpretations
Based on the field inspection of over 500 paleosol profiles in
the Ischigualasto Formation, eight major types of paleosols have
been recognized that represent the majority of the observed
morphological variability (e.g., horizonation, structure, fabric,
color, mineralogy; Fig. 5). Table 1 presents detailed morphologi-
cal and mineralogical characteristics of representative profiles
from each major paleosol type.
Next, we present generalized descriptions of the charac-
teristics of each of the eight paleosol types. We also discuss
the morphological variability among paleosol types, as well as
their stratigraphic and lateral distribution within the study area,
and classify each paleosol type using the criteria of Mack et al.
(1993) along with the closest estimated soil taxon within the con-
text of the USDA Soil Classification System (Soil Survey Staff,
1975, 1998). Paleosol types are unevenly distributed, both lat-
erally and vertically, through the Ischigualasto Formation strata
(Table 2). In terms of parent material, there are two distinct
paleosol assemblages: a fluvial-alluvial association (A–F) and a
volcanic association (G and H).
Fluvial-Alluvial Association
Type A Paleosols
Description. Type A paleosols exhibit rooting structures
and partial to complete obliteration of original depositional fea-
tures (Figs. 5 and 6). These paleosols exist as both muddy and
sandy profiles 30–250 cm thick, with weak, tubular/vermicular
green and red mottles with little to no soil structural develop-
ment or horizonation. Rooting structures, if present, are typi-
cally poorly defined root halos. The clay mineral composition
of the <2 μm fraction is dominated by quartz and MLM. These
paleosols are typically associated with the upper surfaces of
channel and crevasse-splay sandstones (Figs. 5 and 6) and
have highly variable lateral continuity throughout the forma-
tion. Type A paleosols are the most common suite of observed
paleosols in the Ischigualasto Formation and occur in all four
members, but are most abundant in Units II and III.
Interpretation. Paleosols with these characteristics are
classified as Protosols (Mack et al., 1993), which also roughly
covers the range of characteristics observed in the USDA Soil
Taxonomy soil order Entisols and some suborders of Inceptisols.
The presence of Protosols in the Ischigualasto Formation indi-
cates that sedimentation within the basin ceased long enough
for colonization by terrestrial flora or conditions for soil forma-
tion were exceedingly unfavorable (Buol et al., 1997). Based
on the close stratigraphic association of type A Protosols with
channel and channel-proximal deposits and a clay mineral frac-
tion that is dominated by detrital components, it is most likely
that the temporal development of these paleosols was limited
due to frequent deposition along stream corridors.
Type B Paleosols
Description. Type B paleosols are smectite and MLM-
rich mudstone and claystone profiles 50 to >250 cm thick.
They all have wedge-shaped aggregate structure in lower hori-
zons (Bss horizons) that grade upward to angular blocky or
prismatic horizons (Fig. 5). In addition, these wedge-shaped
aggregates define large, arcuate bounding surfaces that are
lined with highly oriented and foliated clay-sized material (i.e.,
slickensides). The upper horizons also exhibit sand or mud-
filled clastic dikes that may extend downward through the pro-
files as much as 125 cm. Most of these paleosols have weak
red to gray matrix colors with fine to coarse mottling, redoxi-
morphic coloration, and Fe nodules. These paleosols are most
commonly found in mudstone and claystone deposits within
several meters above or below channel sandstones and cre-
vasse-splay deposits. Several examples of these paleosols have
been traced laterally in excess of 3 km, indicating that this soil
morphology is, in many cases, laterally continuous. However,
other examples of pedotype B, when traced laterally, become
type C paleosols or terminate proximal to channel deposits
(Fig. 7). Type B paleosols increase in relative abundance from
west to east across the study area (from sections 1–3) and are
most common in Unit III.
 A Late Triassic soil catena
Interpretation. Paleosols with these characteristics are
classified as Gleyed Vertisols (Mack et al., 1993) or Aquerts
(Soil Survey Staff, 1998). The dominant pedogenic process in
the formation of a Vertisol is homogenization of the profile by
shrinking and swelling of expansible 2:1 phyllosilicate clays
(i.e., smectite) through repeated wetting and drying in climates
with seasonal precipitation and/or fluctuation of the underlying
water table (Wilding and Tessier, 1988). Redoximorphic or gley
features in some of the type B paleosols indicate that these pro-
files were susceptible to water-logging for periods sufficient to
produce anoxic conditions and mobilization of iron (Soil Survey
Staff, 1975). Based on the close association of pedotype B paleo-
sols with mudstones situated below, lateral to, and above chan-
nel and levee-splay sand deposits, it is likely that these paleosols
experienced episodic water logging from flooding events proxi-
mal to stream corridors.
Type C Paleosols
Description. These are smectite and MLM-rich mudstone
and claystone profiles from 75 to 175 cm thick. Similar to pedo-
type B, these paleosols exhibit wedge-shaped aggregates at depth
grading upward to angular blocky or prismatic structure with
slickensides and clastic dikes (Fig. 6). However, these paleosols
contain nodular carbonate ranging in size from a few millime-
ters to 20 cm in diameter. Nodules typically exhibit a pattern of
decreasing size upward through the profile, with noncalcareous
horizons beneath the interpreted paleosol surfaces. Redoximor-
phic features are not common in type C paleosols, although many
of these paleosols exhibit some rare to common faint color mot-
tling in lower horizons. Similar to type B paleosols, these paleo-
sols are associated with fine-grained overbank deposits. Type C
paleosols are most common in Unit II, but also occur in Unit III.
Several examples of these paleosols have been traced laterally
over distances of 3.5 km. In some instances, the morphological
compositions of individual type C paleosol layers undergo lateral
transitions to type B and type E paleosol profiles.
Interpretation. Wedge-shape aggregate structure, slicken-
sides, and carbonate nodules in type C paleosols indicate that
they are calcic Vertisols (Mack et al., 1993) and may possibly
represent the soil suborder Xererts (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
The significant features that separate pedotype C from pedotype
B are the presence of calcite nodules and a general absence of
redoximorphic features. These differences have significant bear-
ing on the pedogenic processes responsible for the formation of
pedotype C. The absence of redoximorphic features in the A and
B horizons of type C paleosols suggests that these horizons were
seldom or never water-logged for significant periods of time.
Therefore, it is likely that type C paleosols underwent episodic
wetting and drying from seasonal precipitation, rather than
an episodic rise and fall of the water table. Furthermore, the
presence of nodular calcite in these paleosols suggests long peri-
ods of pedogenesis (between 1000 and 10,000 yr) in areas of the
floodplain removed from frequent overbank deposition (Gile et
al., 1981). As such, type C paleosols are interpreted to represent
23
relatively old clay-rich soils that were spatially removed from
the depositional effects of major rivers and streams. In addition,
these profiles likely formed under semiarid or arid climatic con-
ditions characterized by seasonal rainfall.
Type D Paleosols
Description. These are smectite- and kaolinite-rich mud-
stone and claystone profiles that range from 75 to 150 cm
thick. Lower horizons are usually characterized by massive to
very coarse angular blocky structure, grading upward to fine to
medium, subangular blocky to angular blocky structure. These
profiles are noncalcareous, and subsurface horizons exhibit clay
“films,” or argillans (Bt horizon, Figs. 5 and 6; Brewer, 1976),
along ped surfaces and within root molds. In most instances,
the concentration of argillans is so great that it results in appar-
ent down-profile enrichment from the interpreted soil surface of
clay-sized material. Many of the pedotype D paleosols also con-
tain millimeter- to centimeter-size hematite nodules and exhibit
few to many, fine to coarse, faint to prominent color mottlings.
Type D paleosols are most common in mud-rich overbank sedi-
mentary rocks, although a few examples were found above chan-
nel and crevasse-splay sandstones. Type D paleosols are most
abundant in Unit III, sections 1 and 2, but are also common in
Unit IV, section 3.
Interpretation. Type D paleosols are classified as Argillisols
(Mack et al., 1993), suggesting they were likely Alfisols (Soil
Survey Staff, 1998). The paleoenvironmental significance of an
Argillisol lies in the fact that clay films and argillic horizons form
on generally well-drained and stable landscapes. This is because
the dominant pedogenic process in these soils is translocation
of layer-lattice silicate clays that can only be facilitated through
leaching of carbonates and calcium ions from clay exchange sites
in the soil profile (Franzmeier et al., 1985). Furthermore, these
paleosols will not form in climates with excessive precipitation
that results in ever-wet soil conditions (Soil Survey Staff, 1975).
Birkeland (1984) has shown that formation of Bt horizons may
form between 100 and 1000 yr, but the development of most sub-
surface argillic horizons requires longer than this period of time.
Based on these considerations, type D paleosols represent soils
that were relatively distant from active Ischigualasto fluvial chan-
nels and the associated effects of episodic sedimentation above
the actively forming profile. However, Fe nodules in some type
D paleosols may indicate seasonally poorly drained conditions
(Duchaufour, 1982).
Type E Paleosols
Description. Type E paleosols are smectite- and MLM-rich
mudstone profiles that range from 50 to 175 cm thick and are
generally red to brown in color (Figs. 5 and 6). Lower horizons
are typically massive or very coarse angular blocky, grading
upward to coarse to medium angular blocky structure. These
paleosols all contain tubular and nodular carbonate concretions
(Bk horizons). Nodules range from a few millimeters to 7.5 cm in
diameter and define calcareous horizons 10–110 cm thick. Where
 TABLE 1. MORPHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF PEDOTYPES DISCUSSED THROUGHOUT TEXT
Pedotype Depth Horizon Munsell color Root Pedogenic Contact Authigenic <2 Pm fraction Paleosol
† §
(cm) Matrix Mottles Class* structure minerals mineralogy classification
A +30–0 G1 8/N G1 6/10GY Massive, single grain Abrupt, smooth MLM, smectite Protosol, Entisols,
Inceptisols
0–41 AC1 G1 7/10GY G1 8/N, 10R 4/3 Massive, single grain Clear, smooth MLM, smectite
41–98 AC2 G1 7/10Y 5R 3/3 Massive, single grain Clear, smooth MLM, smectite
98–133 AC3 10YR 4/3 G1 6/5G, 5R 4/3 Massive, single grain Clear, wavy Minor oxides MLM, smectite
133–143 AC4 G1 5/10Y 5R 3/3 Massive, single grain Sharp, smooth MLM, smectite
143–189 C 5R 2.5/2 G1 6/5GY Massive, single grain Smooth, abrupt Minor oxides MLM, smectite

B 0–45 ABss 10R 5/3 G1 6/10Y H-II-g Medium angular blocky Gradual, wavy Smectite, minor Gleyed Vertisol,
MLM Aquert?
45–90 Bss G2 5/10Bg 2.5YR 5/4 H-II-g Sphenoid Clear, wavy Minor oxides Smectite, minor
MLM
90–140 BCss G1 7/10Y 2.5YR 3/2 V Sphenoid Clear, wavy Minor oxides Smectite, minor
MLM
140–176 IIC1 G1 7/10Gy V Massive Clear, wavy Smectite, MLM
176–206 IIIC2 V Fissile Clear, smooth Smectite, MLM
206–221 IVC3 V Massive Smectite, MLM

C +30–0 – – – V X-bedded Abrupt, broken Smectite, minor Calcic Vertisol,

MLM, minor kaolinite Xerept?
0–52 Abkss 5Y 5/1 5YR 3/1 V Sphenoid with medium angular Clear, wavy Calcite, Minor Smectite, minor
blocky oxides MLM, minor kaolinite

52–94 BKss 2.5YR 3/1 G2 5/10BG H-III-h Sphenoid with medium angular Gradual, wavy Calcite, Minor Smectite, minor
blocky oxides MLM
94–130 BC 2.5YR 3/1 2.5YR 5/2 V Massive to medium angular - Smectite, MLM
blocky

D +105–56 – 5Y 5/4 V Massive Abrupt, wavy MLM, smectite Argillisol, Aqualf?

+56–27 Acc 5Y 2.5/1 G-I-d Platy Clear, smooth Hematite MLM, smectite
+27–0 C 5Y 6/4 D-II-g Platy Abrupt, wavy MLM, smectite
0–6 Bc 2.5Y 4/1 5Y 6/2 V Medium angular blocky Clear, smooth Hematite Smectite, MLM
6–13 EB G1 6/10GY H-III-g Single grain Clear, smooth Minor smectite,
minor MLM
13–32 Bt 7.5YR 3/2 5Y 5/3 H-III-g Medium angular blocky Clear, wavy Smectite, minor
MLM
32–44 CB 5Y 6/3 5Y 5/3 H-III-g Coarse angular blocky Clear, wavy Smectite, MLM
44–85 C 5Y 6/3 5Y 6/8 H-III-f Massive Gradual, wavy MLM, smectite
85–95 C2 5Y 6/3 5Y 6/8 V Platy – MLM, smectite
(continued)
 TABLE 1. MORPHOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF PEDOTYPES DISCUSSED THROUGHOUT TEXT (continued)
Pedotype Depth Horizon Munsell color Root Pedogenic Contact Authigenic <2 Pm fraction Paleosol
† §
(cm) Matrix Mottles Class* structure minerals mineralogy classification
E +38–0 10R 4/3 10R 4/2 V Abrupt, smooth MLM, smectite Calcisol, Calcept?
0–11 Abk 10R 3/1 G2 5/5B H-III-h Fine-medium angular blocky Clear, smooth Calcite Smectite, MLM
11–21 Bk 10R 3/1 G2 5/5B H-III-h Medium angular blocky Clear, smooth Calcite Smectite, MLM
21–30 Bk2 G1 5/N 2.5YR 4/1 H-III-h Medium angular blocky Clear, smooth Calcite Smectite, MLM
30–96 Bk3 G1 5/N 2.5YR 4/1 H-III-h Coarse angular blocky – Calcite Smectite, MLM

F +50–0 G1 6/5G V Sphenoid Abrupt, wavy Smectite Argillic Calcisol,

Xeralf?
0–18 Bt 5YR 3/4 G1 3/5GY H-III-g,f Fine-medium angular blocky Clear, smooth Smectite, minor
kaolinite, minor MLM
18–67 Bk 5R 2.5/2 7.5YR 5/6, 10R 5/1 H-III-h Medium angular blocky Gradual, smooth Calcite Smectite, minor
MLM
67–101 Bn G1 4/10GY 10YR 4/6 IV Coarse angular blocky – Hematite Smectite, MLM

G +12–0 G1 5/10Y 7.5R 5/8 V Massive Abrupt, smooth Smectite Andic Protosol,
Andisol?
0–12 AC G1 6/10Y 5R 5/8 G,H-II-H Platy Abrupt, smooth Phyllosilicate, Smectite
hematite
12–95 AC2 2.5YR 5/1 7.5R 4/2, 10R 5/6 H-II/III-H Massive to platy Abrupt, wavy Phyllosilicate, Smectite
hematite
95–140 IIC 10YR 3/1 10YR 4/2 V Massive Diffuse, smooth Smectite
140–159 AC 2.5Y 5/1 10R 4/3, 5R 4/6 G-II-H Massive to platy Clear, wavy Phyllosilicate, Smectite
hematite
159–219 AC2 G1 5/N 5R 4/3 G,H-II-H Massive to platy – Phyllosilicate, Smectite
hematite

H +29–0 2.5Y 5/1 V Massive Abrupt, wavy MLM, smectite Vertisol

0–9 BCss 10YR 7/1 10R 3/2 IV Sphenoid Abrupt, broken Phyllosilicate, Smectite, kaolinite
calcite
9–34 Cr 10R 3/2 5Y 5/4 V Spheroidal w/ subangular Clear, smooth Phyllosilicate, Smectite
G1 5//10Y blocky calcite
G1 7/10Y
34–45 Cr2 G1 7/N 5Y 5/6 – Medium angular blocky Clear, wavy Calcite Smectite
45–65 Cr3 2.5Y 4/1 10YR 6/8 – Medium angular blocky Clear, wavy Calcite Smectite
65–865 R 10YR 3/2 – Massive Abrupt, smooth Calcite Disordered
corrensite
*Root class determined according to the root classification scheme of Pfefferkorn and Fuchs (1991).
†
The mineralogy of the <2 Pm size fraction was determined from X-ray diffraction analysis. MLM is a 10Å mica-like mineral. See text for discussion.
§
Two taxonomical categories are given. The first entry is the paleosol taxonomic order according to the paleosol classification scheme of Mack et al. (1993). The second entry is the
speculated taxonomic category of these paleosols according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Taxonomy. The question mark, “?,” after the second entry is meant to
emphasize the uncertainty of applying the modern soil taxonomy to paleosol profiles.
A B XRD Analyses; Pedotype G, Section 3, Unit #3
XRD Analyses - Pedotype D, Section 3 Unit #2

Mg-Treated Mg-Treated
17.8Å

Mg + Glycerol Treated Mg + Glycerol Treated

17.9Å K-Treated, 25°C 14.7Å K-Treated, 25°C

K-Treated, 550°C K-Treated, 550°C

Relative intensity

Relative Intensity
8.9Å
12.2Å
12.2Å 10.1Å (2nd Order peak of 17.8Å)

9.7Å

10.0Å

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
°2θ
°2θ

C XRD Analyses - Pedotype H, Sect. 3, Unit #2

14.7Å
Mg-Treated
Mg + Glycerol Treated
K-Treated, 25°C
K-Treated, 550°C

17.5Å
Relative Intensity

Figure 4. X-ray diffractograms (XRD) of the <2 μm fraction

from (A) pedotype D, (B) pedotype G, and (C) pedotype H. See
text for discussion.

12.3Å

9.9Å

7.2Å

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
°2θ
 A Late Triassic soil catena 27

Fluvio-Alluvial
A B C D
1 50

ABk 1 00 Bc
2 00 2 00 ABss Bw
1 00 Bt
50 2BC Figure 5. Eight pedotypes defined for
Bk 2Bt 2
1 50 1 50 the Ischigualasto Formation: (A) Pro-
50 tosol; (B) Gleyed Vertisol; (C) calcic
BCss BC 2C Vertisol; (D) Argillisol; (E) Calcisol;
0
(F) calcic Argillisol; (G) Andisol; (H)
1 00 1 00 1234 5 Vertisol. Alpha-numeric symbols to
0
the right of each pedotype correspond
2C 1234 5 to U.S. Department of Agriculture soil
50 50 horizon designations (Soil Survey Staff,
3C Volcanics 1998). Vertical axis is in centimeters.
Horizontal axis: 1—clay, 2—mudstone,
0 0 4C G 3, 4, 5—fine, medium, and coarse sand,
1234 5 1234 5 AC
H respectively. Pedotypes A–F comprise
the fluvial-alluvial paleosol association,
1 00 whereas pedotypes G and H comprise
1 50
E 1 50 F 2 00 AC the volcanics paleosol assemblage.
BCss Pedotypes A and B are typically proxi-
mal to channel sands and crevasse de-
T
T

50 T
T
T
T

Cr1
1 50 Cr2 posits. Pedotypes C, D, E, and F occur
1 00 1 00 in mudstone-dominated intervals distal
ABk Cr3
Bk Bt B B
R from major channel sandstones.
B
B 0
Bk2 Bk 1 00
B B

2C
1234 5
B

50
B

50 Bk2
Bk3
Bc 50
0 2C 0 AC
1234 5 123 4 5
0
1234 5

these paleosols have not been truncated, calcareous horizons
occur beneath noncalcareous surface horizons. Type E paleosols
are limited to mud-rich overbank deposits. Several examples
have been traced along outcrop exposures in excess of 2 km. In
addition, two examples of type E paleosols have been observed
to grade laterally to type C paleosols. Type E paleosols occur in
both Unit II and III, and they are most abundant in the eastern
part of the study area, near section 3.
Interpretation. These paleosols are classified as Calcisols
(Mack et al., 1993) and may have been Inceptisols and/or Ari-
disols (Soil Survey Staff, 1998). The most important pedogenic
process in the formation of type E paleosols is the accumulation
of carbonate minerals. Furthermore, calcic horizons apparently
do not form in modern soils that receive an excessive amount
of mean annual precipitation (>750 mm/yr) (Royer, 1999), and
they represent relatively uninterrupted and stable periods of time
required for formation of calcic horizons (Gile et al., 1981).
Type E paleosols are interpreted to have formed as relatively
well-drained and dry soils that were distant from active channels
resulting in limited sedimentation during pedogenesis.
Type F Paleosols
Description. These are smectite-, MLM-, and kaolinite-rich
mudstone and claystone profiles that are 50–160 cm thick. Lower
horizons are typically massive to coarse angular blocky very fine
sandstones or mudstones that grade upward to fine to medium
angular to subangular blocky mudstones and claystones (Figs.
5 and 6). These profiles are red, orange, or brown with few to
no color mottles. Morphological attributes of type F paleosols
are similar to types D and E paleosols, in that these paleosols
are characterized by subsurface horizons that contain both argil-
lans (Bt horizons) and carbonate (Bk, Btk horizons). However,
28 Tabor et al.

TABLE 2. DISTRIBUTION OF PALEOSOL TYPES IN THE ISCHIGUALASTO FORMATION

†
Rock Paleosol types Pedogenic
Channels §
Member thickness thickness
(%)* A B C D E F G H
(m) (m)
Section 1
Unit IV 63 41 7 2 11.6
Unit III 465 31 25 16 2 19 1 8 106.6
Unit II 121 12 14 4 2 4 5 3 45.8
Unit I 42 49 2 1 3.1
Totals 691 48 15 4 24 6 3 8 167.1
#
Abundance (%) 30 10 19 5 21 5 3 7 6

Section 2
Unit IV 37 28 19 3 1 18.1
Unit III 257 23 11 35 1 15 68.5
Unit II 92 17 5 1 11 3 4 34.1
Unit I 34 25 4 1 2.4
Totals 413 38 35 12 22 4 1 123.1
#
Abundance (%) 24 33 32 11 19 4 1

Section 3
Unit IV 37 8 18 1 4 1 22.5
Unit III 257 30 49 36 8 1 5 5 88.4
Unit II 67 0 9 7 3 1 3 6 2 34.7
Unit I 20 6 1 5 5.2
Totals 381 77 49 11 6 8 11 2 150.8
#
Abundance (%) 21 46 30 7 4 5 7 1
*The % thickness of channel sandstone deposits within each lithostratigraphic member from sections 1, 2, and 3 in the
Ischigualasto Formation.
†
The number of paleosol types described from sections 1, 2, and 3 for each informal member and total stratigraphic
thickness of the Ischigualasto Formation.
§
Cumulative thickness of all pedogenically altered layers within each measured section.
#
The abundance of paleosols types, in % thickness of pedogenically altered layers and % thickness of channel sands
through the entire Ischigualasto Formation, in sections 1, 2, and 3.

in all of the type F paleosols, the zone of inferred clay accumu-
lation (Bt horizons) overlies a zone of carbonate accumulation.
In addition, horizons directly beneath the interpreted soil surface
are noncalcareous. Type F paleosols are closely associated with
mud-rich overbank deposits and are observed to be laterally con-
tinuous over distances of 1 km. These paleosols are most com-
mon in Unit II, but are also present in Unit III, sections 1 and 3.
Interpretation. These paleosols are classified as calcic Argil-
lisols (Mack et al., 1993) and may possibly represent the USDA
soil suborder Xeralfs (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1998). Similar to
type D paleosols, the dominant pedogenic process for the forma-
tion of type F paleosols is the translocation of layer-lattice silicate
clays that can only be facilitated through soil leaching of carbon-
ates and calcium ions from clay exchange sites in the soil profiles
(Franzmeier et al., 1985). Although leaching of calcium carbon-
ate is required for formation of an argillic horizon, pedogenic
carbonate may precipitate in lower horizons of soils with argillic
horizons if leaching is not so great as to remove soluble minerals
from the soil zone (Buol et al., 1997). In fact, accumulation of
carbonate is common in the lower horizons of modern Alfisols in
xeric (i.e., winter wet, summer dry) soil moisture regimes (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975). Type F paleosols likely represent soil forma-
tion upon stable portions of the paleolandscape. Furthermore, the
preservation of pedogenic carbonates below argillic horizons
suggests that the depth of leaching was not sufficient to trans-
port base cations to the water table, indicating a fairly deep water
table in these portions of the landscape.
Volcanic Association
Type G Paleosols
Description. These are smectite-rich mudstones and fine
sandstone profiles ranging from 30 to 200 cm thick. Lower
horizons and parent material are massive or single-grain struc-
tures consisting of feldspar-rich ash-fall deposits or fluvially
reworked volcanogenic sediments grading upward to very weak
medium angular blocky or massive structure (Figs. 5 and 6).
Individual profiles exhibit variable coloration, ranging from
white to buff, pink, brown, purple, and red. However, all pro-
files exhibit redder colors upward through the profile. In addi-
tion, rooting structures are typically vertical to subvertical, pink
or red siliceous and iron-oxide–rich tubules. These paleosol
profiles occur above and within regionally extensive ash-fall
deposits, resulting in a broad lateral continuity that exceeds 4
 A Late Triassic soil catena
km along some stratigraphic horizons. They are typically asso-
ciated with fine-grained overbank sediments directly above
channel sandstones. These paleosols are limited to sections 1
and 2 of Unit III (Figs. 3 and 6).
Interpretation. These paleosols are interpreted as eutric Pro-
tosols (Mack et al., 1993). It is also possible that type G paleosols
may have been Andisols within the context of the USDA soil clas-
sification (Soil Survey Staff, 1998). However, short-range order
(SRO) minerals, such as allophane and immoglolite, which are
important constituents in the Andisol classification, are absent in
type G paleosols, and therefore they cannot be justifiably placed
within the Andisol soil order. The presence of relatively unstable
parent constituents, such as ash and feldspar, indicates that pedo-
genesis was of a relatively short duration.
Type H Paleosols
Description. These smectite- and kaolinite-rich mudstone
and claystone profiles formed above Triassic-age vesicular cal-
cium plagioclase basalt flows in the lower one-third of Unit II,
section 3 (Fig. 3). Type H paleosols are characterized by shrink-
swell features in the upper portion, with a thin spheroidally
29
Figure 6. Ischigualasto Formation pedo-
types. (A) Series of stacked type A pa-
leosols (Protosols) associated with cre-
vasse-splay deposits, Unit IV, section 1.
(B) Bedding-plane exposure of clastic
dikes in type B paleosol (Gleyed Verti-
sol), Unit III, section 1. (C) Lowermost
dark bands are exposures of pedotypes
F (calcic Argillisol), E (Calcisol), and
C (calcic Vertisol), Unit II, section 3.
(D) Type D paleosol (Argillisol) with
well-developed vertical root halos, Unit
III, ~1 km east of section 1. (E) Vertical
profile through type G paleosol (Verti-
sol) developed on basalt flow, Unit II,
section 3. Alpha-numeric symbols cor-
respond to U.S. Department of Agri-
culture soil horizon designations (Soil
Survey Staff, 1998).
weathered horizon and weakly mottled horizons beneath grading
downward into unweathered basalt (Figs. 5 and 6). Amygdules in
the unweathered basalt are composed of sparry calcite cements,
whereas calcite is missing from the upper horizon of the profile.
The spheroidally weathered horizon is morphologically divided
into three distinct zones: (1) a central silty gray spheroid with
common sparry calcite-filled vesicles; (2) a middle gray silty-
clay layer with few micritic calcite-filled vesicles and common
green montmorillonite-filled vesicles; and (3) an outer red clay-
rich rind with common green subcentimeter-size montmorillon-
ite nodules (Tabor et al., 2004).
Interpretation. Type H paleosols are interpreted as Verti-
sols (Mack et al., 1993; Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1998; Tabor et
al., 2004). These paleosol profiles exhibit similar morphologic
features and indicate similar pedogenic processes responsible
for soil formation as type B and C paleosols. However, type H
paleosols apparently formed from in situ weathering of parent
basalt, whereas type B and C paleosols formed from siliciclastic
sedimentary parent materials. Tabor et al. (2004) suggested that
type H paleosols formed upon relatively stable landscapes in a
climate characterized by extreme seasonality in precipitation.
30 Tabor et al.

Paleosol Calcite Petrography and Geochemistry
The petrographic textures and δ18O values of carbonate nod-
ules associated with Ischigualasto Formation paleosols is pre-
sented in Moore (2003). The relative abundance of petrographic
fabrics and morphology of paleosol carbonate samples follow
in the order of abundance: (1) micritic calcite nodules with sub-
spherical macromorphology, followed by (2) whole nodules of
radiaxial calcite fibers that accommodate botryoidal “cluster-like”
macromorphology; and (3) “sandy” calcite nodules that exhibit
floating detrital grains of quartz and feldspars in a micritic calcite
matrix with lenticular macromorphology (Fig. 8; Appendix 1).
Although not common, calcite spar-filled veins crosscut exam-
ples of all three major sorts of petrographic fabrics. In general,
carbonate nodules contain between 16% and 34% acid-insoluble
residue that is composed of phyllosilicate, quartz, and feldspar
(Moore, 2003).
The typically lenticular macromorphology of the sandy
nodules, in conjunction with their slightly more negative δ18O
values, suggests a groundwater origin (Moore, 2003; see also
Slate, 1996; Budd et al., 2002). Furthermore, micritic calcite
nodules are normally observed in modern, well-drained soils
where illuviation of Ca2+ ion is an important pedogenic process
(e.g., Deutz et al., 2001), whereas radiaxial calcite has yet to be
described as a product of well-drained pedogenic systems where
percolating meteoric rainwater represents the sole source of H2O
in the profile. Therefore, the δ18O values of (1) “sandy” micritic
and (2) radiaxial fibrous calcite nodules are eliminated from
further consideration in this work. This selection reflects that
micritic calcite should provide the most conservative data set
for paleotemperature estimates within the context of the model
proposed by Dworkin et al. (2005).
Micritic calcite nodules record an average intranodular
δ18OVPDB variation of 1.1 ± 0.4‰ (1σ), with an absolute range of

A 4 EAST

200 m
200

400 m 200
3
400 m
WEST
1 2 150

Crevasse - Splay
Sandstone
150
100
100
Greenish
Pedotype Gray BC
F Brown Bk
150
Very 100
Dusky Dusky 50
50 Dusky Bk2 Pedotype Pedotype
Red Bk1 Red
Brown E B Pedotype Dusky
Greenish
Red
Greenish Gray Bk2 Greenish A Greenish
Gray Bg 100 Greenish BC Gray Gray
Gray 50 0
0 Greenish C1
C ms f m c C ms f m c
Gray
sand sand
50 Greenish 0
Gray C3 C ms f m c

sand

0
C ms f m c

sand

Fluvial Channel
B Crevasse Splay/Levee Deposits Sandstone

1 2 Paleosol Horizon 3 4 V.E. ~ 7X

Figure 7. (A) Four laterally equivalent stratigraphic columns of a paleosol from Unit II (~48 m level in section 1). Along this ~1 km transect,
there is a transition from fluvial sandstone deposits to weakly developed paleosol types A and B, to more mature types C and E. (B) Generalized
cross section of laterally variable pedotypes showing the relative position of the measured profiles shown in A with respect to coeval proximal
overbank channel deposits. Vertical exaggeration ~7×.
 A Late Triassic soil catena
A B
intranodular δ18O variability from 0‰ to 3.8‰. The δ18O values
of micritic calcite and their stratigraphic position above the base
of the Ischigualasto Formation for sections 1, 2, and 3 are pre-
sented in Appendix 1. Micritic paleosol calcite in section 1 exhib-
its a stratigraphic range of δ18O values from –5.4‰ to –13.1‰.
The maximum range of δ18O values along a single lateral paleo-
sol transect in section 1 is from –5.4‰ to –11.7‰ at 118 m
(Fig. 9; Appendix 1). Section 2 exhibits a stratigraphic range of
micrite δ18O values from –8.2‰ to –13.0‰, with a maximum
range of δ18O values along a single paleosol transect ranging
from –8.2‰ to –12.7‰ at 106 m above the base of the Ischigual-
asto Formation (Fig. 9; Appendix 1). Section 3 exhibits a range of
micrite δ18O values from –9.0‰ to –14.3‰, with a maximum
range of δ18O values along a singe paleosol transect ranging from
–9.0‰ to –12.3‰, 43 m above the base of the Ischigualasto
Formation (Fig. 9; Appendix 1). The large range of δ18O values
along individual paleosol transects suggests the possibility of
variable soil water δ18O values, possibly related to isotopic mod-
ification through in situ evaporation within the soil (e.g., Cerling
31
Figure 8. Plain, transmitted-light petrographic images of (A) micritic
calcite nodule collected from 118 m above the base of the Ischigual-
asto Formation (Unit II) in section 1, (B) sandy micrite nodule col-
lected from 106 m above the base of the Ischigualasto Formation
(Unit II) in section 2, and (C) radiaxial fibrous calcite nodule from
118 m above the base of the Ischigualasto Formation (Unit II) in sec-
tion 1. See text for discussion.
and Quade, 1993; Levin et al., 2004; Tabor and Montañez,
2005).
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The spatial and temporal distribution of observed Ischigual-
asto Formation pedotypes, in addition to the distribution of
fluvial channel deposits, indicates lateral variations in depo-
sitional rates and soil drainage indicative of the existence of a
paleosoil catena throughout deposition. While these variations
are intimately linked to lateral changes in formation thickness
and related structural controls on basin development, in terms of
Ischigualasto paleosols, they are manifested by lateral variations
in paleosol abundance, B-horizon thickness, redoximorphic fea-
tures, and pedogenic carbonate accumulations.
The most striking characteristic of the Ischigualasto Forma-
tion is a significant change in sedimentary thickness, from west
to east, across the study area (Fig. 3). Currie et al. (2001) consid-
ered the thickness change to record structural controls on basin
32 Tabor et al.

400
Paleosol Micrite δ18OVPDB

Section1, Basin Axis

Section2, Basin Flank
350 Section3, Basin Margin

300
Stratigraphic Position (m)

250

200 Figure 9. δ18O values of micritic calcite

from paleosol carbonate nodules in sec-
tions 1, 2, and 3 of the Ischigualasto
Formation. See Appendix 1 for further
information and text for discussion.
150

100

50

0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4
δ18OVPDB

accommodation due to syndepositional faulting in the western
part of the study area. The relative abundance of channel sand-
stones in the thicker sedimentary package in section 1 (Fig. 3)
suggests that major streams preferentially occupied that portion
of the basin because this area apparently provided greater accom-
modation throughout Ischigualasto Formation deposition.
The distribution of Ischigualasto Formation pedotypes in
the eastern part of the basin provides additional insight into the
relationships between basin structure and the history of sedi-
ment accumulation. The stratigraphic distribution of paleosol
types in the study area is presented in Table 2. The cumulative
thickness of pedogenically altered layers corresponds to 24%,
30%, and 40% of the total stratigraphic thickness in sections 1,
2, and 3, respectively (Fig. 10A). This suggests that along with
a dramatic reduction in stratigraphic thickness from west to
east (~300 m), areas in the eastern part of the study area also
experienced longer periods of nondeposition and soil formation.
This interpretation is supported by differences in the overall paleo-
sol morphology across the study area. Generally speaking, longer
periods of nondeposition and soil formation result in more perva-
sively developed or “mature” soil morphologies (Buol et al., 1997).
For example, Bain et al. (1993) demonstrated that B-horizon thick-
ness appears to progress linearly over the first ~10,000 yr of soil
formation (Fig. 10B). The mean B-horizon thickness of paleosols
A 45 Ischigualasto Fm Pedogenic thickness B
40
35
% paleosols

30
25
20 40%
15 30%
10
24%
5
0
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3

C 90 Mean B-Horizon D 90 Redoximorphic Features

80 Thickness (cm) 80 88%
70 70 80%
60 % paleosols

Not Present
60
63%
cm

50 50

Present
40 40
30 30 37%
20
n = 40 n = 38 20
10 n = 45 10 20%
0 12%
0
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 1 Section 2 Section 3

E 90 Moisture Deficiency - Paleosol CaCO3

80 87%
85%
70 80%
% paleosols

Not Present

60
50
Present

40
30
20
10
13% 15% 20%
0
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3

Figure 10. (A) Histogram of the stratigraphic thickness represented by pedogenically altered layers in sections 1, 2, and 3. See text for further dis-
cussion. (B) Plot of B-horizon thickness versus age of profiles in a soil chronosequence from Scotland (Bain et al., 1993). This graph illustrates
the very good correlation that is observed between B-horizon thickness and duration of pedogenesis and is not meant as a quantitative indicator of
the time represented by paleosol profiles in the Ischigualasto Formation. (C) Histogram of the mean B-horizon thickness of paleosols in sections
1, 2, and 3. Note that type A and B and G paleosols are not considered here because these paleosols either do not contain B horizons or represent
cumulative deposition and pedogenesis. Progressively thicker B-horizon thickness from section 1 to 3 suggests longer periods of nondeposition
and pedogenesis toward the eastern part of the study area. See text for discussion. (D) Distribution of paleosol profiles with redoximorphic fea-
tures in sections 1, 2, and 3. See text for discussion. (E) Distribution of calcareous paleosol profiles, based on percent thickness of pedogenically
altered layers, in sections 1, 2, and 3. See text for discussion.
34 Tabor et al.
in sections 1, 2, and 3 is 24 cm, 33 cm, and 40 cm, respectively,
indicating that periods of active pedogenesis associated with the
formation of individual soils were of progressively longer duration
from the western to eastern parts of the study area.
On alluvial landscapes, lateral changes in groundwater level
and subsequent soil drainage can dramatically effect soil develop-
ment and morphology (i.e., a soil catena; Steila, 1976; Birkeland,
1999; Buol et al., 1997). Soils that develop adjacent to fluvial
channels are commonly poorly drained and experience frequent
fluctuations in the level of the groundwater table that can lead to
anoxia and the formation of gley and redoximorphic morpholo-
gies (Birkeland, 1999). In Ischigualasto Formation paleosols,
evidence for gleyed and redoximorphic conditions is preserved
in 88%, 63%, and 20% of the paleosol profiles in sections 1, 2,
and 3, respectively (Fig. 10D), indicating a gradient of soil drain-
age conditions from generally very wet, to progressively better
drained soil conditions, from west to east, during Ischigualasto
Formation deposition. Thus, we conclude that the distribution of
paleosol morphologies in the Ischigualasto Formation resulted
not only from changing landscape stability and frequency of
deposition, but also from changing soil drainage conditions
across the paleolandscape.
In spite of strong evidence for a catenary sequence that
focused poorly drained conditions in areas of increased subsid-
ence (toward section 1; Fig. 3), the presence of carbonate-bear-
ing paleosols in all three measured sections suggests that there
was a discrete interval of relatively well-drained conditions and
net soil-moisture deficiency across the entire study area during
deposition of Unit II and the lower half of Unit III (Table 2).
Nevertheless, carbonate-bearing paleosols (types C, E, and F)
represent 13%, 15%, and 19% of the total thickness of pedo-
genically altered layers in sections 1, 2, and 3, respectively (Fig.
10E). In addition, a single calcareous paleosol profile (type F)
occurs near the top of section 3 in Unit IV, but there are no car-
bonate-bearing paleosol profiles in Unit IV of sections 1 and
2. Therefore, the distribution of calcareous soils seems to be
related to landscape position, which may also be controlled by
soil drainage patterns and the position of the groundwater table.
We consider the distribution of pedogenic carbonate across
the study area to reflect differential depths of the groundwater
table beneath the surface of the paleolandscape. As meteoric
precipitation percolates through well-drained soil, it will leach
and translocate Ca2+ from the upper horizons through the “depth
of wetting.” This depth is related to many factors, including
permeability and porosity of soil matrix and the amount and
intensity of rainfall (Jenny, 1941; Arkley, 1963). Whatever the
depth of wetting, the soil profile is effectively dry below this
position, and pedogenic carbonate can accumulate because illu-
vial Ca2+ is forced out of solution, into the solid phase (e.g.,
Jenny, 1941; Arkley, 1963). However, if the depth of wetting
intersects the groundwater table, Ca2+ will not be retained (e.g.,
Wigley, 1978) and carbonate will not form in the soil (Fig. 11).
Based upon the distribution of major channel sandstones
and redoximorphic conditions, we suggest that there was a
long-term pattern of a very shallow groundwater table in the
western portions of the study area and a relatively deeper
groundwater table in the eastern portion of the study area (Figs.
3 and 11). Under these conditions, the depth of wetting in the
soil would have been more likely to intersect the groundwater
table and Ca2+ could have been leached out of the soil profiles
in sections 1 and 2 (Fig. 11). However, the depth of wetting
was not as likely to intersect the deeper groundwater table in
section 3, and Ca2+ could have been retained within the soil as
CaCO3. Note that argillic horizons will not form until Ca2+ has
been thoroughly leached from the upper layers of the soil and
translocated to lower horizons or entirely leached from the soil
(Franzmeier et al., 1985). Under shallow groundwater condi-
tions, Ca2+ would have been more likely to leach out of the soil,
allowing Protosols or Argillisols to form, rather than Calcisols
or calcic Argillisols. Therefore, a shallow groundwater table
may also explain the relative abundance of Argillisols (type D
paleosols) in sections 1 and 2, which represent 21% and 19%
of the total thickness of pedogenically altered layers, and their
rarity (only 4%) in section 3 (Table 2). Collectively, the distri-
bution of channel sands, variations in pedogenic alteration, and
paleosol B-horizon thickness provide persuasive evidence for
the presence of a long-term geomorphic control on sedimenta-
tion, landscape stability, and soil formation in the Late Triassic
Ischigualasto basin.
Implications of Paleosol Nodule Micritic Calcite as a
Monitor of Paleotemperature
The oxygen isotopic composition of a particular soil mineral
is determined by (1) the temperature-dependent isotopic frac-
tionation of that mineral, (2) temperature of crystallization, and
(3) the oxygen isotope composition of liquid H2O from which it
crystallizes (e.g., O’Neil et al., 1969; Cerling and Quade, 1993;
Yapp, 1993, 2000). The vast majority of liquid water in conti-
nental environments is meteoric in origin (Dansgaard, 1964).
As a result of the controls upon the global meteoric water line,
both temperature of mineral crystallization and the δ18O value of
meteoric water may be parametrically correlated. Therefore, the
oxygen isotopic values of micritic calcite (δ18Occ) in Ischigual-
asto Formation paleosol nodules may potentially provide impor-
tant insights into Late Triassic climate.
Dworkin et al. (2005) presented two different equations
to relate the δ18O value of pedogenic calcite to temperature of
crystallization. The first equation (Equation 1 below) is a third-
order polynomial that relates the observed parametric correla-
tion between meteoric precipitation and mean annual surface
air temperature from the entire International Atomic Energy
Association (IAEA) data set (Rozanski et al., 1993) to pedogenic
calcite via the oxygen isotope fractionation equation between
water and calcite (O’Neil et al., 1969: 103(ln α) = 2.78 × 106/
T2 – 2.89). The second equation (Equation 2 below) is derived
from the empirical relationship that was measured between pedo-
genic calcite δ18O values and measured mean annual surface air
 A Late Triassic soil catena 35

Section 1 Section 2 Section 3

Gleyed Protosols, Gleyed Vertisols Gleyed Vertisols, calcic Calcisols, calcic Vertisols,
Vertisols, Argillisols, calcic calcic Argillisols
Argillisols
~2 m

Ca2+ Ca2+ Groundwate CaCO3

Ca2+ r Table

~15 km
Figure 11. Schematic cross-section diagram representing the interpreted distribution of paleosol profiles and position of the paleo–water table
across the Ischigualasto Formation paleolandscape. Based on the abundance of channel sandstones and redoximorphic features, the position of
the groundwater table is interpreted to be relatively shallow in the western region of the study area and relatively deeper in the eastern region.
Leaching of Ca2+ out of the soil and into the groundwater table would have been more likely in the western region, resulting in formation of less
calcareous soils. See text for discussion.

temperature from soils located in interior continental sites (Cer-
ling and Quade, 1993):
0 = −0.50T 3 + (δ18Occ (‰, SMOW)
+ 152.04) × T 2 – 2.78 × 106 (Dworkin et al., 2005) (1)
and
δ Occ (‰, PDB) = 0.49 × (T[°C]) – 12.65
18
(Dworkin et al., 2005, from Cerling and Quade, 1993). (2)
A plot of Equations 1 and 2 is shown in Figure 12. The analyti-
cal uncertainty of the temperature estimates reported in Dwor-
kin et al. (2005) is ~±0.5 °C, which reflects only the analytical
uncertainty of the δ18O measurement for calcite, and not other
potentially important effects, such as variable rainfall δ18O values
among isothermal sites. Considering an analytical uncertainty of
±0.5 °C, Equations 1 and 2 provide paleotemperature estimates
that are indistinguishable from one another between ~12° and
20 °C, corresponding to δ18Occ-PDB values ranging from –2.9‰ to
–6.7‰. Pedogenic carbonate δ18O values above or below these
values will result in significantly different temperature estimates
from Equations 1 and 2 (Fig. 12).
Ferguson et al. (1999) noted that a correlation exists between
meteoric precipitation and temperature for IAEA stations with
mean annual temperatures <15 °C, but the isotopic difference
between 18O-enriched coastal maritime precipitation and 18O-
poor continental interior precipitation for isothermal sites par-
tially confounds the correlation. These workers therefore broke
the IAEA data set into two groups: (1) maritime sites <200 km
from the coasts and (2), and continental sites >200 km inland.
Based upon the results of Ferguson et al. (1999), the following
equations describe the expected correlation between temperature
and the δ18O value of pedogenic calcite that forms in equilibrium
with meteoric water:
Continental Sites
T (±2 °C) = (δ18Occ (PDB) – 12.78)/0.64
(after Ferguson et al., 1999) (3)
and
Maritime Sites
T (±5 °C) = (δ18Occ (PDB) – 12.65)/0.59
(after Ferguson et al., 1999). (4)
The reported uncertainties of ±2 °C and ±5 °C in these tem-
perature estimates reflect the range of precipitation δ18O values
for isothermal sites in continental and maritime sites, respec-
tively, and therefore probably provide a more realistic evalua-
tion of uncertainty associated with Equations 1 and 2 than was
reported in Dworkin et al. (2005). Figure 12 presents plots of
Equations 1 through 4. Comparison of the different correlations
makes clear that Equation 1 is heavily weighted by cool-climate
maritime sites and will likely underestimate paleotemperature for
soil calcites in continental sites. However, Equation 2 and Equa-
tion 3, both of which represent calcite δ18O values within conti-
nental sites, exhibit a close correspondence at relatively low tem-
peratures (<~10 °C; see Fig. 12). As mentioned, the Ischigualasto
 0
Dworkin et al (2005), Eqn (1) Maritime Figure 12. Plot showing the rela-
Dworkin et al (2005), Eqn (2) tionship of calcite δ18OVPDB values
Ferguson et al (1999), Eqn (3)
versus temperature (°C). The trace
-2 Ferguson et al (1999), Eqn (4)
Uncertainty Envelope, Eqn (3)
of Equation 1 is the relationship
Continental that is predicted from the global
International Atomic Energy Asso-
-4 ciation (IAEA) data set presented in
Dworkin et al. (2005). The trace of
Equation 2 is the correlation that is
δ 18 O(VPDB)

-6 defined by the measured mean annu-

al surface air temperatures and δ18O
values of pedogenic calcite from
-8 modern soils distributed across cen-
tral North America (Dworkin et al.,
2005, based on work in Cerling and
Quade, 1993). The trace of Equa-
-10
tion 3 is the relationship predicted
from IAEA continental sites that are
>200 km inland from the coastlines,
-12
whereas Equation 4 is the relation-
ship predicted from IAEA maritime
sites that are <200 km from the coast
-14 (Ferguson et al., 1999). See text for
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
discussion.
Temperature (°C)

400
A Too Cold for Temp. range Section 1; Eqn 2
Liquid H2O based on Section 1; Eqn 3
350
goethite δD,
δ18O (Tabor
et al., 2004)
300
Stratigraphic Thickness (m)

250

200

150

100

50

0
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Temperature (°C)

Figure 13. Stratigraphic position vs. estimated surface air temperature from Equations 2 and 3 based on the measured δ18OVPDB value of micritic
paleosol calcite in (A) Section 1, (B) Section 2 and (C) Section 3. See text for discussion.
 400
B Too Cold for Temp. range
Liquid H2O based on Section 2; Eqn (2)

350
goethite δD, Section 2; Eqn (3)

δ O (Tabor
18

et al., 2004)
300
Stratigraphic Thickness (m)

250

200

150

100

50

0
-5.0 -3.0 -1.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0
Temperature (°C)

C 400 Too Cold for Temp. range

Liquid H2O based on Section 3, Eqn (2)

350
goethite δD, Section 3, Eqn (3)

δ O (Tabor
18

et al., 2004)
300
Stratigraphic Thickness (m)

250

200

150

100

50

0
-5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Temperature (°C)
38 Tabor et al.
Formation was deposited in a closed continental basin that was
likely far-removed from the effects of maritime precipitation.
Therefore, we consider Equations 2 and 3 to provide the clos-
est approximations of the relationship between temperature and
calcite δ18O values during pedogenesis and paleosol calcite crys-
tallization during Late Triassic time. Equations 1 and 4 will be
disregarded in the following discussion.
The resulting paleotemperature estimates from Equations 2
and 3, which are calculated from the oxygen isotope composition
of micritic calcite in the Ischigualasto Formation (Appendix 1), are
plotted in Figure 13A–C with respect to their stratigraphic positions
in sections 1–3. Paleotemperature estimates range from –1° to 15 °C
in section 1, whereas mean estimates from Equations 2 and 3 are 4°
± 3 °C (1σ) and 3° ± 2 °C (1σ), respectively. Paleotemperature esti-
mates range from –3° to 9 °C in section 2, whereas mean estimates
from Equations 2 and 3 are 4° ± 3 °C and 3 °C ± 2 °C, respectively.
Finally, paleotemperature estimates range from –3 °C to 7 °C in
section 3, whereas mean estimates from Equations 2 and 3 are 2° ±
3 °C and 2° ± 2 °C, respectively. The reported analytical uncertainty
of the mean estimates reflects the 1 standard deviation of δ18O val-
ues for each stratigraphic section. The close correspondence of the
mean temperature estimates in sections 1–3 suggests that Ischigual-
asto Formation paleosol calcites may preserve records of Late Tri-
assic conditions in the soil-forming environment. However, it is
critically important to note that these paleotemperature estimates
provide equivocal estimates of temperature for any calcite that may
have formed in the presence of evaporatively enriched soil waters
and for nodules affected by postburial, diagenetic modification of
calcite δ18O. Paleotemperature estimates derived from Equations 2
and 3 are appropriate only for calcite that forms in equilibrium (or
very near equilibrium) with water that lies along (or very near to)
the meteoric water line that is defined by cool-climate, continental
sites in modern IAEA data stations (e.g., Ferguson et al., 1999). It
is difficult, probably even impossible, to demonstrate any of these
particular conditions for the micritic calcite samples from paleosol
nodules in the Late Triassic Ischigualasto Formation. In this regard,
it is probably not realistic to discuss the δ18O values of Ischigualasto
Formation paleosol micrites in terms of absolute temperature val-
ues. Rather, it is probably more appropriate to use these estimates as
a general guide to paleoenvironmental conditions (e.g., frigid, cool,
warm, hot, hyperthermic). In this regard, we consider the similarity
of average calcite δ18O values in sections 1, 2, and 3 to correspond
to soil formation in a cold to cool climate (probably between ~0°
and 11 °C) throughout the interval of soil calcite development in the
Ischigualasto Formation (Units II, III, and IV). A lower limit of 0 °C
is assumed here, because it is the practical limit for liquid water that
must be available for chemical reactions, whereas the upper limit
is suggested only by the temperature estimates provided via Equa-
tions 2 and 3. However, an independent paleotemperature estimate
of 8° ± 3 °C that is based on the oxygen and hydrogen isotope com-
position of goethite in a type H paleosol (Tabor et al., 2004) from
Unit I, section 3 of the Ischigualasto Formation suggests that an
upper limit of ~10 °C in the Late Triassic Ischigualasto Formation
may be taken seriously.
Summary of Inferred Paleoclimate Trend through
Ischigualasto Formation Deposition
Although the lithological composition and paleosol mor-
phology of the Ischigualasto Formation was apparently strongly
controlled by landscape position across the Ischigualasto–Villa
Union basin, basin-wide changes in the stratigraphic distribu-
tion of paleosol morphologies suggest the possibility of rela-
tively subtle climate changes in this region through Carnian
time. The general absence of calcareous pedotypes (A, B, D, G,
H) suggests that regional conditions were exceedingly unfavor-
able for pedogenic calcite formation during deposition of Unit I,
the upper half of Unit III and Unit IV (Table 2). As mentioned
earlier, unfavorable conditions for pedogenic calcite formation
could be a humid climate that results in deep leaching of the soil
profile, or a very shallow groundwater table, or a combination of
both factors. However, the basinwide occurrence of calcareous
pedotypes (C, E, F) suggests that conditions changed enough to
permit retention of calcite within the soil zone during deposition
of Unit II and the lower half of Unit III (Table 2). Such a change
in paleosol morphology may correspond to a transition to gener-
ally drier conditions that resulted in incomplete leaching of the
soil profile or a very deep groundwater table, or a combination
of both factors. Therefore, the distribution of paleosol morpholo-
gies in the Ischigualasto Formation is suggestive of an environ-
ment that was humid and poorly drained during deposition of
Unit I, followed by relatively drier and better-drained environ-
ments during deposition of Unit II and the lower half of Unit
III, and a return to generally more humid and poorly drained
environments during deposition of the upper half of Unit III and
Unit IV. Based on available data, it is impossible to determine
at this time if the perceived environmental changes are related
to intra- or extrabasinal forces. Nevertheless, existing lithologi-
cal, mineralogical, and chemical data indicate that structural
controls on the basin and landscape position were the primary
forces of landscape evolution in a cold to cool climate during
deposition of the Carnian-age Ischigualasto Formation.
 A Late Triassic soil catena 39

APPENDIX 1. STRATIGRAPHIC POSITION, TEXTURE, AND G O (VPDB) VALUE OF

18

CARBONATE NODULES IN THE LATE TRIASSIC ISCHIGUALASTO FORMATION

Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Meters Texture G18O (‰) Meters Texture G18O (‰) Meters Texture G18O (‰)
60 Micrite –11.4 44 Micrite –9.7 14 Micrite –11.9
60 Micrite –11.1 46 Micrite –11.4 14 Micrite –11.5
60 Micrite –10.3 46 Micrite –10.4 14 Micrite –10.4
73 Micrite –11.1 46 Micrite –10.2 42 Micrite –9.8
75 Micrite –12.0 46 Micrite –10.0 43 Micrite –12.3
79 Micrite –9.6 59 Micrite –10.3 43 Micrite –12.0
79 Micrite –9.1 94 Micrite –12.0 43 Micrite –11.4
79 Micrite –9.1 96 Micrite –11.7 43 Micrite –11.1
81 Micrite –9.7 96 Micrite –11.3 43 Micrite –11.0
81 Micrite –9.5 106 Micrite –12.7 43 Micrite –11.0
95 Micrite –11.1 106 Micrite –12.2 43 Micrite –10.9
95 Micrite –10.9 106 Micrite –12.0 43 Micrite –10.7
118 Micrite –11.5 106 Micrite –11.0 43 Micrite –10.5
118 Micrite –11.2 106 Micrite –11.0 43 Micrite –10.4
118 Micrite –11.1 106 Micrite –10.9 43 Micrite –10.4
118 Micrite –9.3 106 Micrite –10.9 43 Micrite –10.4
118 Micrite –9.4 106 Micrite –10.5 43 Micrite –9.9
118 Micrite –11.7 106 Micrite –9.3 43 Micrite –9.9
118 Micrite –11.6 106 Micrite –8.4 43 Micrite –9.0
118 Micrite –11.6 106 Micrite –8.4 52 Micrite –10.7
118 Micrite –11.3 106 Micrite –8.2 57 Micrite –14.0
118 Micrite –10.9 108 Micrite –11.5 57 Micrite –13.6
118 Micrite –5.4 113 Micrite –10.5 138 Micrite –12.5
118 Micrite –8.9 122 Micrite –11.4 138 Micrite –11.9
118 Micrite –7.8 124 Micrite –11.1 138 Micrite –11.8
118 Micrite –8.9 155 Micrite –14.1 138 Micrite –11.7
146 Micrite –11.7 155 Micrite –13.0 164 Micrite –13.6
158 Micrite –11.0 164 Micrite –11.0
171 Micrite –12.1 210 Micrite –13.8
253 Micrite –12.1 210 Micrite –13.8
273 Micrite –13.1 210 Micrite –13.1
273 Micrite –10.6 213 Micrite –14.3
299 Micrite –10.0 213 Micrite –11.7
299 Micrite –9.2 251 Micrite –11.2
357 Micrite –13.2
357 Micrite –12.2
357 Micrite –11.6
357 Micrite –11.6
357 Micrite –11.1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Allen, J.R.L., 1974, Studies in fluviatile sedimentation: Lateral variation in

We thank Oscar Alcober (Instituto y Museo de Ciencias
Naturales) for permitting access to the field sites. This research
was funded by National Science Foundation (NSF) grant EAR-
0447381 to Tabor and EAR-0519394 to Tabor and Montañez.
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Printed in the USA

 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in

mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols: A case study in paleosol taphonomy
from the Lower Old Red Sandstone
Susan B. Marriott
School of Geography and Environmental Management, University of the West of England, Bristol,
Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK

V. Paul Wright
School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3YE, UK, and BG Group,
100 Thames Valley Park Drive, Reading RG6 1PT, UK

ABSTRACT

Preservational bias in paleosol formation is rarely discussed and remains a major issue
in paleopedology. The relatively simple paleosol profiles of the Silurian-Devonian Old Red
Sandstone alluvial successions of southwest Wales provide an opportunity to investigate
the completeness of a widespread type of calcic Vertisol. Reactivated, truncated cumulate
horizons provide means of assessing the dynamics of floodplain erosion and accumula-
tion. While these distinctive profiles are not especially common, effects of low-magnitude
erosion events were probably masked, affecting only the topmost part of the upper soil
horizon. In the absence of a stabilizing rooted vascular plant cover in pre–mid-Paleozoic
sediments, such mobile upper soil horizons were likely a common feature.

Keywords: calcic Vertisols, Old Red Sandstone, floodplain development, soil development.

RESUMEN

La posibilidad de preservación de paleosuelos es un hecho raramente discutido, a pesar

de ser un tema importante dentro de la paleoedafología. Los perfiles de paleosuelos relativa-
mente sencillos de las sucesiones aluviales del Silúrico-Devónico de la Old Red Sandstone en
el suroeste de Gales ofrecen una buena oportunidad para investigar si el registro de algunos
tipos de paleosuelos muy frecuentes, los Vertisuelos cálcicos, es completo o no. Los horizon-
tes reactivados, truncados y compuestos de estos paleosuelos nos aportan los medios para
conocer la dinámica de la erosión y acumulación dentro de la llanura de inundación. En los
casos en los que estos perfiles no son muy comunes, los efectos de eventos erosivos de baja
magnitud quedan enmascarados afectando sólo a la parte más alta del horizonte superior
del suelo. En ausencia de una cobertera vegetal de plantas vasculares enraizadas que estabi-
lizaran la superficie, como es el caso de los sedimentos anteriores al Paleozoico medio, estos
horizontes móviles del suelo fueron probablemente un rasgo característico.

Palabras clave: Vertisuelos cálcicos, Old Red Sandstone, desarrollo de llanuras de

inundación, desarrollo de suelos.
Marriott, S.B., and Wright, V.P., 2006, Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols: A case study in paleosol tapho-
nomy from the Lower Old Red Sandstone, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine
Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 43–52, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(03). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org.
©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

43
44 Marriott and Wright
INTRODUCTION
Paleosols are common in ancient alluvial successions, reflect-
ing the relatively low rates of floodplain accretion in relation to
rates of soil development (Marriott and Wright, 1993). Tradition-
ally, paleosols in such deposits have been used to indicate a range
of controls including sedimentation rate and landscape stability.
In this study, we develop earlier work (Marriott and Wright, 1993)
to show how the careful analysis of reactivated soil horizons can
provide insights into the preservational history and completeness
of paleosols and the dynamics of Silurian-Devonian floodplains,
indicating the likelihood that much time is lost at subtle erosion
surfaces. Such erosive processes may have been more prevalent
in pre–mid-Paleozoic soils where the lack of an extensive rooted
plant cover promoted instability and the formation of an active
upper soil level.
FLOODPLAIN DEVELOPMENT
Nanson and Croke (1992) devised a comprehensive model
of floodplain development related to the relationship between
primary geomorphic factors, such as channel cutting and filling,
and secondary geomorphic factors, such as peat accumulation.
These factors are dependent on stream power and sediment load
and will, therefore, result in different environments for floodplain
formation. Over the long term (as in the stratigraphic record),
most floodplains would probably be classified as polyphase
floodplains (Nanson and Croke, 1992) because they are built up
by transformations caused by river channel changes in response
to extrinsic variations (such as climate and base-level change)
that alter flow regime or sediment load (Schumm, 1977). The
changes in channel processes are reflected in floodplain devel-
opment, although there is often a hysteresis or changes occur
at a slower rate. The floodplain surface is, therefore, a highly
dynamic environment, and evidence in the sedimentary record of
changes to this environment is often incomplete and complicated
by destructive, erosive episodes (Brakenridge, 1981).
Whether or not soils develop on land surfaces depends on the
surface being relatively stable (Ruhe, 1956; Brakenridge, 1981;
Bull, 1992). Active erosion prevents any soil development at all
and soils will not develop to any degree where there is a high
rate of sediment input. Rates of sedimentation on floodplains are
highly variable (Marriott, 1998), although, since some character-
istic features of soils such as mottling and development of pedo-
genic slickensides can develop relatively rapidly (<100 yr), rates
of accretion of several millimeters per year (Wright and Marri-
ott, 1996) would be required to prevent any soil processes from
occurring. Soils should, then, be present in alluvial sequences
and, because of the polyphase nature of floodplain development,
are likely to record the dynamic nature of the floodplain surface
by having a polygenetic nature themselves.
Johnson and Watson-Stegner (1987) and Johnson et al.
(1990) proposed an evolution model of pedogenesis that investi-
gated dynamic soil development over time. The model suggested
that most soils are polygenetic due to development along both
progressive and regressive pathways. The progressive element
relates to processes or conditions that promote horizonation,
the incorporation of small increments of sediment added to the
surface (developmental upbuilding) and soil deepening. Regres-
sive pedogenesis involves processes or conditions that lead to
condensed or simple profiles with few horizons, soil removal by
erosion or mass wasting, and retardant upbuilding. This condi-
tion occurs when the amount of sediment deposited on the soil
surface is sufficient to impede or retard horizon development.
The dynamic pedogenesis model (Johnson et al., 1990) is par-
ticularly relevant to the evolution of soils on floodplains since the
processes of developmental and retardant upbuilding may be the
most important factors in an environment where the other state
factors of climate, organisms, and parent material (Jenny, 1961)
do not vary substantially over time.
Soil development on floodplains reflects the polygenetic
nature of floodplain development with both progressive and
regressive pathways (Johnson et al., 1990). Phillips (1993) sug-
gested a chaos model for complex patterns of soil development
that appears to be particularly relevant in environments where
erosion (regressive) processes occur frequently. It was found
that, on floodplain surfaces, the degree of soil development
reflected the age and stability of the geomorphic surface (Phil-
lips 1990).
SOILS IN OLD RED SANDSTONE FLOODPLAIN
SEDIMENTS
The Silurian-Devonian Lower Old Red Sandstone of south-
west Wales and the Welsh Borderlands is a continental basin-fill
sequence that covers an area of at least 20,000 km2 (Fig. 1). Gen-
erally, it is a sequence of upward-coarsening, marginal marine,
fluvial and alluvial fan sediments with some prominent tuff beds
and well-developed calcrete horizons that act as regional markers
(Allen and Williams, 1982; Williams et al., 2004). The lower-
most part of the Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Anglo-Welsh
Basin is a succession of mainly red alluvial sediments compris-
ing relatively thin red or greenish-gray sand bodies (Williams and
Hillier, 2004) separated by thick red to purple mudstone deposits
in a ratio of ~1:4 (Marriott et al., 2005). The overall depositional
system has been interpreted as low-gradient floodplains, perhaps
on distal alluvial or terminal fans in a subhumid to semiarid envi-
ronment (Allen and Williams, 1982; Marriott and Wright, 1993,
2004; Love and Williams, 2000), with very infrequent, short-
lived, marine incursions (Allen, 1973b; Barclay et al., 1994). The
stratigraphy of the Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Anglo-Welsh
Basin was originally described by Dixon (1921), and later revised
by Allen and Williams (1978), who allocated the succession in
southwest Wales to the Milford Haven Group.
Soils developed on floodplains are affected by sediment
transport and deposition, and they are well known in the Old
Red Sandstone, having been described in detail by Allen (1973a,
1974, 1986) and Marriott and Wright (1993). They take the
 Paleosol completeness and preservation
North
Abergavenny
Haverfordwest
LL
FWW Swansea
M
FWE
Cardiff
Lower Old Red Sandstone outcrops
Localities mentioned in text
form of calcic Vertisols that show varying stages of calcrete
development in a Ck horizon (Machette, 1985), and varying
degrees of development of a structural B horizon with pedogenic
slickensides (wedge-shaped peds) (Fig. 2). Though rarely pre-
served, a complete profile would range from 1 to 3 m in thickness
(Tandon and Friend, 1989) and would have three horizons (Mar-
riott and Wright, 1993): an upper (A) horizon, which would prob-
ably have had a surface crust and (deep) desiccation cracks dur-
ing the dry season; a middle structural (B) horizon with curved,
intersecting slickensided surfaces; and a lower horizon (Bk or Ck),
which would contain calcrete nodules in various developmental
forms (Machette, 1985).
The Moor Cliffs Formation is the central unit of the Milford
Haven Group, and it crops out extensively on the southwest coast
of Wales (Fig. 1). It varies in thickness from 120 to 365 m and is
dominated by red to purple mudstones with subsidiary, thin sand
bodies and intraformational conglomerates. Many of the mud-
stones have been pedogenically altered and contain prominent
pedogenic slickensides from structural B horizons and varying
stages of calcrete development in Bk or Ck horizons. The degree
of development of the calcretes ranges from small (~10 mm diam-
eter), discrete nodules and larger prismatic nodules (~50 mm in
diameter, up to 150 mm long) to laminar petrocalcic horizons,
though these are not common in the Moor Cliffs Formation.
Development of the Bk or Ck horizons in the Vertisols on Old
Red Sandstone floodplains is mainly related to residence time
45
Figure 1. Lower Old Red Sandstone in the
Anglo-Welsh Basin, UK. Localities men-
tioned in text: FWW—Freshwater West;
FWE—Freshwater East; M—Manorbier;
LL—Llansteffan; L—Lydney.
L
50km
(i.e., the length of time sediment layers remain in pedogenically
active zones before burial or erosion) (Leeder, 1975). Frequency
of floods that resulted in episodes of stripping or aggradation will
therefore result in different residence times and, consequently,
different modes of soil development (Wright and Marriott, 1996).
For example, developmental upbuilding (Johnson and Watson-
Stegner, 1987), i.e., frequent regular additions of small amounts
of sediment to the soil surface, is likely to result in a cumulate
soil profile, where slow aggradation causes gradual overprint-
ing of soil horizons; retardant upbuilding (Johnson and Watson-
Stegner, 1987), or infrequent “dumping” of a large thickness of
sediment, will give rise to either a composite or compound soil
profile depending on whether the pedogenically active zone is
partially or completely buried (Wright and Marriott, 1996).
Examples of polygenetic paleosols from the Old Red Sand-
stone were described by Marriott and Wright (1993), where it
was envisaged that the occurrence of fanned splays of prismatic
nodules (Fig. 3) resulted from a progressive phase where frequent
increments of small amounts of sediment had resulted in a cumu-
late profile that was subsequently truncated by rapid erosion of
up to 3 m of sediment during a major regressive phase (e.g., a
10,000–yr–recurrence interval superflood [Marriott and Wright,
2004]). A subsequent progressive phase of slow aggradation then
led to reactivation of the structural B horizon and displacement of
the nodules with movement along the slickensided slip surfaces
(see Fig. 9 of Marriott and Wright, 1993).
46 Marriott and Wright
Many of the units containing fanned, prismatic nodules are
overlain by an intraformational conglomerate that contains gran-
ule- to pebble-grade reworked calcrete and mudstone clasts in a
mudstone matrix (arrowed on Fig. 3) (Allen and Williams, 1979;
Marriott and Wright, 1993, 1996, 2004). More recent study of
Figure 2. Two simple calcic Vertisol
profiles from the Raglan Mudstone
Formation at Lydney. Calcic horizon in
center is 0.5 m thick, and the top of the
horizon is picked out by the dashed line.
The slickensided surfaces on structural
B horizons (1.75 m thick in top paleo-
sol) are picked out by reduction. The A
horizon is missing. The whole section
shown is 2.5 m thick.
Figure 3. Distorted prismatic calcrete
nodules overlain by intraformational
conglomerate (indicated by black ar-
rows) and laminated mudstone with tu-
bules in the Moor Cliffs Formation at
Manorbier. This sequence is at the top of
that shown in Figure 8A (bracketed sec-
tion). The pen for scale is 145 mm long.
the Lower Old Red Sandstone sequences at Freshwater West,
Freshwater East, and Llansteffan in South Wales (Fig. 1) has
indicated that, in some cases, the later progressive phase also
resulted in the formation of prismatic peds within the intrafor-
mational conglomerate and subsequent distortion of the peds
 Paleosol completeness and preservation 47

with the underlying calcrete nodules. This led us to re-examine Thus, the seasonal wetting front gradually lowers so that older,
the polygenetic nature of these particular units and to propose buried structural B horizons are gradually reactivated and cause
further models for their development. splaying of the prismatic calcrete nodules in the overprinted
zone. Erosion is likely to cease when the Bk or Ck horizon is
POLYPHASE DEVELOPMENT OF OLD RED
SANDSTONE FLOODPLAINS A
Progressive or pulsed slow erosion
Development of the calcic Vertisols in the Lower Old Red
Sandstone shows both progressive and regressive phases that
indicate different rates of deposition and erosion. These can be
linked to episodes of aggradation and stripping that reveal the
dynamic nature of the depositional environment. The starting
point for the new models is a cumulate profile (as in Marriott
and Wright, 1993) (Fig. 4). This occurs when slow aggrada-
tion on the floodplain surface causes the soil horizons to move
upward progressively, so that the structural B horizon, with
curved, slickensided surfaces (wedge-shaped peds), is over-
printed by the calcrete nodules of the Bk or Ck horizon. The extreme distortion

period of aggradation is likely to have occurred over a relatively due to lowered surface
and wetting front before
long period of time (104 to 105 yr) so that prismatic calcrete nod-
deposition of conglomerate
ules (stage II of Machette, 1985) could develop (Wright and
Marriott, 1996, their Fig. 1b). As the profile aggrades, second-
Ai
ary prismatic structure in the structural B horizon is likely to Slow erosion and slow burial
influence vertical, prismatic nodule development in the over- process product
printing Bk or Ck horizon.
Model A (Fig. 5) assumes that the progressive phase is then
followed by a series of erosive events that lower the surface by
removing a few millimeters of sediment at a time or in pulses.

**
Cumulate profile Key to figures 4,5 and 6 distortion of conglomerate will

conglomerate and be less distorted

A open cracks than nodular zone
further distortion
of nodular zone
closed cracks

Bt on A
pedogenic slickensides Aii
(wedge-shaped peds)
Slow erosion and rapid burial
calcrete concretions or nodules process product
Bt

calcrete clast conglomerate

Ck on Bt lowering of surface

burial of surface
**
undeformed
Ck erosion surface
isolation below conglomerate
wetting front
highly deformed
nodular zone

Figure 4. Cumulate soil profile (see also Marriott and Wright, 1993).
Typical thicknesses for the different horizons would be: A, 0.5–1 m;
Bt, 0.75–1 m; Ck, 0.5–1 m. The overprinted Bt on A and Ck on Bt ho-
rizons would vary in thickness depending on the amount and rate of
surface aggradation.
Figure 5. Type A model for development of fanned prismatic nodules.
Progressive or pulsed slow erosion is followed by slow burial (Ai) or
by rapid burial (Aii). ** denotes diagnostic features for comparison
between models; remainder of key and scale are as in Figure 4.
48 Marriott and Wright

reached because it represents a less erodible surface. The record there would not be sufficient host sediment between prismatic
of renewed deposition may then recommence with an intrafor- (stage II) calcrete nodules for pedogenic slickensides in the
mational conglomerate, either as a lag beneath muddy chan- structural B horizon to overprint the Bk or Ck horizon as the
nel deposits or as part of inclined heterolithic strata (IHS) from surface was lowered.
muddy point bar or accretionary bench deposits (see Marriott
and Wright [2004] and Marriott et al. [2005] for a description of
models for the depositional environments). A unit with splayed
B
nodules (see Figs. 8 and 10 of Marriott and Wright [1993] for
Rapid erosion : one phase
additional examples) is not always overlain by an intraforma-
tional conglomerate, since these conglomerates are more likely
to occur in relation to channel-related deposits (Gómez-Gras
and Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
The next phase may be slow deposition and burial or rapid single deep
erosive event
burial by a single major deposition event (Fig. 5). During slow
aggradation of the floodplain surface (model Ai) as new soil
horizons form, further distortion of the nodules is likely as wet-
ting and drying cycles take place while this zone lies within
the structural B horizon. Nodules toward the top of the lower
unit may be distorted to a greater degree than nodules lower no distortion
of nodular zone
down, which may not be affected by reactivation. Because the
at this point
intraformational conglomerate has a mud matrix, it is likely to
reflect pedogenic processes and the formation of prismatic peds
that may also be distorted when they coincide with the B hori- Bi
zon, though to a lesser degree than the calcrete nodules. Rapid erosion and slow burial
Model Aii illustrates the case of subsequent rapid burial, process product

where the amount of sediment added is sufficient to prevent

pedogenic processes acting on the buried material (retardant
upbuilding). This is a regressive process (Johnson and Watson-
Stegner, 1987), as, although the surface is aggrading, the result-
ing sequence is a compound soil where profiles are separated reactivation of distorted
by an undistorted intraformational conglomerate. The lower slickenside surfaces conglomerate

profile is truncated and contains distorted nodules. In the field, and distortion

it may be difficult to distinguish between models Ai and Aii if of conglomerate nodule fans
and nodules as zone
the conglomerate is thin or absent.
comes within depth **
Model B (Fig. 6) is similar to that portrayed by Marriott of wetting similar distortion of
and Wright (1993, their Fig. 9) and is characterized by a single, nodule zone and
major erosion event that removes surface horizons. In this case, conglomerate
Bii
calcrete nodules in the Bk or Ck horizon are not distorted by
Rapid erosion and rapid burial
progressive lowering. Slow burial following deposition of an process product
intraformational conglomerate causes reactivation of the slick-
ensided surfaces and distortion of both the calcrete nodules and
the conglomerate as the structural B horizon moves upward.
This model differs from Ai in that the nodules and conglomer-
ate are distorted to a similar degree.
If rapid erosion is followed by rapid burial (model Bii), then **
isolation below undeformed
as with model Aii, a compound soil will develop, though it will wetting front conglomerate
differ from that in Aii because the prismatic calcrete nodules
are not deformed (or only very weakly, depending on the thick- minor reactivation weakly deformed
ness of sediment added) (Fig. 7). This is most commonly seen (if any) (or undeformed)

where truncated profiles are overlain by fluvial channel facies nodular zone

that can be mud-dominated.

Figure 6. Type B model for development of fanned prismatic nod-
It must be stressed that distortion of the prismatic nod- ules. Rapid erosion is followed by slow burial (Bi) or by rapid burial
ules is only likely to occur following erosion and subsequent (Bii). ** denotes diagnostic features for comparison between mod-
reactivation of a cumulate profile. In a simple calcic Vertisol, els; remainder of key and scale are as in Figure 4.
 Paleosol completeness and preservation
LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT IN THE LOWER OLD
RED SANDSTONE
Soil profile development is often used as an indicator of land-
scape development and for reconstructing geomorphic histories,
particularly in Quaternary soils (Brakenridge, 1981). It is not con-
sidered to be a very reliable indicator of surface ages or deposits,
however, due to complex spatial and temporal patterns of soil
development (Phillips, 1993). The ideas outlined herein show
how the degree of soil development preserved in the Old Red
Sandstone paleosols, together with inferences on likely episodes
of aggradation and erosion, can be used to gain an understand-
ing of the dynamic nature and polyphase development of the
paleoenvironment (Fig. 8A).
Recently, Marriott and Wright (2004) and Marriott et al.
(2005) proposed models for paleoenvironmental reconstruction
of the early Lower Old Red Sandstone of the Anglo-Welsh Basin.
The models envisage a multistage, multichannel system where
different parts of the system were active over different time scales.
Calcic Vertisols are important features of the modeled landscapes
since the nature and stage of their development act as indicators
of particular features on the Old Red Sandstone floodplains and
of the frequency and magnitude of erosional and depositional
events (Fig. 8B) (see also Wright and Marriott, 1996).
The overall depositional environment is considered to be
analogous to that of a low-gradient, dryland river system in a
relatively sediment-starved basin possibly on a distal alluvial or
49
Figure 7. Weakly distorted prismatic
nodules underlying an undeformed in-
traformational conglomerate from the
Moor Cliffs Formation (Upper Silurian)
of Freshwater East, illustrating type Bii
mode of development.
terminal fan margin. The main trunk stream occupies a wide two-
stage channel, with a moderately sinuous low-flow channel and
muddy braidplain that becomes active during relatively frequent
flood events (annual to 1 in 10 return-interval floods) as part of
the proximal floodplain. More distal floodplain areas would only
be affected by longer-return-interval floods (100–1000 yr return
interval), and it is likely that catastrophic stripping and major
landform effects would only take place during low-frequency
superflood events (10,000+ yr intervals).
Because the Old Red Sandstone paleosols are calcic Verti-
sols, the climate regime is likely to have been subhumid to
semiarid, with a marked seasonality of rainfall. Vegetation in
the Late Silurian to Early Devonian would not have had exten-
sive root systems capable of binding sediment, and plants are
likely to have been confined to areas near to rivers, lakes, and
ponds (Edwards and Richardson, 2004). Thus, the self-mulch-
ing aspect of Vertisols is likely to have provided a ready supply
of sand- and silt-sized soil aggregates that could be entrained
and redeposited during flooding and incorporated in channel
bedload. Additionally, during dry seasons, dust storms are likely
to have acted on the land surface, creating a mosaic of cells
where the soil surface could be deflated and aggraded periodi-
cally by intermittent events (Pickup, 1991). In areas where sedi-
ment accumulation occurred relatively frequently, such as near to
the main stream and on the braidplain during flooding, or in
aggradational cells, cumulate soils could develop (Fig. 4), though
only relatively rapidly formed features, such as pedogenic
50 Marriott and Wright

A
6

5
} Figure 3

0
preserved a b c d e f g h
sequence

KEY

remanent lamination reactivated vertic horizon vertical burrows

with distorted nodules

pedogenic slickensides reactivated vertic horizon desiccation cracks

(wedge-shaped peds) with silt infilled slickensides

stage I calcrete nodules calcretized burrows (tubules) lowering of surface

stage II calcrete nodules intraformational conglomerate

Figure 8. (A) Polyphase development of a 6 m section of the Moor Cliffs Formation at Manorbier measured from 18 m above the top of the
Rook’s Cave Tuff bed. For discussion on depositional environments, see Marriott and Wright (2004). Bracketed section is illustrated in Figure
3. Episodes: (a) Laminated mudstone with vertical burrows is deposited subaqueously and bioturbated in floodplain ponds. (b) Pond sediment is
exposed, laminations in upper section are destroyed by pedogenesis, and burrows lower in profile act as nuclei for calcrete formation (tubules).
(c) Developmental upbuilding—small increments of sediment are added by overbank deposition or aeolian input. Cumulate soil profile shows
stage I calcrete, implying frequent aggradational events averaging between 0.1 and 1 mm/yr (see Figure 1 of Wright and Marriott, 1996). (d)
Developmental upbuilding—small increments of sediment are added by overbank deposition or aeolian input as in episode c. Cumulate soil
profile shows stage II prismatic calcrete nodules, implying slow aggradation averaging between 0.01 and 0.1 mm/yr. (e) Regressive pedogen-
esis—pulsed or slow erosion occurs (see Fig. 5) down to top of Bk horizon; pedogenic slickensides are reactivated; and surface cracking in dry
season allows ingress of fine sediment between slip surfaces. Stage II prismatic nodules are distorted with the wedge-shaped peds as the surface
is lowered. (f) Renewed progressive pedogenesis occurs with developmental upbuilding as in d, and at a similar rate. The underlying nodular
zone is further distorted as the surface aggrades until the wetting front moves out of this zone. (See Figure 5, as Ai but with no intraformational
conglomerate lag.) (g) Further episodes of regressive pedogenesis occur as in e, but with less-intense rotation of nodules, perhaps suggesting
more rapid lowering of the floodplain surface than in e. (h) Rapid burial as in Figure 5, Aii, with a lag of intraformational conglomerate then sub-
aqueous deposition and bioturbation as in a. Subsequent exposure and progressive pedogenesis lead to a further cumulate profile with tubules,
as in b and c. Only part of the unit is shown here.

slickensides (wedge-shaped peds), will be evident if the mean
rate of sediment input to the soil surface was greater than 1 mm/
yr (Wright and Marriott, 1996). In the example shown in Figure
8A, the frequent aggradational events assumed for episode c may
have taken place in the proximal floodplain or braidplain, whereas
the slow deposition rates envisioned for episodes d and f could
relate to more distal floodplain areas due either to avulsion or
distributary abandonment during prolonged dry periods.
Frequent dust storms may also have produced the progressive
lowering of floodplain surfaces necessary to cause reactivation of
the structural B horizons and further movement along the slicken-
sided surfaces of the wedge-shaped peds. This would cause fanning
 Paleosol completeness and preservation
B 6
5
metres of sediment
d
4
3
e
2 c
b
1
a
0
100 200
time (ka)
Figure 8. (B) Time line demonstrating likely accretion and erosion episodes a–h from part A. The 6 m sedimentary sequence illustrated represents
at least 500 k.y. based on soil development rates envisioned by Wright and Marriott (1996). The time periods lost during the erosional episodes e
and g are the minimum. At present, there are no means of quantifying the length of time involved, merely identifying whether erosion was likely
pulsed (relatively slow) or rapid.
of prismatic calcrete nodules that had overprinted the structural B
horizon during an earlier aggradational phase (Fig. 3; Model A, Fig.
5). Perhaps prior to colonization of the land surface by plants with
subaerial parts capable of limiting wind erosion and roots capable
of binding the soil, many soils were prone to the sorts of erosional
effects documented here. Such soils would not necessarily have
modern analogues, and the erosion-prone upper mobile layer was
possibly a common feature.
The erosional episodes identified in the example used here
(Figs. 8A and 8B) were likely infrequent events where the overall
depth of erosion exceeded the thickness of the upper soil hori-
zons and reached the Ck horizons. Had not these reactivated hori-
zons been subsequently buried permanently, the erosive episodes
would not be recorded. It is likely that erosive events of lower
magnitude (but greater frequency) also occurred but that no evi-
dence remains. For example, high-frequency erosional events
just affecting the A horizon would not be identifiable. This mask-
ing of finer-scale events, together with the likely serendipitous
preservation of major erosive events, suggests that only part of
depositional (stratigraphic) time is preserved in these succes-
sions. Indeed the whole issue of soil taphonomy in terms of com-
pleteness is rarely considered. It is possible to envision situations
where a soil could have a relatively young upper horizon overly-
ing much older lower horizons.
CONCLUSIONS
Lower Old Red Sandstone paleosols from the Anglo-Welsh
basin show a variety of developmental forms that indicate the
51
f
h
g
300 400 500
dynamic nature of the ancient floodplain surfaces. Four different
models have been presented that show polygenetic soil profile
development related to either slow or rapid erosion followed by
slow or rapid burial of cumulate calcic Vertisols. A particular sec-
tion of the Moor Cliffs Formation has been used to illustrate the
polyphase nature of floodplain development where both progres-
sive and regressive pedogenesis occurred.
It is likely that many pre–mid-Paleozoic soils were also prone
to erosion due to a mobile A horizon rather than an organically
stabilized one, though some may have had microbial or bryo-
phyte cover that would have given the surface some cohesion
and resistance to erosion. In the Lower Old Red Sandstone, the
combination of a lack of deep-rooted vegetation, vertic processes
favoring small ped formation, and a flood-prone hydrologic
regime in a distal alluvial or terminal fan setting led to develop-
ment of soils with particularly unstable upper horizons.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Greg Retallack and Bill Barclay for
their helpful comments on an earlier version of this article,
and we particularly wish to thank Paul Revell for drawing the
diagrams.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group, Four

Corners region, southwestern United States: Climatic implications
Lawrence H. Tanner†
Department of Biological Sciences, Le Moyne College, 1419 Salt Springs Road, Syracuse, New York 13214, USA

Spencer G. Lucas
New Mexico Museum of Natural History, 1801 Mountain Road N.W., Albuquerque, New Mexico 87104, USA

ABSTRACT

Paleosols are prominent features of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group. The old-
est (Carnian-age) formations of the Chinle Group (Zuni Mountains and Shinarump
Formations) contain kaolinitic paleosols that display gley features but generally lack
calcretes. Paleosols of the (Upper Carnian) Blue Mesa Member of the Petrified Forest
Formation are mostly mature Alfisols that have distinctive horizonation and com-
monly host stage II to III calcretes. Mudstones of the Jim Camp Wash Bed of the
overlying Sonsela Member host similarly mature paleosols with abundant stage II to
stage IV calcretes. The (Lower Norian) Painted Desert Member of the Petrified Forest
Formation is characterized by paleosols that lack well-developed A horizons but dis-
play thick, red B horizons in which pedogenic slickensides, rhizocretions, and stage II
to III calcretes are locally abundant. Immature paleosols hosting stage II to stage III
calcretes characterize the lower part of the (Middle Norian) Owl Rock Formation. The
upper Owl Rock Formation contains stage III to IV calcretes and laterally persistent
limestone ledges that formed as palustrine limestones and groundwater calcretes. The
(Norian-Rhaetian) Rock Point Formation generally lacks pedogenic features in most
of the study area, but the uppermost strata in some locations host multiple pedogenic
horizons that display drab root traces, desiccation cracks, and stage II to III calcretes.
Interformational variations in the types of paleosols and the maturity of calcretes in
Chinle Group strata reflect gradual aridification across the Colorado Plateau during
the Late Triassic. This climatic change overprinted variations in basin sedimentation
rate that were potentially controlled by base level and tectonics.

Keywords: Chinle, pedogenic, calcretes, Late Triassic, palustrine.

RESUMEN

La presencia de paleosuelos es uno de los rasgos más característicos del Grupo

Chinle del Triásico Superior. Las formaciones más antiguas, Zuni Mountains y Shi-
narump, son de edad Carniense, no tienen calcretas y los paleosuelos son caoliníticos
con rasgos de gley. Los paleosuelos del Miembro Blue Mesa de la Formación Petri-
fied Forest son sobre todo Alfisoles maduros con horizontes bien diferenciados y con
†
E-mail: tannerlh@lemoyne.edu.

Tanner, L.H., and Lucas, S.G., 2006, Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group, Four Corners region, southwestern United States: Climatic impli-
cations, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society
of America Special Paper 416, p. 53–74, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(04). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of
America. All rights reserved.

53
54 Tanner and Lucas

calcretas de estadios II a III. Las lutitas de las capas Jim Camp Wash del Miembro
Sonsela suprayacente también tienen paleosuelos maduros con frecuentes calcretas de
estadios II a IV. El miembro Painted Desert (Noriense inferior) de la Formación Petri-
fied Forest se caracteriza por presentar paleosuelos que carecen de horizontes A bien
desarrollados, pero que presentan horizontes B rojos y muy potentes con slickensides
pedogénicos, rizocreciones, y calcretas de estadios II a III localmente abundantes.
Los paleosuelos inmaduros que contienen calcretas de estadio II a III caracterizan
la parte inferior de la Formación Owl Rock (Noriense medio). La parte superior de
dicha formación contiene calcretas estadio III a IV y lateralmente incluyen lentejones
de calizas, que se han interpretado como depósitos palustres y calcretas freáticas.
La formación Rock Point (Noriense-Rhetiense) no presenta rasgos pedogénicos en la
mayor parte del área estudiada, pero localmente en los estratos superiores hay hori-
zontes pedogénicos múltiples que presentan trazas de raíces, grietas de desecación y
calcretas estadios II–III. Las variaciones en el tipo de paleosuelos y en los estadios de
madurez de las calcretas en las distintas formaciones del Grupo Chinle reflejan una
aridificación gradual a lo largo de la Meseta del Colorado durante el Triásico Supe-
rior. Este cambio climático, controló las variaciones en la tasa de sedimentación en la
cuenca que también estuvieron potencialmente controladas por cambios en el nivel de
base y por la tectónica.

Palabras clave: Chinle, pedogénico, calcretas, Triásico Superior, palustres.

INTRODUCTION using, in part, variations in paleosol maturity on the alluvial plain;

The utility and temporal resolution of paleoclimate model-
ing has improved dramatically in recent decades, in part through
the increasing use of paleosols and pedogenic features as paleo-
climate archives. Calcrete, the accumulation of CaCO3 in the
subsurface environment as nodules (glaebules) or cemented
horizons (see review in Wright and Tucker, 1991), has proven
particularly useful because of its high preservation potential, and
common association with soil-forming processes in semiarid to
arid climates. In addition to climate, however, the morphology
and maturity of all paleosols, including those that are calcare-
ous, are controlled by a variety of factors, including sediment
accumulation rate, which controls residence time of sediment in
the soil-forming environment, vegetative cover, subsurface biotic
activity, and host sediment composition (see reviews in Kraus,
1999; Retallack, 2001; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The controls on
the rate of sediment accumulation, which in general is inversely
related to paleosol maturity, are particularly complex. Although
climate exerts some control over the delivery of sediment to the
receiving basin, tectonic activity greatly influences sediment
deposition, both through enhancement of sediment production
by source area uplift, and through control of basin configuration
and accommodation space.
Paleosols have long been recognized as prominent features
in Upper Triassic Chinle Group strata, and general features of
many of these paleosols have been described previously. Some
previous studies have focused on specific local occurrences
within an individual formation; for example, Kraus and Middle-
ton (1987) described a history of floodplain incision and aggra-
dation cycles during deposition of the Petrified Forest Formation
Therrien and Fastovsky (2000) documented that paleosol hydrol-
ogy varied with distance from the channel in the same formation.
Other studies have cited general characteristics of Chinle Group
paleosols, typically in the context of regional changes in climate
during the Late Triassic, but generally without detailed documen-
tation of specific pedogenic features (Dubiel, 1987, 1994; Dubiel
and Hasiotis, 1994a, 1994b; Hasiotis and Dubiel, 1994; Demko
et al., 1998; Hasiotis et al., 1998). The Chinle Group outcrops
cover a broad area of the Southwestern United States (Fig. 1) and
record deposition during a major portion of the Late Triassic. A
thorough and detailed examination of the lateral and temporal
variations of the Chinle paleosols is not possible within the scope
a single paper. Rather, we survey the spectrum of paleosols pres-
ent in Chinle Group strata, with particular attention to calcretes,
by describing the results of previous studies, as well as providing
new data. From these data (old and new), we attempt to interpret
the general sedimentologic and climatic conditions that existed
during deposition and pedogenesis of Chinle strata.
Calcretes occur in most Chinle formations, yet they have
received only limited attention. Most previous studies have
focused on individual formations at specific locations; examples
include Blodgett’s (1988) study of the Norian-Rhaetian Dolores
Formation, in the uppermost Chinle of southwest Colorado, the
examination of Carnian-Norian age paleosols of the Petrified For-
est Formation in the Petrified Forest National Park (PFNP; Figs.
1 and 2) by Therrien and Fastovsky (2000), and the description
of pedogenic features of the Norian-aged Owl Rock Formation
in the Four Corners region by Tanner (2000). The accumulation
of carbonate in the B horizon is not specific to any single soil
type or climatic region, however, so the conditions of calcrete
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
formation can only be understood within the context of the soils,
or paleosols, in which the calcrete occurs.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Chinle basin formed as a continental retro-arc basin on
the western edge of the North American craton during the initial
growth of the Cordilleran magmatic arc in the early Mesozoic
(Dickinson, 1981; Lawton, 1994). This basin extended from
southwestern Texas to northern Wyoming and was the site of ter-
restrial sedimentation from the Late Triassic until the beginning
of the Early Jurassic (Lucas et al., 1997). Strata of the Chinle
Group, ranging in age from Late Carnian to possibly Rhaetian,
are exposed across much of the Colorado Plateau (Fig. 1). The
Four Corners region (the common border of the states of Arizona,
Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah), the focus of this study, was
situated within the basin at near-equatorial latitudes (between
5° and 15°N) during Late Triassic time (Scotese, 1994; Molina-
Garza et al., 1995; Kent and Olsen, 1997).
55
Figure 1. Distribution of outcrops of
Chinle Group strata (shaded) in the
Four Corners region (after Stewart et
al., 1972). Locations mentioned in the
text are indicated; PFNP—Petrified
Forest National Park, LPDCP—Little
Painted Desert County Park.
Deposition of the Chinle Group sediments was controlled by
predominantly west- to northwest-flowing stream systems cross-
ing broad, low-gradient alluvial plains. In the Four Corners region,
proximal source areas for these sediments were the Mogollon
highlands, located ~500 km to the south and southwest, and to
a lesser extent the Uncompahgre highlands located 200–300 km
to the east and northeast (Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; Marzolf,
1994). Syndepositional arc volcanism contributed an appreciable
amount of volcaniclastic sediment to the basin. Across most of
the Four Corners region, the lowermost Chinle strata were depos-
ited unconformably on Middle Triassic or older strata following
an interval of lowered base level and incision.
STRATIGRAPHY
In the Four Corners region, basal Chinle Group strata rest
unconformably (the Tr-3 unconformity) on strata of the Moen-
kopi Formation. Stewart et al. (1972) used the informal designa-
tion “mottled strata” to describe alluvial sediments at the base of
56 Tanner and Lucas
the Chinle Group that exhibit strong pedogenic mottling. These
strata underlie or are laterally equivalent to the basal strata of
the Shinarump Formation (Lucas et al., 1997). Equivalent strata
in the San Rafael Swell were named the Temple Mountain
Formation by Robeck (1956), and more recently, Heckert and
Lucas (2003) proposed the name Zuni Mountain Formation for
these same strata in west-central and north-central New Mexico
(Lucas et al., 2003). The Shinarump Formation consists of cross-
bedded conglomerates and sandstones of late Carnian age. The
Temple Mountain and Shinarump Formations were deposited in
paleovalleys incised into the underlying Moenkopi Formation
strata (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; Demko
et al., 1998).
Upper Carnian strata immediately above the Shinarump
Formation are named regionally the Cameron, Bluewater Creek,
and Monitor Butte Formations. Lucas (1993) and Lucas et al.
(1997) demonstrated the stratigraphic equivalence of these for-
mations. The lowermost strata of the Petrified Forest Formation
in the Four Corners region are designated the Blue Mesa Mem-
ber (Lucas et al., 1997). These strata, also of late Carnian age,
overlie the Cameron–Bluewater Creek–Monitor Butte Forma-
tions. The Blue Mesa Member and the underlying Cameron–
Bluewater Creek–Monitor Butte and Shinarump Formations
Figure 2. Stratigraphic hierarchy for the
Chinle Group used in this paper (after
Lucas et al., 1997).
were mapped collectively as the lower bentonitic part of the
Chinle Formation by Stewart et al. (1972). Thickness of these
formations varies from <30 m in southeastern Utah to >450 m in
northwestern New Mexico.
An unconformity (Tr-4) separates the Blue Mesa Member
from the overlying sandstone-dominated Sonsela Member of the
Petrified Forest Formation and the equivalent Moss Back Forma-
tion (Lucas, 1993; Heckert and Lucas, 1996; Lucas et al., 1997).
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) interpreted the Sonsela Member as
filling erosional scours in the underlying Blue Mesa Member,
which thins beneath the unconformity to the east. The Painted
Desert Member, of early to middle Norian age, overlies Sonsela–
Moss Back strata (Lucas et al., 1997). As mapped by Stewart et
al. (1972), the thickness of the entire Petrified Forest Formation
ranges from just over 30 m at its northeastern limit in eastern
Utah, increasing southward to over 400 m at its southeastern
extent in northwestern New Mexico. The overlying Owl Rock
Formation is composed of up to 150 m of strata that crop out in
northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southern Utah
(Stewart et al., 1972; Lucas and Huber, 1994).
Across the Four Corners area, the upper Norian to (possibly)
Rhaetian Rock Point Formation is recognized as the youngest
stratigraphic unit of the Chinle Group (Lucas, 1993; Lucas et al.,
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group 57

1997). The Rock Point Formation, termed the Rock Point Mem-
ber of the Wingate Sandstone by Stewart et al. (1972), includes
strata formerly assigned to the Church Rock Member of the
Chinle Formation (Stewart et al., 1972; Dubiel, 1989; Lucas et
al., 1997). The contact between the Rock Point Formation and
underlying Owl Rock Formation is unconformable (the Tr-5
unconformity). The Rock Point Formation grades vertically to
the eolian-dominated Wingate Formation of Rhaetian to Hettan-
gian age (Harshbarger et al., 1957; Tanner et al., 2002; Molina-
Garza et al., 2003).
such assignments are not possible, we use the alternative clas-
sification system specific for paleosols, which abandoned some
traditional soil orders and created new paleosol orders (Mack et
al., 1993). The term calcrete is used here to refer to the displacive
and replacive growth of calcium carbonate in the soil-forming
environment, and includes carbonate of both pedogenic and
groundwater origins (see reviews in Wright and Tucker, 1991;
Tandon and Kumar, 1999; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The maturity of
nodular calcrete is described using the stage concepts of Gile et
al. (1966) and Machette (1985).

PALEOSOLS OF THE CHINLE GROUP Zuni Mountains Formation (= Mottled Strata)

Many descriptions of paleosols have suffered from the lack Lithostratigraphy

of a single system of paleosol description applied by all research-
ers. In part, this is because traditional modern soil classifica-
tion (i.e., Soil Conservation Service, 1999) requires knowledge
of such information as vegetative cover and soil moisture that
may not preserved in paleosols. Additionally, postdepositional
processes (erosion, compaction, diagenesis) may obscure some
primary pedogenic features and induce other nonpedogenic fea-
tures (Retallack, 2001). Although the precise interpretation of
paleosols in terms of modern soil classification standards is often
problematic, sufficient information is often retained to allow
classification at the order level (Kraus, 1999; Retallack, 2001).
This study assigns order names to paleosols that are consistent
with modern soil usage unless otherwise noted (Table 1). Where
Stewart et al. (1972) used the informal designation “mottled
strata” to describe alluvial sediments (mudstones, sandstones,
and conglomerates) at the base of the Chinle Group that exhibit
strong pedogenic mottling. These strata underlie or are laterally
equivalent to the basal strata of the Shinarump Formation (Lucas
et al., 1997). Equivalent strata in the San Rafael Swell in central
Utah were named the Temple Mountain Formation by Robeck
(1956), and more recently, Heckert and Lucas (2003) proposed
the name Zuni Mountain Formation for these same strata in west-
central and north-central New Mexico. These same authors also
noted that, locally, the Shinarump Formation may be absent, in
which case the Zuni Mountains Formation is overlain by the
Bluewater Creek Formation. At the type location, near Fort

TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF PALEOSOL TYPES AND CALCRETE FEATURES IN STRATA OF THE CHINLE GROUP
Age Stratigraphic unit Depositional environment Paleosols Calcretes
Late Norian–Rhaetian Rock Point Formation Eolian, ephemeral lake, Aridisol/Inceptisol, Local stage II–III
minor alluvial Calcisol

Middle Norian Owl Rock Formation Alluvial channel, floodplain, Calcisol, calcic Alfisol Common stages II–III,
minor lacustrine and wetland local stage IV,
groundwater calcretes

Early to middle Painted Desert Member, Petrified Alluvial channel and Vertisols, Alfisols Stage II common, local
Norian Forest Formation floodplain stage III, common
calcrete channel lag
deposits

Carnian-Norian Sonsela Member, Petrified Forest Alluvial channel and minor Calcic Alfisols Stage II common, local
boundary Formation floodplain stage III, common
calcrete channel lag
deposits

Latest Carnian Blue Mesa Member, Petrified Alluvial channel and floodplain Alfisols, Vertisols Abundant stage II, some
Forest Formation local stage III

Late Carnian Monitor Butte, Mesa Redondo Alluvial channel, floodplain, Vertisols, Alfisols Stage II common locally
and Cameron Formations and minor lacustrine

Late Carnian Shinarump Formation Alluvial channel and minor Bioturbated with gley Absent
interfluve features

Late Carnian Zuni Mountains and Temple Interfluve valley fills Spodosols Generally absent/rare
Mountain Formations–mottled stage III
strata
58 Tanner and Lucas
Wingate, New Mexico, over 20 m of pedogenically modified
strata overlie the Middle Triassic Moenkopi Formation (Heckert
and Lucas, 2003).
Pedogenic Features
Strata of the Zuni Mountains Formation display, as do other
correlative exposures in the region, extensive pedogenic modifi-
cation, consisting of some combination of gleying (the presence
of low chroma colors) and bioturbation. Typical features of these
paleosols are crudely prismatic fabric, bluish to yellowish gray
mottling in a dark reddish to orange brown host (Fig. 3), relict
bedding, meniscate burrows, sandy horizons that are cemented
almost entirely by hematite (spodic or Bs horizons), a clay min-
eral assemblage dominated by kaolinite, and penetration of the
beds by near-vertical sandstone cylinders up to 1.5 m long (Tan-
ner, 2003a). Indeed, the most striking characteristics of the Fort
Wingate section are the prominent mottled horizons and penetra-
tion of these horizons by the vertical sandstone-filled casts. Origi-
nally, these latter structures, present in much of the Chinle Group,
were interpreted as lungfish aestivation burrows (Dubiel et al.,
1987); more recently, they have been reinterpreted as crayfish
burrows (Hasiotis and Dubiel, 1993a) and the casts of deeply pen-
etrating taproots of monopodial vegetation (Lucas and Hayden,
1989; Tanner, 2003a). Both deep taproots and crayfish burrowing
would be possible, perhaps even likely, in regions where meter-
scale, water table fluctuations occur regularly. These hydrologic
conditions would have been conducive to water-logged soils for
humid intervals, but periodic, perhaps seasonal, drawdown of the
water table would have been sufficient to allow translocation and
oxidation of iron and manganese and shrinkage of expandable
clays. However, the abundance of kaolinite in the clay mineral
Figure 3. Typical pedogenic features of the Zuni Mountains Formation
in section near Fort Wingate, New Mexico (= mottled strata), include
pale greenish-yellow (10 YR 8/2) and light greenish-gray (5 GY 8/1)
mottling in moderate brown (5 YR 3/4) to dark reddish-brown (10 R
3/4) matrix. Hammer head for scale is 17 cm long.
assemblage of this formation (Tanner, 2003a; Tabor et al., 2004)
suggests substantial humidity.
Lower Chinle (undifferentiated) paleosols have been
described previously as Gleysols (sensu Mack et al., 1993)
formed in a humid but seasonal environment (Dubiel and
Hasiotis, 1994b; Hasiotis et al., 1998). Demko et al. (1998) sug-
gested that hydromorphism in lower Chinle paleosols was a con-
sequence of stratigraphic proximity to an aquitard in the under-
lying Moenkopi Formation. Bown and Kraus (1987), Mack et
al. (1993), and Retallack (2001) noted, however, that true hydro-
morphic (gleyed) soils rarely display extensive bioturbation or
evidence of desiccation, and the identification of Gleysols cannot
be based solely on the presence of mottled horizons. Conversely,
pseudogleying, as demonstrated in these lower Chinle paleosols,
indicates that hydromorphic conditions existed only periodically.
The abundance of root casts in these paleosols demonstrates that
the sediment surface was quite well-vegetated. The presence of
hematite-cemented sandstone units in the profile at Fort Wing-
ate documents instead the formation of a well-developed spodic
(Bs) horizon. The sandy host was cemented, principally by
hematite, in a zone in which clays had largely been destroyed by
weathering (Birkeland, 1984). Therefore, we suggest that some
of these paleosols formed as Spodosols, which typically form
beneath forests (Birkeland, 1984; Retallack, 2001). Thus, these
profiles may represent composite palosols in the sense that soil
layers buried by subsequent increments of sediment remained in
an extensively thick, active soil-forming environment (Wright
and Marriott, 1996). A climate characterized by abundant but
highly seasonal precipitation is consistent with these features.
Alternatively, individual paleosol horizons may have formed as
time-separated increments within a complex paleosol that was
subjected to an overall pedogenic overprint by later conditions;
e.g., long-term climate change could have imparted an overprint
through downward translocation of clays or oxides formed under
more humid conditions than existed during earlier soil formation.
This also may account for the presence of gley features in hori-
zons displaying evidence of desiccation.
Calcretes are generally absent in lowermost Chinle Group
strata (i.e., Zuni Mountains and Shinarump Formations) in New
Mexico and Arizona, although Tabor et al. (2004) reported a sig-
nificant accumulation of pedogenic carbonate at the base of a
Chinle profile in eastern Utah. These authors described the occur-
rence of a 1.5-m-thick coalesced nodular (Bkm) horizon (stage
III) at the base of a 3.5 m profile, overlain by noncalcareous,
mottled kaolinitic mudstone with a blocky fabric and containing
goethite nodules. Thick Bk horizons, as described by Tabor et
al. (2004), are not typically associated with paleosols containing
gley colors, but as noted by Bown and Kraus (1987), calcareous
nodules may form in hydromorphic paleosols. Indeed, the forma-
tion of a clay pan in the lower B horizon is likely to enhance car-
bonate accumulation and nodule formation. Tabor et al. (2004)
suggested, however, that the profile they described records mul-
tiple episodes of pedogenesis, potentially under varying climatic
conditions. Therefore, this Bkm horizon may be a relict paleosol
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
formed in Moenkopi strata and unrelated to the later pedogenesis
concomitant with initial Chinle deposition.
Shinarump Formation
Lithostratigraphy
The Shinarump Formation consists of cross-bedded con-
glomerates and quartz arenite sandstones of late Carnian age
deposited in paleovalleys incised into the underlying Moenkopi
Formation strata (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa,
1983; Demko et al., 1998). The quartz arenite sandstones and
extrabasinal conglomerates of the Shinarump Formation attain a
maximum thickness of 76 m in the Four Corners region, although
in many locations, this unit is generally thinner or absent (Fig.
2). The formation records infill of incised paleovalleys by north-
west-flowing streams that generally carried a high bedload and
were of low sinuosity (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa,
1984).
Pedogenic Features
Paleosols are rare in these sandstone-dominated fluvial
channel deposits, but interfluve mudstones display extensive
pedogenic mottling and bioturbation, as described by Dubiel
(1994) and Tanner (2003a). The nature of this pedogenic altera-
tion appears as purple, orange, and gray mottles in a sandy mud-
stone exhibiting a prismatic fabric, desiccation cracks, and relict
ripple lamination. Bedding-plane exposures reveal centimeter-
scale concentric banding of purple and yellow zones, potentially
a consequence of iron translocated downward along taproots, the
casts of which are abundant in Shinarump Formation paleosols.
The character of these paleosols is generally similar to that exhib-
ited by the older Zuni Mountains Formation, although the lack of
a spodic horizon makes classification more ambiguous. The gley
features present here are likewise considered pseudogleying and
not indicative of true soil hydromorphism; rather, these features
record substantial fluctuations in the position of the water table.
Cameron–Bluewater Creek–Monitor Butte Formations
Lithostratigraphy
The laterally equivalent Cameron, Bluewater Creek, and
Monitor Butte Formations, of Upper Carnian age, consist mainly
of gray bentonitic to red mudstones, and laminated to cross-bed-
ded fine-grained sandstones. At Petrified Forest National Park,
the Bluewater Creek Formation is made up of mainly interbedded
sandstone, siltstone, and reddish-purple to grayish-red mudstone
(Heckert and Lucas, 2002a). In the Zuni Mountains, however, the
Bluewater Creek Formation consists of three distinct lithofacies
assemblages: reddish-brown, bluish-gray, and grayish-purple
mudstones; ripple-laminated to plane-bedded sandstones; and
interbedded bentonitic mudstone and dark shale (Heckert and
Lucas, 2002b). The mudstones locally contain abundant plant
debris (Ash, 1987, 1989), and thin micritic limestone occurs near
the base of the formation (Heckert and Lucas, 2002b).
59
Pedogenic Features
Tanner (2003a) noted pedogenic features in the basal strata
of the Cameron Formation near Cameron, Arizona, that are simi-
lar to those observed in the Zuni Mountains and Shinarump For-
mations, e.g., mottling with gley colors, a high kaolinite content,
and pedogenic slickensides. Dubiel (1987) described a similarly
mottled unit in the Monitor Butte Formation of southeastern Utah.
Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994a, 1994b) interpreted such profiles in
(undifferentiated) lower Chinle strata as Gleysols (sensu Mack
et al., 1993), although as noted previously, this classification is
not consistent with the strict definition of this paleosol order and
the evidence for a greatly fluctuating water table. Following the
usage of Mack et al. (1993), these paleosols might best be con-
sidered gleyed Vertisols.
Paleosols that are stratigraphically higher in the Cameron
and Monitor Butte Formations differ in that they typically con-
sist of simple profiles with decimeter-scale light-colored hori-
zons overlying thick (up to 8 m) reddened argillic (Bt) horizons
(Dubiel and Hasiotis, 1994b; Hasiotis et al., 1998). Bluewater
Creek mudstones commonly display pedogenic slickensides and
scattered (stage II) centimeter-scale calcrete nodules with alpha
fabrics (Heckert and Lucas, 2002b). Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994b)
and Hasiotis et al. (1998) labeled these argillic paleosols with
albic horizons as Alfisols.
Petrified Forest Formation: Blue Mesa Member
Lithostratigraphy
The lowermost strata of the Petrified Forest Formation
(PFF), designated the Blue Mesa Member (of late Carnian age),
conformably overlie the Cameron–Bluewater Creek–Monitor
Butte Formations in northeastern Arizona and southeastern Utah;
this stratigraphic unit is not present in Colorado (Lucas et al.,
1997). This interval consists of bentonitic mudstones with var-
iegated hues of blue, gray, purple, and red, and interbedded thin
coarse-grained to very fine-grained sandstones, and it attains a
thickness of 100 m or more (Lucas, 1993; Lucas et al., 1997).
Most of the sandstones are compositionally and texturally imma-
ture, with the exception of the Newspaper Rock Bed, a promi-
nent ledge-forming quartz arenite sandstone unit within the Blue
Mesa Member that may be local to the Petrified Forest National
Park (Heckert and Lucas, 2002a). The alluvial architecture of the
Blue Mesa Member consists of thick muddy floodplain depos-
its, deeply incised by meter-scale channels. The channels are
filled by very fine-grained sand and mud, commonly displaying
inclined heterolithic strata (Fig. 4A; lateral accretion surfaces),
and are surrounded by well-developed levee complexes with
splay deposits (Kraus and Middleton, 1987; Therrien and Fas-
tovsky, 2000). Intraformational disconformity surfaces record
cycles of valley incision and fill (Kraus and Middleton, 1987).
Kraus and Middleton (1987) proposed that base-level changes
during deposition of lower Chinle strata resulted in part from epi-
sodes of thermotectonically controlled uplift and subsidence in
the Mogollon highlands. The presence of volcanic detritus in the
60 Tanner and Lucas

Figure 4. Features of the Blue Mesa Member, Petrified Forest Formation. (A) Channel fill sequence exposed in southern Petrified Forest National
Park (the Tepees) displays inclined heterolithic strata set (arrows) ~6 m thick. (B) View of Blue Mesa, in southern Petrified Forest National Park,
illustrates contact (at arrow) between Blue Mesa strata and overlying Sonsela Member. Laterally continuous banding in the Blue Mesa strata
results from pedogenesis (translocation of oxides and clays) in individual soil profiles formed on an alluvial plain. Ch = lenticular channel-fill
deposit. (C) Bk horizon containing abundant (stage II) calcrete nodules in upper Blue Mesa strata, exposed near Moab, Utah. The rule (for scale)
is 17 cm. (D) Pedogenic features of the uppermost Blue Mesa Member at the contact with the overlying Sonsela Member (So; Rainbow Forest
Bed) at Blue Mesa, Petrified Forest National Park. Rt—drab root traces; No—thin calcrete nodule horizon, Pe—pedogenic slickensides. Hiking
staff (for scale) = 120 cm. The mudstone host darkens downward from pale purple (5 P 6/2) to grayish-purple (5 P 4/2).

Chinle, particularly in the Petrified Forest Formation, provides
compelling evidence for arc-related magmatism at this time.
Pedogenic Features
The Blue Mesa Member contains thick, well-developed
paleosols with distinctive horizonation (Fig. 4B); these are strik-
ingly well-exposed in the strata in the southern end of the Petri-
fied Forest National Park. Typical are composite profiles consist-
ing of stacked, repetitive sequences of thin, light-colored, cross-
bedded to ripple-laminated sandstones and mudstones in beds up
to 8 m thick that are greenish-gray to dark reddish-brown and
mottled gray, purple, and red. Individual profiles within com-
posite profiles commonly contain a thin, sandy ochric epipedon
(A horizon), typically overlying a well-defined pale albic (E)
horizon. Thick clay-rich B (Bt) horizons (up to 8 m) are reddish
gray to (more commonly) grayish purple, and host pedogenic
slickensides (wedge-shaped peds) and pseudoanticlines, down-
ward-tapering sandstone-filled fissures (desiccation fractures),
sandstone-filled root casts, a variety of arthropod burrow struc-
tures, drab root traces up to 0.1 m long, centimeter-scale reduc-
tion spheroids, and calcrete nodule horizons (Kraus and Middle-
ton, 1987; Hasiotis and Dubiel, 1993b; Therrien and Fastovsky,
2000). Calcrete consists most typically of scattered (stage II) cen-
timeter-scale nodules, which commonly display vertical stacking
(rhizocretions, sensu Blodgett, 1988), mainly in the uppermost
0.5 m of the horizon. Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994b) and Hasiotis et
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
al. (1998) noted these features and labeled paleosols of the Blue
Mesa Member as Vertisols, where vertic features predominate,
and Alfisols, where pale A and/or E horizons overlie reddened or
purple argillic B horizons. Bown and Kraus (1987) noted, how-
ever, that the A horizon may be thin or absent in some Alfisols; we
suggest, therefore, that the primary features of these paleosols is
the thick B horizon, even where vertic features are common, and
that they also should be considered Alfisols. The purple color that
is characteristic of many Blue Mesa paleosols probably results
from the coarse crystal size of the hematite in the B horizon,
and indicates a high maturity of the profiles (Bown and Kraus,
1987). Kraus and Middleton (1987) noted a systematic varia-
tion in pedogenic development correlating with position on the
alluvial plain; the paleosol maturity is significantly lower in the
incised valley infill deposits than on the surrounding floodplain.
Therrien and Fastovsky (2000) noted localized gleying in Blue
Mesa paleosols, and interpreted it as poor drainage on low areas
of the alluvial plain. Consistent with this observation, Heckert
and Lucas (2002a) noted the local occurrence of sideritic nodules
in Blue Mesa paleosols, demonstrating reducing conditions in the
soil-forming environment. Additionally, we note the presence of
thin (centimeter-scale) localized organic-rich layers in the epipe-
dons at the top of Blue Mesa paleosols in Little Painted Desert
County Park, north of Winslow (Fig. 1). These horizons are too
thin to meet the accepted definition of histic epipedons (O hori-
zon), but they suggest the local formation of Histosols on areas
of the floodplain with impeded drainage. Kraus and Middleton
(1987) described a catenary relationship in which the paleosol
maturity correlates with distance from the channel (Platt and
Keller, 1992; Mack and Madoff, 2005).
Calcretes are common in Blue Mesa paleosols. Therrien
and Fastovsky (2000) described the presence of centimeter-scale
(up to 5 cm in diameter) nodules in most Blue Mesa paleosols.
These calcretes are mainly limited to horizons in which isolated
nodules are abundant (stage II), although more mature (stage III)
calcretes occur locally (Fig. 4C; Heckert and Lucas, 2002a). The
nodules typically display alpha fabrics; they range from 2 to 8 cm
in diameter, have distinct boundaries, are subspherical to irregu-
larly shaped, and commonly display septarian cracking. These
nodules occur widely scattered (stage II), but they are locally
concentrated in discrete horizons (stage II to incipient stage III)
in the middle to upper part of the B horizon of profiles, where
they may be associated with pedogenic slickensides; they are
particularly prominent immediately below the Newspaper Rock
Bed and at the top of the Blue Mesa Member beneath the Rain-
bow Forest Bed of the Sonsela Member. Numerous locations
occur in southern Petrified Forest National Park where the upper-
most Blue Mesa strata consist of dark bluish-gray mudstone dis-
playing vertic fractures and centimeter-scale calcareous nodules,
in some locations with diffuse boundaries (Fig. 4D). Drab root
traces are locally abundant in the mudstone host. These observa-
tions are consistent with the interpretation that the paleosols rep-
resent mainly Alfisols, which typically form on well-vegetated
(forested) surfaces (Bown and Kraus, 1987; Retallack, 2001).
61
Petrified Forest Formation: Sonsela Member and Moss
Back Formation
Lithostratigraphy
The overlying sandstone-dominated Sonsela Member of
the Petrified Forest Formation and the laterally equivalent Moss
Back Formation consist of up to 50 m of ledge-forming lithar-
enite sandstone and conglomerate, including both intrabasinal
and extrabasinal clasts (Stewart et al., 1972; Lucas et al., 1997).
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) interpreted the Sonsela Member as
filling erosional scours in the underlying Blue Mesa Member,
which thins beneath the unconformity to the east. The lower
contact with the Blue Mesa Member is clearly erosional and has
been interpreted as a regional unconformity (the Tr-4; Lucas et
al., 1997). Arc-related tectonism, suggested as the cause of inci-
sion-infill cycles in the underlying Blue Mesa Member (Kraus
and Middleton, 1987), may explain this unconformity; source
area uplift and an increase in the local depositional gradient may
have caused incision and reworking of the Blue Mesa strata prior
to Sonsela–Moss Back deposition. In particular, the uppermost
unit of the Sonsela, the Agate Bridge Bed, contains a significant
extrabasinal component, along with a high load of reworked cal-
crete (type 3 deposit of Gómez-Gras and Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
Alternatively, eustasy might have caused a significant base-
level drop; a regional unconformity coincident with sea-level
fall occurs in the middle Keuper at about the Carnian-Norian
boundary (Aigner and Bachman, 1992), approximately correla-
tive with the Tr-4 unconformity (Lucas et al., 1997; Heckert and
Lucas, 2002a).
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) examined in detail the stratig-
raphy of the Sonsela Member in the Petrified Forest National
Park and proposed that the Sonsela is composed of three subunits
of mappable extent. The lowermost sandstone-dominated unit,
which they designated the Rainbow Forest Bed, consists of up to
6 m of quartzarenite sandstone and conglomerate deposited by
north-northeasterly flowing streams (Deacon, 1990), and locally
contains abundant silicified logs of Araucarioxylon. The grada-
tionally overlying Jim Camp Wash Bed consists of up to 30 m of
grayish-purple to pale red bentonitic mudstone and interbedded
sandstone. The uppermost unit, the Agate Bridge Bed, consists
of up to almost 7 m of cross-bedded quartzarenite and sublithar-
enite sandstone and conglomerate. The conglomerate contains a
significant proportion of intraformational clasts, including mud-
stone rip-ups and calcrete. Heckert and Lucas (2002a) and Lucas
et al. (2003) noted that the Sonsela Member fills scours on the
Blue Mesa erosional surface.
Pedogenic Features
The Jim Camp Wash Bed displays an abundance of pedo-
genic features including distinct horizonation, pedogenic slick-
ensides, decimeter-scale sandstone-filled desiccation cracks,
and abundant calcrete nodules and coalesced calcrete nodule
layers (stage II to III). The sedimentology of the Jim Camp Wash
Bed is similar to that of the underlying Blue Mesa Member in
62 Tanner and Lucas
Figure 5. Jim Camp Wash Bed section. (A) The top of the section is
the lower portion of the Agate Bridge Bed and here consists of ~2 m of
mainly planar cross-bedded sandstone with intraformational conglom-
erate (calcrete nodule) lag. The calcrete described in the text occurs
immediately below the base of the sandstone. (B) Calcrete morpholo-
gies include rhizocretions (vertically stacked calcrete nodules; Rh)
with downward-tapering arrangement. (C) Coalescing nodule horizons
(No; stage III) along arcuate surfaces are typically one to two nodules
thick and up to 1 m long.
that meter-scale channels are incised into muddy floodplain
deposits on which mature paleosols formed. Jim Camp Wash
paleosols differ from those of the Blue Mesa Member, however,
in their generally redder color and the typically greater maturity
of calcrete.
Excellent Jim Camp Wash Bed paleosol outcrops occur
in southern Petrified Forest National Park. Near the Rainbow
Forest Museum, the uppermost Jim Camp Wash Bed consists
of grayish-purple mudstone that hosts abundant pale nodules
ranging in diameter from 0.5 to 3 cm (Fig. 5A). In the upper-
most 40 cm of the mudstone, the nodules form coalesced hori-
zons that are laterally discontinuous, extending a maximum
distance of 50 cm, and botryoidal masses up to 30 cm long.
Near the top of this zone, nodules form vertically stacked bod-
ies, or rhizocretions, up to 20 cm long (Fig. 5B). Smaller nod-
ules commonly exhibit crosscutting burrows. Notably, nodules
are concentrated along arcuate curviplanar surfaces, presum-
ably pedogenic slickensides, that extend laterally up to 1 m
(Fig. 5C). These features have relatively smooth upper surfaces
and are bounded below by a single layer of coalesced nodules
projecting downward. The surfaces dip varying directions and
form pseudoanticlinal intersections. Discrete fragments of
charcoal, recognizable by a silky, fibrous luster, also occur in
the uppermost 40 cm of the mudstone. The size and abundance
of nodules decrease markedly in the reddened mudstone below
the grayish-purple horizon. Nodules occur to a depth of 50 cm
within this zone. The entire mudstone section is overlain by
sandstone displaying planar cross-beds and conglomerate lags
(Fig. 6). The lag deposits are composed of mudstone rip-ups
and micritic nodules.
The Jim Camp Wash Bed consists of thick floodplain
mudstone sequences overlain by a high bedload stream deposit
containing a lag of reworked calcrete nodules. The previously
described mudstone represents a floodplain paleosol in which
the uppermost horizon (epipedon) has been partially removed
by erosion. The shallow soil was subject to pronounced biotic
(rooting and burrowing) and vertic activity, the latter facili-
tated by the smectitic nature of the soil material. A distinct
Bk horizon forms the uppermost preserved horizon, contain-
ing discrete and coalesced nodular masses of micritic mud-
stone. The vertical orientation of some nodular masses (rhi-
zocretions) indicates a profound influence of plant roots in the
formation of at least some nodules. Vertic fractures, which can
form rapidly (Birkeland, 1984), comprise arcuate surfaces with
downward-shallowing dips; these served as pathways for the
downward translocation of calcium carbonate, as evidenced
by the formation of laterally continuous horizons of coalesced
nodules along these surfaces. Although this paleosol profile
is truncated, we designate it a calcic Alfisol. We note, how-
ever, that the morphology of the calcrete displays significantly
greater maturity than is generally present in the Blue Mesa
paleosols. This disparity suggests that conditions for carbon-
ate accumulation in the Bk horizon were enhanced during this
depositional interval.
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
Figure 6. Representative measured section of the truncated paleosol
in the Jim Camp Wash Bed described in the text and shown in Figure
5A. The section is located in southern Petrified Forest National Park
along the park road (near the Flattops).
Petrified Forest Formation: Painted Desert Member
Lithostratigraphy
The Painted Desert Member, of early to middle Norian age,
overlies the Sonsela–Moss Back strata and consists of grayish-
red and reddish-brown mudstones and thin interbedded sand-
stones (Lucas et al., 1997). As mapped by Stewart et al. (1972),
thickness of the entire Petrified Forest Formation ranges from
just over 30 m at its northeastern limit in eastern Utah, increas-
ing southward to over 400 m at its southeastern extent in north-
western New Mexico. Like the Blue Mesa Member, the Painted
Desert Member consists of thick mudstone intervals incised
by channels with a fine-grained fill, locally displaying promi-
nent inclined heterolithic strata (Fig. 7A) and levee complexes.
Alternating with these dominantly suspended-load channel fills
are sandstones that are predominantly multistoried and charac-
teristically display tabular to lenticular sets of trough and planar
cross-beds (Espegren, 1985). At Petrified Forest National Park,
Heckert and Lucas (2002a) recognized correlatable sandstone
units within the Painted Desert Member. These are, in ascending
order, the Flattops, Lithodendron Wash, and Black Forest Beds.
The last of these has a considerable volcaniclastic content. Riggs
et al. (1994) reported a U-Pb age of 207 ± 2 Ma for zircon from
63
Figure 7. Features of Painted Desert Member deposition. (A) Chan-
nel-fill sequence between the arrows consists of 3 m of (mostly) red
mudstone with (minor) interbedded sandstone displaying inclined het-
erolithic strata. This section is located in the northern Petrified Forest
National Park (near Lacey Point). (B) Locally, the Black Forest Bed
consists of up to 3 m of intraformational (primarily calcrete nodules)
conglomerate. This section is located in the northern Petrified Forest
National Park (at Lacey Point). Scale (hiking staff) is 120 cm.
the Black Forest Beds, and Riggs et al. (2003) later obtained a
maximum age of 213 ± 1.5 Ma, although the authors conceded
a possible age as young as 209 Ma. The Painted Desert Mem-
ber sandstones generally lack extrabasinal clasts, but locally the
Black Forest Bed, and to a lesser extent, the Lithodendron Wash
Bed, contain thick lag deposits of calcrete-dominated intraforma-
tional conglomerate (Fig. 7B; Heckert and Lucas, 2002a).
Pedogenic Features
Painted Desert paleosol profiles display A horizons that are
thin to absent and B horizons that are typically several meters
thick, brick red, and locally display pedogenic slickensides, bur-
rows, drab root traces, and rhizoliths. Calcrete nodules with alpha
fabrics are commonly scattered in these thick B horizons (stage
64 Tanner and Lucas

II), but more mature calcretes (stage III and rare stage IV) occur
immediately below the high bedload stream deposits. Notably,
the Black Forest Bed contains a gravel conglomerate load that is
up to 2 m thick in places and consists entirely of calcrete nodules
(Fig. 7B).
Excellent exposures of Painted Desert paleosols occur in
northern Petrified Forest National Park, particularly in exposures
along Lithodendron Wash. Below the Lithodendron Wash Bed of
Heckert and Lucas (2002a), the reddish-brown mudstone hosts
stage II to stage III calcrete horizons and lenticular bodies of
conglomerate (Fig. 8A), which consist of centimeter-scale cal-
crete nodules and mud chips and pedogenic slickensides. Cal-
crete nodules in stage II horizons are up to 5 cm in diameter; the
nodules commonly exhibit a reduced (drab) interior cut by sparry
calcite veins, or circumgranular cracking (crystallaria; Fig. 8B),
and some nodules are penetrated by thin (1 mm diameter) bur-
rows. Vertical stacking of nodules (rhizocretions) occurs locally
(Fig. 8C). Gray reduction spheres and small drab root traces are
also common in the mudstone host. Similar features are present
in numerous arroyos that cut Painted Desert strata north of Cam-
eron, Arizona, where rare laminar (stage IV, or K) horizons occur
beneath sandstone beds (Fig. 8D).
Dubiel and Hasiotis (1994b) and Hasiotis et al. (1998)
described Painted Desert paleosols as Vertisols, largely on the
basis of abundant pedogenic slickensides and the presence of illu-
viated clay on ped surfaces. This designation may be appropriate
in instances where no other significant pedogenic features occur,
but weak horizonation is present in much of the mudstone-domi-
nated section. Bown and Kraus (1987) noted that Alfisols may
display profiles in which the A horizon may be thin or absent,

Figure 8. Painted Desert Member pedogenic features. (A) Lens of calcrete nodule and mud-chip conglomerate occurs at the level of the hiking
staff handle (staff is 120 cm). The sandstone bed just above the staff handle is the Lithodendron Wash Bed. The mudstone below the calcrete
lens has a wedge-shaped ped structure formed by intersecting pedogenic slickensides. (B) Detail of calcrete nodule from lens in (A) illustrating
crosscutting crystallaria (sparry calcite veins; arrow). (C) Bk horizon in uppermost Painted Desert strata consists almost entirely of rhizocretions
(Rh). The rhizocretion indicated by the arrow is 10 cm long. This section is located is located in the northernmost Petrified Forest National Park
(Chinle Mesa). (D) Rare laminar (La; stage IV) calcrete horizon in Painted Desert. Irregular and vertically elongate nodule masses are up to 50
cm long. The base of the Bk horizon is gradational and extends to a depth of 1.5 m below the laminar horizon (hammer is 26 cm long). Location
is north of Cameron, Arizona (arroyo near RR 6731).
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
and the B horizon, which may be thick and brick red in color,
also may be calcareous and display vertic features. Therefore, we
identify those Painted Desert paleosols that are not dominated by
vertic features, and which display weak horizonation, as imma-
ture Alfisols.
Owl Rock Formation
Lithostratigraphy
The overlying Owl Rock Formation consists of up to 150 m
of interbedded mudstones, sandstones, and limestones of approxi-
mately middle Norian age. These strata crop out in northern Ari-
zona, northwestern New Mexico, and southern Utah (Stewart et al.,
1972; Lucas and Huber, 1994; Lucas et al., 1997). Dubiel and Good
(1991) noted that the contact between the Owl Rock Formation
and the underlying Painted Desert Member of the Petrified Forest
Formation appears disconformable, and is marked in many places by
the presence of a thick intrabasinal conglomerate composed mainly
of reworked calcrete clasts and locally abundant unionid bivalves.
The upper part of the formation is characterized by distinctive
submeter scale beds of ledge-forming limestone. Earlier workers
(Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983; Dubiel, 1989, 1993) described these
as lacustrine limestones and interpreted them as deposits of a large
lacustrine system centered on the Four Corners region. Other work-
ers, however, recognized pervasive pedogenic fabrics in these beds
and suggested that they represent mature (stage III and IV) calcretes
and palustrine carbonates (Lucas and Anderson, 1993; Lucas et al.,
1997; Tanner, 2000).
Pedogenic Features
Previous examination of the Owl Rock Formation, particu-
larly at the type section near Kayenta, Arizona, revealed distinct
differences between the upper and lower strata in the types of
pedogenic features present (Tanner, 2000). Thick mudstone beds
in the lower part of the formation lack distinctive horizonation
but host meter-scale stage II to III calcrete (Bk) horizons that
display alpha and beta fabrics. The upper Owl Rock Formation
hosts limestones that display brecciated to peloidal fabrics, piso-
liths, spar-filled circumgranular cracks, root channels, and rare
calcite pseudomorphs after gypsum. These beds are laterally
gradational with limestones of limited lateral extent that display
rare charophyte debris, oscillation ripple lamination, desiccation
polygons, and burrowing. Tanner (2000) interpreted the brecci-
ated beds as palustrine limestones, formed by deposition of car-
bonates in ponds or wetlands on a sediment-starved floodplain
that was subjected to intense pedogenesis during base-level fluc-
tuations (Platt, 1992; Platt and Wright, 1992; Armenteros et al.,
1997; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Chert is locally abundant in the brec-
ciated limestones, but lacks the fabrics associated with Magadi-
type chert formation and so is interpreted as a secondary replace-
ment feature from groundwater (Schubel and Simonson, 1990;
Bustillo, 2001).
Examination of the formation at numerous localities (e.g.,
the type section near Kayenta, in the Echo Cliffs, at Little Painted
65
Desert County Park, and near Lukachukai, Arizona) has yielded
additional details on Owl Rock pedogenic features. At the south-
ern end of the Echo Cliffs, the contact with the Petrified Forest
Formation is marked by 5 m of plane-bedded intrabasinal con-
glomerate and sandstone (Fig. 9A). The conglomerate is com-
posed mainly of reworked calcrete nodules, with a lesser contri-
bution of mudstone and chert pebbles. Lower Owl Rock calcretes
(stage II to III Bk to Bkm horizons) are up to 5 m thick, with upper
and lower gradational contacts in brown mudstone (Fig. 9B), and
they display both alpha and beta fabrics (Fig. 9C). Alpha fabric
calcretes comprise micritic nodules that have distinct boundaries
and are crosscut by sparry veins. These calcretes are stage II to
IV, and they exhibit obvious lateral gradations between stages
over distances of hundreds of meters. Paleosols with Bk hori-
zons displaying gradational tops probably represent cumulate
paleosols in the sense that continual addition of sediment to the
top of the profile gradually caused an upward shift in the depth
of carbonate accumulation. Lateral gradations between stages of
calcrete development are undoubtedly related to position on the
floodplain (i.e., channel proximity), as described previously for
the Blue Mesa paleosols. The lower Owl Rock paleosols lack
the horizonation and obvious evidence of translocated clays
that typifies the paleosols in the underlying formations, making
their classification by traditional (i.e., Soil Conservation Service,
1999) soil orders problematic. The nomenclature of Mack et al.
(1993), however, allows assignment of these paleosols to the
order Calcisol. Some mudstones in the upper Owl Rock, how-
ever, exhibit pronounced horizonation, displaying ochric epipe-
dons and pale albic horizons overlying reddened Bt/Bk horizons
(Fig. 9B). These paleosols are interpreted as calcic Alfisols. Mud-
stone beds at various levels in the formation are penetrated by
sandstone-filled cylinders that are up 60 cm long and up to 30 cm
in diameter (Fig. 9D). These have been interpreted previously as
decapod burrows (Dubiel, 1993), but the downward-branching
shapes of many of these features leaves little doubt that at least
some are instead the casts of deep roots, probably the tap roots of
monopodial vegetation.
Many of the ledge-forming calcareous beds in the upper
Owl Rock Formation have abrupt contacts and scoured bases
with tens of centimeters of relief (Figs. 10 and 11A). These beds
commonly overlie mudstone with a platy to prismatic fabric and
millimeter- to centimeter-scale calcrete nodules and rhizocre-
tions. These ledge-forming beds are generally greenish-gray to
mottled pink-green (on fresh surfaces), and they contain piso-
liths, floating siliciclastic grains, root penetration structures, and
locally abundant chert (Figs. 11B and 11C). Many of these ledges
form multistoried bodies and contain mud-chip lag deposits that
are commonly removed by weathering in outcrop. Notably, these
beds generally have a massive fabric and lack the distinctly brec-
ciated texture and extensive root penetration that is typical of the
limestones at the type section (Figs. 11C and 11D; Tanner, 2000;
Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The features we describe here are consis-
tent with an origin as groundwater calcretes; they represent flu-
vial channel bodies that were pervasively cemented by calcite in
66 Tanner and Lucas

Figure 9. Pedogenic features of the Owl Rock Formation. (A) In the southern Echo Cliffs, the contact between the Owl Rock Formation and the
underlying Petrified Forest Formation is marked by a 5 m bed of conglomerate, composed mainly of calcrete nodules and interbedded sandstone
lenses. The base and top of the bed are just below and above the field of view in this photograph. The handle of the staff (scale is 120 cm) rests
against a conglomerate layer overlying a sandier lens. (B) Overview of the Owl Rock Formation at the south end of the Echo Cliffs. Three Bk
horizons with stage II calcrete are displayed. The lowermost has an abrupt top and gradational base, while the others have gradational tops and
bases. Stratigraphically higher (to the left), Alfisol (A) profiles with A, E, and B horizons are visible. (C) Rare calcified root-cell structures are
visible in thin sections prepared from stage II calcretes in B. (D) Calcareous sandstone cylinders with a twisting and branching morphology are
common in the Owl Rock Formation (location at south end of Echo Cliffs). End of hammer handle is 4 cm wide.

the shallow subsurface and lack many of the features of subaerial
exposure and desiccation displayed by palustrine limestones
(Wright and Tucker, 1991; Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
Rock Point Formation
Lithostratigraphy
Across the Four Corners area, the upper Norian to (possi-
bly) Rhaetian Rock Point Formation is recognized as the young-
est stratigraphic unit of the Chinle Group (Lucas, 1993; Lucas
et al., 1997). The contact between the Rock Point Formation
and underlying Owl Rock Formation is unconformable (the Tr-
5 unconformity). The Rock Point Formation, termed the Rock
Point Member of the Wingate Sandstone by Stewart et al. (1972),
includes strata formerly assigned to the Church Rock Member of
the Chinle Formation (Stewart et al., 1972; Dubiel, 1989; Lucas
et al., 1997). Strata of this formation consist of up to 300 m of
mainly interbedded brown to red, nonbentonitic mudstones and
laminated to rippled sandstones (Stewart et al., 1972; Dubiel,
1989; Lucas et al., 1997). The Rock Point Formation grades ver-
tically to the eolian-dominated Wingate Formation (Fig. 12A) of
Rhaetian to Hettangian age (Harshbarger et al., 1957; Tanner et
al., 2002; Molina-Garza et al., 2003). Much of the formation con-
sists of sandstone and siltstone sheets that display low-amplitude
(eolian) ripple lamination. Other lithofacies present include tabu-
lar to sheet sandstones with small-scale sets of high-angle trough
cross-beds; erosive-based, wedge-shaped sandstones with planar
cross-beds and trough cross-beds and ripple translatent strata;
and ripple-laminated to massive mudstones. These lithofacies
represent deposition on eolian sand sheets (small-scale dunes
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
and ripples), on mudflats, in ephemeral lakes, and in ephemeral
streams (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1984; Dubiel,
1989; Lucas et al., 1997).
Pedogenic Features
In many locations in the Four Corners, the Rock Point
Formation displays abundant and various burrows and root
traces, but lacks other well-developed pedogenic features. In
northeastern Arizona, for example, near the type section for
the formation, the red sheet sandstones and coarse mudstones
facies that characterize the formation in this area display bed-
ding-parallel burrows and shallow desiccation cracks in some
beds, but lack extensive nodular horizons or vertic features.
In other areas of the Colorado Plateau, however, much more
extensive pedogenesis is evident. Rock Point calcretes are most
mature in upland areas; for example, at Colorado National
Monument (near Grand Junction), coarse mudstones and very
fine-grained sandstones that are age-equivalent to the Rock
Point Formation (Lucas et al., 1997; Tanner, 2003a) rest uncon-
formably on granitic basement and are overlain by sandstones
of the Wingate Formation. The strata near the top of this section
host multiple pedogenic horizons that display drab root traces,
desiccation cracks, and stage II to III calcretes (Tanner, 2003a).
Pedogenic features in correlative strata north of Durango, Colo-
rado, include desiccation cracks and drab root traces, both of
67
Figure 10. Measured section of paleosol features in upper
Owl Rock Formation described from location near Little
Painted Desert County Park.
which extend tens of centimeters, crumb and blocky mudstone
fabrics, rhizocretions, and stage II to III calcretes in which beta
fabrics are common (Fig. 12B; Blodgett, 1988; Tanner, 2003a).
Blodgett (1988) interpreted the nodule-bearing horizons in
the sheet sandstones of the Dolores Formation as calcareous
paleosols of the order Aridisol or Inceptisol, lacking epipedons
and argillic horizons. These profiles also could be classified as
Calcisols (sensu Mack et al., 1993), an interpretation that can
be applied to the paleosols at Colorado National Monument as
well. Root traces and rhizocretions are evidence that these soils
were vegetated by plants with long monopodial root systems.
Calcrete conglomerate lenses in Rock Point mudstones (Fig.
12C) provide evidence of local erosional reworking of the dep-
ositional surface.
PALEOCLIMATE SYNTHESIS
Colorado Plateau
Pedogenic processes may be controlled to a large extent by
climate, but soil development also depends very much on the
rate of sediment accumulation, as paleosol maturity is inversely
related to sedimentation rate (Bown and Kraus, 1987). Therefore,
any interpretation of the paleoclimatic significance of pedogenic
features also must examine changes in depositional rate. This,
68 Tanner and Lucas

Figure 11. Features of upper Owl Rock Formation ledge-forming beds. (A) Sandy limestone beds have irregular (erosional) bases, a multistory
architecture, and exhibit significant lateral thickness variations. Location is north of Little Painted Desert County Park (north of Winslow, Ari-
zona). (B) The fabric of the beds in A is massive, but with numerous coated grains and pisoliths (Pi) and fine sparry veins that may represent root
tubules (Rt). Lens cap for scale is 55 mm. (C, D) Limestone beds in section at southern end of the Echo Cliffs display pronounced brecciation
fabrics, root channeling (Rc), and extensive chert replacement. Hammer in C is 26 cm; lens cap in D is 55 mm.

in turn can be forced by such extrinsic factors as tectonics and
eustasy, both of which may affect base level (Possamentier et al.,
1988; Blum and Price, 1998; Possamentier and Allen, 1999). Ini-
tial accumulation of Chinle sediment, during the Carnian stage,
was limited to paleovalley systems incised in the Moenkopi (Tr-
3) surface (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey and Gubitosa, 1983).
Middle Triassic base-level fall and subsequent Late Triassic
rise matches the eustatic record of Haq et al. (1987), therefore a
eustatic control on alluvial sedimentation is postulated here. The
incised paleovalleys and associated tributaries had paleorelief of
tens of meters, and so deposition of the Zuni Mountains, Shina-
rump, and the lowermost strata of the Cameron–Monitor Butte–
Bluewater Creek Formations was limited to these topographic
lows and was thin to absent between (Stewart et al., 1972; Blakey
and Gubitosa, 1983; Demko et al., 1998).
Previous workers (Dubiel and Hasiotis, 1994a, 1994b;
Hasiotis et al., 1998) have interpreted a humid but seasonal cli-
mate during the late Carnian in the Colorado Plateau region on
the basis of the gleyed (or pseudogleyed) and illuviated paleosols
in the Zuni Mountains and Shinarump Formations. Demko et al.
(1998), however, cautioned that the paleoclimate record of the
basal Chinle is biased by deposition within paleovalleys under-
lain by aquicludes of the Moenkopi Formation, which resulted in
artificially high water tables. Indeed, although the prominence of
gley features in these paleosols suggests high humidity, the pres-
ence of pedogenic slickensides and a prismatic fabric in paleo-
sols in these formations indicates that these soils were allowed to
dry completely at times, perhaps seasonally. Numerous authors
have commented on the evidence for a strongly seasonal distri-
bution of precipitation during the Late Triassic resulting from a
monsoonal effect, both from field studies and from climate mod-
els (Robinson, 1973; Parrish and Peterson, 1988; Crowley et al.,
1989; Dubiel et al., 1991; Parrish, 1993; Crowley, 1994; Wilson
et al., 1994; Pires et al., 2005). This effect presumably was a
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
Figure 12. Features of the Rock Point Formation. (A) The section
at Little Round Rock, near the type section at Rock Point, Arizona,
demonstrates the lithologic transition from interbedded sheet sand-
stone and mudstone of the Rock Point Formation (RP) to the eolian
sandstone–dominated Wingate Formation (Wi). Approximate contact
is indicated by the arrow. The entire visible section is ~70 m thick. (B)
Rock Point strata near Durango, Colorado, contain stage II calcrete
(stage II) consisting primarily of rhizocretions. Lens cap for scale is 55
mm. (C) Calcrete conglomerate lens in mudstone host, in Rock Point
strata west of Moab, Utah (San Rafael Swell area).
69
consequence of the configuration of the Pangean land mass and
its position straddling the equator. We speculate that Late Triassic
migration and rotation of the continent caused weakening of the
monsoon in northern Pangea, resulting in regional drying.
The prominence of deep tap roots and/or crayfish burrows is
also consistent with a strongly fluctuating water table. The pres-
ence of spodic horizons and the dominantly kaolinitic composi-
tion of the clays, however (Tanner, 2003a; Tabor et al., 2004),
which are not present in overlying formations, is a clear indica-
tion of humidity and strong weathering and translocation of soil
materials. Modern Spodosols are generally (but not exclusively)
associated with forested regions, typically coniferous, and humid
climates. (Birkeland, 1984; Retallack, 2001). Thus, an overall
humid to subhumid climate is likely during Carnian deposition
of the Zuni Mountains and Shinarump Formations, with high
water tables enforced seasonally by the position of the lower
Chinle strata in paleovalleys and the locally impermeable nature
of the underlying Moenkopi strata. Initial deposition of the Cam-
eron–Monitor Butte–Bluewater Creek Formations took place
under similarly humid but seasonal conditions. The observed
gleying, or psuedogleying, and desiccation are both consistent
with soil development under conditions of strongly fluctuating
water tables, suggesting a greatly variable (possibly seasonal)
distribution of precipitation under subhumid climate conditions,
as described for the paleosols in the underlying Zuni Mountains
and Shinarump Formations.
Subsequent accumulation of younger Chinle strata (Cam-
eron–Monitor Butte–Bluewater Creek Formations and the Blue
Mesa Member of the Petrified Forest Formation) was widespread
and shows no constraint from underlying paleotopography.
Paleosols of these strata are primarily vertic Alfisols that are cal-
cic (stage II to III calcretes) in some locations, gleyed, in others,
varying by location on the alluvial plain. By analogy to modern
soils, this classification implies that the soils formed in wood-
lands and forests in subhumid to semiarid climates (Birkeland,
1984; Buol et al., 1997; Retallack, 2001). As Bown and Kraus
(1987) noted, the presence of gley features does not preclude the
formation of calcrete, which can form rapidly in clay-rich paleo-
sols where translocated clays retard the downward movement of
meteoric waters. The abundance of pedogenic slickensides and
pseudoanticlines in these paleosols further suggests a seasonal,
semiarid climate (Therrien and Fastovsky, 2000). The maturity
(i.e., horizonation) of the Blue Mesa floodplain paleosols is nota-
ble, attesting to a low rate of sediment accumulation. The long
residence time of soil materials permitted the effective translo-
cation of oxides and clays within the profiles and the formation
of clearly delineated horizons. The general (but not complete)
absence of spodic and histic horizons in these strata and the non-
kaolinitic composition of the clays signal a decrease in precipita-
tion near the end of the Carnian stage.
Regardless of exact cause, Sonsela–Moss Back deposition
marks a significant change in the pattern of alluvial sedimenta-
tion in the Chinle basin as the slowly aggrading, high-suspended-
load, high-sinuosity stream systems were succeeded by mainly
70 Tanner and Lucas
high bedload, low-sinuosity streams. Paleosols in the Jim Camp
Wash Bed, however, are mature Alfisols, similar in aspect to
those of the Blue Mesa Member, with the exception of greater
calcrete maturity (up to stage IV). Therefore, climate was likely
more arid (but not greatly so) at the end of the Carnian, during
Sonsela deposition, than during Blue Mesa deposition.
Subsequent deposition of the Painted Desert Member during
the early to middle Norian took place in a flood basin in which
the fluvial style varied markedly; deposition by high-suspended
load, high-sinuosity streams was punctuated by episodes of
deposition by high-bedload, low-sinuosity streams. Base-level
changes may be responsible, but the cause of these changes, i.e.,
eustasy, climate, or tectonism, is unknown. Paleosols that formed
on the floodplains of the high-sinuosity channels are generally
vertic Alfisols or Vertisols (sensu Mack et al., 1993) that display
only limited translocation of clays and horizonation (Dubiel
and Hasiotis, 1994b; Hasiotis et al., 1998). These paleosols dis-
play less maturity than do the Blue Mesa or Sonsela paleosols,
probably reflecting faster rates of sediment accumulation on the
floodplain. Painted Desert calcrete horizons, however, are typi-
cally more mature (stage II and III, and rare stage IV) than in the
Blue Mesa Member, and so likely reflect more arid conditions,
as interpreted for the Jim Camp Wash paleosols. Therrien and
Fastovsky (2000) noted that gleying is much less common in the
upper (Painted Desert Member) than in the lower (Blue Mesa
Member) Petrified Forest Formation, and that Bk horizons are
much more prominent. Zuber and Parnell (1989) noted that the
clay mineral assemblage in the Painted Desert Member is domi-
nated by mixed-layer illite-smectite, in contrast to the predomi-
nantly smectitic mudstones of the Blue Mesa Member. They
interpreted this composition as the result of pedogenic illitization
of smectitic clays in an alkaline environment in which precipi-
tation was highly seasonal. Retallack (2001), however, viewed
claims of illitization in the soil-forming environment with skepti-
cism; the significantly less bentonitic composition of the Painted
Desert mudstones may be explained instead by interformational
differences in the original clay mineralogy of the sediment load.
At least locally, initial Owl Rock deposition is marked by
the infilling of lows incised into the underlying Painted Desert
strata by thick sequences of intrabasinal conglomerate, mainly
reworked calcrete. Subsequent Owl Rock depositional settings
are composed of low- to high-sinuosity streams and floodplain
muds, on which calcic Alfisols and Calcisols (sensu Mack et
al., 1993) formed. Alluvial deposition alternated with sedimen-
tation in carbonate ponds and marshes that were modified sub-
sequently by pedogenesis. Tanner (2000) interpreted the Owl
Rock sequence as consisting of alternating episodes of floodplain
aggradation and degradation caused by changes in base level;
incision and pedogenesis of highstand mud and carbonate depos-
its occurred during episodes of base-level fall that may have been
climatically induced, similar to the model of climatically forced
sequence boundaries of Tandon and Gibling (1997). Although
the concept of Owl Rock deposition in large lakes has been dis-
missed, episodes of high base level are implied by the presence
of palustrine and minor lacustrine carbonates (Alonso-Zarza,
2003). Palustrine carbonates may form under climates that range
from subhumid to semiarid (Platt and Wright, 1992; Tandon and
Andrews, 2001), with drier conditions indicated by the presence
of pronounced brecciation fabrics and coated grains, as seen in
the Owl Rock Formation. The occurrence of well-developed
(stage III and IV) calcrete horizons and Alfisols in the intervening
mudstones is consistent with this interpretation of semiaridity.
A pronounced unconformity (Tr-5) separates the Owl Rock
and the overlying Rock Point Formations. As noted by Tanner
(2003b), Rock Point deposition marked a change in basin con-
figuration that appears to reflect the rise and migration of a fore-
bulge. Rock Point sediments display only weakly developed Ari-
disols (or Calcisols sensu Mack et al., 1993), probably reflecting
a relatively constant influx of sediment. The abundant evidence
of eolian deposition and frequent desiccation, however, indicates
that deposition took place in a semiarid to arid climatic setting.
Dubiel et al. (1991) interpreted the interval of Rock Point deposi-
tion as the driest of the Late Triassic. The abundance of faunal
bioturbation, however, indicates episodes of significant surface
moisture, potentially a consequence of fluctuating water tables,
and, locally, the depositional surface was well-vegetated, as indi-
cated by rhizoliths and beta fabrics. This interpretation is consis-
tent with the dominant sedimentary bedform of eolian sand sheets
in the Rock Point Formation; sand sheets are an interdunal facies
characteristic of wet eolian systems (Lancaster, 1993). Contin-
ued aridification during the Rhaetian and Hettangian is clearly
indicated by the dominance of eolian and playa sedimentation
during deposition of the Moenave and Wingate Formations, as
the Wingate erg formed over the Four Corners area.
In sum, evidence from sedimentary facies and paleosols
indicates that the climate on the Colorado Plateau was drier dur-
ing the Norian-Rhaetian than during the Carnian, confirming the
interpretation of Blakey and Gubitosa (1984). Dubiel et al. (1991)
and Parrish (1993), however, interpreted the same sedimentary
evidence as indicating a moist climate until the very end of the
Triassic (at least through the Norian). Notably, Parrish (1993)
predicted that a strong monsoonal effect would produce abun-
dant moisture in the western equatorial region, which included
the Colorado Plateau. Presumably, weakening of the monsoon
would have resulted in insufficient strength to draw moisture
from the west and aridification of the western equatorial region.
Therefore, we must consider the possibility that a weakening
monsoon at the start of the Norian caused the observed drying in
the Four Corners region.
Global Climate
Overall warm and dry conditions during the Late Triassic
are indicated by the abundance of evaporite and carbonate depos-
its and the restriction of coal formation to high latitudes (Frakes
et al., 1992; Lucas, 1999). Indeed, Colbert (1958) first proposed
gradual aridification and associated changes in floral patterns
during the Late Triassic to explain tetrapod turnover. The con-
 Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group
figuration of the Pangean continent undoubtedly had a significant
effect in controlling this climate (Robinson, 1973). Specifically,
the arrangement of land areas likely resulted in a dry climate
belt covering a broad region of western and central Pangea at
low to mid-paleolatitudes, a consequence of the shrinkage of the
humid intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the weaken-
ing of zonal circulation. This interpretation received considerable
support from early computer modeling exercises (Parrish et al.,
1982; Kutzbach and Gallimore, 1989).
A trend of Late Triassic aridification similar to that of the
Colorado Plateau is indicated by facies changes, evaporite occur-
rences, and paleosols in the Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic
formations of the Newark Supergroup (Olsen, 1997; Kent and
Olsen, 2000). For example, Norian-age formations contain
more mature calcrete paleosols than do Carnian formations in
the southern basins, as in the Deep River and Taylorsville basins
(Coffey and Textoris, 1996; LeTourneau, 2000; Driese and Mora,
2003). To the north, in the Newark, Hartford, and Fundy basins,
the absence of evaporite-bearing or eolian facies in formations
of Carnian age and their presence in formations of Norian age
demonstrate a similar trend of aridification (see Olsen, 1997, for
review). This climate trend in the Newark Supergroup strata,
however, has been interpreted as a consequence of the latitudi-
nal drift of eastern North America by 5° to 10°, which carried
the basins from a moist subtropical to a more northerly arid cli-
mate zone (Olsen, 1997; Kent and Olsen, 2000). Parrish (1993)
postulated that aridification on the Colorado Plateau took place
during the Early Jurassic as a consequence of the weakening of
monsoonal circulation, but we suggest that this aridification took
place earlier, during the Norian, as indicated herein. The weaken-
ing monsoon, potentially controlled by the northerly drift of Lau-
rasia, resulted in strengthening of zonal circulation and allowed
the latitudinal drift of the Colorado Plateau between climate
zones (Parrish, 1993).
Similar trends of Late Triassic aridification are seen in facies
transitions in other locations globally, as in the succession of the
Timezgadouine and Bigoudine Formations in the Argana basin,
Morocco (Olsen, 1997; Hofmann et al., 2000), the facies changes
in the Upper Triassic Mercia Mudstone Group of England (Tal-
bot et al., 1994; Ruffell and Shelton, 1999), and the Keuper of
the Germanic basin (Aigner and Bachmann, 1992). Simms et al.
(1994) observed a Late Triassic change in clay mineral assem-
blages in European sedimentary successions, notably a loss of
kaolinite, similar to that observed on the Colorado Plateau. These
authors attributed the replacement of the pteridosperm flora by a
coniferous, gingko, and fern flora at the Carnian-Norian bound-
ary, to climate change. Not all areas of Pangea became drier dur-
ing the Late Triassic, however. Extensive coal deposits formed in
Australia and China, which became wetter at this time (Fawcett
et al., 1994). The growth of large lakes in the Jameson Land basin
of eastern Greenland during the Late Triassic is interpreted simi-
larly as a consequence of increasing humidity caused by north-
ward drift of the basin to a humid, temperate climate zone (Clem-
mensen et al., 1998).
71
CONCLUSIONS
Paleosols and pedogenic features preserved in the formations
of the Chinle Group record a trend of gradual aridification during
the Late Triassic. The prominence of gleying in the kaolinitic,
bioturbated paleosols of the mottled strata, Shinarump, and basal
Cameron formations suggests that climate during the late Carnian
was subhumid to humid, and that water tables fluctuated season-
ally. High water tables during deposition of these formations may
have resulted from their position within paleovalleys incised into
the underlying Moenkopi Formation strata. Improved soil drain-
age during Cameron and Blue Mesa deposition is interpreted
from the presence of thick argillic profiles interpreted as Alfisols.
This condition may have resulted either from climatic drying or
from the position of these soils stratigraphically higher above
the Moenkopi Formation. Increasing aridity during early Norian
deposition of the Painted Desert Member is clearly suggested
by the prominence of vertic features and immature (stage II to
III) calcretes. This trend of aridification continued during middle
Norian Owl Rock deposition, as indicated by mature (stage III to
IV) calcretes. The Norian-Rhaetian Rock Point strata lack mature
paleosol profiles, but the predominance of eolian and playa facies
in this formation suggests that the trend of increasing aridity con-
tinued through onset of the Wingate erg. This trend may have
been controlled by the position of the Pangean continent, which
led to the weakening of monsoonal flow and the strengthening of
zonal circulation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Navajo Nation and U.S. Bureau of Land Man-
agement for access to land. Andrew Heckert, Kate Zeigler, Peter
Reser, James DeAngelo, and Bryn Welker provided valuable
assistance in the field. Additionally, we thank Ana M. Alonso-
Zarza, Jose Lopez, and S.K. Tandon for their thoughtful reviews
and suggestions for improving this manuscript.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Estimates of atmospheric CO2 levels during the mid-Turonian derived

from stable isotope composition of paleosol calcite from Israel
Amir Sandler†
Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Yisrael St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel

ABSTRACT

The carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of pedogenic calcite from mid-
Turonian paleosols in Israel was analyzed to evaluate paleoenvironmental conditions
and calculate paleoatmospheric pCO2. The central area of Israel was a part of a marine
carbonate shelf that emerged during the mid-Turonian stage, as evidenced by karstic
phenomena, fluvial sandstone, and soil profiles. The paleosols have the characteristics
of equivalent modern calcic Vertisols but are distinguished by the predominance of
palygorskite, which formed as an essential part of the soil processes.
The pedogenic calcite and the underlying and overlying marine limestone beds
have mean δ13C (‰, Vienna Peedee belemnite [VPDB]) values of −6.15 ± 0.93, −2.82 ±
1.87, −1.33 ± 2.17, respectively, and δ18O values of −5.03 ± 1.24, −6.31 ± 0.87, and −5.81
± 0.97, respectively. In most sections, the δ18O values of pedogenic calcite are much
heavier than those of the limestone due to evaporation. Since most of the pedogenic
calcite formed at >50 cm depth and did not show diagenetic modification, the δ13C val-
ues were used to calculate pCO2 according to the Cerling model (as applied by Ekart
et al., 1999). This marks the first Turonian pCO2 estimate calculated from pedogenic
calcite. The calculated range for the mid-Turonian is 1450–2690 ppmv CO2. This high
pCO2 level is similar to or somewhat higher than other estimates for the Cretaceous
and in accord with calculated high Turonian temperatures from many studies.

Keywords: paleosols, carbon isotopes, oxygen isotopes, pedogenic calcite, calcrete,

pCO2, Turonian, Israel.

RESUMEN

La zona central de Israel formó parte de una plataforma marina carbonática que
emergió durante el Turoniense medio, tal como indican los fenómenos cársticos, las
areniscas fluviales y los perfiles edáficos. Los paleosuelos tienen características simi-
lares a vertisuelos cálcicos recientes, y presentan como rasgo distintivo la abundancia
de paligorskita, que se formó durante los procesos edáficos. El registro continental
indica un aumento progresivo de la aridez. Se analizó la composición isotópica de
carbono y oxígeno de las calcitas pedogénicas de estos paleosuelos del Turoniense
medio con objeto de evaluar las condiciones ambientales y calcular los paleoniveles
de CO2 atmosféricos.

†
E-mail: sandler@gsi.gov.il.

Sandler, A., 2006, Estimates of atmospheric CO2 levels during the mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope composition of paleosol calcite from Israel, in Alonso-Zar-
za, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper
416, p. 75–88, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(05). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

75
76 Sandler

Los valores medios de las calcitas pedogénicas y de las calizas marinas infra y
suprayacentes son, respectivamente, −6.15 ± 0.93, −2.82 ± 1.87, −1.33 ± 2.17 (‰, VPDB)
para el δ 13C, y −5.03 ± 1.24, −6.31 ± 0.87, −5.81 ± 0.97, para el δ18O. En la mayoría de
las secciones los valores de δ18O de las calcitas pedogénicas son más pesados que los de
las calizas, debido a la evaporación. Puesto que la mayoría de las calcitas pedogénicas
se formaron a profundidades superiores a 50 cm y no presentan rasgos de modificación
diagénetica, sus valores de δ13C se usaron para calcular la pCO2 de acuerdo con el modelo
de Cerling (Ekart et al., 1999). Esta es aparentemente la primera estimación realizada
a partir de calcita pedogénica para el Turoniense. Los cálculos realizados asumen una
baja tasa de respiración de CO2 en el suelo (Sz = 4000 ppmV), 25 °C como temperatura
del suelo y valores de 2‰ para el δ13C de los carbonatos oceánicos superficiales. Los
datos obtenidos para el Turoniense medio indican valores de 1450 a 2690 ppmv de
pCO2. Estos valores elevados son similares o algo más altos que otras estimaciones
realizadas para el Cretácico y son coherentes con las elevadas temperaturas que se han
calculado en otros estudios para el Turoniense.

Palabras clave: paleosuelos, isótopos de carbono y oxígeno, calcita pedogénica, cal-

creta, pCO2, Turoniense, Israel.

INTRODUCTION paleosols in Korea (Hauterivian or Aptian-Albian age; Lee,

A Cretaceous thermal and CO2 maximum has been con-
ceived both by models (e.g., Barron et al., 1995; Poulsen et al.,
2003) and by such proxies as isotopic composition of foramin-
ifera (e.g., Barrera, 1994; Huber et al., 2002) and leaf physiog-
nomy (e.g., Herman and Spicer, 1996; Retallack, 2001). It has
been commonly assumed that climate is regulated largely by
changes in atmospheric CO2 (Barron et al., 1995; Royer et al.,
2004) in addition to other factors such as ocean crust production
(Kaiho and Saito, 1994) and ocean circulation (Poulsen et al.,
2003). The geochemical model of Berner and Kothavala (2001)
predicted maximum Cretaceous CO2 in the Jurassic-Cretaceous
transition, whereas Wallmann’s (2001) model predicted a maxi-
mum in the Aptian-Albian. Several studies have suggested the
Turonian as the time of maximum Cretaceous temperatures
(Kolodny and Raab, 1988; Corfield et al., 1991; Barrera, 1994;
Frakes, 1999; Wilson et al., 2002), whereas others have sug-
gested low CO2 concentration and temperatures at the Cenoma-
nian-Turonian boundary and for the early Turonian (Arthur et
al., 1988; Jenkyns et al., 1994; Kuypers et al., 1999).
One method of reconstructing past CO2 concentrations
uses the carbon isotope composition of pedogenic calcite (Cer-
ling, 1991). The revised model of Cerling (1999) was utilized
by Ekart et al. (1999) to calculate atmospheric CO2 concentra-
tions from paleosols of various ages and to produce a CO2 curve
for the Silurian to the present. Their CO2 estimate for the Cre-
taceous between 120 and 75 Ma was in the range of 1260–2950
ppmv, whereas the estimated value was significantly lower
for the latest Cretaceous. Later studies estimated high values
of ~1400 ppmv (Ghosh et al., 2001) for the latest Cretaceous.
However, a continuous paleosol record for that time showed
pronounced short-term variations (Nordt et al., 2003). Recent
estimates of Cretaceous CO2 levels include 2300 ppmv from
1999) and 1700–3200 ppmv from paleosols in Japan (Aptian-
Albian age; Lee and Hisada, 1999). None of the studies, includ-
ing the most comprehensive one of Ekart et al. (1999), included
data from the Turonian. The current study is an attempt to fill
this gap and reconstruct atmospheric CO2 from carbon isotopic
compositions of mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite from Israel.
This pedogenic calcite formed as glaebules and calcrete in silic-
iclastic paleosols during the emergence of the central part of the
country, which until then had been part of a marine carbonate
shelf at low latitude.
GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
The location of the study area (Fig. 1) had been part of a sta-
ble sedimentary platform since the Cambrian. During the Early
Cretaceous, clastic material, mainly mature quartzose sandstone
of the Nubian type, accumulated in both shallow-marine and con-
tinental depositional settings. A gradual sea-level rise began in the
Albian and led to the onset of carbonate shelf deposition, accom-
panied by an abundant supply of fine siliciclastics and occasional
sands from the Arabo-Nubian massif to the southeast (Garfunkel,
1988; Lewy, 1990). During the Cenomanian an intrashelf basin
formed in the southern part of present-day Israel, south of the
Ramon area (Fig. 1; Bartov et al., 1972). The drowning of the
shelf in the late Cenomanian led to deposition of mainly marls
in this basin and to nondeposition over most of the shallow shelf
north of the Ramon area. Deposition of limestone resumed in
the early Turonian (Buchbinder et al., 2000) but ceased during
the mid-Turonian, as a sea-level drop combined with a weak tec-
tonic pulse led to arching and emergence of the central part of
the country. The maximum sea-level drop has been estimated by
karst configuration to have been no more than ~30 m (Sandler,
1996). Various paleogeographic reconstructions put this part of
 Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite 77

the country between ~7 to ~15°N during the Turonian (e.g., Bar-

ron, 1987; Voigt et al., 1999; Philip et al., 2000).
The exposed flat limestone terrain was first affected by
33O vadose karst activity, which created vertical shafts down to a
depth of ~20 m. Braided and low-angle meandering rivers
deposited sand in channels and sandy clay in overbank envi-
ronments on top of the karst relief. Soils developed directly on
the exposed limestone and on the fluvial sediments (see follow-
ing). Dark limestone debris (“black pebbles”) was formed early
in coastal marshes and was later eroded and redeposited mixed
with light-color debris on top of soils, suggesting flash floods
A
SE

due to enhanced climate seasonality. These continental sedi-

ments in-between the shelf carbonates were informally termed
AN

the “clastic unit” (Sandler and Zilberman, 1985). The emergence

NE

EA

interval in central Israel has been estimated as equal to a span of

RA

time between two ammonite zones (Sandler, 1996) and less than
AR
ER

32O
one ammonite zone (Buchbinder et al., 2000). Assuming a simi-
DIT

lar duration for the seven ammonite zones (Robaszynski et al.,

ME

JERUSALEM 1990) and a 4.2 m.y. duration for the Turonian stage (Gradstein
et al., 1994), the emergence lasted between ~1.2 to <0.6 m.y.
EA
D

Shallow-marine carbonate sedimentation resumed in the early

DEAD S
GE

late Turonian and continued to late Coniacian time, when deep-

ening led to basinal chalk sedimentation (Lewy, 1990). Marine
sedimentation continued through the late Eocene coincident
ER

with pulses of the Syrian Arc folding, which formed a series

of northeast-southwest anticlines and synclines. The maximum
EM

burial of the mid-Turonian beds in the anticlines is no more than

800 m. A low geothermal gradient, 20–25 °C/km, similar to that
31O prevailing today, is thought to have existed since the Turonian,
based on combined fission-track and vitrinite reflection studies
(Kohn et al., 1990).

PALEOSOLS
M
OR

N
MO The mid-Turonian clastic unit in central Israel varies in thick-
RA
ness between ~0.1 and 10 m and consists of shale, sandstone, and
NSF

occasionally small-pebble conglomerates. The thinnest sequences

generally are composed of shale, which penetrates down along
TRA

dissolution cracks and contains small calcite concretions. These

thin sequences have been interpreted as residual soils developed
from the insoluble residue of the underlying limestone during
EA

30O intensive karstification with possible later contribution of air-

borne and fluvial material. When the climate became more arid,
D S

the original clays were replaced by palygorskite, and pedogenic

glaebules precipitated. The thickest sequences comprise a few
DEA

meters of shale with large calcite concretions, or an irregular cal-

50 km
Figure 1. Location map. Sampling sites (dots) on late Albian to
Turonian outcrop map (light-gray pattern) of Israel and the surround-
ing area. Double dashed line bounds the assumed emerged area dur-
ing the mid-Turonian; thin dashed line schematically traces the Dead
Sea transform.
cite layer, overlain by variegated massive quartzose sandstone,
which in turn is locally overlain by another shale layer (Fig. 2A).
The sandstone and the shale represent the channel and overbank
sediments of the fluvial system. Freshly excavated shale sec-
tions clearly exhibit a blocky fabric of equidimensional primary
peds (2–4 cm, Fig. 2B), or a columnar fabric, where each col-
umn (5 × 5 × 15 cm) consists of several primary peds. The sur-
faces of both columns and peds are coated by shiny white clay
78 Sandler
A (mosepic plasmic fabric). Symmetric linear arrangements occur
B Several structures among these three pedogenic lithologies are
Figure 2. (A) Part of a vertical outcrop of a thick type of compos-
ite paleosol (Nahal Boqer, see Fig. 6A). 1—solum of lower paleosol;
2—irregular calcrete of lower paleosol; 3—massive sandstone sepa-
rating lower and upper paleosol; 4—base of upper paleosol. (B) A
close look at the lower paleosol below calcrete, which exhibits blocky
peds coated by whitish palygorskite argilans. Diameter of black lens
cover is 6 cm.
cutan (argilan), which is a clear indicator of pedogenic origin.
Slickensides are locally observed on the argilans. The calcite
concretions exhibit hierarchical agglomeratic structure sug-
gestive of a pedogenic origin and are considered as glaebules.
In many cases, glaebules coalesce to form a continuous rigid
layer of mature calcrete of stages IV and V (Sandler, 1996). In
all cases, the glaebules are discrete and are embedded in clayey
solum devoid of carbonates.
Two main clay mineral assemblages occur in the clastic unit.
The first consists of illite-smectite (IS) phases, discrete illite and
kaolinite, whereas palygorskite is hardly present. The second
assemblage consists of palygorskite (70%–95%), remnant detrital
clays, and, in some cases, a minor amount of neoformed diocta-
hedral smectite. The first assemblage is detrital and characterizes,
with some variations, the sandstone of the clastic unit and the
lower limestone below. The second assemblage characterizes the
soils and is authigenic. The clay fraction of the overlying marine
beds contains half, or less, palygorskite, which decreases upward
until disappearing at the top of the Turonian sequence.
Pedogenic microfabrics are observed in thin sections of
both shale and calcite glaebules (Sandler, 1996, 1997). The soil
plasma consists of shiny clay clusters of high birefringence,
reflecting a highly optical orientation (Fig. 3A). Different kinds
of bright clay fabrics reflect increasingly extensive areas of ori-
ented clay due to internal stresses in the soil, flushing into cracks
and soil voids. Bright clay may form isolated streaks longer
than an individual clay particle, which become more extensive
along soil development, producing a streaky bright clay fabric
when void-linings are closed by internal pressures. A network
of intersecting bright clay fabric in two preferred orientations
(clinobimasepic plasmic fabric) indicates a mature soil (Fig.
3B). The latter and the grain-lining bright clay (skelsepic plas-
mic fabric) are exclusive to soils. New generations of palygor-
skite as argilans and crack fills progressively get lighter in color
and bigger in cluster size (Fig. 3B). In many cases, solum has
developed into a palygorskite crust (palcrete), similar to the
well-known occurrences in the Tertiary basins of central Spain
(e.g., Rodas et al., 1994).
Glaebules and calcrete have typical pedogenic microfab-
rics of circumgranular cracks, coated grains, and clotted fab-
ric. Calcrete calcite has been replaced, at least in part, by
palygorskite plasma, preserving pedogenic characteristics
(Fig. 4A–D). In a few locations, silcrete has developed, replac-
ing both calcrete and palygorskite plasma (Sandler, 1996,
1997). Microfabrics of silcrete are presented in Figure 5A–C.
better explained as related to roots.
This data and interpretation suggest that during the course
of the continental regime, the climate progressively changed
from semihumid karst forming conditions to semiarid condi-
tions of calcic Vertisol formation and later to palygorskitization
of the soil clay and silcrete replacement of calcrete, apparently
under more arid conditions (Sandler, 1996).
 A B

Figure 3. Examples of the clastic unit paleosol plasma microfabrics. The plasma clay is palygorskite, and the grains are quartz. (A) Hairy cracks
(rootlets?) are filled with brighter and larger clay streaks; polarized light. (B) Clinobimasepic, skelsepic, and omnisepic microfabrics, indicating
high soil maturity; polarized light.

A B

C D

Figure 4. Examples of pedogenic calcite microfabrics: (A) Micritic-microsparitic calcite in a glaebule, which preserves the original polygonal
ped structure of the plasma; plain light. (B) Micritic-microsparitic calcite in a glaebule with hierarchical structure. A few structures are radial
and apparently related to roots; plain light. (C) Micritic-microsparitic calcite in a glaebule with circumgranular cracks; plain light. (D) Micritic-
sparitic calcite in a glaebule with pronounced clotted fabric; plain light.
80 Sandler
A B
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling and Sample Processing
The Turonian outcrops sampled for the current study are
located on the Syrian Arc anticlines in central Israel from the
Ramon area in the south to Jerusalem in the north (Fig. 1).
Additional samples were taken from a few meters below the
surface in a quarry and two shallow drill holes. Eight sections
were sampled in detail to include samples of underlying and
overlying marine limestones and pedogenic calcite from the
calcic horizons across various types of the clastic unit. Addi-
tional samples were collected sporadically from other loca-
tions. Marine limestone and pedogenic calcite samples were
washed well with distilled water, oven-dried at 60 °C, and
ground to fine powder. Each sample powder was analyzed by
X-ray diffraction for identification of the carbonate minerals.
The only carbonate mineral in all samples analyzed for iso-
topic composition was low-magnesium calcite; minor occur-
rences of quartz and clays were occasionally detected.
Figure 5. Examples of silcrete microfabrics: (A) Microquartz in a po-
rous silcrete layer. The elongated pores (dark gray) apparently follow
original rootlets; polarized light. (B and C) Microquartz in a massive
silcrete layer with clotted fabrics after the calcrete precursor; polarized
and plain light, respectively.
Stable Isotope Analysis
The carbon and oxygen isotope analysis of the calcite sam-
ples was performed at the Geological Survey of Israel using
a SIRA II mass-spectrometer. Calibration to Vienna Peedee
Belemnite (VPDB) was done via the NBS-19 standard follow-
ing Coplen (1988). Instrument precision was better than ±0.1‰
for both δ13C and δ18O, and the external reproducibility based
on duplicate measurements of reference standard was ≤0.05‰.
All isotopic results are reported as per mil relative to VPDB.
RESULTS
Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Profiles along Selected
Sections
Light δ13C and heavy δ18O of the pedogenic calcite rela-
tive to the lower and upper limestone are well recorded in
the isotopic curves of the eight sections. Such a signature is
expected from subaerial calcite in subtropical climates with
 Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite
extensive evaporation (e.g., Allan and Matthews, 1982; Cerling
and Quade, 1993). Multiple paleosol sections exhibit a trend of
heavier δ18O values of pedogenic calcite in the upper parts of
the section. Three selected sections are briefly described here
and are graphically presented in Figures 6A and 6B.
Nahal Boqer (Fig. 6A)
The clastic unit is ~7 m thick and consists of two soil pro-
files and two fluvial beds. The lower paleosol consists of clayey
solum with glaebules and is topped by calcrete (see also Fig.
2). The latter is overlain by lens-shaped fluvial sandstone. The
second paleosol consists of shale with numerous calcite glae-
bules in its upper part. It is overlain by a thin conglomerate of
millimeter-scale pebbles cemented by calcite. The conglomer-
ate is overlain by a massive dolomitic marl bed, which superfi-
cially appears to be a continuation of the continental beds, but
is actually of marine origin.
The carbon isotope curve displays the distinctly lighter
values typical of calcite of continental rather than of marine
origin. The oxygen isotope curve displays the lightest values
in the lowermost and uppermost samples of the marine lime-
stone (three laterally adjacent samples were obtained from the
lowest bed). The heaviest value is from a glaebule from the top
of the second paleosol. The oxygen curve suggests significant
evaporation at the end of the continental period.
Haluqim Anticline—South (Fig. 6B)
The clastic unit here is a paleosol ~4.5 m thick, locally
overlain by a lens of black pebble conglomerate. Black pebbles
are also dispersed in the lower part of the paleosol, whereas
glaebules are dispersed in the middle part. This section may
actually consist of two superimposed paleosols. Small black
and white pebbles are locally embedded also in the upper lime-
stone.
The carbon isotope curve displays the lightest value in
the two glaebules analyzed, whereas the oxygen isotope curve
displays the lightest values in the underlying and overlying
limestone samples. The black pebbles have isotopic values
similar to those of the underlying limestone, from which they
derived.
Sha’ar HaGay (Fig. 6C)
The clastic unit here is ~0.2–0.5 m thick and consists of two
layers. The lower one is a few centimeters of whiteish shale con-
taining millimeter-size glaebules. The clay penetrates down into
the weathered limestone. This paleosol is overlain by a sandy
clay layer with weathered limestone debris. This section repre-
sents thin paleosols like those in Nahal Zipporim, Jerusalem, and
Arad road (data in Table 1). The latter section, however, is more
complex and unique because thin calcrete can be recognized
within the underlying limestone.
The carbon isotope curve displays lightest values in the
glaebule and in the limestone debris. The oxygen isotope curve
displays the lightest values in the lowest and highest marine sam-
81
ples and the heaviest value in the glaebule. The isotopic curves
of these three sections suggest the incorporation of soil solution
within the lower limestone.
Summary of Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Data from All
Locations
Other samples of pedogenic calcite, lower and upper lime-
stone, and black pebbles from some other locations were col-
lected and analyzed. A few samples of ostreid shells from two
locations north and south of the Ramon anticline were analyzed
as well. All data on carbon and oxygen isotopic composition are
presented in Table 1 and Figure 7. The ostreids from a bed con-
temporaneous to the clastic unit are considered as a reference
for marine limestone since their shells are made of low-magne-
sium calcite. Potentially, their living environment was restricted,
which would have resulted in heavier-than-marine oxygen val-
ues. On the other hand, diagenetic, isotopically light calcite could
have been precipitated in shell voids and cracks. The covariance
of carbon and oxygen isotopic values of the six ostreid samples
does suggest some addition of secondary calcite. Accordingly,
the heaviest ostreid values are the best available approximation
of mid-Turonian marine calcite isotopic composition, with δ13C
values of 2.12 and 2.40 and δ18O values of −0.92 and −1.46.
These values are similar to some published data (e.g., Paul et al.,
1999; Veizer et al., 1999), although the δ18O values are some-
what heavier than other published data (e.g., Clarke and Jenkyns,
1999; Stoll and Schrag, 2000).
Mean and standard deviation (1σ) values for δ13C of the
pedogenic calcite, underlying, and overlying limestone are −6.15
± 0.93, −2.82 ± 1.87, and −1.33 ± 2.17, respectively, and for δ18O,
they are −5.03 ± 1.24, −6.31 ± 0.87, and −5.81 ± 0.97, respec-
tively. The significantly light δ13C mean of pedogenic calcite is
in accord with the formation from soil solutions. The underlying
limestone δ13C mean is somewhat lighter than that of the upper
limestone, reflecting the downward migration of soil solutions.
The only slightly heavy mean value of δ18O for pedogenic calcite
reflects mixtures between highly and slightly evaporated pedo-
genic samples, and between marine and freshwater calcite in the
lower and upper limestone. The lightest mean δ18O value of the
underlying limestone reflects: (1) the impact of freshwater dur-
ing karst development and (2) the removal during emergence of
the top of the underlying limestone beds, which were deposited
under restricted marine conditions.
Application of the Cerling Model
Cerling (1991, 1999) developed a diffusion-reaction model
expressed by a set of equations for the calculation of atmo-
spheric CO2 concentrations (presented as pCO2 in ppm volume)
from the carbon isotopic composition of pedogenic calcite.
Ekart et al. (1999) used the modified Cerling model to calculate
a Silurian-to-present CO2 curve from a large set of data using
the following equation:
A B

Figure 6. Selected stable isotope curves for carbon (circles) and oxygen (squares) across the mid-Turonian clastic unit. Black symbols stand for
pedogenic calcite; open symbols stand for nonpedogenic calcite. (A) Nahal Boqer, lithology was modified after Sandler (1996); three subsamples
of SA 517 were analyzed. (B) Haluqim anticline–south, lithology was modified after Sandler (1996). Sample SA 455 is of a black pebble from
the lens at the top; samples SA 458 and TBF 30 are from lateral variations of the same limestone bed. (C) Sha’ar HaGay.
 Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite 83

TABLE 1. STABLE ISOTOPE CARBON AND OXYGEN DATA (‰) FROM ALL LOCALITIES ARRANGED BY LITHOLOGICAL TYPE
G O G C G O G C
18 13 18 13
Sample Location Type Sample Location Type
TBF33 Arad road Upper lst. –5.36 –3.51 SA229 Haluqim south Black pebble –6.32 –4.21
SA311 Haluqim south Upper lst. –6.16 –3.84 SA455 Haluqim south Black pebble –5.30 –4.93
SA456 Haluqim south Upper lst. –5.73 –4.86 SA213 Hatira anticline Black pebble –5.49 –3.97
SA458 Haluqim south Upper lst. –6.00 0.78 SA226 Nahal Neqarot Black pebble –3.16 –3.17
TBF30 Haluqim south Upper lst. –4.25 1.36 SA255 Ramla quarry Black pebble –4.54 –3.27
TBF31 Haluqim south Upper lst. –7.74 0.19 SA497 Arad road Lower lst. –5.73 –0.50
SA302* Hatira anticline Upper lst. –5.81 –3.57 SA300 Arad road Lower lst. –8.16 –3.48
SA319 Jerusalem north Upper lst. –6.27 –2.73 SA496 Arad road Lower lst. –7.54 –3.66
TBF 10 Kevuda Hills Upper lst. –3.85 –1.09 TBF32 Arad road Lower lst. –5.73 –4.27
TBF 5 Kevuda Hills Upper lst. –4.96 –1.71 TBF35 Arad road Lower lst. –7.64 –3.33
TBF 6 Kevuda Hills Upper lst. –4.75 –0.60 SA309 Haluqim south Lower lst. –7.93 –3.99
SA529 Nahal Boqer Upper lst. –6.73 1.38 TBF27 Haluqim south Lower lst. –7.97 –3.58
SA530 Nahal Boqer Upper lst. –7.28 0.12 TBF28 Haluqim south Lower lst. –6.30 –3.38
SA475 Nahal Zipporim Upper lst. –5.92 –2.69 SA209 Hatira anticline Lower lst. –6.99 –4.04
SA476 Nahal Zipporim Upper lst. –5.59 –0.26 SA301 Hatira anticline Lower lst. –7.62 –5.03
SA314 Sha’ar HaGay Upper lst. –4.99 –4.05 P 55 Ira Mts. Lower lst. –6.07 –4.52
SA315 Sha’ar HaGay Upper lst. –6.17 0.44 SA219 Jerusalem north Lower lst. –6.39 –4.06
SA316 Sha’ar HaGay Upper lst. –6.50 1.21 SA320 Jerusalem north Lower lst. –7.10 –1.57
SA317 Sha’ar HaGay Upper lst. –5.43 1.15 SA321* Jerusalem north Lower lst. –6.96 1.91
SA318 Sha’ar HaGay Upper lst. –6.80 –4.22 SA 91 Jerusalem south Lower lst. –4.88 –6.32
SA235 Arad road Pedogenic –3.08 –5.91 TBF 9 Kevuda Hills Lower lst. –5.42 –4.46
SA495 Arad road Pedogenic –4.90 –6.36 TBF 1 Kevuda Hills Lower lst. –5.46 –4.25
SA310a Haluqim south Pedogenic –5.55 –5.71 TBF 2 Kevuda Hills Lower lst. –5.44 –3.90
SA310b Haluqim south Pedogenic –5.31 –5.48 SA517a Nahal Boqer Lower lst. –6.72 –0.77
P 15 Haluqim center Pedogenic –4.38 –6.08 SA517b Nahal Boqer Lower lst. –6.45 –0.74
SA210 Hatira anticline Pedogenic –8.70 –7.31 SA517m Nahal Boqer Lower lst. –6.23 –0.46
SA212 Hatira anticline Pedogenic –5.58 –6.41 SA518 Nahal Boqer Lower lst. –5.68 –2.29
SA217 Hatira anticline Pedogenic –7.08 –7.07 SA519 Nahal Boqer Lower lst. –5.46 –2.43
SA489 Hatira anticline Pedogenic –6.30 –6.90 NB4/8 Nahal Boqer DH Lower lst. –5.65 –5.92
SA490 Hatira anticline silc. Pedogenic –4.69 –5.25 SA469 Nahal Zipporim Lower lst. –7.06 –2.29
SA492 Hatira anticline silc. Pedogenic –3.55 –4.87 SA470 Nahal Zipporim Lower lst. –6.01 –0.25
SA222 Jerusalem north Pedogenic –5.27 –7.71 SA471 Nahal Zipporim Lower lst. –4.64 –2.16
SA124a Kevuda Hills Pedogenic –5.28 –6.12 SA312 Sha’ar HaGay Lower lst. –5.88 –0.65
SA124b Kevuda Hills Pedogenic –5.45 –6.29 SA312a Sha’ar HaGay Lower lst. –5.17 –0.66
SA522 Nahal Boqer Pedogenic –5.07 –6.28 SA312b Sha’ar HaGay Lower lst. –4.57 –2.85
SA525 Nahal Boqer Pedogenic –5.18 –3.61 SA 8 Zavo’a anticline Lower lst. –6.62 –3.58
SA526 Nahal Boqer Pedogenic –3.16 –4.67 SA189a Ramon north Oyster –2.98 0.73
NB2/3 Nahal Boqer DH Pedogenic –3.83 –6.58 SA189b* Ramon north Oyster –0.92 2.12
NB4/7a Nahal Boqer DH Pedogenic –5.28 –6.10 SA502a Ramon south Oyster –2.68 1.40
NB4/7b Nahal Boqer DH Pedogenic –4.21 –7.27 SA502b Ramon south Oyster –2.34 1.76
SA474 Nahal Zipporim Pedogenic –4.19 –5.92 SA502c Ramon south Oyster –1.46 2.40
SA254* Ramla quarry Pedogenic –6.19 –7.53 SA502m Ramon south Oyster –2.41 1.65
SA313a Sha’ar HaGay Pedogenic –3.62 –5.75
SA313 Sha’ar HaGay Pedogenic –4.73 –5.91
SA46 Zavo’a anticline Pedogenic –5.08 –6.56
Note: Abbreviations: DH—drill hole; silc.—silcrete outcrop; lst—limestone.
*Mean of two independent determinations.

δ 13Cs − 1.0044δ 13Cφ − 4.4 The values chosen for substitution in the equation are as
Ca = S ( Z ) , (1)
follows:
δ 13Ca − δ 13Cs
S(Z) is a function of vegetation intensity and soil depth but
approaches a constant value below ~20–30 cm depth. Well-drained
where Ca is atmospheric CO2, S(Z) is CO2 (ppmv) contributed and aerated soils have values between 4000 and 7000 ppmv. Ekart
by soil respiration, and δ13Cs, δ13CΦ, and δ13Ca are the isotopic et al. (1999) chose 5000 ppmv for all cases calculated. For the cur-
compositions of soil CO2, soil respired CO2, and atmospheric rent calculation, the value of 4000 was chosen, since the paleosols
CO2, respectively. studied developed in a semiarid to arid climate.
84 Sandler
δ13Cs is calculated from the isotopic composition of pedo-
genic calcite using a fractionation factor (from Romanek et al.,
1992), which is temperature-dependent and is −8.98 for 25 °C,
the temperature used here and by Ekart et al. (1999) for all
cases calculated.
δ13CΦ is assumed to be equal to the composition of bulk
organic matter. The latter was not directly measured, but was cal-
culated as 26‰ from the value of mean surface ocean carbonates,
whereas the atmospheric composition was calculated as 8‰ (see
explanation in Ekart et al., 1999). The δ13C curve of Veizer et al.
(1999) suggests ~1.5‰ for Turonian ocean carbonates, but since
the ostreid composition (see above), as well as mid-Turonian data
from several studies (e.g., Stoll and Schrag, 2000; Voigt, 2000)
are higher, the value 2‰ was chosen. Accordingly, the composi-
tion of atmospheric CO2 was −6‰ and that of the organic mat-
ter was 24‰, a value which is typical for C3-dominated modern
soils and for paleosols (Cerling et al., 1989).
The application of this model requires the following condi-
tions to be met: (1) The Cretaceous vegetation must be of the C3
type (e.g., Robinson et al., 2002). (2) The pedogenic calcite must
not have been subjected to postpedogenic diagenesis, neither
early nor late. (Any diagenetic process would have homogenized
the isotopic composition of a sequence and would not leave such
a pronounced pedogenic signal.) (3) The pedogenic calcite should
be sampled at least 0.3 m below the Bk horizon. This condition
was applicable to the thick paleosols with large glaebules or cal-
crete but not to the thin residual soils with the small glaebules.
Figure 7. Stable isotope plot of carbon versus oxygen
of all data; lst.—limestone.
However, it was assumed that these soils started to form at the
beginning of the continental regime when the climate was less
arid and calcite precipitation was minor (small glaebules) and
hence were formed at least at 0.5 m depth. Later, the soils were
subjected to erosion and more arid conditions, which caused
palygorskitization. Since the carbon isotope composition of the
small glaebules was similar to that of the large ones, they were
accordingly accounted for in the calculation. (4) All pedogenic
calcite, except the single unique sample from the Arad road sec-
tion, was formed within a siliciclastic solum devoid of any other
carbonate. Pedogenic calcite of Vertisols is not recommended
for calculating pCO2, since well-developed Vertisols are highly
dynamic and may mobilize atmospheric CO2 downward into the
glaebules (Ekart et al., 1999). However, Vertisols have been used
for such calculations by Ekart et al. (1999) and by others (e.g.,
Ghosh et al., 2001; Robinson et al., 2002), since it is often the
only available paleosol with pedogenic carbonates The paleosols
studied here did not show the typical pseudo-anticline structure
of well-developed Vertisols, and, hence, internal movement was
probably not severe. This is evidenced as well by the horizontal
position of the large multigeneration glaebules.
The pCO2 was calculated from pedogenic δ13C calcite val-
ues at plus and minus one standard deviation from the mean,
which were −5.22‰ and −7.08‰, respectively. Substituting
these values into Equation 1 results in a pCO2 range of 1450–
2686 ppmv, which is 5.2–9.6 times the present (pre-industrial)
value of ~280 ppmv.
 Mid-Turonian pedogenic calcite
DISCUSSION
Carbon isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonates is
regarded as the best proxy-based method for estimating pre-Ter-
tiary pCO2 (Royer et al., 2001), although the values are often
higher than those obtained by geochemical models. The range
of the carbon isotopic composition in the current study is quite
wide and expands 3.5‰. Such wide ranges have been recorded
in previous studies; standard deviation values, cited by Ekart et
al. (1999), are often greater than 1.5 1σ. In the current study, the
wide range could have resulted from changing conditions within
the two soil types and from the impact of the gradually chang-
ing climate. However, the thin residual soils, for which the depth
of glaebule formation might seem too shallow for this applica-
tion, have compositions similar to the average of all samples and
very similar to those of overlying soils, when present. On the
other hand, diffusional mixing of atmospheric CO2 in deserts
85
can produce up to 2‰ enrichment in the δ13C of soil carbonate at
50 cm depth (Cerling et al., 1989). Thus, Royer et al. (2001) sug-
gested that when S(Z) is lower than 3000, there is a significant
contribution of atmospheric CO2, and the composition of pedo-
genic calcite should be avoided for pCO2 calculations. Due to the
progressive aridization, indicated by geological and pedological
evidence, the soil carbonates of heaviest values could have been
formed under arid conditions and low respiration rates. The cal-
culated range of mid-Turonian pCO2 values of 1450–2686 ppmv
is similar to the range extrapolated for the Turonian on the curve
of Ekart et al. (1999), and to that on the curve of Retallack (2001),
which was based on fossil plant cuticles. Nevertheless, even if
just the lightest values are used for calculating pCO2, the result-
ing concentrations are still ~4–5 times the present value. The
latter range is still much higher than the values predicted by the
geochemical model of Wallmann (2001), but is within the range
of Berner and Kothavala’s (2001) model (Fig. 8). A similar match
Figure 8. Values of Cretaceous atmo-
spheric pCO2 (R = times the pre-indus-
trial value) comparing estimations based
on pedogenic carbonate, plant cuticles,
and geochemical models. The range of
the current study is between plus and
minus 1σ deviation of the mean value
calculated from mid-Turonian paleosol
calcite according to Ekart et al. (1999).
86
to geochemical models was recently presented in a study that
calculated low CO2 values in Barremian (Lower Cretaceous)
paleosol calcite from England (Robinson et al., 2002). It
should be noted that geochemical models average increments
of a few million years each and that paleosol data is actu-
ally absent for the Cenomanian to the Coniacian age interval.
Thus, the mid-Turonian high pCO2 values could be either a
short-term peak, as demonstrated by Nordt et al. (2003) for
the latest Cretaceous (Fig. 8), or a part of a continuous Mid-
Cretaceous maximum.
Because the positive relation between CO2 levels and tempera-
ture has been recently questioned (Veizer et al., 2000; Boucot and
Gray, 2001; Shaviv and Veizer, 2003; and see discussion in Royer
et al., 2004), the mid-Turonian high CO2 levels were compared with
available data on simultaneous temperatures. Direct calculation of
mean annual temperature from the oxygen isotopic composition of
the pedogenic calcite was avoided since the equations established
are valid for middle and high latitudes, but not for low latitudes, as
in the current case (Fricke and O’Neil, 1999; Nordt et al., 2003).
Therefore, published sea-surface temperatures (SST) were com-
piled for comparison, because it is possible that they have similar
values to mean annual temperatures that prevailed over adjacent
continental regions (Russell and Paesler, 2003).
One of the first seawater temperature curves for the Creta-
ceous and the Tertiary was constructed by Kolodny and Raab
(1988), based on oxygen isotopic composition of fish phosphate
from Israel and its surroundings. That curve recorded a maxi-
mum temperature of 33 °C in the early Turonian. Similar results
for the Turonian were obtained later by various methods, mainly
from oxygen stable isotopes of foraminifera. Huber et al. (1995)
estimated a SST of ~33 °C at southern high latitudes, and Clarke
and Jenkyns (1999) estimated a maximum warming during the
mid-Turonian with low-latitude SST in excess of 33 °C. Huber et
al. (2002) suggested that the hottest Cretaceous climate occurred
during the latest Cenomanian through early Campanian when
middle bathyal ocean water temperatures reached 20 °C. Norris
et al. (2002) estimated subtropical temperatures to be 33–34 °C
during the latest Cenomanian, and Wilson et al. (2002) estimated
SSTs of 32–36 °C for the Turonian tropics. The same SST range
was estimated by Schouten et al. (2003) using archaeal mem-
brane lipids for the late Cenomanian–early Turonian. A synthesis
of various climatic models for the Mid-Cretaceous continen-
tal Saharan region, which is relatively close to the study area,
suggested temperatures may have exceeded 32 °C (Russell and
Paesler, 2003). Accordingly, it can be concluded that the mid-
Turonian high pCO2 values calculated here from paleosol calcite
correspond with the high temperatures that prevailed at that time,
as independently estimated from other proxies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sincere thanks are due to Avner Ayalon and Bettina Schil-
man for carrying out the isotope analyses. Batsheva Cohen and
Chana Netzer-Cohen prepared the figures. Prosenjit Ghosh
Sandler
and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for their constructive
comments. Lawrence Tanner and Ana Maria Alonso Zarza
improved the final version.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006

Printed in the USA

 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till in Taylor Valley,

Southern Victoria Land, Antarctica
Kelly K. Foley
W. Berry Lyons
Byrd Polar Research Center and the Department of Geological Sciences, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio 43210-1002, USA

John E. Barrett
Ross A. Virginia
Environmental Studies Program, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755, USA

ABSTRACT

Pedogenic carbonate in the form of calcite (CaCO3) accumulates within the

soils of hot and cold arid continental landscapes, but much less is known about the
spatial pattern and amount of carbonates in polar soils. We measured the CaCO3
distribution in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica, the largest ice-free expanse
on the continent. Higher CaCO3 concentrations occur in the moist coastal soils, the
younger till (younger than 50,000 yr), and in lower elevation tills within Taylor Valley
in the McMurdo Dry Valleys area. The average CaCO3 in the moist coastal soils of
the McMurdo Dry Valleys is 1.06%, 0.39% in intermediate-elevation soils, and only
0.02% in inland highest-elevation soils. In general, the youngest coastal tills contain
the highest amounts of CaCO3 (2.0%), and the oldest tills from Taylor IV glaciation
contain the least (0.54%). There is a noticeable difference in CaCO3 concentration
near the elevation of the highest stand of ancient Glacial Lake Washburn (~340 m),
with higher concentrations found in soils previously covered by the lake. This suggests
that a portion of the CaCO3 in soils below this elevation could be lacustrine derived.
The Fryxell, Hoare, and Bonney basin soils in Taylor Valley have mean inorganic C
concentrations that are much lower than the average world inorganic soil C concen-
tration of 33.2 kg C m–2. The relatively low carbonate concentrations in Antarctic
polar desert soils can be attributed to the shallow active layer, low rates of weather-
ing, and the extreme aridity of the landscape.

Keywords: arid landscapes, calcite, pedogenic carbonates, McMurdo Dry Valleys,

Taylor Valley, Victoria Land, Antarctica.

RESUMEN

Los carbonatos pedogénicos, sobre todo calcita se acumulan muy frecuentemente

en zonas áridas o semiáridas. Los McMurdo Dry Valleys de la Antártida son las may-
ores zonas sin hielo del continente y se denominan desiertos polares. Hemos medido

Foley, K.K., Lyons, W.B., Barrett, J.E., and Virginia, R.A., 2006, Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till in Taylor Valley, Southern Victoria Land, Ant-
arctica, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of
America Special Paper 416, p. 89–103, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(06). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America.
All rights reserved.

89
90 Foley et al.

la distribución de CaCO3 en estos suelos con objeto de intentar comprender mejor la

distribución y acumulación del carbonato en estos suelos. Las concentraciones más
elevadas de CaCO3 se dan en los suelos costeros húmedos, dentro del till más reciente
(<50,000 años), y en los tills de zonas topográficas más bajas en el Valle Taylor, situado
dentro de los McMurdo Dry Valleys. Usando la clasificación de Marchant y Denton
(1996) de los tres mayores regímenes climáticos del McMurdo Dry Valleys, el con-
tenido medio de CaCO3 en los suelos húmedos costeros (Zona 1) del McMurdo Dry
Valleys es 1.06%; en la zona 2 (suelos de altitudes intermedias) es de 0.39%, y en la
zona 3 (altitudes mayores del interior) es sólo del 0.02%. En general, los tills costeros
más recientes (5480 ± 56 14C) contienen un 2.0% de CaCO3, los tills de la Glaciación
Ross I (12.4–23.8 ka) presentan valores de CaCO3 de 0.68%, en los de la Glaciación
Taylor II /Bonney (74–98 ka) el contenido es 0.92%, en los de la Glaciación Taylor III
(200–210 ka) estos valores son de 0.74% y en los tills más antiguos de la Glaciación
Taylor IV (2100–3700 ka) el contenido medio de CaCO3 es de 0.54%. Sin embargo,
hay una notable diferencia en la concentración de CaCO3 en el suelo a una altitud de
336 m, la situación más elevada del antiguo Glacial Lake Washburn (22,800–8500
años B.P.), por debajo de esta altitud las concentraciones son mayores. Por ello, una
parte del CaCO3 en el suelo por debajo de esta altitud puede ser de origen lacustre. El
promedio mundial de carbonato inorgánico en el suelo es de 33.2 Kg C m–2, mientras
que los suelos de las cuentas Fryxell, Hoare, y Bonney en el Valle Taylor tienen valores
medios de 0.38, 0.31 y 0.68 Kg C m–2, respectivamente.

Palabras clave: carbonatos pedogénicos, calcita, ambientes áridos, Valle Taylor,

Valles McMurdo Dry, Tierra Victoria, Antártida.

INTRODUCTION Chadwick, 1999). Pedogenic carbonate in arid to semiarid soils in

Carbonate minerals that have been formed in situ (hence-
forth pedogenic carbonate) are common in soils where mean
annual precipitation is <75 cm and evaporation exceeds precipi-
tation (Cerling, 1984). Information concerning the amount and
rate of formation of pedogenic carbonate is important in the over-
all understanding of carbon fluxes and reservoirs within the ter-
restrial landscape (Lal et al., 2000; Landi et al., 2003) and in bet-
ter understanding the relationship between carbonate accumula-
tion and atmospheric CO2 and climate (Marion and Schlesinger,
1994). Although most of the previous research on pedogenic
carbonate formation has been undertaken in more temperate
environmental settings, it has been recognized that carbonate
accumulation also occurs in polar environments (Hallet, 1976;
Sletten, 1988; Fairchild and Spiro, 1990; Marion et al., 1991).
For example, carbonate minerals, primarily calcite (CaCO3),
occur in measurable quantities in the soils of the polar deserts of
the Antarctic (Bockheim, 1982; Campbell and Claridge, 1969,
1982; Claridge, 1977; Keys and Williams, 1981; McCraw, 1967).
This early work established that carbonate is widespread within
the polar deserts of the McMurdo region of Victoria Land (Keys
and Williams, 1981), and much of it occurs as encrustations or
coatings of the undersides of large particles, such as pebbles and
cobbles (Claridge, 1977; Nishiyama and Kurasawa, 1975).
Globally, the formation of carbonate minerals in soils can
be an important sink of atmospheric carbon (Lal et al., 2000); how-
ever, desert soils are thought not to be a significant sink (Capo and
more temperate climates forms calcic horizons through the dissolu-
tion of carbonates in the soil surface and precipitation at depth. Cali-
che, or calcrete identified as Bk and K soil horizons, forms when the
soil carbonate-bicarbonate is in near equilibrium (Lal et al., 2000).
The source of Ca2+ in the soil may come from rock weathering or
alluvium, or it may be brought in by eolian material or by marine
aerosol (Brass, 1975; Capo and Chadwick, 1999; Jones and Faure,
1978; Landi et al., 2003; Lyons et al., 2002; Naiman et al., 2000;
Quade et al., 1995). The slow development of the pedogenic salts in
the McMurdo Dry Valleys may exist longer in the soil compared to
their more temperate counterparts that contain vegetation, making
the polar desert landscape an important research site in addressing
pedogenic carbonate formation.
One of the major geochemical differences between a
continental-arid ecosystem (e.g., desert) and a continental-humid
ecosystem is the accumulation of water-soluble salts. Although the
vast amount of research related to arid soils has focused on warm
deserts, soils in Antarctic polar deserts also can contain high salt
concentrations (Campbell and Claridge, 1987). The cold desert
soils in Antarctica are similar to other desert soils in that they have
dry surface horizons that can be capped by a desert pavement of
lag, which has a low moisture content and a zone of water-soluble
salt accumulation (Campbell and Claridge, 1969, 1982). These salts
include a combination of chlorides, nitrates, and sulfates (Claridge
and Campbell, 1976; Keys and Williams, 1981). Origins of the
ions that make up the salts in Antarctica soils have been suggested
to include dry and wet deposition of marine aerosols and in situ
 Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils
rock weathering (Bao et al., 2000; Claridge and Campbell, 1976;
Keys and Williams, 1981). Although a general description of the
relationship between salt distribution and geographic position in the
McMurdo Dry Valleys has been developed (Keys and Williams,
1981), little is known about the process of formation. For example,
sodium-based salt accumulation varies geographically, where NaCl
occurs closer to the coast, NaNO3 is more abundant at the higher
elevations closer to the polar plateau, and Na2SO4 is most abun-
dant at intermediate ranges (Bockheim, 1997; Keys and Williams,
1981). Even though the exact process of formation of these sodium
salts is unknown, it has been hypothesized that both salt formation
and salt accumulation occur more readily from precipitation than
from in situ weathering (Claridge and Campbell, 1976). Accumula-
tions of salt can range from <0.1 kg m–2 in young soils (younger
than 50,000 yr) to 100 kg m–2 in the older, drier soils (>10 m.y.) (see
Claridge and Campbell, 1976; Bockheim, 1997).
The formation of carbonate minerals in glacial environments
was reviewed in Fairchild and Spiro (1990). Carbonate minerals
in polar and/or glacial environments are a common occurrence, as
they have been observed in subglacial environments (Hallet, 1976),
soils and floodplains (Marion et al., 1991; McCraw, 1967; Sletten,
1988), permafrost (Clark and Lauriol, 1992), spring discharges
(Omelon et al., 2001), and in ice (Papadimitriou et al., 2004). The
pedogenic carbonates in the McMurdo Dry Valleys are primarily
calcite (Keys and Williams, 1981).
Although the previous studies cited above have provided impor-
tant information on the general distribution of CaCO3 within these
unusual Antarctic soil environments, there has been little attempt to
explain the distribution of pedogenic carbonate in terms of either
process, landscape age, or landscape position as has been done for
the more soluble salts observed in Antarctic polar desert soils (e.g.,
Bockheim, 1997; Claridge, 1977). The objectives of this research
were to: (1) determine the soil pedogenic inorganic carbonate con-
centrations; (2) determine the distribution relationship to elevation
and distance inland; and (3) determine the distribution relationship
to the soil age within the McMurdo Dry Valleys region of Victoria
Land, Antarctica (~78°S, ~161°E), especially Taylor Valley.
Location of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
The McMurdo Dry Valleys consist of a series of ice-free val-
leys, which make up the largest ice-free desert on the continent. In
1993, a Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) site was estab-
lished by the National Science Foundation with Taylor Valley as
the major focus region (Fig. 1) (Priscu, 1998). The McMurdo
Dry Valleys (MCM) LTER program is focused on understanding
the structure and function of the ecosystem and how the ecosys-
tem is influenced by climatic changes.
Geology of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
Most of the Taylor Valley landscape is largely sandy gravel
glacial tills (Claridge and Campbell, 1976), except for bedrock mar-
gins along the valley walls. Exposed bedrock and bedrock under the
91
sandy gravel are composed of different rock types, which include
Precambrian to Cambrian metasediments such as schists, argillites,
quartzites, and marbles; Paleozoic-age intrusive rocks of granites
and granodiorites; and Jurassic-age Ferrar Dolerite (Haskell et al.,
1965). The outcrops on Taylor Valley’s southern boundary are com-
posed of the Ferrar Dolerite of Jurassic age (Haskell et al., 1965).
Also exposed in Taylor Valley are thirty irregularly shaped cones
of scoriaceous olivine basalt from Cenozoic McMurdo volcanism,
located 550–1220 m above sea level in Taylor Valley (Haskell et
al., 1965). Tills that make up Marble Point soils, north of Explorers
Cove on the Ross Sea coast (see Fig. 2), are from gneiss, schist, and
marble (Campbell et al., 1998). Lyons et al. (2002) demonstrated
that Sr in the glacial meltwater streams in part originates from the
weathering of many of these rock types, each of which has a rather
distinctive 87Sr/86Sr signature.
Climate of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
The McMurdo Dry Valleys are one of the coldest and dri-
est terrestrial landscapes on the planet, with a mean air tem-
perature of −20 °C and snowfall of <100 mm yr –1 (Doran et
al., 2002a). However, each area of the McMurdo Dry Valleys
has its own microclimate. For example, Taylor Valley has wet-
ter, colder, and cloudier conditions near the coast and warmer,
drier conditions inland (Doran et al., 2002a). This climatic
pattern is driven by the easterly winds (summer), which bring
marine aerosols into the valley that are deposited near the
coast, resulting in drier air containing lower marine aerosol
components inland (Doran et al., 2002a; Fountain et al., 1999).
Katabatic winds from the west, which are stronger and drier
than the easterly winds, flow into the valley primarily during
the winter season (Doran et al., 2002b; Fountain et al., 1999).
These winds contribute much eolian, or wind-blown dust, from
higher elevations to Taylor Valley soils (Doran et al., 2002a;
Fountain et al., 1999). Mean annual temperatures range from
–16.7 °C at Marble Point to –35 °C in Beacon Valley (Table 1)
(Doran et al., 2002a; Sugden et al., 1995). Variation in these
microclimates may be one of the most dominant control factors
in formation and occurrence of soil CaCO3.
Sample Locations
Sample locations for this study varied with the microcli-
mate, the landscape formation history, elevation, and the age
of the glacial till and/or soil. The majority of samples used in
this study were obtained in Taylor Valley and along the Ross
Sea coast, including Marble Point (Fig. 1). Data from samples
obtained from Wright Valley (77°33′S, 161°45′E), Victoria Val-
ley (77°20′S, 161°45′E), Pearse Valley (77°43′S, 161°30′E), and
two smaller, but higher-elevation valleys, Arena Valley (77°50′S,
161°E) and Beacon Valley (77°48′S, 160°40′E), are also pre-
sented. Taylor Valley (Fig. 1) is located at 77°30′–77°45′S and
162°00′–164°00′E and extends 34 km inland, terminating at the
terminus of the Taylor Glacier, the easternmost extent of the East
92 Foley et al.
Figure 1. Taylor Valley, Antarctica, is 34 km long and 12 km wide.
Antarctica Ice Sheet (Figs. 1 and 2). The two other large val-
leys, Wright and Victoria, are located north of Taylor Valley. The
smaller valleys are inland of Taylor Valley—Pearse Valley is just
north of the Taylor Glacier, and Arena and Beacon Valleys are
located further inland within the central Transantarctic Moun-
tains (Fig. 2).
Landscape Age in the McMurdo Dry Valleys
In order to determine the relationship between CaCO3 con-
centration and soil age, knowledge of landscape development is
important. Much work has been done to determine recent glacial
chronology and soil age in the McMurdo Dry Valleys region.
Three different glaciations have been documented in Taylor Val-
ley: the Taylor, the Ross Sea, and the Alpine glaciations (Denton
et al., 1989; Hall and Denton, 2000; Hall et al., 2000). Several
eastward advances and retreats of the Taylor Glacier (from the
East Antarctic Ice Sheet) deposited till in western parts of the val-
ley. It has been demonstrated that the Taylor Glacier advanced
during the interglacials, or warmer time periods. The three major
Taylor glaciations have been termed Taylor IV glaciation (2100–
3700 ka), Taylor III glaciation (200–210 ka), and Taylor II–Bon-
ney glaciation (74–98 ka). The present-day profile of Taylor Val-
ley was formed during these Taylor glaciations. During the Ross
glaciations, the West Antarctic Ice Sheet blocked the Taylor Val-
ley from the Ross Sea side, which led to the development of a
 Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 93

Figure 2. Landsat image of the research area, which includes Taylor Valley (TV), Wright Valley (WV), Victoria Valley (VV), Beacon Valley (BV),
and Arena Valley (AV). Cape Bernacchi and Marble Point are just east of Taylor Valley.

valley-wide paleolake, Glacial Lake Washburn, during the late
Wisconsin, ca. 22,800–8500 yr B.P. (Stuiver et al., 1981). Multi-
ple expansions of the Ross Sea ice sheet onto the shoreline at
Marble Point and Cape Bernacchi occurred; therefore, soil ages
in this area vary with elevation and distance inland. For example,
a raised beach at 18 m containing an A. colbecki (an Antarctic
scallop) shell dates to 5325 yr B.P., and an elephant seal at 13.4
m dates to 4227 yr B.P. (Denton et al., 1989; Hall and Denton,
2000). Figure 3 shows a reconstruction of the till remains from
the Taylor and Ross Sea glaciations. Lastly, Alpine glaciations
affected elevated areas in Taylor Valley. During the interglacial
periods, the alpine glaciers in the Asgard Range expanded from
the north, and the alpine glaciers in the Kukri Hills expanded
from the south (Fig. 2). All three glaciations (Taylor, Ross, and
Alpine) in the McMurdo Dry Valleys deposited tills, from which
soils developed. Hence, soil ages vary from ca. 3700 ka (Taylor
94 Foley et al.

Figure 3. The glacial till sequence in Taylor Valley. Sample transects are shown as Bonney Riegel (BR), Middle Taylor (MT), Lake Hoare (LH),
Lake Fryxell (LF), North Lower Taylor (NLT), and South Lower Taylor (SLT). Transects represent environmental gradients, including the distance
from Ross Sea, elevation from the valley floor, and distance from the present-day dry valley lake shores. Three transects (BR, LH, and LF) are
associated with major ice-covered lakes in the valley, and the three transects (MT, SLT, and NLT) have no present-day relationship to lacustrine
systems. On the valley walls are present-day glaciers and glacial till from alpine glaciations. (Map is from Burkins et al. [2000] and was recon-
structed from McKelvey and Webb [1972]; Kellogg et al. [1980]; Pastor and Bockheim [1980]; Stuiver et al. [1981]; and Denton et al. [1989].)

TABLE 1. MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURES FOR VARIOUS

LOCATIONS WITHIN THE MCMURDO DRY VALLEYS IV glaciation) to ca. 12.4 ka or younger (Ross I glaciation) (Fig.
Temperature 3). Multiple smaller ancient lakes have expanded and contracted,
Location
(°C) mostly corresponding with isotope stages 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, possibly 8,
Marble Point –16.7 and 9, throughout late Quaternary time in Taylor Valley (Hendy,
Taylor Valley (average) –17.6
New Harbour Camp –19.29
2000). Very large lakes developed in Taylor Valley during times
Commonwealth Glacier –17.88 of low sea levels (isotope stages 2, 6, and possibly 8), when the
F6 (SE Fryxell Basin) –20.73 Ross Ice Shelf moved north, causing the ice surface to rise steeply.
Hughes Glacier –17.35 During times of high sea level (isotope stages 1, 5, 7, and 9),
Canada Glacier –17.51
much smaller lakes occupied Taylor Valley (Hendy, 2000). Lake
Wormherder Farm (south shore Lake Hoare) –17.6
Lake Bonney camp –17.59 formation is a direct result of the rate of melt from glaciers (e.g.,
Taylor Glacier –17.59 alpine and the more established glaciers, such as Taylor Glacier)
Lake Brownworth –20.71 or local change in the evaporation-precipitation regime. The mul-
Lake Vanda –19.65 tiple filling and draining of lakes in Taylor Valley have left mul-
Lake Vida –27.06
Beacon Valley
†
–30 to –35 tiple layers of lacustrine sediment scattered about the floor of the
Arena Valley N/A valley (Hendy, 2000). These lake sediments can contain carbon-
†
From Sugden et al. (1995). All others are from Doran et al. ate minerals produced in part via photosynthesis (Hendy, 2000;
(2002a). Data range from 1986 to 2000. Neumann, 1999).
 Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils
METHODS
The soil CaCO3 data were assembled in three steps: we com-
piled data from past studies (Claridge, 1963), analyzed samples
collected in 2002–2003 by MCM-LTER field team members, and
analyzed soils collected in January 2005 by the senior authors.
Sample Collection, Preparation, and Protocol
Samples from Claridge (1963) were collected from depths
ranging from 0 to 6 cm below the surface. These samples
were collected long before the use of global positioning sys-
tems (GPS), and their locations are only generally described.
Samples from the 2002–2003 MCM-LTER studies were from
surface depths of 0–5 cm, plus two soil pits, which extended to
25 cm and 30 cm below the surface. Samples from the January
2005 field season were taken in Taylor Valley from near the
terminus of Taylor Glacier to the Ross Sea coast and northward
to Marble Point, and include three of the nine Beacon Valley
samples. They were collected from surface depths of 0–3.5 cm
(where soil development was minimal) to depths of 0–6 cm
below the desert pavement zone (Fig. 4). Locations of both
of these sets of recent samples were recorded via GPS. Sev-
enty-six of the 2002–2003 samples and eighty-nine of the 2005
samples were prepared by sieving ~5 g of sediment through
a 2.00 mm mesh and a 500 μm mesh sieve. About 1 g of the
fine sediment (<500 μm) was then isolated and placed in seal-
able clear plastic snack bags. The samples were then double
bagged to minimize contamination. A 0.5–1.0 g subsample was
sent to Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) at
95
Figure 4. Sampling method used in the
2005 field season. A plastic scoop was
used to transfer ~100 g of sediment into
a small Whirlpack®, and a plastic ruler
was used to measure depth of sample
excavated.
the University of Colorado, Boulder, and 0.5 g of sample was
analyzed on a coulometer (CM5130 acidification module) to
determine the calcium carbonate concentration. The precision
of the measurement was ±0.3%. The titration accuracy was bet-
ter than ±0.15%, if sufficient sample was used to evolve over
1000 μg C.
RESULTS
Surface Distribution
Concentrations of calcium carbonate in Taylor Valley surface
soil samples (0–6 cm) show a general geographic trend—CaCO3
decreases from the McMurdo Sound coast inland to the Taylor
Glacier (Fig. 5). This trend is similar to what was observed by
Keys and Williams (1981). Soil carbonate maxima occur in two
areas with respect to distance from the Ross Sea (Fig. 5). The first
maximum is the area along the Ross Sea coast, where carbonate
concentrations range from 0.08% to 9.77% CaCO3, with most
of the concentrations between 0.08% and 3.0% CaCO3. This
wide range of values is only observed along the Ross Sea coast.
Between the coast and ~20 km inland, the soil carbonate values
are mostly between 0% and 0.67% CaCO3, with a few concentra-
tions slightly higher, but below 1.33% CaCO3. The second soil
carbonate maximum, with respect to distance from the Ross Sea
coast, is in soils between ~20 km and ~30 km inland. This area is
between the terminus of the Suess Glacier and the Marr Glacier,
from 200 to 800 m elevation in the area of the eastern lobe of
Lake Bonney basin. The area (Fig. 1) contains carbonate concen-
trations between 0% and 4.26% CaCO3 (with most being <0.33%
96 Foley et al.

Figure 5. Distance inland from the Ross Sea coast versus CaCO3.

CaCO3) and has an average of 0.81% CaCO3. Soils between 0

Figure 6. Distance inland versus CaCO3 averages from the three zones
and 10 km inland (i.e., the soils between the two maxima) and classified by Marchant and Denton (1996): zone 1, the coastal low-
soils past the second maximum, >30 km inland, contain much elevation zone; zone 2, the intermediate zone; and zone 3, the inland
less carbonate (all having <2.5% CaCO3) and have an average of high-elevation zone.
0.33% CaCO3. Soils in the west lobe of Lake Bonney basin, and
further inland, contain minimal amounts of soil carbonate. More-
over, soil carbonate values decrease with increasing distance
from the coast (Fig. 6), excluding the area ~20–30 km inland.
In addition to the trend of decreasing CaCO3 concentration
with distance from the coast, soils in the youngest till near the
coast contain higher amounts of CaCO3 than any of the older
soils farther inland and at elevation (Fig. 7). Although Claridge
and Campbell (1976) and Bockheim (1982) have shown that
more soluble salts accumulate in greater amounts in older, drier
soils in these valleys, it is now clear that carbonate minerals are
less abundant in the older, drier soil tills than in the younger tills
(Fig. 7). The distribution of carbonate minerals in Taylor Val-
ley is also related to elevation (Fig. 8). Higher concentrations of
CaCO3 are found below an elevation of 336 m. This elevation
was the highest water level of Glacial Lake Washburn, which
existed between 22,800 and 8500 yr B.P. when the Ross Ice Sheet
blocked the mouth of Taylor Valley (Hendy, 2000).
Pedogenic carbonate is found at much lower concentrations
in the other, higher-elevation valleys of the McMurdo Dry Val-
leys. Analyses of the soils from West Dias (77°33′S, 161°10′E)
and East Dias (77°33′S, 162°43′E) in the Wright Valley indicate
an absence of carbonate. There also was no measurable CaCO3
in Lower Victoria (77°22′S, 162°19′E). A soil sample from the
Lake Vida region, Victoria Valley, contained only 0.25% CaCO3
(77°23′S, 162°03′E), and a soil sample from Bull Pass had only
0.08% CaCO3 (77°29′S, 161°49′E). Carbonate concentrations
were also low to nonexistent in Pearse (0.42%), Beacon (0.0% Figure 7. Till age versus CaCO3 in Taylor Valley. Data are averaged
and 0.016%), and Arena Valleys (0.0%). from number of samples indicated next to each point.
 Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 97

of pedogenic CaCO3 occur at depth in soil profiles (Van der Hoven

Figure 8. Elevation versus CaCO3. The solid line shows where the
high-water mark of Glacial Lake Washburn stood, and, therefore the
extent of possible lacustrine-derived soil carbonates.
and Quade, 2002). Because of the location on the valley floor, the
CaCO3 present at depth in these Taylor Valley soils could represent
lacustrine production of CaCO3 during times of higher lake-level
stands (Higgins et al., 2000) rather than true pedogenic production.
Detailed isotopic analysis of the carbonate minerals would be the
primary method to answer this question.
In 2005 a set of soil samples was collected along a slope
located 1 km inland from New Harbour Camp (i.e., the Ross
Sea coast) on the edge of a medium-sized till mound that stood
15.85 m high (77°34′59.0′′S, 163°28′23.5′′E). This was done to
evaluate the hypothesis that small-scale landscape gradients can
lead to preferential accumulations of CaCO3 as hypothesized by
McCraw (1967). The till at this location was small-grain pebbles,
and scattered larger rocks and boulders, randomly distributed on
the surface. These pebbles, rocks, and boulders were mostly the
basement rock complex, including few small marble pieces, as
well as some dolerite. The top of the mound contained the largest
clusters of boulders made of basement rock. The mound was sur-
rounded by multiple till mounds of similar size and matrix mate-
rials. Surface soils were sampled between 67 m to 83 m eleva-
tion. CaCO3 concentrations increased with decreasing elevation
(Table 3). The importance of these results to CaCO3 formation
will be discussed in the following section.

Vertical Profile Distributions
During the 2002–2003 season, soil pits were dug and sampled
by MCM-LTER soil ecologists at sites in the Lake Hoare basin and
in the Lake Bonney basin (Table 2). Neither the Lake Hoare basin
soil pit nor the Lake Bonney basin soil pit indicated a consistent
trend of CaCO3 distribution with depth. In the Lake Hoare soil pit,
the highest concentrations are at depths of 7.5 cm (<2.8% CaCO3),
17.5 cm (<4.3% CaCO3), and 27.5 cm (<2.4% CaCO3) (Fig. 9A–
9B). In the Lake Bonney basin, the depth profiles are different, with
peaks at the surface and at 27.5 cm. The soil CaCO3 concentrations
are much lower in Bonney basin than in the Lake Hoare basin; the
highest concentrations are less than 0.7% in the Lake Bonney soils
(Fig. 9A–9B). These data agree with the surface distribution pat-
tern in Taylor Valley previously discussed, where soil carbonate
decreases with increasing distance from the coast. Previous work
in warm desert systems has demonstrated that the highest amounts
DISCUSSION
Valley-Scale Variation
Compared to hot arid regions, the CaCO3 content of the polar
desert of the McMurdo Dry Valleys is quite low. Using the depth
to permafrost (30 cm, 35 cm, and 40 cm for Lake Fryxell, Lake
Hoare, and Lake Bonney basins, respectively) and the mean sur-
face CaCO3 values, the Fryxell, Hoare, and Bonney basin soils
have inorganic C concentrations of 0.38, 0.31, and 0.68 kg C m–2,
respectively (Table 2). Using the integrated depth profiles from
the soil pits, the average inorganic C in the Hoare basin is 0.69
kg C m–2, and 0.20 kg C m–2 in the Bonney basin, as there is more
inorganic C with depth in the Hoare basin than in the Bonney
basin. Therefore, the average inorganic C in Taylor Valley soils
is estimated to be ~0.5 kg C m–2. The world average value in arid
regions is 33.2 kg C m–2, while Arizona desert soils have 24.5
kg C m–2 (Schlesinger, 1985). These values from Taylor Valley,

TABLE 2. CARBON AND CARBONATE DATA FOR SOILS IN TAYLOR VALLEY

–2
Soils location kg C m CaCO3 Permafrost depths Soil organic Elevation
† ‡
(%) (cm) C
Taylor Valley 0.47 0.72
Lake Fryxell basin 0.38 0.71 30 0.31 ± 0.02 107 m
Lake Hoare basin 0.31 0.48 35 0.29 ± 0.03 110 m
Lake Bonney basin 0.68 0.97 40
Lake Hoare soil pit 0.69 1.26
Lake Bonney soil pit 0.20 0.26
†
From J.E. Barrett (2004, personal commun.).
‡
From Barrett et al. (2005).
98
Figure 9. (A) CaCO3 concentrations in four Lake Hoare soil pits. Error bars represent the standard error for the data in each soil pit. (B) CaCO3
concentrations in four Lake Bonney soil pits. Error bars represent the standard error for the data in each soil pit.
TABLE 3. CaCO3 CONCENTRATIONS ON SLOPE OF MOUND
LOCATED ON THE FLOOR OF TAYLOR VALLEY BETWEEN
EXPLORERS COVE AND LAKE FRYXELL
Elevation Elevation CaCO3
(m; with respect to sea level) (m; between sample locations) (%)
83 5 0.08
78 5 0.08
73 1 0.25
72 5 0.67
67 0 0.67
however, are skewed because the active layer is less than 50 cm
deep (Table 2). Not unlike other arid regions of the world (Landi
et al., 2003), inorganic C in the form of CaCO3 makes up a high
percentage of the total C in the surface soils of the Taylor Val-
ley soils, 55% and 53%, respectively, for the Fryxell and Hoare
basins (Table 2).
Marchant and Denton (1996) divided the McMurdo Dry
Valleys region into three distinct climatic zones on the basis of
precipitation, humidity, temperature, and the amount of moisture
from permafrost and glacial melt in the soils. The coastal zone
(zone 1) contains the most moisture, zone 2 is termed an interme-
diate zone, while zone 3 is of the highest elevation and contains
more ancient surfaces with the least moisture. The coastal zone
has subxeric soils, the intermediate region soils are xeric, while
the zone 3 soils have been termed ultraxeric (Bockheim, 1997).
Taylor Valley contains only zones 1 and 2. Easterly winds that
usually flow into the eastern portion of Taylor Valley during the
summer months bring in moist air from the Ross Sea (Bull, 1966;
Doran et al., 2002b; Fountain et al., 1999), whereas the west-
erly katabatic winds that blow into western Taylor Valley off the
Foley et al.
polar plateau are extremely arid (Doran et al., 2002b). This wind
pattern is a major contributor to the soil-moisture and relative
humidity within each zone and is a key parameter in the distri-
bution of the terrestrial features, such as soil development. The
Fryxell and Hoare basin soils are not only the youngest in Taylor
Valley, they are also the regions in Taylor Valley with the highest
relative humidity, the lowest average wind speed, and hence the
potential for the highest soil moistures in the valley (Doran et al.,
2002a). Moisture in the coastal soil is from the thawing of perma-
nent ice and semipermanent snow patches, which are widespread
in the coastal region in the summer (Campbell et al., 1998). Zone
2, the intermediate zone, shows some moisture-produced land-
forms such as modern gelifluction lobes and debris flows that
occur randomly on the north-facing slopes and/or in protected
areas with higher moisture content (Marchant and Denton, 1996).
Temperature extremes are greater here than at the coast, but when
the snow melts it rapidly evaporates, and little moisture is incor-
porated into the soil matrix (Campbell et al., 1998). Bull (1966)
argued that the relative humidity in zone 1 was about two times
that of zone 2. Zone 3, the most inland and highest-elevation zone
that covers Arena Valley and Beacon Valley and the western area
of Wright Valley and Victoria Valley, contains features that are of
ancient microtopography with no moisture-derived landforms or
melt streams (Marchant and Denton, 1996). Thus, the youngest
soils are also the most likely to be the wettest.
The distribution of CaCO3 in the soils of the McMurdo
Dry Valleys can clearly be related to both the distance from the
ocean and the landscape position and to the geomorphological
climatic classification of Marchant and Denton (1996). The high-
est CaCO3 concentrations are in zone 1; there are lower, but in
most cases measurable concentrations in zone 2, and very little
 Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils
CaCO3 is present in zone 3 (Fig. 10). This distribution strongly
argues for the requirement of liquid water to be present, at least
for a portion of the austral summer, before CaCO3 can form in
these polar desert soils.
Since liquid water is initially needed as a medium in CaCO3
formation, it is important to consider moisture quantities and
distribution in the McMurdo Dry Valleys when identifying
CaCO3 formation. Marion (1989) demonstrated that the rate
of pedogenic carbonate formation in the Southwestern United
States desert soils is correlated with annual rainfall. In the boreal
region of Canada, the rate of pedogenic carbon accumulation
also increases with increasing annual precipitation (Landi et al.,
2003). In the McMurdo Dry Valleys, annual precipitation is <100
mm, but this is an estimate based on little quantitative informa-
tion (Doran et al., 2002b). The only significant present-day water
source in the McMurdo Dry Valleys is from the austral summer
melt of the glaciers, which feeds the streams and lakes (Fountain
et al., 1998). Because there is no overland flow in the McMurdo
Dry Valleys and the glacier meltwater is confined to stream chan-
nels only, there is no method for supplying moisture to the soil for
the CaCO3 formation process. Therefore, much of the pedogenic
CaCO3 is produced where there was a significant water source,
either sufficient snow melt (Gooseff et al., 2003) or subsurface
ice melt (Lyons et al., 2006).
Within zone 1, there is a bimodal distribution at 1–10 km
inland (i.e., the coast) and at 22–30 km inland (i.e., between the
region at the snout of the Suess Glacier and the snout of Taylor
Glacier). The higher concentrations found more inland, between
20 and 30 km, are near the face of the Defile (a narrow section
of the valley across from Suess Glacier that separates the upper
Figure 10. Distance inland versus CaCO3 with respect to zones 1, 2, and
3. Figure is the same as Figure 5, but has Marchant and Denton’s (1996)
zones highlighted. Nussbaum Riegel datum falls in zone 2, but because
it is of questionable validity, it has been singled out in this graph.
99
valley and lower valley), the south shore of Lake Bonney, and
near Mummy Pond just east of Lake Bonney. These locations
could represent locations of former lacustrine sediment (Hall and
Denton, 2000; Hendy, 2000).
Our data suggest that distance from the coast and eleva-
tion are the major factors in CaCO3 distribution, whereas till age
itself has little or no relationship to CaCO3 distribution (Fig. 7).
The strong correlation between soil carbonate concentration in
Taylor Valley and elevation is related to the maximum height of
ancient Glacial Lake Washburn (Fig. 8). Soil carbonate accumu-
lations below this elevation are greater than those above the 336
m elevation mark. However, it is probable that not all the carbon-
ate below this elevation is of paleolacustrine material, as some
is produced by in situ soil processes. The soils sampled above
Lake Washburn’s maximum height in Taylor Valley are located
on the south shore of Lake Bonney (n = 1), Andrew’s Ridge (n
= 4), slope of Defile (n = 1), and between the Nussbaum Riegel
and the terminus of the Marr Glacier (n = 11) and have a mean
value of 0.53%. These locations are definitely late Pleistocene to
Holocene pedogenic carbonate, and are not of lacustrine origin.
Accumulation Rates
The annual accumulation rate of CaCO3 in Taylor Valley soils
can be calculated by dividing the concentration by the age of the
soil (i.e., till). CaCO3 accumulation for the Fryxell, Hoare, and
Bonney basins is 0.260, 0.034, and 0.071 g m–2 yr–1, respectively.
These are maximum accumulation rates because we assume that
all the CaCO3 is pedogenically produced. Using Marion’s (1989)
empirical relationship between CaCO3 accumulation and mean
annual precipitation for the U.S. warm desert and a maximum
precipitation rate of 100 mm yr–1 for McMurdo Dry Valleys, the
accumulation of CaCO3 for McMurdo Dry Valleys soils is 0.95
g m–2 yr–1. This is a maximum accumulation because the pre-
cipitation input of 10 cm yr–1 is the upper level for the McMurdo
Dry Valleys (Doran et al., 2002b). Landi et al. (2003) recently
determined values between 8 and 14 g m–2 yr–1 for Saskatchewan
soils with a strong positive correlation between CaCO3 accu-
mulation and precipitation. Schlesinger (1985) obtained values
between 1.0 and 3.5 g m–2 yr–1 for the Mojave Desert, and Marion
and Schlesinger (1994) modeling carbonate deposition in soils
of the southwest desert of the United States, obtained values of
1–5 g m–2 yr–1. They argued that most of the CaCO3 accumula-
tion occurred during cool, wet climate intervals. Therefore, the
Fryxell and Hoare basin soils are accumulating CaCO3 at a much
lower rate than most arid deserts. These McMurdo Dry Valleys
values are low in part because of the relatively shallow perma-
frost depth in the Taylor Valley soils (Table 3).
Regardless of basin, soils and slopes with northerly aspects
in Taylor Valley are thought to have more moisture than those
with southerly aspects and, therefore calcite (and gypsum)
should accumulate on the moister north-facing slopes (Marchant
and Denton, 1996). However, the data presented here essentially
show no difference between the CaCO3 concentration on the dry
100 Foley et al.
south-facing slopes, 0.62% CaCO3 (n = 13), versus 0.59% CaCO3
(n = 54) on the more moist northern slopes.
Small-Scale Variation
On a smaller topographic scale, McCraw’s (1967) work on
soil moisture regimes demonstrated that moisture flow and grav-
ity dictate the distribution of water-soluble salts such as CaCO3
in McMurdo Dry Valleys soils, and therefore small-scale topog-
raphy could play a very important role in pedogenic carbonate
formation. To expand on this work, five soil samples were taken
on the side of a glacial carved till mound ~1 km inland from
New Harbour Camp on the coast of Explorers Cove (Fig. 2).
According to McCraw’s (1967) conceptual model, there should
be higher CaCO3 accumulations just below the surface at the top
of the mound, at the crest of the mound where the slope turns
downward, and very high concentrations of CaCO3 at the toe of
the slope. There should be little or no CaCO3 on the steep part of
the slope and on the valley floor below the hill. Data shown here
do not follow this distribution pattern. Results show CaCO3 soil
concentrations increase from the top of the hill to the valley floor
(Fig. 11); presumably moisture and solute transport is driven by
gravity acting as the controlling force.
Sources of Ca2+ to the Pedogenic Carbonate
A major factor controlling pedogenic carbonate formation is
the amount of readily available Ca2+ in the soil. Van der Hoven and
Quade (2002) demonstrated through isotopic analyses that in the
desert southwest of the United States there are two Ca2+ sources
available to form the pedogenic carbonates: a local parent mate-
rial and a dust-deposited source. Potential readily soluble sources of
Ca2+ in the Taylor Valley soils include marble and kenyite (Claridge,
1963; McCraw, 1967) and the abundance of dust transported into
the valleys through wind action (Wellman, 1964). (Kenyite is an
unusual type of volcanic rock produced on Ross Island and trans-
ferred into Fryxell Basin by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet during
glacial periods). The marble and kenyite only exist in the Ross tills
and hence are in the Fryxell basin and perhaps the Hoare basin (Hall
and Denton, 2000). Therefore, the higher concentrations of CaCO3
found in the Fryxell basin soils may be due in part to the higher
source potential for Ca2+ that exists there.
MCM-LTER data collected over the past 11 yr indicate that
streams in the Fryxell and Hoare basins have dissolved Ca2+ con-
centrations as high as 1.5 mM (Fig. 12). However, the source of
this Ca2+ may be different in the two basins because the Hoare
basin is dominated by CaCO3 dissolution, while the weather-
ing of silicate minerals is a much more important source in the
Fryxell basin (Nezat et al., 2001). The longer, glacier-fed south-
shore streams in the Fryxell basin (Fig. 1) are more enriched in
H4SiO4 and depleted in Ca2+ compared to the shorter, glacier-fed
north-shore streams (Fig. 12). This suggests, but certainly does
not prove, that the weathering of kenyite, especially in the south-
ern Fryxell basin, may be an important source of Ca2+. This idea
is supported by previous Sr2+ isotope work on the Taylor Valley
streams and lakes (Lyons et al., 2002), where the streams entering
Lake Fryxell have the most nonradiogenic waters in the valley.
In addition to the potential till sources, dust being transported
into and through Taylor Valley is relatively enriched in Ca2+. We
measured the total major-element geochemistry of both eolian
sediment and loess deposition at two locations in Taylor Valley
using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (Table 4). Comparison of the
elemental ratios of these samples to elemental ratio values from
the upper continental crust (UCC) and Holocene dust collected
from the Taylor Dome ice core (~100 km west of Taylor Val-
ley; Table 4) shows that the Taylor Valley eolian materials have
slightly higher Ca/Sr and Ca/Ba ratios than UCC and very much
lower K/Ca ratios, indicating Ca2+ enrichment in the dust relative
to the crust. The transport, deposition, and subsequent dissolution
of this dust material have an important impact on the geochemis-
try of the supraglacial as well as proglacial streams (Fortner et al.,
2005) and may play an important role within soil environments
as it could provide an important source of soluble Ca2+.
Planned future investigations on the isotopic chemistry of
the pedogenic carbonate as well as on the eolian materials should
help to better constrain the sources of Ca2+ to the pedogenic car-
bonate. These isotopic data can then be compared to previous
work on the individual rock types that make up the tills (Lyons
et al., 2002). This work is currently ongoing and will help deter-
mine if the carbonate in these soils is truly pedogenic or if it was
produced in paleolacustrine settings.
CONCLUSIONS
CaCO3 concentrations in soils from this polar desert environ-
ment are much lower than those observed in other regions of the
world. The hyperarid character of this environment undoubtedly
limits the formation of the CaCO3 in the soils. The distribution
of pedogenic carbonate in the McMurdo Dry Valleys is related
to landscape position with respect to distance from the Ross Sea
coast and, within Taylor Valley, with elevation related to the max-
imum height of Glacial Lake Washburn. The higher concentra-
tions of CaCO3 in the coastal soils may either be a direct result
of increased moisture from a greater source of soluble Ca2+ from
the marine source, from the marble and kenyite in the coastal tills
from the Ross Sea glaciation (12.4–23.8 ka), or a combination of
both. Overall, the highest CaCO3 concentrations in the soils exist
where the soil moisture content is the highest and the soils are the
youngest, which is near the coast. Among all of the McMurdo
Dry Valleys, the Taylor Valley is the only valley that supports
this type of microclimate for pedogenic carbonate accumulation.
Although there is a CaCO3 surface distribution pattern in Taylor
Valley, the CaCO3 distribution with depth in the soils in the Lake
Hoare and the Lake Bonney basins shows no consistent pattern.
The rates of Taylor Valley pedogenic carbonate formation are
at the lower range of what has been observed in warm deserts.
Given the locations of the highest concentrations, it is possible
that a portion of the CaCO3 present in the lower elevations of
 Calcium carbonate in Antarctic soils 101

Figure 11. Hill profile from McCraw (1967) with five sections separating the soil moisture and CaCO3 concentration relationship. McCraw
argued that CaCO3 should be most abundant in sections 1, 2, and 4 as evidenced by the stipled areas in the figure. Values in parentheses are CaCO3
values from this work that do not follow McCraw’s theory for carbonate distribution on a hillside.

TABLE 4. ELEMENTAL RATIOS (WT/WT)

OF EOLIAN MATERIALS IN TAYLOR VALLEY
K/Rb Ca/Sr Ca/Ba K/Ca
†
Lake Hoare “loess” 279 99 72 0.39
†
Taylor Glacier “loess” 1 250 108 54 0.60
†
Taylor Glacier “loess” 2 234 108 63 0.50
‡
Taylor Dome dust 350 120 130 0.45–0.59
§
UCC 260 93 44 0.97
Note: Taylor Dome dust and the upper continental crustal (UCC)
average are shown for comparison.
†
W.B. Lyons and C. Dowling (2004, personal commun.).
‡
Hinkley and Matsumoto (2001).
§
Wedepohl (1995).

Taylor Valley is lacustrine, formed during the last highstand of

Glacial Lake Washburn.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported through National Science Founda-

Figure 12. Ca versus Si for the Hoare and Fryxell basin streams. Ca
and Si were analyzed from stream water samples taken near the mouth
of the streams. These are McMurdo Dry Valley Long-Term Ecologi-
cal Research site data from www.mcmlter.org. Data span the period
1993–2003.
tion (NSF) grants (OPP-9813061) and is a contribution to the
McMurdo Dry Valleys–Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER)
Program. Sincere thanks are due to Wendy Freeman Roth and
Suzanne Prestrud Anderson at Institute of Arctic and Alpine
Research (INSTAAR), University of Colorado, for the CaCO3
analysis. We thank Kathy Welch and April Jacobs for their stream
data analysis and Carolyn Dowling for the X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) data of eolian materials. We thank Kate Harris for helping
102 Foley et al.
in the collection of the 2005 samples. Special thanks are given
to the staff of the Crary Lab and at Lake Hoare and to PHI for
air support in the Dry Valleys. We thank Ana M. Alonso-Zarza
and Giles Marion, as well as an anonymous reviewer, for their
constructive input to the original manuscript.
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tica: Royal Society of New Zealand Geological Transactions, v. 2, no. 10,
p. 147–154.
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in Upper Oligocene

alluvial fans of the Montgat area (Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain)
David Parcerisa†
Centre de Géosciences, École des Mines de Paris, 35, rue St. Honoré, 77305 Fontainebleau, France

David Gómez-Gras‡
Departament de Geologia, Facultat de Ciències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain

Juan Diego Martín-Martín§

Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, Villavägen 16, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden

ABSTRACT

The Chattian (Upper Oligocene) deposits of Montgat consist of continental detri-

tal sediments deposited mainly in alluvial fan environments. Stratigraphic and petro-
graphic data allow identification of two lithostratigraphic units: the Turó de Montgat
unit and the Pla de la Concòrdia unit. These units are interpreted as two coalescent
alluvial fans deposited synchronously. The catchment areas of these alluvial fans were
located between the Collserola and Montnegre highs and consisted of a Mesozoic cover
overlying a Paleozoic basement.
Intrabasinal limestones interbedded in the two alluvial fan deposits of the Montgat area
have been analyzed geochemically, and three groups are distinguishable. The first group
is composed of the oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit, which were formed in ponding
zones in the channel or disconnected pools in a fluvial setting where waters remained under
closed conditions. The second group is composed of the lacustrine limestones and the onco-
lites of the Pla de la Concordia unit, which were formed in an open and permanent fluvial
setting. The third group is composed of the palustrine limestones and tufa-oncolites of the
Pla de la Concordia unit; these were formed in ephemeral fluvial settings concurrent with
development of calcrete soils. The geochemistry of the intrabasinal limestones deposited in
the Chattian alluvial fans of the Montgat area is mainly controlled by the fluvial regime
and the lithology and altitude of the catchment areas and the sedimentary basin.

Keywords: calcretes, oncolites, lacustrine limestones, isotopes, Catalan Coastal Ranges.

RESUMEN

El Oligoceno superior (Catiense) de Mongat está constituido por sedimentos

detríticos depositados en un ambiente de abanico aluvial. Los datos estratigráficos y

†
E-mail: david.parcerisa@uab.cat.
‡
E-mail: david.gomez@uab.es.
§
E-mail: juan.diego.martin@geo.uu.se.

Parcerisa, D., Gómez-Gras, D., and Martín-Martín, J.D., 2006, Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in Upper Oligocene alluvial fans of the Montgat area
(Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbon-
ates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 105–117, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(07). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006
Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

105
106 Parcerisa et al.

petrográficos permiten identificar dos unidades litostratigráficas distintas: la Unidad

del Turó de Montgat y la Unidad del Pla de la Concòrdia. Estas unidades han sido
interpretadas como dos abanicos aluviales coalescentes que funcionaron sincrónica-
mente en el tiempo. Las áreas fuente de estos abanicos aluviales se situaban entre los
altos de Collserola y de Montnegre y estaban constituidas por un basamento Paleo-
zoico y una cobertera Mesozoica.
En estos depósitos abundan los carbonatos intracuencales en forma de oncolitos,
carbonatos lacustres y palustres y calcretas. El análisis isotópico de los distintos tipos
de carbonatos intracuencales permite agruparlos en tres familias diferentes: (1) Los
oncolitos presentes en los conglomerados de la Unidad del Turó de Montgat se forma-
ron en un contexto fluvial en canales estancados o abandonados y sometidos a procesos
de evaporación; (2) los carbonatos lacustres y los oncolitos de la Unidad del Pla de la
Concòrdia se formaron en un contexto fluvial abierto y (3) los carbonatos palustres y
los oncolitos-tobas de la Unidad del Pla de la Concòrdia se formaron en contextos flu-
viales efímeros conjuntamente con el desarrollo de calcretas. Así, la geoquímica de los
carbonatos intracuencales formados en los abanicos aluviales del Oligoceno superior
del área de Montgat está controlada por el régimen fluvial en el que se formaron y por
la litología y la altitud de sus áreas fuente y de la cuenca sedimentaria.

Palabras clave: calcretas, oncolitos, calizas lacustres, isótopos, Cordillera Costera

Catalana.

2. In contrast, calcretes are mainly formed from meteoric

INTRODUCTION
Isotopic analysis of intrabasinal limestones has been used
by many authors to study sedimentary basins (Brancaccio et al.,
1986; Oberhänsli and Allen, 1987; Casanova and Nury, 1989;
Janaway and Parnell, 1989; Bellanca et al., 1992; Platt, 1992;
Anadón and Utrilla, 1993; Andrews et al., 1993; Zamarreño et
al., 1997; Alonso-Zarza, 1999; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo, 2000).
A review of the interpretation of isotopic data from lacustrine
limestones and oncolites appeared in Talbot (1990); this paper
remarked on the importance of intrabasinal limestones as a
tool for basin analysis. Moreover, geochemical data from intra-
basinal limestones can reveal significant information about the
main features of the catchment areas. The paleoenvironmental
significance of palustrine-lacustrine limestones and calcretes
was presented by Alonso-Zarza (2003). This author under-
lined the importance of calcretes as indicators of paleoclimate,
paleovegetation, and paleoconcentration of atmospheric pCO2
(see also Cerling, 1999).
From a geochemical point of view, the analysis of lacus-
trine limestones and oncolites must be differentiated from the
analysis of calcretes. Both groups can provide different but
important information on the water that circulated through the
sedimentary basin, for example:
1. Lacustrine limestones and oncolites precipitate directly
or are catalyzed by biota (such as cyanobacteria, charo-
phytes, ostracodes, mollusks) in meteoric water derived
from the catchment area and delivered to the sedimen-
tary basin. The main control on the geochemistry of
meteoric water is the initial composition of this water in
the catchment area (Talbot, 1990).
water arriving at the sedimentary basin by in situ rain epi-
sodes. Thus, calcretes reflect the features of in situ mete-
oric water and its interactions with the soil (lithology, veg-
etation…) where calcrete grows (Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
In this paper, we analyze the geochemistry of calcretes, onco-
lites, and lacustrine limestones formed during Chattian times in
two coalescent alluvial fans. The differences in trace-element and
isotopic composition of intrabasinal limestones provide informa-
tion about the main features of the alluvial fans and their respec-
tive catchment areas.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A detailed (1:5000 scale) cartography was carried out in the
Montgat area to determine the extent and geometry of the materi-
als cropping out in the area. Six stratigraphic sections were mea-
sured and correlated to characterize Cenozoic materials, and 65
samples of mudstones, sandstones, limestones, and conglomerate
pebbles were collected to be petrographically analyzed. Elemen-
tal composition of oncolites was determined in three polished,
carbon-coated thin sections using a CAMECA model SX-50
microprobe equipped with four vertically displayed WD X-ray
spectrometers. Operating conditions were an accelerating volt-
age of 20 kV, a beam current of 15 nA, and a spot size of 10 μm.
The detection limits were 115 ppm for Mg, 380 ppm for Mn,
200 ppm for Fe, 130 ppm for Na, and 165 ppm for Sr. Several
microdrillings were made in 12 samples of oncolites, calcretes,
and lacustrine limestones. Powdered samples were reacted with
103% phosphoric acid for 10 min in a vacuum at 90 °C. The CO2
was analyzed using a VG-Isotech SIRA IITM mass spectrometer.
 Oligocene lacustrine limestones in NE Spain 107

Results were precise to ±0.05‰ for δ13C and ±0.09‰ for δ18O
(precision was determined by multiple analyses of a standard).
Results were corrected using standard procedures (Santrock et
al., 1985) and are expressed in per mil with respect to the Vienna
Peedee belemnite (VPDB) standard.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The structure of the Catalan Coastal Ranges is dominated by
longitudinal, near-vertical basement faults that trend from NE-
SW to ENE-WSW (Roca and Guimerà, 1992; Roca 1994). Dur-
ing the Alpine Paleogene compressive phase, these faults moved
sinistrally with local transpression. In the course of Neogene
extension, some of these faults (Vallès-Penedès and Camp faults)
were reactivated as normal faults trending ENE-WSW (Roca et
al., 1999). The Catalan Coastal Ranges are composed of a Her-
cynian basement that is unconformably overlain by a Mesozoic
cover. The basement is made up of metamorphic and granitic
Paleozoic rocks (Vaquer, 1973; Gil Ibarguchi and Julivert, 1988;
Enrique, 1990; Julivert and Durán, 1990). The Mesozoic cover is
composed of limestones, dolomites, and locally siliciclastic and
evaporitic rocks that are Triassic (Virgili, 1958; Marzo and Cal-
vet, 1985), Jurassic (Giner, 1980), and Cretaceous (Salas, 1987,
1989) in age.
There are two Neogene half-grabens in the central part of the
Catalan Coastal Ranges: the Vallès-Penedès half-graben, which
is onshore, and the Barcelona half-graben, which is offshore.
These are separated by the Garraf and the Collserola-Montnegre
horsts (Fig. 1). Between the Collserola-Montnegre horst and the
Barcelona half-graben, there is the Pla de Barcelona link zone,
where the city of Barcelona is located.
The Chattian deposits of Montgat crop out close to the Mont-
negre horst in the vicinity of a fault system that separates the Mont-
negre horst from the Pla de Barcelona link zone (Gaspar-Escribano
et al., 2004). In fact, Montgat materials are located in the northern
boundary of the Pla de Barcelona link zone (Fig. 1). The Montgat
outcrops are arranged in a NW-SE fringe, which is divided in sev-
eral blocks by N-S– and NW-SE–trending faults (Fig. 2). Paleozoic
(Devonian dolomites and limestones, Silurian black shales, and
Late Hercynian granitoids) and Triassic rocks (Buntsandstein, Mus-
chelkalk, and Keuper) underlie these sediments.
STRATIGRAPHY
Two different stratigraphic units separated by a reverse fault
can be distinguished in the Chattian materials of Montgat (Par-
cerisa, 2002; Parcerisa et al., 2007). In the footwall block (south-
westward) of the reverse fault, there is the Pla de la Concòrdia
unit, and in the hanging-wall block (northeastward), there is the
Turó de Montgat unit (Fig. 2).
Turó de Montgat Unit
Turó de Montgat unit overlies the Paleozoic basement and
can be divided into three subunits (Fig. 3): the basal subunit, the
middle subunit, and the upper subunit.

2°W 0° 2°E 4°E

Aquitaine Basin

Vallès-Penedès 43°N
half-graben
G RE
N
N TNE 42°N La Seu

MO Ebro Basin
41°N
L A gh Montgat
RO Tr
ou

SE Montgat
LL Hospital block
block
40°N i a
CO Va
le
nc
80 km

bo
da
bi ult Barcelona
en

i
T fa city Quaternary
ab

F
RA
gr

Paleogene & Neogene

lt

lf-

R
au

ha

GA
af

Montjuïc block
lon

Mesozoic
a
on
rce

Pla de
el
Ba

rc

Barcelona Paleozoic
Ba

Mediterranean Late Hercynian granitoids

Sea
Main emerged faults
10 km
Main submerged faults

Figure 1. Geological and structural sketch of the Pla de Barcelona link zone with the location of the Montgat area.
108 Parcerisa et al.

14

N
58

Turó de les
Bateries

Turó del
Mar

70

77
85 29
Turó de
Pla de la 6 Ribes
Concòrdia 56 51
5 3
74 35 2
Turó de
Montgat
39 52
1
60
53
4
ay
highw
C32
d
oa
Ir way
NI rail

100 m

Quaternary Lower Muschelkalk Fault

Pla de la Concòrdia U. Buntsandstein Thrust
60
Turó de Montgat U. Paleozoic basement Dip
Keuper Concordant contact Syncline fold
Upper Muschelkalk Discordant contact Stratigraphic sections

Figure 2. Geological map of the Montgat area with the locations of the stratigraphic sections shown in Figures 3 and 4.

The basal subunit is made up of 4-m-thick massive breccia
deposits. The middle subunit is 25 m thick and consists of mas-
sive, poorly sorted conglomerates with some thin interbedded
sandstone layers. The upper subunit is 40 m thick and is made
up of intercalations of conglomerates, gray sandstones, and red
mudstones. Conglomerates are lithorudites, usually containing
some intraformational oncolithic fragments (Fig. 4A). Sandstone
and conglomerate grains of this unit derive from the erosion
of the Mesozoic cover and the Paleozoic basement (Parcerisa,
2002). It has been interpreted that the basal subunit was depos-
ited in a colluvial environment, the middle subunit was deposited
in a proximal alluvial fan environment, and the upper subunit
was deposited in a medium to distal alluvial fan environment
(Parcerisa et al., 2007).
Pla de la Concòrdia Unit
Pla de la Concòrdia unit unconformably overlies Trias-
sic (Muschelkalk) and locally Devonian limestones and can be
divided into three subunits (Fig. 4B). The basal subunit con-
sists of breccia deposits and crops out discontinuously with
a thickness always less than 2 m. The middle subunit is 5 m
thick and only appears in one of the stratigraphic sections
measured in this unit. It is made up of a 2-m-thick bed of gray
marls overlain by a 3-m-thick bed of thin laminated brown
limestones with plant debris, charophytes, and ostracodes.
The upper subunit consists mainly of gray-colored conglom-
erates with some interbedded sandstone and mudstone lay-
ers. In one stratigraphic section, there are 1–1.5-m-thick beds
 Oligocene lacustrine limestones in NE Spain 109

N II ROAD SECTION

3
30

RAIL-WAY TUNNEL SECTION

Fault 2 MG-13 (oncolite)
Oncolite
Bioturbation
Cross-stratification

Conglomerate 20 20

Upper subunit
Breccia

Basement
?
Middle subunit

MG-20 (oncolite)
MG-19 (oncolite)
BEACH QUARRY SECTION

1
Middle subunit

10 10 10
Basal s.
Meters

cl vfs ms vcs cong cl vfs ms vcs cong cl vfs ms vcs cong

Figure 3. Stratigraphic sections carried out in the Turó de Montgat unit (see Fig. 2). cl—clay; vfs—very fine sandstone; ms—medium sandstone;
vcs—very coarse sandstone; cong—conglomerate.

of gray limestones (Fig. 4B) that comprise a micritic matrix
containing low amounts of limestone rock fragments (float-
stones). A thin layer of micritic limestones and two conglom-
eratic beds consisting exclusively of oncolites (Fig. 4C) also
appear in this subunit; additionally, there are some mudstone
layers that contain dispersed oncolites. Conglomerates and
sandstones of this unit are lithorudites and litharenites made
up of limestone rock fragments derived exclusively from the
erosion of the Mesozoic cover (Parcerisa, 2002). Fragments
of small mammal teeth have been found in a mudstone layer
of the upper subunit of the Pla de la Concòrdia unit (Fig. 5),
indicating a Chattian age for Montgat deposits (Parcerisa et
al., 2007).
From a sedimentological point of view, it is interpreted
that: (1) the basal subunit was deposited in a colluvial envi-
ronment; (2) the middle subunit was deposited in a lacustrine
environment; and (3) the upper subunit was deposited in a
medium to distal alluvial fan environment where conglomer-
ates and sandstones were deposited in channels and mudstones
were deposited on floodplains. The floatstones are interpreted
as calcretes developed on the floodplain and the thin micritic
limestone bed as a palustrine deposit.
Sedimentologic and petrographic data show that Turó de
Montgat and Pla de la Concòrdia units were two contempo-
rary and attached alluvial fans with two different source areas
(Parcerisa, 2002; Parcerisa et al., 2007). The Turó de Montgat
alluvial fan was located eastward with Paleozoic and Meso-
zoic rocks in the source area, and the Pla de la Concòrdia allu-
vial fan was located westward, with a source area consisting
exclusively of Mesozoic rocks (Fig. 6).
110 Parcerisa et al.
Figure 4. Field views and details of the intrabasinal limestones of the
Montgat area. (A) Oncolite pebble inside a conglomerate layer of the
upper subunit of the Turó de Montgat unit. Larger axis pebble: 3 cm.
(B) Contact between Devonian limestones of the basement and the
basal subunit of the Pla de la Concòrdia unit (white line). Above the
basal subunit appears the upper subunit made up of calcrete deposits
(black arrow). (C) Hand sample of a microconglomerate formed by
intraformational grains (oncolites). Larger axis sample: 8 cm.
PETROLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF
INTRABASINAL LIMESTONES
Intrabasinal limestones appearing in the Chattian Montgat
materials include oncolites (Figs. 7A, 7B, and 7C), lacustrine and
palustrine limestones (Fig. 7D), and calcretes (Figs. 7E and 7F).
Oncolites appear in both the Turó de Montgat and the Pla de la
Concòrdia units, whereas lacustrine and palustrine limestones
and calcretes only appear in the Pla de la Concòrdia unit.
Oncolites and Tufa-Oncolites
Oncolites are abundant in the two units of the Chattian
Montgat, especially in the upper subunits (Figs. 3 and 5). Onco-
lites of the Montgat area are individualized in two different petro-
graphic categories: oncolites “sensu strictu,” which form pebbles
inside conglomerates and sandstones, and tufa-oncolites, which
are located exclusively inside mudstone layers of the Pla de la
Concòrdia unit.
Oncolites
Oncolites display darkly colored tubular morphologies rang-
ing from 3 mm to 20 cm thick (Fig. 7A1). They have a minute core
surrounded by a thick cortex. The core consists of spar calcite
cement or detrital sediment, which probably occupied a moldic
porosity after decay of a vegetal fragment. The cortex consists
of several submillimeter-scale micritic layers with microfabrics
(Fig. 7B) similar to Phormidium or Calothrix/Dichothrix (Schäfer
and Stapf, 1978; Casanova and Nury, 1989; Koban and Schwei-
gert, 1993; Zamarreño et al., 1997). We infer that the oncolites
precipitated from cyanobacteria in ponding zones in the channel
or in disconnected pools that formed during low-discharge epi-
sodes. Thus, oncolite pebbles in conglomerate beds have prob-
ably been reworked.
Geochemically, oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit and the
Pla de la Concòrdia unit are quite different. Oncolites of the Pla de
la Concòrdia unit have high Fe and Sr contents (Table 1), with δ18O
values ranging between −8.0‰ and −9.4‰ and δ13C values between
−5.8‰ and −6.3‰ (Table 2). Oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit
have low trace-element contents (Table 1), with δ18O values ranging
between −4.0‰ and −6.8‰ and δ13C between −4.9‰ and −6.6‰
(Table 2). δ18O and δ13C are arranged in a covariant line (δ13C =
0.39, δ18O −3.52 with R2 = 0.92; Fig. 8)
Tufa-Oncolites
Tufa-oncolites are white-colored and form millimeter- to
centimeter-scale tubular bodies (Fig. 7A2). Like oncolites, they
consist of a core and a cortex; the core is also filled by spar cal-
cite or detrital sediment, but the cortex consists of a succession
of thinner micritic and thicker pseudoradial spar calcite layers
(Fig. 7C). Micritic layers range from 100 μm to 1 mm thick, and
spar calcite crystals are 1–3 mm long and 10–100 μm wide. Their
location, inside mudstone layers, and petrographic features indi-
cate a palustrine abiotic formation in floodplain fluvial settings
 PLA DE LA CONCÒRDIA SECTION
Fault
6
Oncolite
50
Imbrication
Calcrete
Ripple mark

Mammal fossils
Vegetal debris
Ostracoda
Karst
40
Basement
?

MG-46b
(tufa-
oncolite)

Upper subunit
30

MG-53b i 57
(palustrine)

RAIL-WAY TUNNEL SECTION

NII ROAD SECTION
4
5 MG-37
(oncolite)
20 20
20
Upper subunit

MG-t, 49 i 50
oncoites)
Upper subunit

MG-40 (calcrete)

10 MG-29 (lacustrine)
10
Middle subunit

10
MG-28 (lacustrine)

MG-39 (calcrete) ?
Basal s.

MG-38 (calcrete)
Meters

?
Basal s.

cl vfs ms vcs cong cl vfs ms vcs cong

cl svf ms vcs cong

Figure 5. Stratigraphic sections carried out in the Pla de la Concordia unit (see Fig. 2). cl—clay; vfs—very fine sandstone; ms—medium sand-
stone; vcs—very coarse sandstone; cong—conglomerate.
112 Parcerisa et al.

Ebro Basin s N
nge
al Ra
ast Montgat Oligocene alluvial fan sediments
Co
ta lan
CaBarcelona Figure location
st line
Proximal
y coa
nt-da
Prese Barcelona Basin

Medium to distal

Ephemeral lakes Calcretes

Main channels

Undifferentiated Oligocene

Undifferentiated Mesozoic

Late Hercynian granitoids

Devonian
Turó de Montgat
alluvial fan Silurian and/or Cambro-Ordovician
Pla de la Concòrdia
alluvial fan Contact aureole
Hydrographic boundary

Figure 6. Paleogeographical sketch of the Montgat area during Chattian times (location based on Roca et al., 1999).

(Pedley, 1990; Koban and Schweigert, 1993). A similar origin Calcretes

is attributed to the thin palustrine limestones, which occur strati-
graphically close to the tufa-oncolites (Fig. 5). δ18O values of
the tufa-oncolites range between −6.5‰ and −7.6‰, and δ13C
values range between −6.7‰ and −6.8‰. Palustrine limestones
have a similar composition, with δ18O values ranging between
−7.2‰ and −8.1‰ and δ13C values ranging between −6.2‰ and
−6.6‰.
Lacustrine Limestones
Lacustrine limestones occur exclusively in the middle sub-
unit of the Pla de la Concòrdia unit (Fig. 5). In outcrop, they form
a 3-m-thick layer of brown-colored thinly laminated limestones
where every lamina measures 1–2 cm. The base and the top of
these laminae are full of well-preserved charophyte stems. Petro-
logically, they are packstones consisting of charophyte, ostracode,
and, rarely, quartz fragments inside a micritic matrix (Fig. 7D).
Similar lacustrine deposits have been interpreted as the result of
shallow lacustrine sedimentation (Platt, 1992; Alonso-Zarza and
Calvo, 2000). Preservation of charophyte stems points to low-
energy settings with a depth less than 10 m (Platt, 1992). Isotopic
data of lacustrine limestones are similar to those of the Pla de la
Concòrdia oncolites; thus, δ18O values range between −8.2‰ and
−9.6‰, and δ13C values range between −5.6‰ and −6.6‰.
Calcretes are present only in a section of the Pla de la Concòrdia
unit (Fig. 5). They form three 1–1.5-m-thick beds of gray limestones
(Fig. 4B) formed by a micritic matrix that contains small amounts of
limestone rock fragments. The micritic matrix is made up of:
1. Peloids and micropeloids. These are 10–100-μm-thick
micritic spheres (Fig. 7E) typical of calcareous soils (Read,
1974; Harrison, 1977; Wright, 1994), which correspond to
fungo-tufas (Calvet and Julià, 1983) or fecal pellets (Este-
ban and Klappa, 1983).
2. Pisoliths. These are 1–3-mm-thick globular bodies with a
core and a cortex (Fig. 7F). The core consists of amalgam-
ated peloids, and the cortex shows a submillimeter lamina-
tion. Pisoliths are also abundant in calcretes (James, 1972;
Calvet and Julià, 1983; Jones, 1991; Wright, 1994).
3. Redissolution channels. These correspond to tubular
cracks developed during dry episodes (Ward, 1975; Este-
ban and Klappa, 1983); they are filled by spar-calcite
cement (Fig. 7F).
4. Detrital grains. These are relatively abundant (Fig. 7F),
so it is inferred that calcretes developed on conglomeratic
layers.
Isotopically, calcretes have δ18O values ranging from −6.9‰ to
−7.9‰ and δ13C values ranging from −6.4‰ to −7.0‰.
 F

Figure 7. Hand samples and micrographs of the intrabasinal limestones of the Montgat area. (A) Oncolite (1) and tufa-oncolite (2) at hand sample. Note the
core and the different layers of the cortex. Bar scale: 1 cm. Samples MG-19 (A1) and MG-46b (A2). (B) Microphotography of an oncolite with microstruc-
tures attributed to Phormidium or Calothrix/Dichothrix. Plane polarized light. Bar scale: 100 μm. Sample MG-19. (C) Micrograph of micritic layers and
pseudoradial spar-calcite in a tufa-oncolite. Cross polarized light. Bar scale: 100 μm. Sample MG-46b. (D) Packstone with charophyte. Plane polarized
light. Bar scale: 100 μm. Sample MG-29. (E) Peloids inside a calcrete sample. Plane polarized light. Bar scale: 100 μm. Sample MG-38. (F) Pisolith (white
circle) with a redissolution channel inside (white arrows) and some detrital grains outside. Plane polarized light. Bar scale: 200 μm. Sample MG-38.
114 Parcerisa et al.
TABLE 1. TRACE-ELEMENT CONTENT OF ONCOLITES
OF THE TURÓ DE MONTGAT AND PLA DE LA CONCÒRDIA UNITS
Sample Mg
(ppm)
Turó de Montgat Unit
MG-13 (21) Mean 3759
Min.-Max. 3644–3955
Pla de la Concòrdia Unit
MG-27 (42) Mean 2585
Min.-Max. 172–8501
MG-37 (33) Mean 2718
Min.-Max. 1621–9313
Note: The number of analyses is inside parentheses; bd—below detection limit.
INTERPRETATION
Microprobe data show that oncolites formed in the Pla de la
Concòrdia unit have higher Fe and Sr contents than those of the
Turó de Montgat unit (Table 1). The absorption of these elements
from water to calcite is controlled by the distribution coefficient
(McIntire, 1963), which is constant and characteristic for each
element. Thus, we can deduce that the water that formed onco-
lites in the Pla de la Concòrdia unit was richer in Fe and Sr than
the water that formed oncolites in the Turó de Montgat unit. The
enrichment in Sr of the Pla de la Concòrdia water is interpreted
as the result of the abundance of Sr in the Mesozoic limestones
(Hem, 1970) that crop out in the catchment area of this alluvial
fan. Thus, water was enriched in Sr by exchange reactions either
with Mesozoic limestones occurring in the catchment area or
with limestone pebbles during transport from the catchment area
into the sedimentary basin or with both of them. The Fe enrich-
ment of the Pla de la Concordia water can be explained via two
mechanisms: (1) exchange reactions with Mesozoic limestones
of the catchment area, and/or (2) dissolution of Fe oxides. To
explain this differential Fe-oxide dissolution in the latter case,
more reducing environments might have existed in the Pla de la
Concordia alluvial fan than in the Turó de Montgat alluvial fan.
Negative δ13C and δ18O values of intrabasinal limestones of
the Montgat area (Table 2) are in agreement with precipitation
from meteoric water (Cerling and Quade, 1993; Hoefs, 1997).
The δ13C versus δ18O data plot in three different areas (Fig. 8):
(1) oncolites and lacustrine limestones of the Pla de la Concòrdia
unit are represented in area 1 (−6.6‰ < δ13C < –5.6‰ and −9.6‰
< δ18O < –8.0‰; Table 2); (2) oncolites of the Turó de Montgat
unit fit a positive covariant line (area 2), with δ13C values ranging
between −4.9‰ and −6.6‰ and δ18O values between −4.0‰ and
−7.9‰ (Table 2); and (3) tufa-oncolites, calcretes, and palustrine
limestones of the Pla de la Concordia unit are in area 3 (−7.0‰ <
δ13C < –6.2‰ and −8.1‰ < δ18O < –6.5‰; Table 2).
Assuming similar climatologic conditions in the area and
excluding a possible biological fractionation process during cal-
cite precipitation, differences in δ13C can be explained by: (1)
closed conditions (Talbot, 1990) or (2) the presence of different
types of vegetation cover in the alluvial fans or in their catch-
Mn Fe Sr Na
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
bd 209 bd bd
bd bd-647 bd-864 bd-247
bd 4142 1257 bd
bd-565 240–14853 bd-2060 bd-246
bd 1055 516 bd
bd-766 292–3073 bd-968 bd-198
ment areas (Cerling, 1999). However, the covariant path of area
2 (Fig. 8) indicates that closed conditions are responsible for the
observed differences. Thus, the oncolites of the Turó de Montgat
unit were formed in a closed environment where meteoric water
arrived from the catchment area and/or from direct precipitation
in the sedimentary basin and remained in ponding zones in the
channel or in disconnected pools undergoing evaporation pro-
cesses. In these conditions, evaporative processes caused an iso-
topic fractionation of δ18O toward heavier values and reequilibra-
tion with the atmosphere, and photosynthetic processes caused
an increase in δ13C values. The lowest isotopic values of the
oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit represent the initial isoto-
pic composition in water (Talbot, 1990) and are in turn similar to
δ13C values of the other intrabasinal limestones. In contrast, the
absence of covariant paths in the other intrabasinal limestones
indicates that they were formed in a relatively open or ephem-
eral environment where meteoric water did not evaporate signifi-
cantly (Talbot, 1990).
We infer that the heavier δ18O values of the Turó de Montgat
oncolites are due to the evaporation effect. The area 1 lacustrine
limestones and oncolites of the Pla de la Concòrdia unit have
lighter δ18O values (typically δ18O < –8‰) than area 3 tufa-onco-
lites, palustrine limestones, and calcretes of the Pla de la Concòr-
dia unit (typically δ18O > –8‰). The lighter points of the area 2
oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit (Fig. 8), which were less
affected by evaporation, plot in an intermediate zone between
areas 1 and 3. Oncolites, which are always enclosed within sand-
stones and conglomerates, and lacustrine deposits of area 1 were
formed in permanent fluvial settings where water came from
the catchment areas. In contrast, tufa-oncolites dispersed within
mudstones, thin palustrine deposits, and calcretes plotted in area
3 were formed in ephemeral fluvial settings and soils developed
during rain episodes in the sedimentary basin. We infer that dif-
ferences in the altitude between the catchment areas and the
sedimentary basin are responsible for the δ18O variations. Sev-
eral works have demonstrated that a rise of 1000 m in altitude
can cause a depletion of 2‰ or 3‰ in δ18O values (Poage and
Chamberlain, 2001; Bowen and Wilkinson, 2002). This altitude
dependence of δ18O also has been shown in the Catalan Coastal
Ranges (Cruz-San Julián et al., 1992; Zamarreño et al., 1997).
 Oligocene lacustrine limestones in NE Spain 115

Considering a difference of 2‰ between the means of the two

TABLE 2. ISOTOPIC VALUES OF THE INTRABASINAL differentiated groups (area 1 versus area 3), a rise of ~600 m
LIMESTONES OF THE MONTGAT AREA might have existed between the alluvial fans and their catchment
G O G C areas. On the other hand, oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit,
18 13
Sample
(‰, VPDB) (‰, VPDB) with intermediate δ18O values were formed in ponding zones in
Turó de Montgat Unit
the channel or in disconnected pools with water arriving from the
Oncolites
MG-19a –4.3 –5.3 catchment area and from rain in the sedimentary basin.
MG-19b –4.5 –5.4 In sum, three groups have been distinguished geochemically
MG-19c –4.3 –4.9 in Montgat intrabasinal limestones. The first group is composed
MG-19d –4.8 –5.3 of the oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit, which were formed
MG-19e –4.0 –5.1 in a closed fluvial setting. The second group is composed of the
MG-20a –6.8 –6.2
MG-20b –7.9 –6.6
lacustrine limestones and the oncolites of the Pla de la Concordia
MG-20c –5.5 –5.7 unit, which were formed in an open and permanent fluvial set-
MG-20d –6.0 –5.8 ting. Finally, the third group is composed of the calcrete soils and
MG-20e –4.8 –5.6 palustrine limestones and tufa-oncolites of the Pla de la Concor-
Pla de la Concòrdia Unit dia unit, which were formed in open ephemeral fluvial settings.
Oncolites The Fe and Sr enrichment observed in the oncolites of the Pla
MG-49a –9.4 –5.9
MG-49b –8.0 –6.0
de la Concòrdia unit is attributed to exchange reactions between
MG-49c –9.0 –5.9 meteoric water and Mesozoic limestones that crop out in the
MG-49d –9.1 –5.9 catchment area.
MG-49e –8.6 –5.9
MG-50a –8.7 –6.2 CONCLUSIONS
MG-50b –8.7 –6.3
MG-50c –8.7 –5.8
Tufa-oncolites
Two coalescent alluvial fans formed during Chattian times
MG-46b-1 –6.8 –6.7 in the Montgat area. The trace-element and isotopic composi-
MG-46b-2 –7.6 –6.8 tions of intrabasinal limestones in these deposits are quite dif-
MG-46b-3 –6.5 –6.7 ferent depending on the alluvial fan in which they formed (Turó
MG-46b-4 –6.6 –6.8 de Montgat or Pla de la Concòrdia) and depending on the kind
Lacustrine
of limestone they formed (i.e., calcretes, lacustrine-palustrine
MG-28a –8.8 –6.3
MG-28b –8.9 –5.8
limestones, or oncolites). These differences are controlled pri-
MG-28c –9.3 –5.6 marily by the provenance of meteoric water, which distinguishes
MG-28d –9.2 –6.5 two groups of intrabasinal limestones: those formed by meteoric
MG-28e –9.6 –6.6 water coming from the catchment areas (oncolites and lacustrine
MG-29a –8.3 –5.9 limestones) and those formed by meteoric water coming from
MG-29b –8.2 –5.9
rain episodes inside the sedimentary basin (calcretes, palustrine
MG-29c –9.0 –6.1
MG-29d –9.0 –6.0
limestones, and tufa-oncolites).
MG-29e –9.1 –6.0 The trace-element content of oncolites is controlled by
Palustrine exchange reactions with rocks that crop out in the catchment
MG-53b(a) –7.5 –6.4 areas. δ18O values are controlled first by the different altitude of
MG-53b(b) –7.5 –6.6 the catchment areas and the sedimentary basin; δ18O and δ13C of
MG-53b(c) –7.2 –6.6
the oncolites of the Turó de Montgat unit are further controlled
MG-57a –7.8 –6.2
MG-57b –8.1 –6.4 by evaporative processes that indicate a closed hydrological set-
MG-57c –7.7 –6.5 ting, whereas the isotopic values of the oncolites, tufa-oncolites,
Calcretes palustrine and lacustrine limestones, and calcretes of the El Pla
MG-38a –7.1 –6.8 de la Concordia unit suggest an open hydrological setting.
MG-38b –7.0 –7.0
MG-38c –7.3 –7.0
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
MG-38d –7.4 –7.0
MG-39a –6.8 –6.5
MG-39b –6.9 –6.5 This research was performed within the framework of proj-
MG-39c –7.3 –6.6 ects BTE2002-04453-C02-01 CGL2004-05816-C02-02 sup-
MG-40a –7.6 –6.6 ported by Dirección General de Enseñanza Superior e Investig-
MG-40b –7.0 –6.6 ación Científica of Spain and Grup Consolidat de Recerca “Geo-
MG-40c –7.9 –6.4
logia Sedimentària” 2005/SGR/890. D. Parcerisa benefited from
a postdoctoral grant (EX-2003-1146 Ministerio de Educación,
116
Oncolites Turó de Montgat U.
Oncolites
Tufa-oncolites
Lacustrine limestones Pla de la
Palustrine limestones Concòrdia U.
Calcretes
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2
2
y = 0.39x -3.52
R2 = 0.92
1
3
Cultura y Deporte). We thank Ana M. Alonso-Zarza who encour-
aged us to write this paper. Ana Travé, Gabriel Bowen, and Law-
rence Tanner strongly contributed to the improvement of the
manuscript with their constructive and helpful comments. Eva
Coca, Miguel Angel Caja, and Joaquim Perona provided indis-
pensable technical support to realize this work. We also thank
Frances Luttikhuizen and Serdar Korkmaz for the revision of the
English version. The field work of this paper was done together
with Francesc Calvet, who abruptly passed away; this paper is
dedicated to him.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

The role of clastic sediment influx in the formation of calcrete and

palustrine facies: A response to paleographic and climatic conditions
in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin (northern Spain)
Ildefonso Armenteros†
Pedro Huerta‡
Departamento de Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Salamanca, 37071 Salamanca, Spain

ABSTRACT

During the Middle and Upper Miocene, calcrete and associated palustrine depos-
its formed marginal fringes adjacent to the margins of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma
corridor in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin. These environments interfingered
laterally with narrow peripheral alluvial fans toward the corridor margins, whereas
toward the center of the corridor, they graded into the fluvial systems transverse to
the alluvial fans. Over time, the peripheral carbonate environments were replaced
by fluvial systems. The calcretes form profiles with nodular grading upward to mas-
sive horizons. These profiles may be vertically stacked at the edges of the carbonate
bodies. These calcretes are the product of mixed pedogenic and phreatic processes
associated with the palustrine environments. Palustrine limestones were deposited in
a shallow carbonate-precipitating lake that had low gradient margins and was sub-
jected to periodic fluctuations in level.
The sedimentologic characteristics of the carbonate facies indicate accumulation
in a semiarid climate and conditions of scarce clastic sediment supply, which favored
the development of carbonate-precipitating fringes. In contrast, their absence in parts
of the sequence may have resulted from an increase in clastic sediment supply associ-
ated with a climatic change toward more humid conditions. At these times, the fluvial
channels had greater lateral mobility and spread toward the corridor flanks, replac-
ing the carbonate environments. Subsidence was greater in the central corridor than
at its margins and did not change significantly during the Miocene. Thus, changes in
climate and the clastic sediment input on the flanks of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma
corridor were the main controls on the development of 10–20-m-thick carbonate clas-
tic sediment sequences.

Keywords: palustrine, calcrete, climate, sediment influx, Miocene, Duero basin.

RESUMEN

Durante el Mioceno medio y superior en los márgenes del corredor de Aranda-Burgo

de Osma, sureste de la cuenca del Duero, se desarrollaron franjas de depósitos palustres,

†
E-mail: ilde@usal.es.
‡
E-mail: phuerta@usal.es.

Armenteros, I., and Huerta, P., 2006, The role of clastic sediment influx in the formation of calcrete and palustrine facies: A response to paleographic and climatic
conditions in the southeastern Tertiary Duero basin (northern Spain), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications
of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 119–132, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(08). For permission to copy, con-
tact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

119
120 Armenteros and Huerta

rodeados de niveles de caliche. Estos términos carbonatados cambian lateralmente a

depósitos de abanicos aluviales enraizados en los relieves que flanquean el corredor,
mientras que hacia el centro del mismo pasan a los depósitos del sistema fluvial axial que
drenaba esta región hacia el centro de la cuenca, situado más al oeste. Temporalmente
los caliches y medios palustres eran substituidos por el sistema fluvial.
Los caliches forman perfiles constituidos por niveles nodulares en la base que
pasan a masivos hacia el techo, los cuales pueden llegar a apilarse formando secuencias
compuestas en los márgenes de las unidades carbonatadas. Los caliches se forman debido
a la acción combinada de procesos edáficos y freáticos, asociados a los medios palustres
adyacentes. Estos últimos representan una sedimentación carbonatada lacustre en lagos
muy someros, de baja pendiente, y afectados por exposiciones subaéreas frecuentes.
Las características sedimentológicas de las facies carbonatadas indican una
acumulación en condiciones semiáridas que favorecían un escaso suministro de material
terrígeno a la cuenca y el desarrollo de facies carbonatadas en sus márgenes. Por el
contrario, la expansión del sistema fluvial axial hacia estas áreas estaba propiciada
por un aumento del suministro terrígeno como respuesta a condiciones climáticas más
húmedas. En estos periodos el sistema fluvial axial se extendía hasta los márgenes del
corredor, reemplazando los medios palustres y anulando en buena medida el desarrollo
de los caliches asociados. La subsidencia era mayor en el corredor central que en sus
márgenes y no cambió substancialmente durante el Mioceno. Los cambios en el clima
y el suministro de materiales terrígenos en los flancos del corredor fueron los controles
principales en la acumulación de ciclos carbonatado-terrígenos.

Palabras claves: palustre, caliche, clima, aporte sedimentario, Mioceno, cuenca del Duero.

INTRODUCTION grated vision of the allocyclic control of lacustrine basins was

The study of palustrine-calcrete carbonate associations in
different depositional contexts has attracted increasing attention
in recent years, mainly with regard to their sedimentological,
paleopedogenic, and diagenetic aspects (Nickel, 1982; Arribas,
1986; Platt and Wright, 1992; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992; Sanz
et al., 1995; Armenteros and Daley, 1998; Dunagan and Driese,
1999; Tanner, 2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Pimentel, 2002;
and many others). Since the 1960s, it has been suggested repeat-
edly that lacustrine successions reflect changes in both climate
and tectonics (for a review, see Van Houten, 1964; Picard and
High, 1981; Talbot and Allen, 1996). In the early 1980s, after the
introduction of the concepts of sequence stratigraphy, allocyclic
processes, climate and tectonics in particular, began to be applied
to soil development (Atkinson, 1986; Kraus and Bown, 1986).
Even today, it is difficult to differentiate between the effects of
climate and tectonics in controlling the features of calcrete and
palustrine facies. Thus, recent research that has provided new
integrated interpretations of lacustrine sequences is of great use
in the analysis of basins (Platt, 1989; Cecil, 1990; Sanz et al.,
1995; Drummond et al., 1996; Armenteros et al., 1997; De Wet
et al., 1998; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Tanner, 2000; Dunagan
and Turner, 2004), and the authors of these works have offered
interesting proposals for integrating lacustrine sequences within
general allocyclic models. In this context, the model of Cecil
(1990) concludes that in most sedimentary systems, climate is
a primary allogenic controller of sediment supply. A more inte-
proposed by Carroll and Bohacs (1999), who compared the rates
of potential accommodation (controlled mainly by tectonics)
with sediment plus water supply (controlled mainly by climate).
Recently, Alonso-Zarza (2003) emphasized the interplay
between climate and tectonics and described two scenarios of
accommodation space and/or sequence stratigraphy: (1) low-
activity alluvial/fluvial systems, favoring vertically stacked
palustrine carbonates; and (2) alternating alluvial-fluvial and
pond systems, a situation common in stages of high-accommo-
dation space that favors the storage of floodplain sediments.
In a number of nonmarine basins, carbonate bodies made
up of calcretes and palustrine facies are interbedded with clastic
successions. Calcretes and palustrine facies are representative
of equilibrium conditions in floodplains, allowing soil develop-
ment between situations of aggradation and degradation (Kraus
and Bown, 1986). These carbonate facies are commonly associ-
ated with a low clastic input that has been attributed both to tec-
tonic and climatic influence (e.g., semiarid conditions) (Nickel,
1985; Platt, 1989; Cecil, 1990; Drummond et al., 1996; De Wet
et al., 1998).
In the Miocene succession of the eastern Duero basin, the
formation of calcrete and palustrine deposits alternated over
time with deposition by siliciclastic fluvial systems. Calcretes
and palustrine facies developed in a specific paleogeographical
setting along the margins of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corri-
dor in the southeastern Duero basin. These carbonate-producing
environments grade laterally to narrow peripheral alluvial fan
 Clastic sediment influx and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 121

systems on both borders, whereas toward the center of the cor-
ridor, they change into an axial fluvial system. Cyclically, these
peripheral carbonates did not develop, but instead were replaced
by alluvial and fluvial systems (Armenteros, 1986; Huerta and
Armenteros, 2003).
This study involves sedimentological analyses of the facies
associations and the whole depositional system, with special
emphasis on the characterization of the carbonate environ-
ments and on the genetic relationship between palustrine facies
and calcretes. The aim of this contribution is to underscore the
importance of sediment influx in the formation of calcrete and
palustrine facies along the basin margins in the Miocene succes-
sion of the southeastern Duero basin. A further aim is to estab-
lish the relative roles of climate and tectonics on the control of
the sediment supply in the location of formation of the carbonate
bodies and in creating the carbonate and siliciclastic cycles.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Tertiary Duero basin is the largest continental Tertiary
basin of the Iberian Peninsula and is located in the northwest of
Spain (Fig. 1). It features sedimentary deposits ranging in age

Figure 1. Map of the eastern Duero basin where the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor is located between the paleorelief of Honrubia, to the south,
and that of Tejada, to the north. On the right: representative general succession of the Miocene, which is marked on the map with a star; symbols
are explained in Figure 4. The cross sections represented in Figure 2 are indicated by black lines (A and B).
122 Armenteros and Huerta
from Paleogene to Miocene. The present study focuses on the
Miocene deposits of the southeastern area, near the Aranda–
Burgo de Osma corridor, which links the Almazán and the Duero
basins. During the Neogene, the sedimentary framework was
characterized by alluvial fan systems along the basin margins and
carbonate and gypsiferous systems toward the center (which is
located west of the study area).
The northern basin margin is formed by the Tejada anticline,
which consists mainly of Upper Cretaceous limestones, dolos-
tones, and marls. The Lower Cretaceous Utrillas Formation,
formed of sandstones, mudstones, and quartzite conglomerates,
outcrops in the core of the anticline. This anticline plunges west-
ward, and its relief decreases in the same direction. The southern
margin is composed of Mesozoic limestones, dolostones, marls,
and evaporites covering a Paleozoic basement, and it is made
up of gneisses, quartzites, and slates. It constitutes an anticline
bounded to the north by a thrust, which was overlapped by the
Middle and Upper Miocene succession (De Vicente et al., 2004).
Tectonic deformation during the Middle and Upper Miocene was
minor, and no significant activity occurred in the source areas
for the sediments of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor. The
position of a fluvial system at the center of the corridor and the
considerable thickness of the Tertiary deposits in this area sug-
gest active subsidence during the Miocene.
The age of the outcropping Miocene succession ranges
from middle Aragonian (MN 5, Mammal Neogene zone) to
Figure 2. Cross-sections A and B from Figure 1. (A) Tejada: northern border for the Upper Miocene sequence. (B) Honrubia: southern border
for the Lower Miocene sequence.
Upper Vallesian (MN 10), with a possible presence of the latest
(Turolian) continental stage of the Miocene (Armenteros et al.,
2002). The carbonate units consist of calcretes and lacustrine/
palustrine limestones and form extensive levels (up to 20 m
thick) at the transition to the marginal alluvial systems (2–10
km long) (Fig. 2).
The Middle and Upper Miocene deposits of the eastern suc-
cession of the Duero basin consist of two siliciclastic-carbon-
ate sequences capped by two extensive carbonate horizons, the
Lower Páramo Limestone and the Upper Páramo Limestone,
which extend toward the center of the Duero basin (Figs. 1 and 2)
(Armenteros et al., 2002). This study examines the Upper Páramo
near the northern border of the basin, in the Tejada anticline, and
the Lower Páramo near the southern margin (Honrubia). In the
Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor, the limestones occur as fringes
near the northern and southern basin margins, separated in the
central area by the siliciclastic fluvial system that has paleocur-
rent directions westward toward the basin center (Fig. 3).
SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS AND FACIES
Three environments are recognized in the Aranda–Burgo de
Osma corridor: alluvial fans rooted in the northern and southern
paleoreliefs, fluvial systems in the axis of the corridor, and shal-
low carbonate-precipitating lakes with associated calcretes (Figs.
2, 3A, and 3C).
 Clastic sediment influx and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 123

Figure 3. Paleogeography of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor. (A) Schematic map of the development of the calcrete and palustrine fringes.
(B) Schematic map of the expansion of the fluvial system. (C) Schematic cross section (exaggerated vertical scale) perpendicular to the Aranda–
Burgo de Osma corridor, between the Honrubia and Tejada paleoreliefs. Contours are in m.

Alluvial Fans
Marginal alluvial fan systems consist of the following
facies, from proximal to distal areas, respectively: reddish-
orange petromictic conglomerates (quartz and quartzite clasts
from Paleozoic and Mesozoic, carbonate Mesozoic clasts),
muddy sandstones, sandy mudstones, and calcretes (both
nodular and massive). Coarser facies are poorly to moderately
sorted and exhibit scarce or no sedimentary structures. Mud-
stone facies rarely show lamination, are intensively burrowed,
and display scattered calcite nodules and rhizoliths, occasion-
ally coalesced into nodular calcrete beds. Some levels contain
green mottling and root traces.
The poorly stratified conglomerates were deposited by
debris flows at the proximal area of the fan. Conglomerate
deposits with a sheet geometry, moderate sorting, normal grad-
ing, and horizontal stratification show characteristics of depo-
sition by sheetflood, possibly associated with low-topography
gravel bars in the middle and distal fan environment (Dabrio
et al., 1989; Huerta and Armenteros, 2003). Sedimentation was
episodic, as indicated by common features of subaerial expo-
sure. Between the episodic depositional events on the fan, the
124 Armenteros and Huerta

sediments were reworked by streams entrenched on the fan
surface that deposited stream channel-fill sediments (Bull,
1972), and fine floodplain facies where the flow died due to
dispersion and/or infiltration. These latter deposits are com-
monly replaced partially by carbonate and locally form stacked
calcrete sequences, as explained in the following sections. The
restricted extent of the alluvial fan fringes indicates a small
catchment area (Fig. 3).
Fluvial Environments
The fluvial system is best developed and most extensive in
the central corridor (Fig. 3). The fluvial system is composed of
sandy channel fills, 2–5 m thick and 20–150 m wide, that locally
include conglomeratic lenses with a preponderance of quartz and
quartzite clasts (the centile thickness is generally less than 5 cm).
Some channel fills contain oncoids, and mudstone and calcrete
clasts. In the central parts of the corridor, the channel fills are
ribbon-like in shape and have low width/thickness (w/t) ratios,
while toward the corridor margins, they are sheet-shaped bodies
with higher w/t ratios.
These channeled bodies are enclosed in massive mudstones
and sandy mudstones that display abundant bioturbation and
widespread reddening (Fig. 4). These mudstones also contain
extensive single-to-composite calcrete levels 0.5–3 m thick; these
are more common in the transition to carbonate units described
in the following sections. Coarse-grained channel fills and fine-
grained facies form fining-upward sequences that are bounded by
erosive surfaces and are commonly capped by calcretes. Channel
cross-bed paleocurrents display a strong westward component,
perpendicular to those of the alluvial fans.
Calcretes
Calcrete occurs in profiles from 1 to 3 m thick. The carbon-
ate content in the calcrete increases upward; typical profiles

Figure 4. Representative stratigraphic sections related to the southern part (Milagros) and to the northern part (Cubillas and Espinosa) of the
Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor. The former corresponds to the Lower Miocene sequence and displays an alternation of carbonate (see detailed
sequence of central unit) and fluvial siliciclastic units. The Cubillas and Espinosa sections correspond to the Upper Miocene sequence; the first
shows several superimposed palustrine sequences, whereas the Espinosa section displays a stacking of thin calcrete sequences. Sections locations
are shown in Figure 2.
 Clastic sediment influx and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies
display basal red or reddish-brown mudstones with diffuse
calcification, grading upward to nodular calcrete facies,
capped by massive calcretes (Figs. 4, 5C, and 5D). These cal-
cretes typically represent the transition between siliciclastic
and palustrine facies (Figs. 5C and 5D). The nodular calcrete
facies are mottled and reddish brown-orange in color and are
characterized by coalescing irregular-to-vertically elongated
nodules (rhizocretions). The nodules become larger and
coalesce upward within the beds, and the relative proportion
of mudstone decreases.
Within the massive calcrete facies, the mudstones are
partially calcified. The only vestiges of the mudstones at the
top of the massive calcrete facies are iron oxides. Pseudoan-
ticline structures occur at the top of the calcrete beds, where
they grade into the overlying palustrine facies. The massive cal-
crete makes up a calcite microsparite mosaic (5–12 μm in size),
locally stained by manganese oxides. Detrital quartz grains
range from 5% to 20% and show etched contours surrounded
by a microsparite rim (Fig. 6A). Both peloids and pedogenic
features, such as channel and alveolar porosity, are common
in the calcrete facies. These facies are interpreted as mixed
pedogenic and phreatic calcretes. The phreatic features, such
as mottling and manganese staining, together with the lateral
gradation to the palustrine facies indicate a water table close to
surface. Mapping of these facies and the correlation among dif-
ferent sections suggest that the calcrete facies formed a fringe
around the palustrine deposits (Huerta and Armenteros, 2005).
Palustrine Facies
The palustrine facies occur in tabular beds (10 cm to 1 m
thick) that are light to dark gray in color (Figs. 4, 5C, and 5D).
The fossil content includes pulmonate gastropods, ostracodes,
and charophytes. The percentage of dispersed fine-grained
sand to silt-sized quartz is generally between 1% and 3%. The
palustrine facies constitute the most abundant facies in the
carbonate bodies. The palustrine limestones are micritic and
show a wide range of exposure features, including brecciated,
clotted, and peloidal fabrics (Figs. 6B, 6C, and 6D). These are
closely associated with channel, planar, and vesicular porosi-
ties and alveolar structures related to root activity and dry-
ing-wetting cycles (Figs. 6B and 6C). The clotted-peloidal
textures are the most common of those found in the palustrine
facies and represent the most evolved status of the exposure
index (Wright and Platt, 1995; Armenteros and Daley, 1998).
The peloids commonly have no coatings, are subequant and
subrounded, and their sizes range from 60 mm to 5 mm and
display no sorting (Fig. 6D). These facies are the result of
repeated exposure of carbonate muds that accumulated in a
shallow carbonate lake with low-gradient margins (Freytet
and Plaziat, 1982; Platt and Wright, 1991). The ubiquity of
palustrine facies indicates that the whole lake was subject to
periodic lake-level fluctuations and exposure of the supralit-
toral carbonate mud.
125
CONTROLS ON CARBONATE DEPOSITION:
CLIMATE VERSUS TECTONISM
The carbonate bodies occur as calcrete and palustrine accu-
mulations (2–20 m thick) near the basin margins and alternate
vertically with the siliciclastic horizons that resulted from the
expansion of the axial fluvial system (Figs. 2, 5A, and 5B).
The Upper Páramo and the Lower Páramo limestones represent
expansion stages of the carbonate system toward the center of the
Duero basin, located westward. Their location and stratigraphic
distribution require some discussion.
Initially, tectonic and climatic changes might seem to have
been the main agents responsible for controlling carbonate pre-
cipitation in marginal fringes close to the basin borders. Recently,
this problem was considered in a study focused on calcrete
palustrine assemblages in the northern Tejada area (Huerta and
Armenteros, 2005). Here, we propose local subsidence as the
main factor involved in the formation of these carbonate bodies.
Nevertheless, the regional paleogeographical configuration, cycli-
cal arrangement of the carbonate and siliciclastic levels, as well
as the distribution of the facies can contribute to a broader per-
spective. Along the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor, an almost
permanent fluvial trunk system drained the basin toward the west
during most of the Miocene (Armenteros, 1986; Armenteros et
al., 2002) (Figs. 1 and 3).
Calcrete-Palustrine Sequences and Clastic Input: Climate
Control
The profile sequences of mudstone–nodular calcrete–mas-
sive calcrete indicate a decrease in fine clastic input and low
floodplain aggradation, allowing more time for the development
of massive calcretes (Bown and Kraus, 1987; Alonso-Zarza et
al., 1992; Sanz et al., 1995; Wright and Marriot, 1996; Alonso-
Zarza et al., 1999; Huerta and Armenteros, 2005). Therefore, this
facies sequence indicates low aggradation of the floodplain.
Palustrine facies occur at the top of the calcrete sequences.
The low percentages of detrital quartz in palustrine facies, the lat-
eral gradation of a calcrete belt into palustrine environments, and
the absence of deltaic deposits suggest that the groundwater table
played an important role in calcrete-palustrine sequence develop-
ment (Huerta and Armenteros, 2003, 2005). Thus, the formation
of calcretes could have taken place by both pedogenic and phre-
atic carbonate precipitation in the plain—calcrete belt—encircl-
ing the palustrine environments. Massive calcrete and palustrine
facies are separated by sharp contacts, or gradational contacts
with features of both calcrete and palustrine facies. Carbonate
precipitation may have been favored by a progressive rise of the
groundwater table and a consequent increase in the evaporation
and evapotranspiration of the pore waters. The gradual transi-
tion from brown-reddish mudstones to nodular to massive cal-
crete resulted from an upward decrease in the sedimentation rate
(Bown and Kraus, 1987; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992, 1999; Sanz
et al., 1995, Wright and Marriot, 1996). If the clastic sediment
Figure 5. (A) Panoramic view of the lower sequence in the Riaza River valley. The lower sequence is capped by the Lower Páramo Limestone.
Arrows indicate the carbonate-siliciclastic cycles. The dashed lines mark the top of the carbonate bodies. (B) Panoramic view of the cliffs on
the right margin of the Riaza River. The lower sequence is capped by the Lower Páramo Limestone. Dashed line points to a carbonate body that
wedges out laterally into the siliciclastic fluvial unit. (C) Calcrete-palustrine sequence. Note that the nodular calcrete gradually passes upward
into a massive calcrete. The palustrine facies overlies the massive calcrete, with a sharp boundary between them (white line). The dashed line
represents a bedding plane. Hammer for scale: 33 cm long (encircled). (D) Detail of a carbonate body. The lower half is composed by calcrete
facies, while the upper half is made up of palustrine facies. The boundary between the calcrete and palustrine facies is sharp (black line). Dashed
white lines depict bedding planes. Geologist for scale: 1.70 m tall.
 Clastic sediment influx and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 127

Figure 6. (A) Microtexture of a massive calcrete consisting of a micrite mosaic with dispersed silt- to sand-sized quartz (Q) grains with a rim of
sparite. Dark patches retain clayey remains, and the porosity displays circumgranular and elongate sinuous voids originated by cracking. Plane
polarized light (PPL). (B) Brecciated palustrine texture constituted by interconnected crack planes filled with sparite cement (C). Arrow indicates
allotic nodule. PPL. (C) Typical channel palustrine texture in which concertina-like voids (arrowed) and vesicles are widespread. PPL. (D) Pel-
oidal palustrine texture mainly made up of irregularly shaped and poorly sorted micrite peloids (P), with packing voids and some channels filled
with sparite cement (C). Bioclasts of gastropods (B) can also be seen. PPL.

supply was very high, a massive calcrete horizon would not have
developed because the carbonate would have been dispersed as
the floodplain underwent aggradation. Ponds were generated in
places where the water table intersected the surface. The seasonal
fluctuation in the water table would have alternately exposed or
flooded the carbonate muds precipitated in such ponds. The scar-
city of clastic input together with constant subsidence could have
allowed a decrease in the plain level and a consequent relative
rise of the water table (Fig. 7).
The calcrete-palustrine sequence grades laterally into a stack
of thin calcrete profiles localized in the distal alluvial fan (Huerta
and Armenteros, 2005). A similar stacking of several calcrete pro-
files has been attributed to a combination of climatic conditions,
carbonate availability, and sediment-starved conditions (Tandon
et al., 1998). In the high-flood stages, the sheetfloods would have
prevented calcrete development. The sheetfloods were more epi-
sodic and supplied less sediment in the transition area (calcrete
belt) to the palustrine environments, resulting in a progressive
decrease in the aggradation rate. This explains the lateral tran-
sition from the stacking of thin (10–40 cm) calcrete sequences
on the distal areas of the alluvial fan into a single thick (1–2 m)
calcrete profile on the calcrete belt. The high-flood events might
have occurred during more humid periods in which clastic sedi-
mentation took place. Calcrete would have developed during
drier periods, as proposed for similar sequences in the Maastrich-
tian of India by Tandon et al. (1998).
Maximum Stages with Carbonate Accumulation
The carbonate bodies are close to the Honrubia and Tejada
paleoreliefs, which stood at least 400 m higher than the corri-
dor center. They occur as fringes (2–8 km wide) that are sepa-
rated from the basin margins by alluvial fan deposits coming
out from the paleoreliefs (Figs. 2 and 3A). Both paleoreliefs
128 Armenteros and Huerta

Figure 7. Stages of development of a calcrete-palustrine sequence on floodplain deposits. The progressive decrease in clastic input/subsidence
ratio favors the rise of the groundwater table and increases carbonate precipitation. See explanation in text.

were relatively small and narrow and consequently had reduced
catchment areas. Horizontal beds of the Miocene (Upper Arago-
nian-Vallesian) succession described here onlap the paleoreliefs,
indicating that the relief has not been reactivated since then. The
carbonate facies of these bodies consist of calcretes (pedogenic
and phreatic) and palustrine facies in superimposed sequences,
indicating their accumulation in a semiarid climate (Platt and
Wright, 1992) and conditions of scarce clastic sediment supply
(Fig. 8A). The calcrete facies always occur in the form of a tran-
sitional facies between the clastic (alluvial, fluvial) and the car-
bonate (palustrine) deposits.
Local subsidence and low clastic input were associated with
areas of calcrete and palustrine accumulation, for example, in
troughs parallel to the northern border (Huerta and Armenteros,
2005). In this case, subsidence was essential for calcrete forma-
tion and the subsequent development of palustrine environments
when the water table intersected the basin floor. However, the
subsidence at the margins was lower than that of the central corri-
dor, as manifested by the greater thickness of the Tertiary succes-
sion in this axial region where the river trunk developed (Figs. 3A
and 3B). In contrast, carbonate paleosols and palustrine depos-
its are concentrated along the margins of the basin, where the
subsidence was minor. A similar circumstance has been deduced
from studies by computer simulation (Bridge and Leeder, 1979;
Bridge and Mackey, 1993) and has been observed in field studies
(Mack and Madoff, 2005).
Within the Miocene succession, two stages of maximum
expansion of the carbonate environments took place, represented
by the Lower Páramo Limestone and the Upper Páramo Lime-
stone. These two singular stages could have been responses to
dramatic decreases in alluvial and fluvial sediment supply. The
carbonate accumulation in marginal fringes occurred in response
to the retreat of the fluvial axial system toward the corridor center.
This retreat was a consequence of the decrease in clastic influx
from catchments to fans and axial rivers. Assuming that the sub-
sidence remained constant, the decrease in the terrigenous input/
subsidence ratio resulted from a fall in the base level (defined as
the lowest area in the basin). Similar relationships between base
level and clastic sediment supply for nonmarine basins have been
envisaged in many studies (e.g., Kraus and Bown 1986; Wright
and Marriot, 1993; Shanley and McCabe, 1994; and Leeder,
1999). This situation, termed an underfilled basin (Carroll and
Bohacs, 1999; Bohacs et al., 2000), could have been caused by
a change to a semiarid climate, which would have caused the
fluvial system to retreat to the center of the Aranda–Burgo de
Osma corridor. In this case, the marginal alluvial fans became
inactive and a sediment-starved area formed between these and
the axial fluvial systems, allowing calcrete and palustrine devel-
 Clastic sediment influx and formation of calcretes and palustrine facies 129

Figure 8. Schematic model representing two contrasting and alternating periods as the climate changed from (A) a semiarid phase (palustrine and
calcrete formation) to (B) more humid conditions in which expansion of the axial fluvial system took place.

opment. The formation of calcrete and palustrine facies is gener-
ally associated with conditions of scarce rain (semiaridity) and
low sedimentation rate (Wright and Tucker, 1991; Wright and
Platt, 1995).
Stages Dominated by Fluvial Clastic Accumulation
Also notable is the gradual disappearance of the carbonate
deposits from the marginal fringes. They were replaced by fluvial
environments, whereas the marginal alluvial fan systems rooted in
the Honrubia and Tejada borders did not undergo any significant
changes (Armenteros, 1986; Huerta and Armenteros, 2003). This
disappearance presumably reflects unfavorable conditions for the
accumulation of calcrete and palustrine deposits, and could have
been due to an increase in the clastic sediment supply (Atkinson,
1986; Kraus and Bown, 1986; Carroll and Bohacs, 1999; Alonso-
Zarza et al., 1999). This increase could have been a consequence
of: (1) a change toward more humid and seasonal climatic condi-
tions (Cecil, 1990); or (2) an increase in tectonic activity. The
alluvial fans, fed by small catchment areas of the Honrubia and
Tejada paleoreliefs, do not display evidence of tectonic defor-
mation, supporting the former hypothesis. Consequently, humid
conditions undoubtedly were the main factor in the increase in
clastic sediment in the catchment areas that nourished the fluvial
system (Fig. 8B). This gave rise to a greater lateral mobility of
the fluvial system, which spread toward the corridor flanks where
130 Armenteros and Huerta
carbonate deposits had accumulated at other stages. The increase
in both clastic input and water supply raised the base level and
caused an expansion of the fluvial system, thus inhibiting devel-
opment of calcrete and palustrine deposits. Similar fluvial expan-
sion over well-drained soils has been proposed by McCarthy and
Plint (1998).
Siliciclastic-Carbonate Cycles
One of the most interesting features of this succession is the
cyclic repetition of carbonate bodies alternating with fluvial clas-
tic sediments. At the southern border (Honrubia), four carbonate
bodies are interbedded with siliciclastic deposits (Figs. 2B and
5A) in the lower sequence, whereas at the northern border, at
least three carbonate levels alternate with siliciclastic deposits in
the upper sequence (Fig. 2A). This alternation must have been
produced by a combination of the factors already discussed that
caused variations in the clastic sediment input: a decrease pro-
moted the formation of carbonate-producing environments and
an increase favored the expansion of axial fluvial systems and
the subsequent disappearance of carbonates. This cyclical pat-
tern suggests a climatic imprint rather than periodic changes in
subsidence and tectonics. The latter are usually progressive and
their changes occur over long periods and tend not to result in
sequences 10–20 m thick.
Although this suggests the influence of climate in the alter-
nation of clastic sediment and carbonate facies in these nonma-
rine successions, the importance of the paleogeographical frame-
work developed through tectonics and subsidence should not
be overlooked. The temporal extension of each 10–20-m-thick
carbonate-siliciclastic sequence is difficult to establish since the
chronostratigraphic resolution supplied by the fossil sites in the
region does not permit comparisons with fourth- or fifth-order
cycles (Milankovitch cycles). Nevertheless, the development
of fluvial cycles can be related to variations in sediment supply
due to climate change: incision, fan retreat, and soil formation
occur during periods of low sediment supply, whereas aggrada-
tion and fan growth occur during periods of high sediment supply
(Leeder, 1999).
CONCLUSIONS
The Miocene succession in the eastern Duero basin consists
of alternating clastic-carbonate cycles in which the carbonate
increases upward. These sequences range in age from the upper-
most Middle Miocene to the Upper Miocene. The carbonate
deposits occur as fringes (2–8 km wide) separated from the basin
margins by alluvial fan deposits. The size of these alluvial fans
was controlled by the size of the catchment areas developed in
the Tejada and Honrubia paleoreliefs, respectively, to the north
and south of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor. The carbonate
deposits grade laterally to a fluvial system in the center of the
corridor. The paleocurrents in this latter system display a strong
westward component, perpendicular to that of the alluvial fans.
Periodically, carbonate deposition was replaced by the expanding
fluvial system.
In the distal areas of the alluvial fans, thin mudstones-cal-
crete cycles are stacked. These sequences coalesce with increas-
ing distance from the alluvial fans, where there was a reduced
input from sheetfloods, suggesting that the calcretes were related
to low clastic input. The carbonate bodies consist of, from base to
top, nodular calcrete, massive calcrete, and palustrine limestone,
where the latter represents the most voluminous facies. The cal-
cretes are inferred to have formed by a combination of pedogenic
and phreatic processes. The palustrine limestones represent peri-
odic exposure of low-gradient lake margins.
The scarcity of clastic input and a fall in base level due to dry
climatic periods favored the development of carbonate bodies in
starved areas located between the alluvial fans and the central flu-
vial system. By contrast, the increase in clastic input plus water
supply raised the base level, favoring the expansion of axial flu-
vial system and the consequent disappearance of carbonate-pro-
ducing environments.
Tectonic uplift in the central-eastern Duero basin was minor
during the Middle and Upper Miocene. Subsidence was more
active in the center of the Aranda–Burgo de Osma corridor than
at its margins, as suggested by the great thickness of the Tertiary
succession and the presence of a fluvial system in this area. Thus,
we suggest that the repeated sequences of carbonates and silici-
clastic sediments in meter-scale cycles during the Miocene on
both flanks of the corridor were caused by climatic rather than
tectonic controls.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work has been supported by the research project
BTE2002-04017-C02-02. The language was revised at the For-
eign Languages Services of the University of Salamanca. We are
grateful to M.A. García del Cura and M.R. Talbot, and to the edi-
tor, Alonso-Zarza, who contributed significantly to improving the
original manuscript. L.H. Tanner helped to significantly improve
the final English version.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones in Upper Silesia

(southern Poland) and their paleoenvironmental context
Joachim Szulc†
Michał Gradziński
Anna Lewandowska
Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland

Carmen Heunisch
Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Bodenforschung, Hannover, Germany

ABSTRACT

Upper Triassic (Norian) freshwater carbonates, up to 30 m in thick, occur in the

northern part of Upper Silesian basin. These sediments, called the Woźniki Limestone,
form a SE-NW–striking elongate (90 km) and narrow (<10 km) belt. The Woźniki
Limestone overlies (mostly discordantly) Carnian gypsiferous red beds and under-
lies the uppermost Triassic–Lower Jurassic continental clastic deposits. Laterally, the
carbonates are replaced by a typically red bed clastic assemblage formed under arid
and semiarid climatic conditions.
Several limestone types have been recognized within the freshwater facies,
including travertines, and fluvial, palustrine and pedogenic carbonates. Palustrine
limestones form a major component. Common tepee structures, karst breccia, silici-
fied horizons, and weathering breccia indicate that the palustrine carbonates have
undergone subaerial exposition and pedogenic alteration. Palustrine carbonate sedi-
mentation has been interrupted and replaced by fluvial sedimentation. The fluvial
sediments mark the pluvial climate episodes that inhibited carbonate deposition.
The studied basin displays a striking scarcity of lacustrine sediments, which may
be explained in terms of hydrological and climatic controls. We infer that the carbon-
ates were deposited within shallow swampy depressions, fed by springs of deep-cir-
culating groundwater, partly of hydrothermal nature, under dry and semidry paleo-
climatic conditions in a fault-bounded basin. The travertines precipitated directly
near the springs, whereas the remnant solutions formed a broad swamp area where
palustrine carbonates formed. It seems very likely that the carbonate-bearing solu-
tions were causally related to the hydrothermal karst that occurs within the Triassic
and Paleozoic basement limestones.

Keywords: freshwater limestones, travertines, paleoenvironments, Upper Triassic, Poland.

†
E-mail: szulc@ing.uj.edu.pl.

Szulc, J., Gradziński, M., Lewandowska, A., and Heunisch, C., 2006, The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones in Upper Silesia (southern Poland) and their
paleoenvironmental context, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates:
Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 133–151, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(09). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006
Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

133
134 Szulc et al.

RESUMEN

La parte norte de la cuenca alta de Silesia incluye una unidad de carbonatos

de agua dulce, de 30 metros de potencia y edad Triásico Superior (Noriense). Estos
sedimentos, denominados Caliza Woźniki forman un cinturón estrecho y alargado
(<10 km) en dirección SE-NW. La Caliza Woźniki se apoya, casi siempre discordante, sobre
las capas yesíferas rojas del carniense y sobre ella se sitúan los depósitos continentales del
Triásico más alto y Jurásico inferior. Lateralmente estos carbonatos pasan a las capas rojas
detríticas formadas bajo condiciones climáticas áridas y semiáridas.
Las calizas están formadas por distintos tipos de facies que incluyen: facies fluviales,
palustres, pedogénicas y de surgencias. Las calizas palustres son las más abundantes.
Rasgos como “tepees,” brechas cársticas, horizontes silicificados y brechas de alteración
indican que los carbonatos palustres sufrieron exposición subaérea y pedogénesis. La
sedimentación palustre carbonática quedó interrumpida por una etapa posterior de
sedimentación fluvial, que indica climas más húmedos.
Los depósitos lacustres ss, que normalmente son anteriores a los palustres, son muy
escasos en esta cuenca. Esto puede ser debido a los controles hidrológicos y climáticos. Así,
si se tienen en cuenta las condiciones áridas y semiáridas, el hecho de que los bordes de la
cuenca son fallas y la abundancia de travertinos, se puede considerar que los carbonatos
se depositaron en una depresión somera y pantanosa, abastecida por surgencias de aguas
freáticas profundas (en parte hidrotermales). Los travertinos se formaron por precipitación
directa en las zonas cercanas a las surgencias, mientras que el resto del agua se acumuló en
depresiones pantanosas amplias donde se formaron los carbonatos palustres. Parece muy
probable que las soluciones ricas en carbonato tuvieran relación con el carst hidrotermal
que se desarrolló en las calizas del Triásico y Paleozoico.

Palabras clave: calizas de agua dulce, travertinos, paleoambientes, Triásico Superior.

INTRODUCTION
This paper focuses on the Upper Triassic continental sedi-
ments that occur in the northern part of the Upper Silesian basin
(Fig. 1) called the Woźniki Limestone. In this paper, we use the
term Woźniki Limestone (WL) as an informal lithostratigraphical
unit dominated by carbonates but which also includes subordinate
clastic intercalations. The Woźniki Limestone includes a range of
isolated carbonate bodies surrounded by carbonate-poor, varie-
gated muddy sediments. Fossils of the Woźniki Limestone are
very scarce and limited to ostracodes and calcified plant molds.
These carbonates have long been recognized as continental sedi-
ments (Roemer, 1867; Michael, 1912); however, their age and
exact sedimentary context are uncertain. The common consensus
is that the Woźniki Limestone formed in a lacustrine environment
(Gasiorowski
˛ and Piekarska, 1976, 1986), but no convincing evi-
dence of such an origin has been provided so far. In fact, the
sediments of the Woźniki Limestone display very few features of
typical lacustrine deposits. The main goal of the present paper is
to reinterpret the genesis of the Woźniki Limestone by means of
sedimentological and geochemical examinations.
GENERAL AND PALEOGEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
The Woźniki Limestone forms a SE-NW–striking assem-
blage of carbonate bodies, stretching a distance of some 90 km
and occupying ~300 km2 (Fig. 1). Its thickness reaches up to
30 m. The Woźniki Limestone is situated between the gypsifer-
ous Upper Gipskeuper of early Norian age and the fluvial facies
assemblage of the Rhaetian (Fig. 2). The lack of fossil remnants
and poorly recognized facies context has long hindered more
precise age determination of the Woźniki Limestone. Its age has
been assumed mainly to be Rhaetian (Znosko, 1960; Grodzicka-
Szymanko and Orłowska-Zwolińska, 1972; Bilan, 1976).
According to our palynological examination, the Woźniki
Limestone encompasses palynomorph taxa indicative of so-
called palynostratigraphic assemblage IV (Corollina meyeriana
zone) in the zonation scheme by Orłowska-Zwolińska (1983),
Fijałkowska-Mader (1999), and Heunisch (1999). Based on the
palynostratigraphical and lithostratigraphical position of the
Woźniki Limestone, we estimate its age to be Norian.
The studied area was situated during Norian times within
the subtropical convergence zone. Dry climatic conditions domi-
nated; however, several humid intervals have also been recog-
nized during this time in central Europe (Reinhardt and Ricken,
2000). The pluvial intervals were affected by other climate-form-
ing factors, such as changes in ocean-land configuration, volca-
nism, or supraregional tectonic-topographical changes (Simms
and Ruffel, 1990; Szulc, 2007).
It is important to note that the Woźniki Limestone is closely
linked to the master fault dislocation in the region (Szulc et al.,
 Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland
A B
2002) (Fig. 1), called the Cracow-Lubliniec fault (cf. Morawska,
1997). Typical carbonates of the Woźniki Limestone occur in a
belt of some 10 km in width, adjacent to the fault zone. Clearly,
no similar facies occur outward from this belt.
The thick carbonate succession, reaching up to 30 m (Figs.
2–5), is a fundamental feature that distinguishes the Woźniki
Limestone from its coeval counterparts in other regions of the
mid-European Basin (see Beutler et al., 1999).
METHODS AND MATERIALS
Outcrops of the Woźniki Limestone are rare. Therefore, in
order to accomplish the research goals, several holes were drilled
across the entire outcrop area of the Woźniki Limestone. Twelve
135
Figure 1. (A) Geological sketch map of
the Woźniki Limestone, and (B) location
of the studied outcrops and drill holes.
outcrop sections and six cores were studied for sedimentary fab-
rics and facies variability. The sedimentological observations
were supplemented by petrological and geochemical analyses of
mineralogical composition, stable isotopes, major and trace ele-
ments, and clay minerals.
The measurements of carbonate δ13C and δ18O were con-
ducted with a SUMY mass spectrometer at the Institute of Geo-
chemistry and Geophysics, the Academy of Sciences of Belarus
in Minsk. The isotope ratios were measured in carbon dioxide
generated by reaction of the samples with 100% orthophosphoric
acid. Carbon dioxide was subsequently trapped in liquid nitrogen
and purified in a vacuum. The analytical error for single measure-
ments was ±0.2‰. Stable oxygen isotope ratios are expressed
relative to Peedee belemnite (PDB) standard (see Hoefs, 1997).
136
Figure 2. Lithostratigraphic log of the studied Upper Triassic interval.
We analyzed 41 samples from different localities (both drill
holes and outcrops) palynologically in order to establish the age
position of the studied succession by biostratigraphy. Most of the
samples contained only opaque phytoclasts and occasional plant
tissues in varying amounts, but were barren of palynomorphs.
Only eight samples contained sufficient palynomorphs to allow
a biostratigraphical classification. Preservation of the palyno-
morphs varied from poor to good.
RESULTS OF SEDIMENTOLOGICAL AND
MICROFACIES STUDIES
Four basic facies types have been recognized within the
described freshwater limestones: the travertine facies, the fluvial
facies, the palustrine facies, and the pedogenic facies.
Szulc et al.
Travertines
Travertine facies have been found at three sites in the SE
part of the basin (Fig. 1) and are represented by calcite fabrics
precipitated directly in the spring orifice, and by spring-mar-
gin pool sediments where carbonates were deposited at a more
moderate rate. The two subfacies differ slightly in the dominant
fabric type.
The travertines that were formed in the spring orifices form
either highly porous pure limestones composed of calcitic rafts
and heavily calcified rhizomes and stalks (Fig. 6A) or are built
by pisoids reaching 1 cm in diameter (Fig. 6B). The pisoids are
in fact composed of microbial aggregates displaying faint con-
centric structure (Fig. 6C). The pisolites show common reversed
grading and are interlayered with stromatolites (Fig. 6B). The lat-
ter are composed of dendritic shrubs of bacterial origin (Chafetz
and Folk, 1983; Folk et al., 1985; Pentecost, 1990; Guo and Rid-
ing, 1994) or of filamentous fabrics (Fig. 6D). Trapped, calci-
fied detritus of vascular plants is a common component of the
spring travertines (Fig. 6E). Most of the encrustations are related
to calcification driven by epiphytic microbial colonies covering
the vascular plants.
The limestones that were formed in small pools in the mar-
ginal spring zone (Nowa Wieś Żarecka site) are also very rich in
calcified algae and reed-like, vascular plants, but in contrast to
the spring-mouth travertines, they also include finely laminated
peloidal limestones (Fig. 6F). A rich microbial epiphytic assem-
blage (bacteria, cyanobacteria) enhanced the calcification of the
higher plants (Fig. 6G). Moreover, thin calcitic rafts that formed
at the surface of the pool water were probably related to activity
of neustonic algal colonies (Fig. 6H) (Szulc, 1997). The traver-
tines are devoid of clastic impurities, and the only noncarbon-
ate components are minute quartz grains found in the travertines
from the Por˛eba and Ogrodzieniec sites. In addition to the sites
examined in this study, travertines were found by Roemer (1867)
in the central part of the basin (see Fig. 1). From this travertine,
Roemer described numerous molds of ferns (Clathropteris sp.),
typical for the Upper Keuper.
Fluvial Facies
The fluvial deposits are generally represented by fine-grained
clastics, mainly greenish and red mudstones with subordinate
contribution of arkosic sandy material. These deposits occur as
sheets interbedded within the carbonate packages of the Woźniki
Limestone (Fig. 7A).
The fluvial deposits are mostly plane-bedded, cross-bed-
ded, and rippled sandstones and siltstones (Figs. 7B and 7C).
The primary structures are commonly obliterated due to postde-
positional pedogenic processes; however, the dominant recog-
nizable primary sedimentary structures include parallel lamina-
tion and ripple-drift cross-lamination. These structures suggest
a sheet-like depositional system developed upon a low-relief
mudflat area.
 Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland 137

Figure 3. Measured sections and facies

interpretation from boreholes Ogrodzie-
niec (travertine) and Niwki (transition
from gypsiferous playa sediments to
palustrine carbonates) with the δ13C pro-
LIMESTONES
files. The shadowed parts of the profiles
mark the gray to greenish sediment col-
DOLOMITES or. The nonshadowed part of the mud-
stones marks the red and brown color of
MARLS
the sediments.
MUDSTONES
SANDSTONES AND
CONGLOMERATES
PEDOGENIC
RHIZOIDAL NODULES CONCRETIONS
WITH SPARITE CEMENT
ONCOIDS
MARLY LIMESTONES
STROMATOLITES
POROUS TRAVERTINE

UPPER GIPSKEUPER - PLAYA EVAPORITES

SEDIMENTS (NOT DISCUSSED
IN THE TEXT) RHIZOIDS
CALCRETE CRUST PELECYPODS
CHERTS
COALIFIED PLANTS
MUDCRACKS CALCIFIED VASCULAR
RESIDUAL DEBRIS PLANTS

ALTERED MUDSTONES IVb PALYNOLOGICAL ZONE

(SEE ALSO TEXT)

Some of the beds have an erosional lower bounding surface,
in particular the sheet-like gray, poorly sorted conglomeratic beds
reaching up to 50 cm in thickness. The conglomerates consist of
oncoids (Fig. 7D), coalified wood fragments (Fig. 7E), reworked
pedogenic carbonate nodules (Fig. 7F), vertebrate bones and
unionid bivalve debris (Fig. 7G). Such a composition indicates
that the conglomerates originated as intraformational deposits
through reworking and mixing of the material derived from pond
sediments and paleosols by ephemeral streams operating upon
the mudflat after heavy runoff events. Similar Triassic conglom-
erates composed by reworked calcretes have been described also
by Gómez-Gras and Alonso-Zarza (2003) from Minorca and by
Szulc (2005) from Upper Silesia.
The alluvium also encompasses black pebbles (Fig. 7H).
The latter formed probably in small, poorly ventilated ephemeral
pans where lithoclasts underwent impregnation by organic mat-
ter and were incorporated into fluvial sediments after redeposi-
tion (Strasser, 1984). Alternatively, the black pebbles might have
originated due to local wildfires (Shinn and Lidz, 1987).
The main clastic mineral component is quartz, with sub-
ordinate contributions of clay minerals, K-feldspars, and car-
bonates. Among the clay minerals, illite, kaolinite, and very
subordinate, mixed-layered illite/smectite have been detected
(Lewandowska et al., 2001). The lowermost parts of the studied
succession contain chlorite also. The clastic intercalations often
show green or red color mottling, reflecting postdepositional
pedogenic processes.
Palustrine Facies
The palustrine facies dominates among the freshwater sedi-
ments and comprises some 80 percent of the entire carbonate suc-
cession of the Woźniki Limestone. This facies is particularly well
developed in the central part of the basin, i.e., between Cynków
Figure 4. Measured sections and facies interpretation of the dominant palustrine carbonates from Woźniki and Cynków with the δ13C profiles.
For legend, see Figure 3.
 Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland
and Psary (Fig. 1). The total thickness of the palustrine carbon-
ates reaches 30 m (Fig. 4), but the carbonate succession is divided
into two parts. This is particularly visible in the Cynków section,
where the two palustrine carbonate packages are separated by 5
m of fluvial claystones and variegated mudstones (Fig. 4).
Palustrine carbonates are massive and/or faintly stratified
white micritic limestones and rarely marls (Figs. 8A–8C). The
faint stratification is accentuated by intraformational breccias,
sheet cracks, calcrete crusts, teepee structures, or paleokarst
horizons (Figs. 8A, 8C, 8D, and 8E). The larger karst cavities
are commonly filled with clayey material, and the smaller voids
are filled with internal silt and sparry cement (Figs. 8D and 8F).
Some voids, in particular those related to rhizome systems, are
filled with marcasite and pyritic encrustations (Fig. 8G).
139
Figure 5. Measured sections and facies
interpretation of the profiles from Lipie
Śl˛askie, Por˛eba, and Zawiercie. For leg-
end, see Figure 3.
The dominant microfacies type is homogeneous micrite with
microgranular and clotted texture, which displays microscopic
features, similar to the automicritic peloidal muds generated by
bacterial mediation (Fig. 9) (Reitner, 1993).
The characteristics of the carbonate palustrine succession
of the Woźniki Limestone show some obvious vertical changes.
The lower part of the palustrine carbonates commonly contains
pseudomorphs after dispersed crystals and aggregates of gypsum
(Figs. 10A, 10B, and 10C). Rootlet fabrics are notably scarce in
this part of the section. Upsection, the sulfates disappear, and the
rhizoid fabrics become more common.
The palustrine lithologies are composed of low magnesian
calcite. The noncarbonate components consist of clay minerals
(up to 3 wt%) and quartz (<1 wt%). Among clay minerals, illite
 A B C

0.5 mm

D E F

0.8 mm

G H

0.8 mm 2 mm

Figure 6. Spring facies. (A) Porous travertines with calcified stems of vascular plants and calcite rafts from the Ogrodzieniec borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm
long. (B) Pisoidal and micropisoidal travertine from the Por˛eba site. Calcified debris of vascular plants is visible in the middle of the sample. Note the
reversed grading of the pisolites. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (C) Microscopic view of the pisolitic limestones from B. The pisoids are composed of faintly
laminated, clotted microbial grains. (D) Pisolitic-stromatolitic travertines from the Por˛eba site. The stromatolitic shrubs developed partly as overgrowths
on the pisoids (arrow). Scale bar is 3 cm long. (E) Calcified cone mold embedded in the travertines from the Por˛eba site. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (F) Per-
pendicular section of the calcified reed-like stems from the spring-fed pools from the Nowa Wieś Żarecka site. (G) Microscopic view of the cyanobacterial
mats building the stromatolite fabrics in the travertines from the Por˛eba site. (H) Calcite micritic rafts, partly broken and sunk, from the pool limestones,
Nowa Wieś Żarecka site. (Insert) calcified, bubble-like neustonic algae (cf. Botrydium sp.) from the Nowa Wieś Żarecka site.
 A B

20 cm 5 cm

C D
3 cm

E F

5 mm 5 mm

G H

5 mm 33 cm
cm

Figure 7. Fluvial facies. (A) Sheetflood, alluvial deposits with intraformational, conglomerates from the Woźniki site. (B) Cross-bedded, mica-
ceous alluvial sandstones from the Lipie Śl˛askie site. (C) Plane-bedded, overbank muddy alluvial sediments from the Lipie Śl˛askie site. Hammer
handle is 32 cm long. (D) Reversely graded alluvial sediments composed of oncoids, coal debris, and lithoclasts from the Por˛eba borehole. Scale
bar is 3 cm long. (E) Coalified wood fragment and small lithoclasts. Thin section is from the sample in D. (F) Reworked pedogenic nodules,
lithoclasts, bone fragments, and Chara gyrogonite. Thin section is from the sample in D. (G) Fragment of oncoid enveloping unionid shell. Thin
section is from the sample is D. (H) Black pebble accumulation upon eroded palustrine limestones. Scale bar is 3 cm long.
 A B

C D
C

30 cm

E
3 cm

3 cm

F 3 cm G 3 cm

Figure 8. Palustrine facies. (A) Typical, faintly stratified palustrine carbonate deposits of the Woźniki Limestone from the Ligota site. Arrow indi-
cates tepee deformation. Hammer for scale. (B) Thick- and medium-bedded palustrine limestones from the Lipie Śl˛askie site. Hammer for scale.
(C) Massive palustrine limestones with karstic surfaces (white arrows) and calcrete crust at the top from the Cynków site. Note the uneven surface
of the carbonate complex. (D) Planar cracks and microkarstic voids filled with internal silt and sparry cement from the Psary site. Scale bar is 3 cm
long. (E) Small tepee deformation within the palustrine limestones from the Cynków borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (F) Microkarstic cavities and
dilatancy fissures (marked by arrows) filled with internal silt and sparry calcite, from the Por˛eba borehole. See text for further explanations. Scale
bar is 3 cm long. (G) Massive palustrine limestones with root cavities encrusted by pyrite, from the Psary site. Scale bar is 3 cm long.
 Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland
Figure 9. Palustrine facies. Microgranular, lumpy micrite probably of
microbial origin (automicrite sensu Reitner, 1993).
is dominant, with secondary kaolinite and a very subordinate
amount of mixed-layered illite/smectite. The clay assemblage is
of detrital origin and does not differ from that of the adjacent
alluvial mudstones and claystones.
It is noteworthy that the palustrine limestones underlying the
clastic intervals (mostly of fluvial origin) are commonly dolomi-
tized. Dolomitization may encompass a superficial layer of the
palustrine limestone several centimeters thick (Fig. 10D), but
may also extend as deep as 5 m from the top of the palustrine
complex. The dolomitization created secondary porosity in the
carbonates and produced yellow, vuggy horizons, called cellular
dolomites (Figs. 10E and 10F), where the dolomite content can
be up to 85 wt%. Microcrystalline, uniform dolomite dominates
and replaces the calcite substrate pervasively. Most probably, the
porosity was formed by replacement of limestone by the dolo-
mite, followed and/or accompanied by dissolution of the non-
replaced limestones. The pores are partly filled with fine clastic
quartz and clayey interstitial sediments, indicating infiltration by
meteoric waters. From the stable isotopes analyses (see follow-
ing section), it can be concluded that the dolomite formed from
solutions not subjected to evaporation. Taking this all together,
the dolomitization was closely related to the subsoil processes
(dissolution and precipitation) proceeding in the vadose zone
(Sherman et al., 1962).
Within the palustrine facies, silicified horizons perfectly pre-
serve the primary fabrics of the host carbonate sediments, includ-
ing gypsum pseudomorphs, and encompass altered carbonates up
to 50 cm thick (Fig. 10G).
Pedogenic Facies
The pedogenic sediments may be divided into soils devel-
oped on the clastic substrate (i.e., variegated mudstones and clay-
stones) and carbonate soils (i.e., calcretes).
143
The first type encompasses a variety of paleosols from
incipient, regolithic soils (Inceptisols) to more matured orders of
Aridisols (sensu Retallack, 2001). This type of paleosol forms
mainly brown, nodular and friable mudstones, reaching 1 m in
thickness and passing gradationally to the underlying parent
substrate. Some paleosols display relatively well-preserved root
traces that diffusively penetrate the underlying host rocks. Pedo-
genic slickensides in the variegated mudstones are a fabric typi-
cal of semiarid Cambisol-Vertisol types of soil (de Vos and Virgo,
1969; Fitzpatrick, 1986; Retallack, 2001). The color mottling,
typical for these paleosols, seems to reflect the early diagenetic
oxidation of the hydrated Fe-oxides (gray colored) leading to
mature Fe-oxides (hematite) and reddening of the primary gray
sediments (Turner, 1980).
The carbonate soils (Calcisols), which have thicknesses
ranging between several centimeters to 1 m, are developed either
as pedogenic nodules and vadoids (coated grains of coated ori-
gin) entombed within clastic substrate (mainly weathered mud-
stones) or as various pedogenic fabrics developed upon the
palustrine carbonates (Figs. 11A–11D and 11F). Both types of
Calcisols display a wide spectrum of features diagnostic for their
pedogenic origin, such as glaebules, circumgranular and septar-
ian cracks, cutans, and root canals (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982)
(see Figs. 11D and 11E). Upsection, the soils pass mostly into the
palustrine carbonates, but sometimes they are covered by alluvial
material.
Some of the palustrine limestone complexes are capped by
massive calcrete of hardpan type (between several centimeters
and 0.5 m in thickness) (Fig. 8C) or are intensively karstified.
The surface of the karstified carbonates, as visible in the plane
view, is jagged and features karst fabrics such as sinkholes up to
1 m in depth (Figs. 11F and 11G).
RESULTS OF STABLE ISOTOPES EXAMINATION
The paleoenvironmental reconstruction based on the carbon
and oxygen stable isotope signals is consistent with the results of
the sedimentological and petrographical studies. The stable iso-
tope composition of the Woźniki Limestone generally follows the
vertical and lateral variation of the sedimentary facies. Therefore,
we discuss the diversity of stable isotope signals from various
laterally equivalent facies and the isotopic variation as a result of
the overall, secular paleoenvironmental changes in the region.
Facies-Dependent Isotope Composition (Lateral
Fractionation)
By analyzing the spatial distribution of the stable isotopes
in terms of the facies diversity, one may find a clear relationship
between the facies type and stable isotope composition (Figs.
12A and 12B). The most positive values characterize the traver-
tines from Por˛eba, (Fig. 12A), where δ13C ranges between –0.3‰
and –3.5‰, and δ18O ranges from –5.5‰ to –6.7‰.
 A B

3 mm

C
D

2 mm

5 mm

F G

Figure 10. Palustrine facies. (A) Gypsum nests (pseudomorphed) within palustrine limestones from the Cynków borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm
long. (B) Thin section from the sample in A. Note the displacive and enterolithic form of gypsum growth. (C) Secondary porosity after dissolved
gypsum crystals. The voids are geopetally filled with internal silt and sparry calcite (from the Woźniki borehole). (D) Dolomitized palustrine
limestones. The ochre staining (dark color at the photo) comes from Fe- and Mn-oxide impregnation (from the Cynków borehole). Scale bar is
3 cm long. (E) Thin section from the sample in D. (F) Highly porous (“cellular”) dolomites with MnO-concentration (black spots). Thin section
is from the sample in D. (G) Thin section of silicified, gypsum-bearing, palustrine carbonates from the Woźniki borehole.
 A B

3 cm
3 cm

3 cm

D E

5 mm

F G

25 cm

Figure 11. Pedogenic fabrics. (A) Pedogenic vadoid horizon (V) developed upon exposed palustrine limestones from the Brudzowice site. Note
the planar cracks and rhizoid fabrics within the palustrine carbonates. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (B) Planar cracks and circumgranular, desiccation
cracks featuring the exposed palustrine limestone from the Cynków borehole. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (C) Slab of the mottled pedogenic nodule
isolated from the mudflat clastic sediments from the Zawiercie site. Scale bar is 3 cm long. (D) Thin section of paleosol carbonates with mottled
fabrics and initial vadoidal cortex from the Psary site. (E) Thin section of paleosol glaebules with septaria from the Lipie Śl˛askie site. (F) Plane
view of paleoweathering surface developed upon exposed palustrine limestones from the Cynków site. Lens cap is 55 mm across for scale. (G)
Plane view of deeply karstified palustrine limestones from the Cynków site. Depth of the sinkhole reaches ~0.6 m.
146
A pic composition has been found in spring-related Upper Triassic
B to +1‰ (PDB) accompanied the facies change from fluvial to
Figure 12. Cross-plot of δ13C and δ18O values for spring carbonates (A)
and palustrine and pedogenic carbonates (B).
The carbonates that formed in the marginal ponds of the
spring zone (Nowa Wieś Żarecka site) are lighter in δ13C by some
2‰–3‰ than the travertines formed directly by the spring ori-
fice. The range of δ18O is very narrow and fluctuates between
–4.8‰ and –6.2‰.
The stable isotope signals from the other facies (fluvial,
palustrine, pedogenic) display a much wider range of values
(Fig. 12B) since they were influenced by a broad spectrum of
fluctuating environmental controls, particularly climatic. As in
the travertines, the carbon isotope values exhibit a wider range
(δ13C values from –11‰ to 0.5‰ versus PDB) than the oxygen
isotopes (δ18O values from –8‰ to 0‰ versus PDB). Strongly
negative excursions of δ18O (to –11‰ versus PDB) are related to
dolomitization proceeding under the influence of meteoric waters
(Figs. 12A and 12B). Notably, a similar variation in the isoto-
Szulc et al.
freshwater carbonates in Wales (Leslie et al., 1992).
Evolution of the Stable Isotope Composition with Time
The δ13C profiles from the three longest sections of the
Woźniki Limestone (Niwki, Woźniki , Cynków) display a com-
mon trend, which undoubtedly reflects the longer-term environ-
mental changes in the basin area (Figs. 3 and 4).
The fluvial sediments that formed during the wet, pluvial
phase that preceded the deposition of the Woźniki Limestone car-
bonates show relatively negative δ13C values, which might have
been caused by a significant influx of meteoric water with iso-
topically light soil CO2 derived from decay of rich plant debris.
The subsequent abrupt positive shift toward a δ13C range of 0‰
palustrine, carbonate and/or sulfate deposition. Such a positive
shift may be interpreted as typical for evaporitic enrichment in
heavier isotopes. This in turn implies climate aridification. The
covariant trend in δ18O composition confirms this inference.
Subsequently, the δ13C curve displays a gradual shift to more
negative values. The isotopic trend is concurrent with a lack of
sulfate minerals and the more common appearance of root sys-
tems. Therefore, we attribute it to a progressively more humid
climate and a growing influence of the isotopically light carbon
associated with meteoric water input and/or carbon derived from
decayed organic matter.
The δ18O does not display this apparent trend (Fig. 12).
Unlike carbon isotopes, O-isotope fractionation is more sensi-
tive to incidental factors such as short-term changes in evapo-
ration and meteoric water influx. Pronounced negative shifts of
δ13C and δ18O characterize the previously described dolomitized
vuggy limestones. Such a negative shift indicates a definitive
contribution of meteoric water and indicates that the dolomitiza-
tion was related to the diluted water activity.
Long-term evolution in the travertine profile of Ogrodzien-
iec can also be observed. The observed gradual decrease in δ13C
values reflects changes of isotope contents in the parent solutions
and/or migration of the spring orifice zone. Since the δ13C co-
varies with the negative shift of δ18O (Fig. 3), the observed trend
most likely reflects the increasing contribution of the isotopically
lighter, meteoric water to the formation of carbonates.
DISCUSSION OF THE ORIGIN AND GENETIC
MODEL OF THE WOŹNIKI LIMESTONE
Paleohydrological and Tectonic Controls of the Origin of
the Woźniki Limestone
Sedimentation of thick carbonate complexes of the Woźniki
Limestone seems to be in contradiction to the arid and semiarid
climatic conditions prevailing in Norian times, since deposi-
tion of such a voluminous carbonate body requires an adequate
volume of the parent solutions. The apparent contradiction may
 Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland
be plausibly explained if one assumes a crenogenic, i.e., spring-
related, alimentation model of the Woźniki basin as already pos-
tulated by Bogacz et al. (1970).
It is very interesting that the facies assemblage of the Woźniki
Limestone has a paucity of lacustrine sediments, which are lim-
ited to deposits formed in small and shallow pools fed by spring
water. Presently, these more resistant carbonates form gentle
hills, whereas the fine clastics of the mudflat sediment adjoining
to the limestone underwent erosion, giving a reversed pattern of
the Late Triassic paleotopography. It seems that the Woźniki
Limestone did not form one laterally continuous carbonate body,
as suggested G˛asiorowski and Piekarska (1986), but rather rep-
resents a group of more or less isolated smaller patches of
limestones, deposited in local swampy depressions maintained
by a spring system. The travertines would be the spring-adja-
cent facies, while the distal facies are represented by palustrine
carbonates.
As indicated by the stable isotopic data, the isotopic com-
position of the travertines differs from those of the other facies
(Fig. 12). Lack of data on the original isotopic composition of the
parent waters makes any further inferences, e.g., on the tempera-
ture of the water, uncertain. Recently, Słowakiewicz (2003) has
claimed that all carbonates of the Woźniki Limestone are hydro-
thermal spring deposits. This conclusion is not reliable, since, as
already discussed, the sedimentary facies context, biotic data,
petrological and stable isotope signals, and the high temperature
of the solution probably characterized only limited, spring-adja-
cent precipitated travertines. The other facies, such as the domi-
nant palustrine one, include organisms (for instance, vascular
plants and ostracodes) that do not have the ability to persist and
develop in the temperature range (up to 97 °C) suggested by
S⁄lowakiewicz (2003).
As already noted the Woźniki Limestone is poor in fossils,
particularly the palustrine facies, where only ostracodes have
been found. Beside the ostracodes, one uncertain gastropod mold
has been mentioned by Roemer (1867), who determined it as a
possible Paludina sp.
The main reason for the paucity of biota is that the palustrine
sediments formed under very stressed environmental conditions.
The elevated alkalinity and salinity hindered colonization on one
hand, and led to rapid degradation of the organic matter on the
other hand. Also, the paucity of palynomorphs resulted from their
degradation under high alkaline conditions. Moreover, the com-
mon occurrence of sulfide concretions (Fig. 8G) indicates that
dysoxic conditions dominated in some poorly drained, water-
logged sediments.
Finally, since the basin was extremely shallow, the palus-
trine carbonates were desiccated very often. The environmental
stress not only eliminated most of the organisms but also selected
a very specialized group. A good illustration of such a selection
is exemplified by the ostracodes. It is striking that most of the
disarticulated ostracode tests have been found in voids devel-
oped within the sediments, i.e., below the sediment surface (Fig.
13). The ostracode colonies dwelt in the primary voids (i.e., root
147
0.8 mm
Figure 13. Thin section of root tube with disarticulated tests of coeno-
biotic ostracodes from the Psary site.
canals, sheet cracks). The subterranean, coenobiotic living strat-
egy gave more chance for survival during the drought periods,
since the wet conditions, supported by soil moisture and inter-
stitial water, persisted there longer than in the superficial zone.
On the other hand, the coenobionts may indicate contrasting
hydrologic conditions between the dry surface and the subjacent,
groundwater-soaked sediment column.
An endogenic origin of fluids is confirmed by distribution of
the Woźniki Limestone, which is tightly bound to a master fault
zone that might have provided a conduit for the ascending solu-
tions. Typical carbonates of the Woźniki Limestone lie in a belt
adjacent to the fault (Fig. 1) and do not occur outside this zone.
Such a distribution confirms the inference about the endogenic
origin and crenogenic nature of the solutions maintained in the
basin (cf. Hancock et al., 1999).
The tectonic control of the spring distribution imposes some
further constraints about the groundwater supply mechanisms.
As a rule, fault-controlled springs are intermittently active (Sib-
son, 1987); hence, their efficiency fluctuates with time. In the
studied case, the periods of water pumping in a given site might
have alternated with weakening or even total vanishing of the
source(s). This oscillation might have coincided with pulsing
seismic activity. Small synsedimentary dilatancy cracks possibly
record the paleoearthquake motion in the studied deposits (Fig.
8F), confirming this inference.
Climatic Controls
From the characteristics of the sedimentary complex of the
Woźniki Limestone, one may infer that, aside from the endogenic
factors, the sedimentary processes were also stimulated by alter-
nating climatic conditions. The estimation of the climate signifi-
cance is, however, more complex, since climatic influences may
be overshadowed by endogenic ones.
148 Szulc et al.
Co-occurrence of the gypsum and limestones in the lower
part of the succession indicates evaporitic precipitation under
a negative precipitation/evaporation balance, which is typi-
cal for semidry climates (Figs. 3–5). The gradual withdrawal
of the gypsum and the concomitant increasing occurrence of
rhizoid fabrics observed upsection most likely reflect climate
humidification.
Additionally, the previously discussed δ13C curves indicate
a similar trend, reflecting general climate pluvialization dur-
ing the time under discussion. The “dry” facies of the Upper
Gipskeuper were gradually replaced by more “wet” sediments
typical for the Steinmergelkeuper facies in the entire Central
European basin. This climatic trend was driven most probably
by a drift of the mid-European block outside the subtropical dry
belt, i.e., into the higher paleolatitudes (45–50°) (Szulc, 2007).
The paleoclimatic conditions in the Late Triassic also fluc-
tuated in rhythms of shorter frequencies (Simms and Ruffel,
1990; Reinhardt and Ricken, 2000). The shorter-term changes
are mostly attributed to the orbitally controlled fluctuation in
paleomonsoonal circulation, which played an important role for
the mid-European area in Triassic times (Kutzbach, 1994; Par-
rish, 1999). These short-term climatic changes are manifested,
first of all, by alluvial clastic intercalations enclosed within the
palustrine limestones. Also the karstification, certification, and
dolomitization phenomena intimately related to clastic intervals
mark breaks in carbonate sedimentation and subaerial weather-
ing on one hand and indicate an increasing influence of mete-
oric waters (i.e., climate pluvialization) on the other hand.
The chert replacement of the calcite and sulfates most
likely proceeded under fluctuating pH conditions, i.e., between
the alkaline and the normal conditions when the dissolved
silica was reprecipitated (Fig. 10G). This process may also be
attributed to climatic fluctuations; during the dry periods, the
evaporated solutions became alkaline, while the pluvialization
led to a decrease in their alkalinity. If the subaerial exposure
events coincided with dry climatic phases, the exposed palus-
trine limestones underwent pedogenesis.
Genetic Model of the Woźniki Limestone
As discussed already, the majority of the carbonates of the
Woźniki Limestone is genetically related to solutions supplied by
a huge spring system controlled by the active fault. As also noted,
the fault-controlled spring activity fluctuated with time, so the
history of Woźniki Limestone may be divided into periods of car-
bonate deposition and nondeposition. The lithological succession
of the Woźniki Limestone indicates, however, that the endogenic
cycles were also being modified by climatically controlled fac-
tors (clastic input, pedogenic alternation, karstification) superim-
posed upon the endogenic mechanism.
Lithological variation (i.e., limestones vs. clastics) within
the Woźniki Limestone rock assemblage necessitates a changing
ratio of the endogenic versus meteoric solutions supply. We can
envision four scenarios of this interplay:
Scenario 1. Endogenic Alimentation Active, Climate Arid
During the dry periods, the carbonates (and gypsum) pre-
cipitated from the crenogenic, undiluted solutions.
Scenario 2. Endogenic Alimentation Ceased, Climate
Semiarid
Carbonate deposition stopped and calcrete formed.
Scenario 3. Endogenic Alimentation Ceased, Climate Wetter
Carbonate sedimentation stopped, and karstification became
a particularly important process affecting the limestones. Dolo-
mitization progressed.
The intimate association between detrital sedimentation and
dolomitization processes suggests that the dolomitization was
driven by an increase of the meteoric water input during humid
periods. If the pluvial period was prolonged, some silicate miner-
als (feldspars, chlorite) underwent alteration and released (among
others) Mg2+. This led to dolomitization of the karstified palus-
trine limestones. The inference is also supported by the stable
isotopes data. The proposed dolomitization model is contrary to
those reported from similar continental settings where calcite-to-
dolomite transformation is attributed to fluids evaporated under
arid climatic conditions (Richter, 1985; Spötl and Wright, 1992;
Colson and Cojan, 1996; Warren, 1999; Sinha and Raymahashay,
2004).
Scenario 4. Endogenic Alimentation Active, Climate Wetter
In this scenario, the denudation processes prevailed. The
muddy and clayey sediments derived from outside the spring
zone were eroded and redeposited. This process led to clastic
dilution of the carbonate-bearing source waters and hindered
unconstrained precipitation of CaCO3.
To summarize, as the presented data suggest, the switch
between the carbonate and clastic sedimentation may be plau-
sibly explained as an effect of climatic fluctuations between
the dry and pluvial periods (Fig. 14). The dry periods favored
deposition of carbonate sediments (travertines and palustrine
limestones, calcretes), while the pluvialization obstructed car-
bonate sedimentation and promoted their denudation, dolomi-
tization, and replacement by fine-grained, detrital deposition.
This model is supported by the clay mineral composition. The
clay minerals enclosed in the carbonate deposits are dominated
by illite, which is characteristic of drier conditions, whereas
the clastic, fluvial intercalations display increasing contribu-
tion of kaolinite, which forms preferably under humid condi-
tions (Ruffel et al., 2002).
Palustrine facies are commonly defined as subaerially trans-
formed lake-margin deposits (see discussion in Alonso-Zarza,
2003). This definition is, however, difficult to apply for cases
where the palustrine environment is not preceded by a lacustrine
stage, as in this case. The most probable sedimentary environ-
ment of the Woźniki Limestone would be a low-relief area with
swampy depressions filled with gradually evaporated water.
The paucity of typical lacustrine sediments and fossils indicates
 Upper Triassic freshwater limestones from Poland
B Figure 14. Genetic model of the Woźniki
that limnic conditions were limited to very small and ephemeral
ponds. Similar palustrine basins have been interpreted either as
floodplain ponds (Huerta and Armenteros, 2005) or as ground-
water wetlands (Tandon and Andrews, 2001). In both cases,
the basins would have been maintained by meteoric and fluvial
waters. The specific character of the palustrine Woźniki Lime-
stone depends on the crenogenic recharge system maintaining
the basin. The endogenic nature of the water supply resulted in
an unconventional relationship between the climate and conti-
nental carbonate sedimentation. In contrast to the typical situ-
ation, the crenogenic palustrine carbonates developed in arid
conditions, and they vanished with climate pluvialization.
CONCLUSIONS
The Upper Triassic (Norian) Woźniki Limestone from
Upper Silesia is composed of freshwater carbonate sediment
formed in swampy depressions, fed by a huge, fault-bound
149
Limestone. (A) Deposition of the lime-
stone during arid periods. (B) Degrada-
tion of the limestone and alluvial sedi-
mentation during humid periods.
spring system. The travertines formed adjacent to the spring
orifices, while in the more distal area, the palustrine carbonates
were deposited.
The crenogenic character of the solution supply imposes a
very specific model of palustrine carbonate sedimentation. The
pure carbonates formed mainly during dry intervals, whereas the
climate pluvialization involved meteoric and clastic dilution and the
final withdrawal of calcareous deposition. This model is opposite
to some extent to the typical model of freshwater carbonate sedi-
mentation under humid conditions, which ceases, in turn, under
dry climatic conditions. The model presented here is supported by
geochemical signals and biotic indicators. It is remarkable that the
limestones are very poor in fossils (both faunal and floral), which
are more common in the fluvial (humid) intervals.
In addition to the shorter pluvialization episodes, a secular
trend in climate humidification has been identified. This trend
reflects a general climate evolution forced by drift of the cen-
tral Europe block to the higher paleolatitudinal zone.
150 Szulc et al.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study was financed by the State Committee for Scien-
tific Research grant 6PO4D 023 19. The drillings were possible
due to the permission of: Czes⁄law Kawalec, Lidia Kucharczyk,
Maria Nakie⁄la, Stanis⁄law Proszowski, Janusz Psonka, and the
owners of the Brickyard in Lipie Śl˛askie. We thank Renata Jach
drawing the figures and Bogus⁄law Ko⁄lodziej for his assistance
with photographic works.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments:

The Quaternary deposits of Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands,
Ciudad Real, Spain
Ana M. Alonso-Zarza
Departamento de Petrología y Geoquímica, Fac. CC. Geológicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain

Miriam Dorado-Valiño
Ana Valdeolmillos-Rodríguez
M. Blanca Ruiz-Zapata
Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Alcalá, Edificio de Ciencias, Campus Universitario,
28871 Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain

ABSTRACT

Las Tablas de Daimiel, Spain, is one of the scarce, freshwater wetlands areas still
preserved in southern Europe. The wetland is fed by surface and groundwater. We
studied the Quaternary sedimentary record of Las Tablas in a drill hole that penetrat-
ed 38.5 m of shallow-lake and fluvial deposits. Differences in the dominantly micritic
muds indicate three main stages of development. In the lowest stage, unit A, (Lower?
to Middle Pleistocene) the slightly saline wetland developed under a relatively arid
climate that favored slow flow movement of the fluvial system and the disconnection
of the ponded areas. In the intermediate stage, unit B, (Middle to Upper Pleistocene)
extensive peat developed during wetter conditions. Biosiliceous sediments (diatoms
and sponge spicules) also accumulated in this swampy setting. In the latter stage, unit
C, (Upper Pleistocene to Holocene) palustrine carbonates formed in a freshwater envi-
ronment with desiccation events, followed by fluvial reworking of the lake margins.
Lithification of these deposits was relatively fast (<10,000 yr). The studies of the core,
including mineralogy, petrography, stables isotopes, and pollen analyses, indicate that
these sediments are similar to those of ancient palustrine sequences. Therefore, Las
Tablas can be considered as a recent analogue for freshwater palustrine systems that
have no marine influence. These systems are very sensitive to changes in climate or
base level, and their study is needed to better understand the terrestrial sedimentary
record. Study is needed also to determine how to preserve these wetlands.

Keywords: palustrine carbonates, wetlands, Quaternary, peat, vegetation, Spain.

RESUMEN

Las Tablas de Daimiel constituyen uno de los escasos humedales de agua dulce
que aún se conservan en el sur de Europa, concretamente en España. El humedal
está abastecido por aguas superficiales y subterráneas. El registro sedimentario

Alonso-Zarza, A.M., Dorado-Valiño, M., Valdeolmillos-Rodríguez, A., and Ruiz-Zapata, M.B., 2006, A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments:
The Quaternary deposits of Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands, Ciudad Real, Spain, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and
Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 153–168, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(10). For permission
to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

153
154 Alonso-Zarza et al.

Cuaternario de Las Tablas, se ha estudiado mediante un sondeo en el que se cortaron

38.5 m de depósitos lacustres someros y fluviales, esencialmente carbonatos micríticos.
Las características de los sedimentos permiten diferenciar tres principales etapas de
sedimentación. En la primera etapa, unidad A, (Pleistoceno Inferior? a Medio) el
humedal era ligeramente salino y se desarrolló bajo un clima relativamente árido que
favoreció el flujo más lento del sistema fluvial, permitiendo la desconexión de las zonas
encharcadas. En la etapa intermedia, unidad B, (Pleistoceno Medio a Superior) el
amplio desarrollo de turberas indica condiciones más húmedas, en las que dentro de
las áreas pantanosas también se depositaron sedimentos biosilíceos (diatomeas y
espículas de esponjas). En la última etapa, unidad C, (Pleistoceno Superior a Holoce-
no) los sedimentos característicos son carbonatos palustres formados en un ambiente
de agua dulce con eventos de desecación seguidos de posterior retrabajamiento de los
márgenes lacustres por canales fluviales. La litificación de estos depósitos fue relativa-
mente rápida (<10000 años). El estudio llevado a cabo en el sondeo (mineralogía,
petrografía, isótopos estables, análisis polínicos) indica que estos sedimentos son simi-
lares a las secuencias palustres del registro geológico. Por tanto, Las Tablas de Daimiel
pueden considerarse como un análogo reciente para sistemas palustres de agua dulce
que no tengan influencia marina. Estos sistemas son muy sensibles a cambios climáti-
cos y/o del nivel de base, por lo que su estudio es necesario para conocer mejor el
registro sedimentario continental, pero también para preservar estos humedales.

Palabras clave: carbonatos palustres, humedales, Cuaternario, turba, vegetación, España.

INTRODUCTION as a consequence of climate, the feeding mechanism may vary

Palustrine deposits are widely recognized in the sedimen-
tary record. They are very common in Mesozoic and Cenozoic
terrestrial basins (see Gierlowski-Kordesch and Kelts, 2000),
and some of the classical examples come from southern France
(Freytet and Plaziat, 1982). They are also present in more
ancient deposits, such as the Devonian of New York (Duna-
gan and Driese, 1999). In this latter case, palustrine deposits
demonstrate evidence for the occupation of land by plants. The
Florida Everglades are commonly cited as a recent analogue
for ancient palustrine carbonate sequences (Platt and Wright,
1992); however, we suggest two additional constraints on any
proposed recent analogue for palustrine sediments. The first is
that the analogue should include a clear sedimentary record that
allows its interpretation, and the other is that the water compo-
sition be mostly freshwater. Wetland areas of inland terrains
can easily be isolated from marine influence, so if they have
been accumulating for a long time, they should contain a useful
sedimentary record.
The relative contribution of groundwater and surface
water to the inundated area seems important in distinguish-
ing between lakes and wetlands. Following Currey (1990), it
is considered that wetlands are fed primarily by groundwater,
when the groundwater table intersects the landscape, but that
wetlands also may receive surface water by sheet flows; con-
versely, lakes are primarily fed by surface water from rivers
and streams that enter the basin, with secondary groundwater
contributions (Dunagan and Turner, 2004). Even in modern
environments this differentiation is difficult to make, because
with time. Such is the case of Las Tablas de Daimiel, which
are wetlands fed by both surface and groundwater. This is also
the case of many ancient palustrine deposits (Sanz et al., 1995;
Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998).
Las Tablas de Daimiel, in the interior of the Iberian Penin-
sula, are a good example of wetland areas totally isolated from
any marine influence because they are at present one of the last
examples of wetlands in southern Europe and contain a unique
freshwater ecosystem (Álvarez-Cobelas and Cirujano, 1996).
They contain a relatively thick sedimentary record, including
almost 40 m of freshwater fluvio-lacustrine carbonates, mostly
chalky, but also indurated hard freshwater carbonates with
some peat intervals. These sediments show many of the fea-
tures as ancient palustrine deposits, such as desiccation cracks,
bioturbation, root traces, and even mottling. Moreover, the fact
that some of them are indurated, even though they are recent,
is proof that diagenetic processes operate relatively fast in these
deposits, even if their initial composition is presumed stable,
mostly low-magnesium calcite. Ancient examples also indicate
that palustrine deposits easily undergo diagenetic processes
without significant burial (Wright et al., 1997; Anadón et al.,
2000), but there are few constraints regarding the timing of lith-
ification and induration.
In this paper, we describe the recent and ancient sedi-
mentary record of Las Tablas de Daimiel through the detailed
study of a 38.5 m core by utilizing mineralogy, petrography,
palynology, and isotope geochemistry. This multidisciplinary
approach provides a data set that allows a better understand-
ing and a clearer interpretation of the sedimentary and biologi-
 Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 155

cal processes, water chemistry, and diagenesis of palustrine or
“wetlands” environments in Las Tablas. We suggest that Las
Tablas de Daimiel wetlands are an analogue for palustrine car-
bonate deposits not influenced by marine processes.
GEOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
Las Tablas de Daimiel are located in the central part of
Spain (Fig. 1) in the so-called “Llanura Manchega” (Mancha
Plain) (Pérez-González, 1982, 1996). The area is characterized
by several flat surfaces, situated at different elevations. The flu-
vial network is scarcely incised and shows poorly defined chan-
nels with wide ponded areas and a low degree of terrace devel-
opment (Rodríguez García and Pérez-González, 2002). Las
Tablas de Daimiel developed on a Pliocene erosional surface,
named the Lower Surface of Llanura Manchega, which has
abundant dissolution features, such as dolines and uvalas, that
are up to 900 m across and 10–15 m deep and contain temporal
0º

A FRANCE

SPAIN

PENINSULA
IBERIAN
Las Tablas 40ºN
de Daimiel
PORTUGAL

Ciudad
Real
Province

AT
LAN SEA
AN
TI A NE
C
OC E RR
DIT
E AN ME NORTH-AFRICA

B
Gigüela River

Las Tablas de Daimiel

Guadiana River
LT-199906

3°41’45’’W
39°07’58’’N

0 5 10 km
Outline of the National Park borders

Figure 1. (A) Location of Las Tablas de Daimiel in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula. (B) Aerial view of the wetland.
156 Alonso-Zarza et al.
ponds. The Pliocene surface is incised less than 20 m by the main
rivers (Portero and Ramírez, 1988): Záncara, Gigüela, Guadiana,
and Azuer.
Las Tablas comprise the largest wetland of the south-
ern Meseta of Spain. Initially, they formed by the flooding of
Guadiana and Gigüela Rivers, together with the upwelling of
groundwaters through many springs referred to as “eyes.” The
relative feeding by surface versus groundwater discharge varied
in time and space. The total wetland area thirty years ago was
~6000 ha, but today, it has been reduced to 1675 ha, included
in the 1928 ha of Las Tablas de Daimiel National Park. All of
the multidisciplinary studies carried out recently at this national
park are recorded in the extensive monograph edited by Álvarez-
Cobelas and Cirujano (1996), which provides much of the data
presented in this environmental setting. The climatic setting of
the Las Tablas is classified as cold, temperate continental with a
dry season. Isotherms range from 12 to 14 °C, rainfall varies from
400 to 500 mm per year, and potential evapotranspiration aver-
ages 778 mm per year (Álvarez-Cobelas and Cirujano, 1996).
At present, surface water on the Las Tablas wetlands is shal-
low, usually less that 1 m in depth (Fig. 2). The aquatic environ-
ment is highly turbid with high sedimentation rates. The wetlands
are dominated by carbonate and sulfate ions, and the waters are
hypertrophic. High levels of organic pollution come from the sur-
rounding towns; however, pollution by pesticides and heavy met-
als is negligible (Álvarez-Cobelas and Cirujano, 1996; Dorado
Valiño et al., 2004).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A truck-mounted pneumatic drill was used to obtain the
10-cm-diameter Las Tablas de Daimiel (LT) core from the cen-
tral area of Las Tablas de Daimiel National Park, on the edge of
Laguna Permanente (Fig. 1). The mineralogy of the sediments
was determined using a Philips XDR system operating at 40 kV
and 30 mA with monochromated CuKα radiation. We studied
only 15 stained thin sections (due to the paucity of well-indurated
carbonate beds) by transmission light microscopy. We performed
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with a JEOL 6.400 working
at 20 kV on gold-covered surfaces. Isotope measurements were
performed on powdered samples of the chalky limestones. The
analyses were performed at the Stable Isotope Laboratory of the
Estación Experimental del Zaidín (Consejo Superior de Investi-
gationes Cientificas, Spain). Samples were ground to <200 mesh
and treated with 100% phosphoric acid. Isotopic ratios were mea-
sured by a Finnigan MAT 252 mass spectrometer. Carrara and
EEZ-1 were used as a standard previously calibrated to NBS-18
and NBS-19. Most of the analyses focused on the middle 8.6 m
section of the core (14 samples), with fewer (11) samples from
the remaining 29.9 m. Data are expressed relative to Peedee
belemnite (PDB). Pollen was extracted from the sediment by
flotation on Thoulet’s solution (Goeury and Beaulieu, 1979)
without acetolysis; 315 pollen samples were analyzed. Radio-
carbon ages were obtained from organic sediment samples by
Beta Analytic Inc. (Miami, Florida, USA) using traditional tech-
niques (Table 1). The Th/U analyses were performed at Jaume
Almera Institute using the techniques of J.L. Bischoff (U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, Menlo Park; R. Juliá, 2002, personal commun.).
Sample LT-86 (13.42 m) was dated at 180,000 yr B.P.
The amino acid racemization analyses for age estimation on
gastropods (Table 2) were carried out at North East Amino Acid
Racemization Laboratory (NEAAR, University of York, UK).
The majority of the amino acids resolvable had reached equi-
librium, allowing only a minimum age. Based on temperature
estimates for the region, the minimum age is estimated as older
than oxygen isotope stage (OIS) 7.
Figure 2. View of the wetland. Reeds are
common in the margins of the shallow-
water bodies.
 Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 157

TABLE 1. RADIOCARBON DATES The chalky carbonate beds are white to beige and contain gas-
IN THE LAS TABLAS DE DAIMIEL CORE tropod fragments, root traces, and occasionally oncoids. Mineral-
14
Laboratory Sample Depth Conventional C age ogically, they consist of calcite (15%–100%), clays (0%–45%),
reference (m) (yr B.P.)
dolomite (0%–70%), aragonite (0%–5%), and traces of opal and
E - 135635 LT-22 3.30 8500 ± 50
gypsum. Dolomite, opal, and gypsum traces occur mostly in the
E - 135636 LT-24 3.90 19,010 ± 60
E - 135637 LT-45 6.36 21,120 ± 60 lower 5 m of unit A. The clays are illite, sepiolite, and smectites.
E - 135638 LT-50 6.99 30,980 ± 170 The occurrence of opal is related to minor amounts of silica phy-
E - 135639 LT-60 8.08 25,160 ± 100 toliths, and gypsum occurs as lenticular crystals within the lime
E - 135640 LT-79 12.60 25,280 ± 140 mud. The mollusc shells, which show important dissolution fea-
E - 132973 LT-84 13.28 >44,940 (radiocarbon dead) tures, consist of aragonite. Calcite and dolomite crystals are fine
E - 132974 LT-124 16.57 >41,850 (radiocarbon dead) (<1 μm across) with a varied subeuhedral morphology. Spherical
forms are either high-magnesium calcite (Fig. 4A) and/or dolo-
mite; some dolomite crystals also exhibit rhombohedral mor-
TABLE 2. GASTROPODS OF LAS TABLAS (LT) DE DAIMIEL phologies. The more spherical forms of high-magnesium calcite
SEQUENCE USED FOR AMINO ACID RACEMIZATION ANALYSES and dolomite occur on phytoliths. SEM studies have shown the
Sample Depth Gastropods presence of calcified tubes, calcareous sponge spicules, siliceous
(m) phytoliths, euglenophyte algae, organic films, and fragments of
LT-105 15.39 Pseudotachea splendida (Draparnaud, 1801)
vegetal tissues.
LT-120 16.30 Planorbarius metidjensis (Forbes, 1838)
LT-130 17.05 Planorbarius metidjensis (Forbes, 1838) Hard indurated limestone beds are relatively thin (5–10
Hydrobia sp. cm), and these deposits display a variety of microfacies. In the
Stagnicola cf. fuscus (C. Peiffer, 1821) lowest portion of unit A, the limestones are micrites with len-
LT-155 18.35 Planorbarius metidjensis (Forbes, 1838) ticular gypsum molds. The micrite is undergoing recrystalliza-
LT-188 21.18 Anisus sp.
tion to microspar and pseudospar (Fig. 4B); the gypsum molds
are commonly cemented by calcite. The overall fabric is a
coarse calcite crystalline mosaic with pseudomorphs of gypsum.
Oncoids occur occasionally and are composed of microsparitic
FACIES ANALYSES OF THE SEDIMENTARY RECORD nuclei with gypsum molds enveloped by micritic laminae (Fig.
OF THE CORE 4C), which also show gypsum pseudomorphs, which in some
places display a radial arrangement. At the top of unit A, the
The study presented in this paper is based mostly on the anal- limestones are biomicrites with gastropods, charophytes, and
yses of the sediments of Las Tablas (LT) core (Fig. 3), combined ostracodes (Fig. 4D). These lack gypsum molds and evidence
with some observations of recent sediments outcropping in the of recrystallization, but cementation by calcite spar is common
Las Tablas area. The Las Tablas core is 38.5 m and is composed mostly in the intraparticle porosity.
mainly of carbonates, with some clays and peat horizons. Dat- Pollen analyses indicate a mean of 2000–20,000 grains of
ing methods indicate that the lowest dated deposits are Middle pollen per gram of sample. The main taxa are: Pinus, Cupres-
Pleistocene, although it is difficult to know exactly the age of the saceae, Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Poaceae, Astera-
oldest sediments recorded in the core. The most recent deposits ceae, and Caryophyllaceae. The most represented aquatic taxa
are Holocene. By considering the types of sediments that may are Cyperaceae, Potamogeton, and Typha monade; these three
indicate differences in the characteristics of the wetland environ- taxa constitute almost the total of the aquatic pollen compound.
ment, the overall sedimentary succession can be subdivided in Detailed studies of pollen have been carried out by Valdeolmillos
three units (Fig. 3), which are from bottom to top: Rodríguez (2005).

Unit A
Description
The thickness of this lower part (unit A) is 17 m, including
mostly white soft-chalky micritic carbonate layers with inter-
calated indurated limestone beds and gray to beige mudstones.
Thickness of the different beds varies from a few centimeters to
1 m. In general, the hard limestone beds are thinner than the soft
carbonates. Lamination is rare, and the beds are usually mas-
sive. Rare brown mudstones consisting of illite and smectite
with minor amounts of quartz and calcite occur in centimeter-
scale intervals.
Interpretation
These sediments were deposited in a lacustrine environ-
ment in which the water changed from slightly saline to fresh.
In the lowermost part, the presence of gypsum molds indi-
cates a slightly saline lake system, probably closed, in which
micrite precipitated, probably as high-magnesium calcite,
induced by processes related to photosynthetic organisms.
The micrite also could have formed by abiogenic processes,
such as temperature or pCO2 changes, as in many other lake
systems (Kelts and Hsü, 1978). The recognition of spherical
morphologies in both high-magnesium calcite and the traces
of dolomite indicates an organic origin of these carbonates,
 0 m

8.500 ± 50 BP
19.010 ± 60 BP Upper
Pleistocene-
5
21.120 ± 60 BP Holocene

30.980 ± 170 BP

25.160 ± 100 BP

10

25.280 ± 140 BP
> 44.940 BP (radiocarbon dead)

180.000 BP (U/Th)

Typha monade

Typha tetrade
Potamogeton

Myriophyllum
Cyperaceae
15

Hippuris
Nuphar
> 41.850 BP (radiocarbon dead)

Middle
Pleistocene

20

Legend
Lime mud
Intraclasts filled
channels
Clays
25 Organic-rich levels
Lower? Sepiolite-rich muds
Middle Marls
Pleistocene Peat
Limestones
Silty lime mud
Carbonate nodules
30
Oncoliths
Stromatoliths
Plant debris
Gastropods
Fragments of molluscs
Charophytes
Ostracodes
Rhizoliths
35 Intraclasts
Gypsum traces
Samples for isotopic
analyses
Samples for amino acid
racemization

39
Figure 3. Log of the Las Tablas de Daimiel core. Samples used for different dating techniques are also shown.
 Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain 159

A
A BA

4 m 20 m

C
A D
A

0.5 mm 0.5 mm

Figure 4. Lower part of the core (unit A). (A) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of spheroidal high-magnesium calcite crystals on the
surface of a phytolith. (B) Anhedral calcite crystals due to recrystallization-dissolution processes. (C) Microphotograph of a thin section contain-
ing oncoids; lenticular gypsum molds are present in the nucleus and coatings of the oncoid. (D) Hard limestone beds at the top of lower part are
biomicrites with ostracodes, gastropods, and charophytes.

probably associated with bacteria (Vasconcelos and McKen-
zie, 1997); this is confirmed by the occurrence of these spher-
ical bodies on organic remains. One of the most striking fea-
tures is the presence of gypsum molds in the oncoids, which
suggests the presence of certain cyanobacteria groups, such as
Synechococcus sp. These can play an important role in biomin-
eralization by calcite, gypsum, and even magnesite, as shown
experimentally in natural alkaline waters (Thompson and
Ferris, 1990). The occurrence of oncoids indicates some move-
ment of the lake waters, either due to agitation in the lake mar-
gin or to the entrance of fluvial channels. However, in general,
the waters were quiet, as shown by the fine size of the micrite,
the lack of sedimentary structures, and the preservation of
delicate components (such as the opal phytoliths). The coarse
crystalline texture of some indurated carbonates, the fact that
the gypsum molds are filled by coarse spar cement, and the
overall spar cementation suggest that diagenesis occurred
under fresher meteoric waters, compared to the slightly saline
lake waters.
The change toward fresher waters at the top of unit A is
shown by the lack of gypsum molds. No clear subaerial expo-
sure features have been recognized, so it seems likely that the
lake system was relatively permanent, but shallow, as indi-
cated by the aquatic pollen record, the aquatic gastropods, and
the charophytes.
Unit B
Description
This middle part (unit B) includes 8.60 m of soft micritic
carbonates with intercalated dark-gray peat levels (Fig. 5). The
thickness of the beds is ~0.5 m. There is only one indurated lime-
stone level, but indurated carbonate nodules are common within
the marls and peat, particularly at the top of unit B. Mudstone
intervals are absent, but clay minerals are present in the peat and
soft carbonate beds.
The chalky carbonate beds are beige to brown due to stain-
ing by organic matter. The carbonates are composed of calcite
160 Alonso-Zarza et al.

(70%–100%), aragonite (0%–10%), quartz (0%–15%), clays

Figure 5. View of part of the core (unit B) containing a number of peat
beds (darker color).
(0%–20%), and opal (0%–10%), with only traces of gypsum and
dolomite. Throughout the drill core, aragonite is found only in
the mollusc shells, which show dissolution features. The calcite
(low- and high-magnesium calcite) crystals are <1 μm, subeuhe-
dral to rounded, and the crystals are difficult to observe under
SEM due to coatings of organic films. The chalky carbonates
contain gastropod shells, charophytes, ostracodes, siliceous dia-
toms (Fig. 6A), siliceous sponge spicules (Fig. 6B), eugleno-
phyte algae, and other phytoliths. Gastropod opercula also have
been found.
The peat beds occur as differentiated intervals or as lenses
within any of the other deposits. They are particularly common
from 18 to 13 m. The inorganic component consists of calcite
(35%–80%), clays (0%–55%), quartz (0%–35%), aragonite
(0%–10%), and opal (0%–10%). Framboids of pyrite are also
present in the peat beds (Fig. 6C). In these deposits, there is a
higher amount of biosiliceous allochems, and they are commonly

A
A B

40 m 60 m

C
A D
A

10 m 0.5 mm

Figure 6. Middle part of the core (unit B). (A) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of diatoms and euglenophyte algae (rounded). (B) SEM
view of a siliceous sponge spicule. (C) Framboids of pyrite under SEM. (D) Palustrine microfacies of topmost of the middle part of the core.
 Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain
better preserved and less fragmented than in the chalky carbon-
ates. Fungal filaments and also bacterial microrods are commonly
identified with SEM.
At the top of this unit (unit B), the peat intervals and the
chalky carbonates have hard biomicrite nodules with desiccation
features (Fig. 6D) that include cracks (vertical, circumgranular,
and horizontal), pseudomicrokarst, and root traces.
The mean total organic carbon (TOC) value of this unit is
44.5%, which is related to the very high mean pollen content,
which varies from 150,000 to 250,000 grains per gram. The main
taxa are: Pinus, evergreen Quercus, deciduous Quercus, Salix,
Cupressaceae, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae, Poa-
ceae, and Asteraceae. There is greater taxonomic diversity of
aquatic vegetation than in unit A, including: Cyperaceae, Pota-
mogeton, Typha monade and tetrade, Myriophyllum, Nuphar, and
Hippuris. Details on the distribution of these taxa are in Valdeol-
millos Rodríguez (2005).
Interpretation
This middle part of the Las Tablas core (unit B), of Middle
Pleistocene age, was deposited in a very shallow lacustrine
system that passed from relatively oxidizing conditions at the
base to more reduced conditions at the top. The main evidence
for this, such as the peat beds, the richness in pollen grains,
and the siliceous spicules and diatoms, indicates a swampy-
paludal system. The anoxic conditions required for the accu-
mulation and preservation of the peat beds were produced
in ponded areas that were probably disconnected. Reducing
conditions could be established throughout the whole water
body, but were probably only permanent in the lake bottom
as a result of the combined effects of the high rate of accu-
mulation of organic matter of terrestrial origin transported by
slow-flowing streams and in situ growth of plants. This is the
case for the marshes of the Miocene Teruel Graben (Alonso-
Zarza and Calvo, 2000). Although very shallow, these marshes
were flooded most of the time, as indicated by the presence of
numerous aquatic plants such as Potamogeton, Myriophyllum,
Nuphar, and Hippuris.
However, evidence of subaerial exposure is present in
these deposits as suggested by root traces and desiccation fea-
tures such as circumgranular cracks. All these exposure fea-
tures characterize a shift to a more palustrine environment.
This is the first indication of the environmental change that
occurred at the top of this unit. Variations in water depth are
also indicated by the type and diversity of aquatic vegetation.
The pollen taxa diversity is lower in stages of subaerial expo-
sure, with emergent plants, such as Cyperaceae, Typha monade
and tetrade, dominant.
Diatoms are very common in Quaternary lacustrine sys-
tems of the Iberian Peninsula (Pérez et al., 2002), and their
presence together with the spicules may be related to the abun-
dance of macrophytes, including grasses (Poaceae). These
later plants have high silica content, and their high accumula-
tion rates favor the preservation of these delicate components
161
(Reed, 1998). May et al. (1999) have also found white to light-
green, massive or horizontally laminated diatomite sheets with
ostracodes, gastropods, and rootlets within palustrine systems
under fluvial influence in the Calama Basin of northern Chile.
Siliceous sponges are not common in this type of aquatic sys-
tem, although they have been described in some modern riv-
ers and lakes from Brazil (Volkmer-Ribeiro and Motta, 1995),
and their presence seems to indicate a lowering of lakes waters
in swampy systems (Wüst and Bustin, 2003). In these condi-
tions, framboids of pyrite formed either by oxidation of FeS by
H2S (Butler and Richard, 2000) or by replacement of greigite
(Fe3S4) framboids by pyrite (Wilkin and Barnes, 1997).
Unit C
Description
The uppermost 12.9 m of the core consists exclusively
of carbonates with varied textures and hardness (Fig. 3). The
scale of bedding varies from decimeters to meters. Three dif-
ferent types of carbonates are recognized. Mineralogically,
all the facies consist of low-magnesium calcite (45%–100%),
quartz (0%–35%), clays (0%–20%), and aragonite (0%–5%).
There are no traces of high-magnesium calcite, dolomite, opal,
gypsum, or organic matter.
Massive beige to white chalky carbonates are similar to
those previously described and contain bioclasts of gastropods,
ostracodes, and charophytes. Organic films and filaments are
common. There are no diatoms present.
Hard massive limestone beds vary from 10 to 100 cm in
thickness. They are white and sufficiently hard to allow prep-
aration of standard thin sections. These beds are biomicrites
with gastropods, ostracodes, and charophytes. Some intervals
display desiccation cracks, alveolar septal structures, pseu-
domicrokarst, and mottling. In some moldic porosity of mol-
luscs and in the desiccation cracks, there is coarse calcite spar
cement, mostly phreatic. The micrite crystals are up to 2 μm,
particularly in the indurated beds (Fig. 7A); they are also com-
monly subhedral. Calcified and noncalcified organic filaments
(Fig. 7B) and micritic fecal peloids (Fig. 7C) have been identi-
fied with SEM.
Carbonate-filled channel deposits with erosional bases are
present in the upper part of the core and are ~10 cm thick (unit
C). These deposits consist of a packstone of angular micritic
intraclasts (0.3–1 cm across), with up to 20% of angular quartz
grains averaging 0.2 mm, and some fragments of bioclasts. The
interparticle porosity is filled by coarse calcite spar (Fig. 7D).
The lack of organic matter in unit C is also demonstrated
by the low pollen content; the mean value is 5–10 grains per
gram. The main taxa are: Pinus, Betula, Corylus, Olea, ever-
green Quercus, deciduous Quercus, Cupressaceae, Ericaceae,
Poaceae, Plantago, and Asteraceae. The most common aquatic
pollen types are Cyperaceae and Typha monade. The diversity
of aquatic pollen is low but increases at the top of the core, cor-
responding to the Holocene (Valdeolmillos Rodríguez, 2005).
162 Alonso-Zarza et al.

A
A B

20 m 30 m

CA D
A

4 m

40 m 0.5 mm

Figure 7. Upper part of the core (unit C). (A) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) view of the micrite crystals, which are larger and subeuhedral.
(B) Calcified organic filaments. (C) Rounded micritic peloids. (D) Microphotograph of intraclastic packstone also containing quartz grains and
sparry calcite cement.

Interpretation as a consequence of the shallower recent environments of Las

The deposition of unit C took place after a sedimentary gap
of ~140,000 yr, as shown by the age data. The youngest (Upper
Pleistocene–Holocene) sediments of Las Tablas de Daimiel were
deposited in a fluvio-palustrine system characterized by desic-
cation events. The oxidizing nature of the environment, which
inhibited organic matter accumulation, is reflected not only in
the lack of peat beds, but also in the low pollen content. All these
features, combined with the carbonate mineralogy (all low-mag-
nesium calcite), indicate freshwater conditions of deposition.
Indurated limestones show characteristics similar to the clas-
sic French palustrine limestones described by Freytet and Plaziat
(1982) and Freytet and Verrecchia (2002). In both the classic
French palustrine limestones and in the Las Tablas deposits, the
micritic mud is interpreted to have been precipitated in the lake
waters both biogenically and physico-chemically. As the water
input to the palustrine system fluctuated, desiccation, bioturba-
tion, and pedogenic processes disrupted the carbonate substrate,
but also contributed to the induration of the mud (Wright et al.,
1997). Therefore, we interpret the highest degree of induration
Tablas, as is indicated by the low aquatic pollen diversity and the
emergent taxa recorded (Cyperaceae and Typha monade). This
caused the sediments to be affected more intensively by early
diagenetic processes that could control changes in the size and
shape of the initial calcite crystals, which are larger in this part of
the core. Phreatic and vadose cementation is also common, pro-
viding more evidence that water table fluctuations can contribute
to lithification in recent sediments. Unit C was deposited in an
environment similar to many of the Tertiary palustrine deposits
of the Iberian Peninsula (Alonso-Zarza, et al., 1992), southern
France (Freytet, 1984), or even some Devonian sequences from
the United States (Dunagan and Driese, 1999).
The desiccation events probably occurred with high fre-
quency during late Pleistocene to Holocene time. These events
favored the early and incipient lithification of the carbonate beds,
which were later reworked when groundwater filled the basins
or when ephemeral fluvial channels drained the previous lake
margins. The channels filled with intraclasts clearly record these
processes. The beds situated between 3.8 and 3.3 m are of special
 Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain
interest, as this interval tentatively corresponds to the beginning
of the Holocene (10,000 yr B.P.), during which the more humid
climate could have controlled the development of the channels
that reworked the previously desiccated muds and, consequently,
were mostly filled by intraclasts (Fig. 7D). The increase of aquatic
vegetation diversity corroborates this idea. Evidently, the muds
underwent a long desiccation event, probably from ca. 19,000
yr B.P. until the end of the Younger Dryas, when arid and cold
climatic conditions prevailed (Dorado Valiño et al., 2002).
STABLE ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Detailed petrographic examination allowed the selection of
25 samples for analysis of stable isotopes (C, O) in the carbon-
ates, using only calcite. Most of the samples selected were beige
to gray chalky carbonates. We avoided indurated limestones for
two reasons; first, because they are relatively rare in the middle
part of the core, the results would not be comparable, and sec-
ond, to avoid the effect of mixing of the primary micrite with
the later cements recognized in these indurated limestones. Thus,
the results reflect only the composition of the primary lacustrine
muds and not of the cements or recrystallized phases that have
been observed in stained thin sections and with SEM.
The isotopic composition of the carbonates studied is quite
variable (Fig. 8). Values of δ13C range from −3.47‰ to −7.24‰,
0.00
-1.00
-2.00
-3.00
-4.00
δ 13C
-5.00
-6.00
-7.00
-8.00
-9.00
-10.00
-8.00 -7.00 -6.00 -5.00 -4.00 -3.00
δ 18O
163
and δ18O varies from −3.67‰ to −8.82‰. These values are in the
observed range of typical freshwater lacustrine carbonates (Tan-
ner, 2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Two
main features are observed in these data: (1) the overall covariant
trend is very poor and negative (σ = −0.22); and (2) there is no
clear differentiation between samples from units A and B, lower
and middle parts, although their covariant trend is different (unit
A = 0.42; unit B = −0.52). However, samples from unit C, upper
part, are easy to differentiate, and they display relatively uniform
δ18O values (between −6‰ and −7‰).
The lack of covariance has been used as an indicator of
groundwater input into ancient wetlands (Quade et al., 1995;
Dunagan and Turner, 2004) and of open lake systems (Talbot,
1990; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo, 2000). We interpret the lack of
covariance to indicate open lake systems for the Las Tablas wet-
lands because this system is within a fluvial network. The nega-
tive covariance of the middle part of the core (unit B) is an indica-
tor of a system in which new water input, either surface or
groundwater, is reduced. This condition favors the formation of
isolated or disconnected swampy areas because the residence
time is longer, which favors depletion in 16O. Similar conditions
have been interpreted in some lake deposits from the Miocene
of eastern Spain (Utrilla et al., 1998). This water input was
coeval with a higher productivity of organic matter (OM),
mostly of C3 origin, which accounts for enrichment in 12C.
LOWER PART
MIDDLE PART Figure 8. Plot of δ13C versus δ18O of sam-
ples of Las Tablas de Daimiel core.
UPPER PART
-2.00 -1.00 0.00
164 Alonso-Zarza et al.
Microbial respiration was associated with bacterial sulfate reduc-
tion near the sediment-water interface, as indicated by the gyp-
sum molds and the framboidal pyrite; this also explains the
lighter carbon values that are typical in these swampy systems
(Dunagan and Turner, 2004). The differences in δ13C are not
easy to explain because the sampled facies are very similar. In
relatively small, short-residence water bodies, variations in pri-
mary biological productivity should cause larger differences in
δ13C, particularly between unit B and the others, because the
organic productivity was much higher in this unit. Similar isoto-
pic differences have been also recognized in other ancient palus-
trine open lake systems such as in the Teruel Basin (Alonso-
Zarza and Calvo, 2000).
Although there are only five samples from unit C (Upper
Pleistocene to Holocene), they have a distinctive signature. Four
of these samples have δ18O near −6‰. This is a typical value
of oxidizing palustrine deposits. Anadón et al. (2000) considered
that values around −6.5‰ represent the isotopic composition
of the diagenetic fluids derived from meteoric waters. Tandon
and Andrews (2001) examined a large set of isotope data from
palustrine carbonates and found an overall narrow range of δ18O
values and a wider range of δ13C. The narrow range of oxygen
values that we observed in unit C is characteristic of palustrine
deposits and reveals the influence of meteoric water during the
very early subaerial exposure of each one of the beds. The sample
that has a more positive oxygen value than the rest (1‰) may
indicate slightly more evaporitic conditions.
DISCUSSION
Major Controls and Evolution of the System
The sedimentary record of Las Tablas de Daimiel shows that
this modern palustrine environment consisted of a variety of ter-
restrial subenvironments, including distal alluvial, fluvial, and
lacustrine environments, which occupied this inland plain as far
back as early to middle Pleistocene time. These subenvironments
suggest that a variety of shallow-water conditions were present,
and the subaerial exposure features suggest that water levels in the
wetlands have fluctuated since the early Pleistocene. Las Tablas
are considered floodplain areas of the fluviatile Gigüela-Záncara
system, which drains an area with well-developed karstic fea-
tures, such as dolines and uvalas (Pérez-González, 1996). The
thickness of the Quaternary sequence in Las Tablas, particularly
in the study core, may indicate karstic collapse and subsidence
within Las Tablas area, which would have assisted in maintaining
very shallow water bodies. The permanency of the shallow-water
conditions was controlled mostly by the balance between water
inputs and losses within the system. Inputs are either surface or
groundwater, and in both cases are carried to the flooded areas
by the rivers that have very low slopes, such as Azuer, Gigüela,
and Guadiana; the latter originates from a spring called Los Ojos.
The losses are due mostly to evaporation, infiltration, and, more
recently, human uses.
Although all of the deposits show subaerial exposure fea-
tures, the characteristics of this palustrine system evolved with
time as a response to the chemistry of water and to the basin
geometry (i.e., accommodation space) for the sediments. The
latter was controlled by climate and by the maintained balance
between the degree or lack of entrenchment of the river valley,
either due to changes in the base level or karstic subsidence.
Climate was important in controlling the following: the rate of
surface water versus groundwater feeding of the systems; the
volume and chemistry of water, which varied depending on the
distance the groundwater had to flow; the lithological composi-
tion of the catchment areas; the ratio of rock-water interaction;
and evaporation rates. All these factors determined the mineral-
ogy of the primary precipitates, their possible transformation dur-
ing early diagenesis, and the possible establishment of different
ecological communities (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Park, 2004).
In Las Tablas, the clear sedimentary and biological differences
in the core allow for its subdivision into three major units that
reflect the complex interplay of all the aforementioned factors.
Although a single core is not definitive, because lateral relation-
ships cannot be analyzed, the following is suggested about evolu-
tion of this palustrine system (Fig. 9):
1. From the Lower? to Middle Pleistocene (unit A), the
water chemistry of the fluvio-lacustrine system evolved
from slightly saline to fresh, as indicated by the presence
of high-magnesium calcite, dolomite, and gypsum molds.
A more arid climate caused increased rates of evaporation
of either surface or groundwater, and the systems flowed
slowly, leading to the formation of more isolated and/or
disconnected areas. The input and movement of surface
waters are inferred by the presence of oncoids. Toward the
top of unit A, the hydrology of these isolated areas shifted
from closed to open as climatic conditions became wetter,
resulting in deposition of freshwater palustrine carbon-
ates that lack gypsum and dolomite. It is possible that new
accommodation space was created due to the entrench-
ment of the valley river.
2. During the Middle Pleistocene, unit B, the accommoda-
tion space was filled with palustrine carbonates that pro-
duced a relatively flat floodplain characterized by discon-
nected swampy areas. These areas were favorable sites for
vegetation development and deposition of organic matter
and biosiliceous sediments.
3. In the Upper Pleistocene to Holocene, unit C, age dating
indicates a hiatus between units B and C, but this gap is
not apparent in the core. The gap cannot be explained at
this time due to the lack of additional cores or surface data.
However, the surface karstic features suggest karstic sub-
sidence/collapse, which could cause a distal entrenchment
of the fluvial systems. Potentially, this could have resulted
in the erosion of previously deposited sediments, and sub-
sequently generated new accommodation space filled later
by freshwater palustrine carbonates that formed in a very
shallow and oxygenated system. Under these conditions,
 Lower? -Middle Pleistocene

Middle Pleistocene

Upper Pleistocene-Holocene

Dolines
Peat
Gypsum
Clastics
Lacustrine carbonates
Palustrine carbonates
Figure 9. Sketch of the evolution of the fluvio-palustrine (wetland) system of Las Tablas de Daimiel during the Quaternary.
166 Alonso-Zarza et al.
organic matter preservation was inhibited, as shown by the
low pollen content. The depositional system had an open
hydrology at this time.
Origin of the Micritic Mud and Diagenesis
Carbonate deposits that accumulate in lakes may have a vari-
ety of different origins, ranging from detrital sources, inorganic
precipitates, biochemically induced precipitates, and completely
biogenic sources (Kelts and Hsü, 1978). The micrite in the core is
primarily fine-grained low-magnesium calcite and high-magne-
sium calcite, and the crystal shape of the calcite varies throughout
the core. Aragonite is found only in the gastropod shells and is
not a significant mineral component of the micritic matrix over-
all. The micrite also includes minor siliceous bioclasts of sponge
spicules and diatoms. Dolomite has very limited occurrence in
unit A of the core, and detrital carbonates are rare.
The origin of fine micritic muds is difficult to determine
because of the probable loss of some primary textures during
diagenesis. This together with the lack of primary sedimentary
textures in the wetland deposits make it difficult to infer the
mechanisms by which micritic mud accumulated in the wetlands.
Organic activity is recognized throughout the core by the presence
of organic filaments, oncoids, and algae. Moreover, the rounded
morphology of some of high-magnesium calcite and dolomite
crystals recognized in the lower parts (units A and B) of the core
may be an indicator of their precipitation under bacterial influ-
ence (Castanier et al., 1999), as in some recent lagoonal environ-
ments (Vasconcelos and McKenzie, 1997). Hence, biogenically
induced carbonate precipitation by bacteria, cyanobacteria, and
algal activity were all possible within the water body.
Inorganic processes, such as seasonal temperature variations
and changes in pCO2 due to degassing (Platt and Wright, 1991),
also likely contributed to calcite production. In addition, the
regional groundwaters were enriched in calcium and bicarbon-
ate by the presence of Mesozoic carbonate rocks in the drainage
basin and the dissolution features observed in the nearby Tertiary
carbonate deposits (Portero and Ramírez, 1988).
Most of the sediments are soft-chalky carbonate in which
the possible effects of diagenesis include: recrystallization, dis-
solution of lenticular gypsum crystals, cementation and indura-
tion of the lime mud, and some dissolution features specially in
the aragonite shells, the mineralogy of which is still preserved.
Recrystallization and dissolution of lenticular gypsum crystals
are recognized only in the lower part of the core (unit A). Both
are probably driven by the initial, less-stable mineralogy (high-
magnesium calcite, some dolomite and gypsum), so fresh phre-
atic or vadose waters may be responsible. Cementation occurred
throughout the core and is easily seen in the indurated levels; it
is particularly present within gypsum molds and between the
intraclasts of the top of the core (unit C). The cement phases
are mostly of phreatic calcite spar that formed in different
stages when base level was rising, allowing the groundwaters
to occupy the porosity matrix of the previously deposited sedi-
ments. Throughout the core, but specifically within the more
recent sediments (younger than ca. 10,000 yr B.P.), there are
beds which are very indurated. This lithification affects mostly
the shallower, less organic matter–rich sediments and is prob-
ably a response to different dry-wet cycles that favor lithifica-
tion, without burial. Thus, Las Tablas are one more example that
demonstrates that desiccation of very shallow lacustrine depos-
its favors rapid lithification, as in ancient palustrine deposits
(Wright et al., 1997; Anadón et al., 2000), whereas lithification
is inhibited in more permanent water bodies that have not under-
gone such continuous subaerial exposure stages.
Recent Wetlands: Analogues for Ancient Palustrine
Deposits?
Micritic freshwater limestones showing subaerial exposure
features are included in the term “palustrine limestones” (Freytet
and Plaziat, 1982; Alonso-Zarza, 2003), and these deposits are
common in the geological record (see Gierlowski-Kordesch
and Kelts, 2000). However, narrowing palustrine deposits to a
specific depositional setting may be difficult because they have
been recognized in a broad spectrum of depositional environ-
ments including: modern and ancient coastal plain settings,
such as the Florida Everglades (Platt and Wright, 1992) and
the Lower Cretaceous of Croatia (Dini et al., 1998); floodplain
areas, as in the Clarks Fork Basin of Wyoming (Bowen and
Bloch, 2002), and in marginal areas of larger lacustrine systems
(Freytet and Plaziat, 1982).
Wright and Platt (1995) indicated that the abundance of
palustrine limestones in the sedimentary record is a testimony to
the widespread occurrence of seasonal wetlands in the past. Their
suggestion to consider recent wetlands as a modern analogue for
palustrine deposits prompted Quade et al. (1995) and Dunagan
and Turner (2004) to reconsider ancient deposits previously
interpreted as lacustrine as possible wetland in origin. The des-
ignation “wetland” is complicated by the numerous ecological,
sedimentary, and hydrologic parameters used to define such an
environment. Here we use a definition of wetlands that includes
freshwater flat inundated areas, usually connected to rivers. The
more generic definition of wetland is the one that consider that
wetlands must have one or more of the following attributes: (1) at
least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes,
(2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil, and (3)
the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water cover or cov-
ered by shallow water at some times during the growing season
of each year (Cowardin et al., 1979). More recently, it has been
considered that wetlands are landscape units that have a spatially
and temporally positive hydric anomaly in relation to the adja-
cent drier land without being rivers, lakes, or marine environ-
ments (DGOH, 1991).
Examples of such riverine-influenced wetlands of interna-
tional significance include some rivers of Greece (Skoulikidis et
al., 1998) and the Loboi Swamp in Kenya (Ashley et al., 2004).
In spite of the wide use of the term wetland to include ancient
 Recent wetland-palustrine deposits in Spain
deposits such as Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary ephemeral car-
bonate lakes of the Andean Basin (Camoin et al., 1997), the clear
relationship between wetlands and palustrine carbonates has not
been properly established, mainly because of the lack of detailed
studies of the carbonate deposits that are forming in modern wet-
lands. Our work has confirmed that classic palustrine carbonate
features such as brecciation, root traces, nodulization, desicca-
tion, and grainification (Freytet and Verrecchia, 2002; Alonso-
Zarza, 2003) are recognizable in the Quaternary palustrine
sequence associated with the Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands.
In our opinion, Las Tablas de Daimiel should be considered as a
modern analogue for freshwater palustrine carbonate deposits.
CONCLUSIONS
The sedimentary record of the Las Tablas core provides evi-
dence that modern wetlands have been present since the Middle
Pleistocene in this area. The core may be subdivided into three
main depositional stages based on detailed facies analysis and
age constraints. In the lower stage (Lower? to Middle Pleisto-
cene, unit A), the wetland deposits included high-magnesium
calcite, dolomite, and gypsum molds that accumulated in a
slightly saline wetland that developed under a more arid climate
in which a slow-flowing fluvial system allowed the formation
of disconnected wetland areas. During the Middle Pleistocene
(unit B), a shift to wetter climate conditions is indicated by the
extensive peat development that was deposited in a shallow
vegetated swampy area. From the Upper Pleistocene to Holo-
cene, an open hydrology was established in the wetlands; how-
ever, desiccation events were common, which led to the typical
hard palustrine limestones associated with the upper part (unit
C) of the Las Tablas core.
A drainage basin rich in carbonates contributed to the domi-
nance of wetland carbonate deposits during the Quaternary as
Ca2+- and CO3H–-rich groundwater and surface water fed into the
system. The prevailing semiarid climate favored the inorganic
precipitation of carbonates in the water bodies, which combined
with biochemical and biogenic deposition. Variations in the cli-
matic conditions, base-level changes, and/or karstic processes
allowed the generation of the accommodation space needed to
form this relatively thick Quaternary carbonate sequence. One of
the causes of the preservation of these wetlands in the geologi-
cal record is linked to the diagenetic processes that rapidly affect
these carbonate sediments, causing induration of the micritic
mud in less than 10,000 yr without significant burial. The initial
stable low-magnesium calcite mineralogy, such as in the upper-
most part of the core (unit C), also contributed to preservation.
Conversely, stabilization of aragonite skeletons must be a slower
process, as the shells are still aragonitic, even in the lower part
of the core (unit A). The study of the Las Tablas core indicates
that these carbonate sediments are similar in mineralogy, biota,
texture, and isotopic composition to those of ancient palustrine
sequences. Therefore, the Las Tablas de Daimiel wetlands should
be considered as a modern analogue for freshwater palustrine
167
systems that have no marine influence. These systems are very
sensitive to changes in climate or base level, and their study is
needed not only to form a better interpretation of the sedimentary
terrestrial record, but also to develop a better idea of how to pre-
serve wetlands for the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is part of projects DGICYT-BTE-2000-0779 and
CGL2005-05953-C02-02. The authors thank Volkmer-Ribeiro
for help with spicules identification. Scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) studies were carried out in Centro de Microscopía
Luis Brú. B. Valero and S. Dunagan are thanked for their reviews,
which helped to improve the previous manuscript. L. Tanner is
thanked for the editorial tasks.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine

sedimentation around the K-T boundary (Faciès Rognacien,
northeastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France)
Daniel Marty†
Section d’archéologie et paléontologie, Office de la culture OCC, Hôtel des Halles, P.O. Box 64, 2900 Porrentruy, Switzerland

Christian A. Meyer
Naturhistorisches Museum, Augustinergasse 2, 4001 Basel, Switzerland

ABSTRACT

The Faciès Rognacien is a sequence of highly bioturbated and pedogenically

modified palustrine carbonates that were deposited under oxic conditions around the
Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) boundary in the northeastern Pyrenean foreland basin
(SW France). The sedimentary structures and early diagenetic features identified
(mottling, nodule formation, brecciation, pseudomicrokarst, cracking, charophytes,
Microcodium) suggest deposition in a palustrine environment between the subarid
and intermediate climate type. Sedimentological and paleoecological analysis enables
us to distinguish two facies associations, the lacustrine pond facies and the freshwa-
ter marsh facies associations. The majority of the carbonates are attributed to the
freshwater marsh facies. The lacustrine pond facies occurs only in isolated paleolows,
and is identified on the basis of its paleobiological content (charophytes, ostracodes).
This suggests that the palustrine carbonates of the Faciès Rognacien were deposited
in a seasonal wetland (carbonate-producing freshwater marsh), rather than in the
marginal zone of a large, shallow lake. In this wetland paleoenvironment, all carbon-
ates underwent widespread pedogenesis, and small, ephemeral ponds are of limited
distribution, most likely recording deposition in paleolows.

Keywords: palustrine carbonates, seasonal wetland, freshwater marsh, Rognacien, K-T

boundary, SW France.

RESUMEN

La Faciès Rognacien es una secuencia formada por carbonatos palustres muy

bioturbados y modificados pedogénicamente, que se depositó bajo condiciones óxicas
en la cuenca de antepaís Pirenaica (SW de Francia). Su edad está entorno al límite
K-T. Las estructuras sedimentarias y los rasgos diagenéticos tempranos (caráceas,
Microcodium, moteado, formación de nódulos, brechificación, pseudomicrokarst,
fisuración) indican que esta secuencia se depositó en un ambiente palustre de clima

†
E-mail: daniel.marty@palaeojura.ch.

Marty, D., and Meyer, C.A., 2006, Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine sedimentation around the K-T boundary (Faciès Rognacien, north-
eastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and
Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 169–187, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(11). For permission to copy, contact editing@
geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

169
170 Marty and Meyer

subárido a intermedio. Los análisis sedimentológicos y paleontológicos permiten dis-

tinguir dos asociaciones de facies: charcas lacustres y zonas pantanosas de agua dulce.
Las facies de charcas aparecen aisladas en paleodepresiones y tienen un contenido
paleobiológico característico (caráceas, ostrácodos). Esto sugiere que los carbonatos
palustres de esta secuencia se depositaron en humedales estacionales más que en las
zonas marginales de grandes lagos someros. En estos humedales todos los carbonatos
sufrieron modificaciones pedogénicas importantes.

Palabras clave: carbonatos palustres, humedales estacionales, pantanos de agua dulce,

Rognaciense, límite K-T, SW de Francia.

INTRODUCTION for freshwater wetlands, as they have for other depositional

Freytet (1971a, 1971b, 1973, and 1984) and Freytet and
Plaziat (1982) provided good overviews of the continental
deposits of southern France, including exhaustive descriptions
of palustrine sedimentological features. More recently, other
authors have described palustrine carbonates from the Cre-
taceous and Tertiary of France and Spain (e.g., Platt, 1989a;
Cojan, 1999) or provided reviews on palustrine carbonates
(e.g., Platt and Wright, 1991; Armenteros et al., 1997; Alonso-
Zarza 2003). Palustrine facies have only been recognized and
studied during the last thirty years (Wright and Platt, 1995), and
much less is known about them than about marine carbonates
(Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Nevertheless, palustrine sequences are
now known from the Carboniferous to the Neogene (Wright
and Platt, 1995), mostly within continental successions and
intercalated with floodplain deposits.
It was Freytet (1964) who introduced the term palustrine
(Latin: “paluster” = swampy, marshy), and Freytet (1984,
p. 231) presented the following definition: “A palustrine lime-
stone exhibits systematically characteristic features of the
primary lacustrine deposit (organisms, sedimentological fea-
tures), as well as features due to later transformations (organ-
isms, root traces, desiccation, pedologic remobilisations).” The
term palustrine is commonly applied as a nonmarine equiva-
lent for peritidal. Freytet and Plaziat (1982) interpreted their
palustrine facies as marginal lake deposits of shallow, unstrati-
fied freshwater lakes with swampy surroundings. Platt and
Wright (1991, 1992) and Wright and Platt (1995) expanded on
these ideas, noting that low shoreline gradients led to the exten-
sive exposure of lake margins at times of low water level, and
that many ancient palustrine successions show a dominance
of pedogenically modified carbonates over those recording a
primary lacustrine origin. Their analogy with modern envi-
ronments of the Florida Everglades suggested that palustrine
carbonates are the products of hardwater seasonal wetlands
(sensu Tarnocai, 1979).
Wetlands, however, are intermediaries between terrestrial
and aquatic (lacustrine) ecosystems, and palustrine environ-
ments are often studied in combination with other depositional
systems, such as lakes, deltas, or floodplains, rather than being
treated as a distinct entity (Liutkus and Ashley, 2003). Hence,
no sedimentological facies models have been developed as yet
environments (Liutkus and Ashley, 2003). Consequently, there
is a limited understanding of their origin, how they are sus-
tained hydrologically, and the type of sedimentary deposit that
may be preserved in the geological record (Ashley et al., 2004).
Only recently, following the model of Wright and Platt (1995),
Flügel (2004, p. 13 and p. 742) provided a revised definition
of the palustrine facies as pedogenically modified carbonates
of nearshore deposits of extremely shallow lakes with oscillat-
ing water level and densely vegetated shorelines, as well as of
carbonate swamps surrounding these lakes.
This paper analyzes facies within the palustrine carbonates
of the Faciès Rognacien (Cretaceous-Tertiary [K-T] bound-
ary) of SW France, and reconstructs the paleoenvironment in
detail. Within the research area, all carbonates of the Faciès
Rognacien are pedogenically modified and can be classified as
palustrine carbonates. However, carbonates clearly exhibiting
evidence for a primary lacustrine origin are very scarce and
occur only in isolated locations. These carbonates are described
as the lacustrine pond facies association, as it is inferred that
they were formed in small and ephemeral ponds. The majority
of the carbonates of the Faciès Rognacien does not show any
evidence of a primary lacustrine origin, and are thus attributed
to the freshwater marsh facies association. This observed facies
distribution pattern cannot be well explained with the “marginal
lake” facies model of Freytet and Plaziat (1982), or the marginal
lacustrine facies of Platt and Wright (1991), respectively. More-
over, this makes clear the assertion that the palustrine carbon-
ates of the Faciès Rognacien precipitated in freshwater marshes
within a carbonate wetland environment. This paper describes
the lithofacies associations of both the freshwater marsh and the
lacustrine pond facies, proposes microfacies and paleontologi-
cal criteria for their recognition, and reconstructs the ancient
wetland environment of the Faciès Rognacien in great detail.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area is situated in the folded northern Pyrenean
foreland (southwestern France, Département Aude), which is
separated from the North Pyrenean zone to the south by the North
Pyrenean frontal thrust and from the North Aquitaine folded fore-
land to the north by the sub-Pyrenean frontal thrust (Bousquet,
1997; Charrière and Durand-Delga, 2004) (Fig. 1).
 Palustrine carbonates of SW France 171

Montagne Noire
N Fra n c e

Aude

Carcassonne

Treziers Limoux

s
Pla 43°10'N

re
nta SPFT

Corbiè
ure
l Massif de
Foix Audois Espéraza

Medite
Lavelanet Mouthoumet
NPFT
Nebias

rranea
n
Perpignan
Pyrenees 2°21'E 10 km

Hercynian basement + Trias Mesozoic Research Area Faults

Paleocene and Illerdian Cuisian to Ludian (Série de Palassou) Post Ludian

Figure 1. Geographical and geological setting of the research area. NPFT—North Pyrenean frontal thrust, SPFT—sub-Pyrenean frontal thrust
(after Tambareau et al. [1995, 1997] and Bousquet [1997]).

A progressive and complex regression occurred across the STRATIGRAPHY

Pyrenean area during the Cretaceous (Bilotte, 1978; Bilotte et
al., 1983; Babinot et al., 1983). The orogenesis of the Pyrenees
started between Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary times (Bous-
quet, 1997). Erosion and continental sedimentation were wide-
spread throughout much of the Pyrenean foreland from the Early
Campanian until the Early Thanetian (Fig. 2). Within the research
area, the basin was tectonically bounded to the north by the Mon-
tagne Noire Massif and to the south by the rising Pyrenean Range
(Tambareau et al., 1995) (Fig. 1).
The best overviews of the regional geology and paleontol-
ogy are those by Freytet (1970, 1971a), Jaffrezo (1977), Plaziat
(1981, 1984), Bilotte et al. (1989), Bousquet (1997), and Bous-
quet and Vianey-Liaud (2001). The text booklet of the geological
map of Quillan (Bessière et al., 1989) provides a short lithologi-
cal description of the Faciès Rognacien, but to date, only Peyber-
nès and Combes (1999) have examined the Faciès Rognacien of
the study area in greater detail.
Generally, the terms Rognacien and Vitrollien serve as local
lithostratigraphic units in southern France (Provence) for the con-
tinental units of Late Cretaceous and Early Danian age, respec-
tively (Babinot and Durand, 1980; Babinot et al., 1983). The
“Rognacien” was introduced in Villot (1883) using Rognac near
Aix-en-Provence (Provence) as the type locality (Babinot and
Durand, 1980). In lithofacies terms, the Rognacien is character-
ized by an intimate association of lacustrine and palustrine marls
and limestones with various types of “hypercalcimorph” soils
(Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Babinot et al., 1983). The lithostrati-
graphic units Rognacien and Vitrollien have also been used in
a chronostratigraphic sense in Languedoc and the Pyrenees
(Freytet, 1970; Plaziat, 1970; Bilotte, 1978), which are located
far away, however, from the type locality. Thus, and in order to
avoid confusion, we use the terms Faciès Rognacien and Faciès
Vitrollien, respectively (following Bessière et al., 1989; Fig. 2).
172 Marty and Meyer

Previous work has suggested that the K-T boundary has to

Bessière et al. (1989)
be placed in the upper part of the Rognacien, and not in the Vit-
rollien (e.g., Bessière et al., 1980; Galbrun, 1989; Rocchia et al.,
Thanetian
Thanétien supérieur
1989; Westphal and Durand, 1990; Galbrun et al., 1991; Cojan
et al., 1998; Bousquet and Vianey-Liaud, 2001), although no
Paleogene

Thanétien inférieur unequivocal evidence has been provided as yet for a golden spike
of the K-T boundary.
Within the research area, the Faciès Rognacien is composed
Danian

of a sequence of 15–25 m of palustrine carbonates without inter-

Faciès Vitrollien
Faciès Rognacien
Maastrichtian
calated clastic material. The succession can generally be subdi-
vided (from the base to the top) into four units: lower marl, lower
limestone, upper marl, and upper limestone (Figs. 3 and 4). These
correlate with the M1, C1a/b, M2, and C2 subdivisions of Pey-
bernès and Combes (1999), who identified paleokarstic megafea-
tures and defined erosional and karstic paleosurfaces (disconti-
nuities) at the base and the top of the limestone units. However,

Poudingue Fleuri this study does not provide evidence for the existence of such
paleokarstic megafeatures.
The transition from the underlying Poudingue Fleuri to the
lower marl unit of the Faciès Rognacien is not clearly marked.
In this work, the limit has been defined where the clastic content
Marnes de la Maurine falls to zero. The upper boundary is well defined, and the overly-
ing Faciès Vitrollien rests directly upon the upper limestone unit
(Fig. 3, section 2). The base of the Faciès Vitrollien consists of
clays with only minor Microcodium compared to the rest of this
Cretaceous

unit, where Microcodium is abundant or even rock-forming.

C./M. Grès des Estous
Besides abundant Microcodium, the Faciès Rognacien is
almost barren, even within the marliest layers, many of which
could be classified as hydromorphic paleosols of the freshwa-
ter marsh facies. This is consistent with the highly bioturbated
Marnes de Campagne and oxygenated nature, as well as the pedogenic overprinting,
Campanian

of palustrine carbonates, which are both factors that are unfa-

vorable to fossil preservation. Nevertheless, paleontological and
paleoecological data gained from screen-washed samples and
the analysis of thin sections proved critical in resolving the com-
plex history of many lithofacies, especially those of the lacus-
trine pond facies association, where gyrogonites and encrusted
stems of charophytes, oncoids, and rare ostracodes are the only
Grès d'Alet recognizable primary lacustrine features. The lower and upper
marl units contain a Maastrichtian charophyte flora, whereas the
upper limestone unit contains a Paleocene flora, attributing—at
Marine limestones least within the research area—the entire Faciès Vitrollien to the
Palustrine limestones Paleocene and indicating that no major depositional changes
Palustrine calcareous marls
occurred at the K-T boundary (Marty, 2001, 2004) (Fig. 2).

Fluviatile calcareous conglomerates PETROLOGY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY OF THE

Clays and marls (floodplain, paleosols)
Sandy, calcareous marls (floodplain, paleosols)
Fluviatile sandstones
Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic framework from the Campanian to
the early Danian for the research area (not to scale; after Bessière et al.,
1989). Based on charophyte biostratigraphy (Marty, 2001, 2004), the
Faciès Rognacien is attributed to the Maastrichtian and early Danian.
FACIÈS ROGNACIEN
Typical Palustrine Features
Sedimentological Features
At outcrop scale, the four units of the Faciès Rognacien are
generally easy to distinguish. The lower and upper limestone units
are chiefly gray in color and are highly indurated (Fig. 4). A high
 Palustrine carbonates of SW France 173

Figure 3. Schematic lithological logs of the sections 2, 4, and 5. Out of 8 sections studied, these are the only sections where charophytes could
be isolated out of screen-washed samples, allowing the determination and correlation of the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) transition zone (Marty,
2001, 2004). Throughout the Faciès Rognacien, a pronounced lateral variation between and even within the sections in lithology, due to different
degrees of macroscopic pedogenic modification (brecciation, nodule formation), is characteristic. Note, however, that this macroscopic lithologi-
cal appearance of pedogenic modification is not related to the described lithofacies of the freshwater marsh and lacustrine pond facies.

degree of induration—despite limited burial or cementation—is
a common feature of palustrine sediments (Alonso-Zarza, 2003)
and is explained as the result of mineralogical stabilization and
aggrading neomorphism (Wright et al., 1997; Anadón et al.,
2000). The gray color indicates zones with reduced iron only,
recording rather short subaerial exposure and at least seasonal
hydromorphism (Platt and Wright, 1992). The contacts between
the marl and limestone units are often very irregular, and dom-
ing-upward structures at the top of the limestone units may be
observed. Other features of the limestone units include prismatic
structures (“columnar limestone”), probably due to root bioturba-
tion (Klappa, 1978a, 1978b; Esteban and Klappa, 1983; Alonso-
Zarza et al., 2000), brecciated limestone (Fig. 5A), and nodular
limestone (Fig. 5B). The two marl units generally have a gray,
beige, or white color, and they appear structureless and homo-
geneous. However, mottling can locally be pronounced, espe-
cially at the base of the Faciès Rognacien. Nevertheless, lateral
variation in lithology within the Faciès Rognacien is typically
pronounced. Strongly brecciated limestone may laterally pass
into nonbrecciated limestone, and the limestone units may con-
tain intercalated marly layers or marly layers that cut through
them (Fig. 3).
Apart from Microcodium, the marl units contain very sparse
microfauna, and marls bearing charophytes (gyrogonites and
encrusted stems) and ostracodes are only rarely found. Through-
out the Faciès Rognacien, red, yellow, and violet mottling is com-
mon, although this may be due to later transformation rather than
prolonged exposure and pedogenic reddening (“rubefaction”).
174 Marty and Meyer

Figure 4. Section 4 (Ravin de Couleurs) showing the typical litho-

logical sequence of the Faciès Rognacien within the study area. From
base to top, the four units are identified as follows: lower marl, lower
limestone (with intercalated marls), upper marl, and upper limestone.
In this section, the upper limestone unit is more massive than the
lower one.

The Faciès Rognacien displays a wide range of palustrine

features (alveolar texture, brecciation, coated grains and gravels,
cracking, crystallaria, mottling, nodule formation, pseudomicro-
karst), which provide evidence of extensive subaerial exposure
and pedogenesis. Some of these features may be observed at out-
crop scale (Figs. 3 and 5). On a small microscale, several features
are commonly intimately associated within the same thin section.
Descriptions and interpretations of the most prominent palustrine
features of the Faciès Rognacien are given in Table 1 and illus-
trated in Figures 5 and 6.
Further, characteristic features of palustrine carbonates
were described in Freytet (1971a, 1971b, 1984), Freytet and Pla-
ziat (1982), Platt and Wright (1992), Alonso-Zarza (2003), and Figure 5. (A) Outcrop photograph showing strongly brecciated lime-
stone, interpreted as monomict and autochthonous desiccation breccia
Freytet and Verrecchia (2002). Ginsburg (1975), Hardie (1977), produced by repeated wetting and drying (“palustrine brecciation”).
Hardie and Shinn (1986), and Bain and Foos (1993), described Scale bar is 15 cm. (B) Base of the lower limestone unit of section 1
the recognition of subaerial exposure surfaces from microfabrics “L’Encantado”: nodular limestone. Hammer is shown for scale.
 TABLE 1. TYPICAL PALUSTRINE FEATURES IDENTIFIED WITHIN THE FACIÈS ROGNACIEN
Feature Appearance in the Faciès Rognacien
Alveolar texture Microscopic: Very common. Occurs as microlaminar micrite or as a network of
Esteban (1974) anastomosing, fine, dark micritic lines or filaments, including irregular, sometimes
Figures 6D, 6E cylindrical calcite spar-filled voids and vugs, resulting in a highly fenestral fabric.
Voids are filled with sparry calcite, similar to crystallaria. The micritic network may
exhibit a strong biogenic fabric, which can easily be confused with microbial
stromatolites or tufas (Wright et al., 1988).
Brecciated limestone Microscopic: Intraclasts are irregularly shaped, more or less dark, (sub-) rounded,
(desiccation breccias) up to several mm in size, and exhibit sharp to diffuse boundaries. Fissures,
Figures 5A and 6B cavities, and residual voids are generally filled with sparry calcite cement.
Macroscopic: Made up of angular intraclasts with well-defined boundaries, each
several mm up to several cm in size. Jigsaw fits between adjacent clasts
common.
Coated grains and gravels Microscopic: Coated grains include rounded to angular carbonate intraclasts.
Peryt (1983) Coating appears either as micrite envelope or as dark micritic laminae consisting
Figure 6F of iron-rich clay material. Micrite envelopes are smooth and regular; iron-rich
laminae are generally irregular. Seldom, several generations of coatings may be
observed.
Cracking Microscopic: Vertical, horizontal, planar horizontal, oblique, and curved cracks.
Figures 5A, 6A, 6B, 6C, Circumgranular cracking is prevalent and well developed. Cracks are commonly
and 7D filled with sparry calcite cement.
Macroscopic: Vertical cracks (vertical joint planes sensu Brewer, 1964), horizontal
cracks (horizontal joint planes, sheet cracks), planar horizontal cracks, oblique
cracks (skew planes), and curved cracks (craze planes).
Crystallaria Microscopic: Consists of a mosaic fabric of microsparitic calcite crystals with a
Figure 6E diameter of 5–10 microns. Often, crystallaria occur localized and patchy or in
association with alveolar texture.
Idiomorphic quartz Microscopic: Very scarce, never associated with other clastic material.
Macroscopic: Frequent, 0.2 mm to several mm in diameter, (bi-) pyramidal.
Frequently associated with gyrogonites and Microcodium.
Mottling Microscopic: Mottled areas form irregular, dark haloes of varying intensity with
Figures 6F and 8C diffuse or rarely sharp boundaries. Locally outlined by circumgranular cracks,
often associated with nodular limestone fabrics.
Macroscopic: Red, yellow to beige and violet colored patches, each a few cm in
diameter.
Nodular limestone Microscopic: Contains rounded intraclasts up to several mm in size. Intraclasts are
Freytet (1973) similar to the surrounding matrix and are composed primarily of micrite.
Figures 5B and 6C Macroscopic: Frequent at top or base of limestone units. Size of nodules varies
between several cm up to 20–30 cm. If the intercalated marly matrix has already
been eroded, the beds exhibit a “pseudo”-conglomeratic aspect.
Pseudomicrokarst Microscopic: Irregular, vertically elongated cavities (“fenestrae”) commonly filled
Plaziat and Freytet (1978) with complex, polyphased, fine-grained sediment (crystalline, vadose silt)
Figures 6D and 7D reworked and rounded Microcodium debris, and other, larger rounded intraclasts.
Some cavities exhibit a lobate shape suggesting that they may have resulted
from dissolution or disintegration of Microcodium colonies. Residual voids are
filled with phreatic sparite cement.
Interpretation
Steinen (1974) suggested that the fabric may result from the formation of discrete
channelways within sediment that has been penetrated by rootlets, and Klappa
(1978b) and Esteban and Klappa (1983) described alveolar texture as the
product of coalesced mm-sized rhizoliths. Bain and Foos (1993) suggested that
alveolar texture resulted from root penetration and diagenetic alteration. Flügel
(2004), however, stated that dark cauliflower networks may also have originated
from migration of colloidal Fe-solution in argillaceous micrite.
Angular intraclasts with jigsaw fit indicate in situ genesis without mechanical
reworking. During periods of emersion (lowstands), carbonate mud may become
partly lithified and wetting-and drying-related shrinkage creates planar voids
(desiccation cracks). During flooding, fissures and cavities may be partially filled
with fine carbonate material, and pseudomicrokarst structures may form. Typical
of palustrine carbonates forming in a semiarid climate (Platt and Wright, 1992).
Has also been called “autobrecciation,” resulting in “pseudoclast”-containing
“pseudobreccias” (Armenteros et al., 1997).
Grains and gravels might form through desiccation and mechanical reworking or
fenestral fabrics and roots with associated fungi (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992b)
during an early diagenetic process called “grainification” (Mazullo and Birdwell,
1989; Wright, 1990). Micrite coating results from rolling during mechanical
reworking, iron-coatings from remobilization of iron-rich clay material that was
derived from overlying soils.
Commonly associated with roots or induced by desiccation. Circumgranular
cracking (and nodule formation) is believed to be the result of repeated wetting
(expansion) and drying (shrinkage). Cracking might reflect minor pedogenic
modification of the original carbonate texture during lake regression. Subsequent
phreatic cementation filled the cracks with sparry cement.
Crystallaria result from complex and repetitive phases of recrystallization of
nodules or mudstones during pedogenic modification, whereas the mosaic fabric
clearly indicates crystal growth.
Authigenic precipitation of quartz occurs during diagenesis if the sediment contains
circulating salinar solutions and if pH conditions are slightly alkalic (Chilingarian
and Wolf, 1988). Authigenic quartz is also described from oncoids and
stromatolites (Winsborough et al., 1994).
Redistribution of iron and hydroxides in hydromorphic carbonate soils during
conditions of fluctuating water table or Eh and Ph, if parental carbonate contains
several percent of clay and if its total iron content exceeds 1.5%–2% (Bown and
Kraus, 1987; Retallack, 1990). Results in cements which are slightly richer in
clay and iron oxide (Valero Garcés et al., 1994).
Mainly due to desiccation and the subsequent formation of planar and curved
fissures. Might also be favored through brecciation by recrystallization. In
modern soils, nodule formation of carbonate occurs in the zone of an oscillating
water table due to repeated flooding (Ruellan, 1967).
Enlarging of a complex network of root traces and horizontal cracks, with a
polyphased filling of coarse and fine internal sediment and varied cements.
During dry seasons, the vegetation on carbonate mud (reed or rooted aquatic
plants like charophytes) may disappear, leaving root cavities behind. These
cavities get enlarged through subsequent water circulation and are filled up
before the water level rises again.
Figure 6. Typical palustrine microfabric features of the Faciès Rognacien (for a more detailed description, see also Table 1): (A) Circumgranular
cracking (curved planes) in a Microcodium-bearing wackestone. Cracks are filled with sparry calcite. (B) Partly brecciated limestone (“palustrine
brecciation”). Residual patches of micritic material are intensely fissured, but fit and connection with the adjacent parts clearly indicate that they
have not been transported. (C) Nodular limestone, here a mudstone of the freshwater marsh facies association. (D) Rhizolith exhibiting alveolar
texture: dark micritic filaments outlining elongate vugs and tubiform pores filled with articulated Microcodium colonies (gray, roundish patches)
and vadose silt. The pseudomicrokarst cavity (top left) shows a geopetal filling of crystalline (vadose) silt. (E) Alveolar texture: irregular and
cylindrical fenestrae and tubiform pores outlined by micritic filaments. The cavities are filled with vadose silt and blocky calcite (crystallaria).
(F) Micrite-coated rounded ferruginous intraclast. Intraclast and matrix is composed of Microcodium-bearing wackestone to packstone.
 Palustrine carbonates of SW France 177

in peritidal carbonates, which show many textural similarities
with palustrine carbonates.
Paleoecological Features
Microcodium
Complete, articulated colonies of Microcodium, as well as
reworked, disarticulated colonies, are found in screen-washed sam-
ples and in thin sections. Microcodium always exhibits the same
morphotype (type 1 sensu Bodergat, 1974 and Plaziat, 1984). In
thin sections, Microcodium shows “corn-cob” colonies in longitudi-
nal (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Plaziat, 1984) or spheroidal “rosette”
structures in transverse sections (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Kosir,
2004) (Fig. 7A). In situ colonies are found in all sorts of cracks and
cavities resulting from desiccation and root penetration. Here, they
are commonly associated with dissolution and intense corrosion
of the adjacent carbonate substrate. However, articulated colonies
are also commonly observed within mudstones lacking any other
evidence of subaerial exposure. Microcodium structures appear
to have been very fragile and readily subject to disintegration into
single prisms (Fig. 7B). These prisms are a common feature in all
reworked, bio- or pedoturbated lithofacies and are thus widespread
in their distribution. If the prisms are slightly rounded or corroded,
they become harder to identify as Microcodium (Figs. 7C and 7D).
Also common is the association of reworked Microcodium prisms
with articulated colonies, indicating repeated periods of Microco-
dium growth and reworking.
The term Microcodium was introduced by Glück (1912).
Microcodium is a problematic calcitic microfeature of many cal-
cretes and paleosols, and there is considerable controversy sur-
rounding its origin and possible relation with calcified plant roots
(Esteban, 1974; Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Freytet, 1984; Jaillard

Figure 7. Lithofacies of the freshwater marsh facies association. (A) Mudstone with Microcodium colonies (“rosettes”) in a micritic matrix.
Transverse sections of Microcodium colonies show the typical “rosette” structure, associated with corrosion of the matrix at its margins. (B)
Microcodium-bearing wackestone to packstone with partly disarticulated Microcodium colony. Reworked prisms exhibit marginal corrosion and
rounding, suggesting multiple phases of growth and reworking. (C) Microcodium-bearing packstone containing single prisms and a disarticu-
lated colony (lower right). (D) Microcodium-bearing wackestone showing nodule formation associated with circumgranular cracks, mottling,
and pseudomicrokarst cavities (pmc), which are filled with crystalline (vadose) silt and blocky calcite.
178 Marty and Meyer
et al., 1991; Wright et al., 1995; Freytet et al., 1997; Kosir, 2004).
However, despite its controversial origin, Microcodium is a clear
indicator of terrestrial conditions, provides evidence for subaerial
exposure, and may be used as a criterion for the recognition of
paleosols (Klappa, 1978b; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998). Recently,
Kosir (2004) suggested that its formation takes place during early
stages of soil development, probably reflecting nutrient-acquiring
mechanisms used by certain types of specific types of vascular
plants of a pioneer community that are able to rapidly colonize
nutrient-poor carbonate substrates during relatively short-lived
phases of subaerial exposure.
Charophytes
Charophyte remains (gyrogonites, encrusted gyrogonites
and stems) are common in the Faciès Rognacien and are present
in both screen-washed samples and thin sections (Fig. 8). Cha-
rophyte remains occur in all four units of the Faciès Rognacien,
but not in all sections studied. However, in sections where cha-
rophytes are present, they sometimes occur in several units (e.g.,
sections 2 and 5 in Fig. 3).
The presence of cortical cells identifies fragments of
charophyte stems within oncoid nuclei and other intraclasts
(Figs. 8A and 8B). Charophyte stems may serve as nuclei for
additional inorganic or organic carbonate precipitation. Inor-
ganic encrustation of stems can be explained by photosyn-
thetic removal of CO2 and HCO3–, leading to the precipitation
of calcium carbonate. Some encrusted charophyte stems show
laminated stromatolite-like structures formed by epiphytic
cyanobacteria, which appear to develop after eutrophication
of nutrient-poor environments (Martín-Closas, 1999). The
diverse modes and degrees of epiphytic calcification may pro-
duce different forms of calcification and fragmentation of the
charophyte stems, as illustrated in Freytet and Plaziat (1982)
and Schneider et al. (1983).
Modern charophytes live in shallow, littoral zones of tem-
perate to warm, alkaline freshwater lakes, where they are the
characteristic floral element. They occur in the photic zone,
to a maximum depth of 15–20 m, although the presence of
stems usually suggests depths of less than 10 m (Cohen and
Thouin, 1987; Garcia, 1994). Charophytes commonly occur
together with ostracodes in low-diversity assemblages (Dean
and Fouch, 1983). Encrusted stems are delicate structures, and
cannot be transported far. Preservation is therefore only pos-
sible in a low-energy environment without significant currents
or water turbulence (Dean and Fouch, 1983).
FACIES AND FACIES ASSOCIATIONS
The entire Faciès Rognacien is essentially made up of two
types of carbonate facies associations. These are the (1) fresh-
water marsh facies, and (2) lacustrine pond facies associations.
As all carbonates are pedogenically modified, the lacustrine pond
facies is primarily identified on the basis of lacustrine paleoeco-
logical evidence such as the occurrence of charophytes and, to
a lesser degree, ostracodes. The freshwater marsh facies, on the
other hand, includes all pedogenically modified carbonates that
do not contain readily identifiable primary lacustrine features.
Both facies associations are characterized by the widespread
presence of fabrics and textures recording emersion and pedo-
genesis (Table 1; Fig. 6). Several different lithofacies have been
identified in each of the two facies associations, reflecting a com-
plex spectrum of different degrees of emersion, pedogenesis, and
associated reworking.
Facies Association 1: Freshwater Marsh Facies Association
Calcareous Marls
Beige to yellow calcareous marls, which have thicknesses
up to 3 m and exhibit mottling on a macroscopic scale, make
up most of the lower and upper marl unit. Screen-washed sam-
ples yielded articulated Microcodium colonies and ferruginous
nodules, but never remains of a lacustrine fauna or flora.
Interpretation. The presence of abundant, generally
articulated Microcodium colonies suggests that these marls
were formed in the freshwater marsh facies. This is supported
by the complete absence of charophytes and other lacustrine
remains.
Mudstones
The lower and upper limestone units are primarily com-
posed of fairly massive layers of gray to beige homogeneous
micritic limestones that lack any fossil allochems, siliciclastic
material such as quartz, lamination, or bedding structure. Typi-
cally, the limestones are brecciated (Figs. 5A and 6B) or exhibit
nodular fabrics accentuated by circumgranular cracking (Fig.
6C). Rarely, they contain crystallaria and colonies (Fig. 7A) or
reworked prisms of Microcodium.
Interpretation. The mudstone texture suggests low-energy
sedimentation. The general absence of any bedding structure
implies bioturbation of the sediments, and the absence of silici-
clastic material suggests a closed environment. Palustrine brec-
ciation, nodular fabrics, and circumgranular cracking indicate
pedogenic modification. The degree of pedogenic modification
may be estimated, where Microcodium is present, by the ratio
of Microcodium colonies to isolated prisms. Within the Faciès
Rognacien, this is the most abundant and typical lithofacies.
Microcodium-Bearing Wackestone and Packstone
These massive gray limestones are notable in thin section as
Microcodium wackestones to packstones with strong evidence
of pedogenic modification (brecciation, circumgranular crack-
ing, nodular fabric). Microcodium is present within and sup-
ported by the micritic matrix and is mostly disarticulated (Figs.
7B, 7C, and 7D). Detrital quartz is absent.
Interpretation. The occurrence of different features again
suggests a complex history. The carbonate mud was subjected
to emersion and pedogenic overprinting, apparently during peri-
ods of low water table. Microcodium colonies could then have
Figure 8. Lithofacies of the lacustrine pond facies association. (A) Intraclastic packstone (granular limestone). Subrounded to angular intraclasts include
encrusted charophyte stems (cs), a few poorly developed oncoids, Microcodium prisms, and colonies. Some grains exhibit ferruginous coatings. (B) Detail
of A, showing encrusted charophyte stem (cs), gyrogonite (cg), and laminar Microcodium colonies in longitudinal section (m). (C) Intraclastic nodule
wackestone or packstone with ferruginous intraclasts, alveolar texture (at), Microcodium colonies (m), and spar-filled vugs. Individual intraclasts are
distinguished from the matrix by abundance and state of preservation of Microcodium debris and aggregates, and by delineation of ferruginous coatings.
(D) Detail of C. The matrix (wackestone) between the intraclasts contains less Microcodium-debris and charophyte stems (cs), but clearly more articulated
Microcodium colonies (m) than the ferruginous intraclasts. Note dissolution associated with Microcodium colonies within the matrix and inhomogeneous
mottling. (E) Intraclastic rudstone: intraclasts comprise oncoids (alternating layers of thin and thicker micritic laminae around a poorly defined nucleus),
encrusted charophyte stems (cs), and other carbonate gravels. The matrix contains abundant reworked and corroded Microcodium debris (white clasts).
Note the pronounced mottling and ferruginous coatings. (F) Intraclastic floatstone: angular intraclasts include encrusted charophyte stems (cs) and other
carbonate gravels. The matrix is a Microcodium-bearing (white clasts) wackestone to packstone.
180 Marty and Meyer
formed in desiccation cracks and around rootlets penetrating
into the cracks. Through subsequent water circulation follow-
ing heavy rains, or in times of raised water level, Microcodium
colonies were disintegrated and reworked, leading to the rede-
position of single prisms. The presence of abundant Microco-
dium “micro-bioclasts,” in the absence of other detrital grains of
similar size suggests the reworking of Microcodium which were
proliferating in a freshwater marsh environment. Such environ-
ments would have been protected from terrigenous influx by
a filter of dense reed or other swamp vegetation (Freytet and
Plaziat, 1982).
Facies Association 2: Lacustrine Pond Facies Association
Chalky Marls
These marls are white, chalky, calcareous marls, which are
mostly intercalated with nodular limestone (see below) (Fig. 5B),
whereas the bed thickness varies laterally between several centi-
meters up to several tens of centimeters. Screen-washed samples
yielded abundant gyrogonites and encrusted stems of charo-
phytes, partially articulated to articulated Microcodium colonies,
and authigenic idiomorphic quartz.
Interpretation. The presence of charophyte remains
implies a primary lacustrine origin. Microcodium indicates
later pedogenic overprinting during lowstand of the water table
in a vadose environment. Furthermore, articulated Microco-
dium colonies suggest minor reworking. The white color, the
chalky nature, and the absence of mottling suggest at least sea-
sonal hydromorphism.
Intraclastic Packstones (Granular Limestones)
This facies is composed of nodular limestones that contain
carbonate nodules up to a diameter of ~20 cm, often interca-
lated with white calcareous marls (see above) (Fig. 5B), or mas-
sive gray limestones. Polished sections show that the carbonate
nodules consist of angular (0.5–1 cm) intraclasts as well as of
(sub-) rounded (0.2–0.5 mm) calcareous “gravels” (Figs. 8A and
8B). Many of the clasts are made up of encrusted gyrogonites
and charophyte stems. The charophyte gyrogonites and stems
exhibit diverse degrees of fragmentation, but are generally well
preserved and not deformed. The clasts are locally outlined
with circumgranular cracks or ferruginous coatings. The matrix
is micritic, although large spar-filled vugs and recrystallized
areas are common. Ostracodes and molluscan shell fragments
are sometimes present.
Interpretation. Charophytes and other macrophytes were
apparently encrusted due to preferential Ca-precipitation onto a
biological substrate as a result of CO2 drawdown through pho-
tosynthetic activity. Subsequent degradation of the encrusted
macrophytes provided a range of intraclastic material. The low
degree of deformation and fragmentation of charophyte gyrogo-
nites and stems indicate that compaction and crushing was
negligible or that it predated encrustation. This also points to
a low-energy environment, probably within charophyte mead-
ows, which are commonly developed within carbonate lakes
at shallow depths of less than 10 m (Murphy and Wilkinson,
1980; Cohen and Thouin, 1987; Garcia, 1994). During a phase
of low water table, the “primary” lacustrine sediment was sub-
jected to emersion, resulting in minor pedogenic modification
(limited desiccation and root brecciation). A rather short time
of subaerial exposure is also indicated by the general lack of
Microcodium.
Intraclastic (Nodule) Wackestone and Packstone
This facies is composed of breccias containing (sub-)
rounded ferruginous intraclasts with diameters of several mil-
limeters to centimeters (Fig. 8C). The intraclasts are made up of
Microcodium wackestones to packstones, including reworked
Microcodium debris and rarely articulated colonies floating in
a dark ferruginous, argillaceous micritic matrix (Fig. 8D). The
intraclasts also contain rare charophyte gyrogonites and stems.
The matrix between the intraclasts is micritic and contains
Microcodium debris as well as abundant articulated colonies
(Fig. 8D), alveolar texture, and up to 1 cm big vugs, filled with
blocky calcite cement.
Interpretation. This complex lithofacies can only be
explained by several subsequent events of emersion, involving
pervasive microkarstic and desiccation brecciation of the above
described chalky marls and intraclastic packstones, followed by
reworking back into the “lacustrine pond” setting. Thus, differ-
ent scenarios may lead to this lithofacies. One possible means
of formation might be that Microcodium formed around ponds
during periods of low water table. A rise in water level reworked
the colonies, and single prisms settled down, with charophytes
growing during the subsequent period of high water level. Dur-
ing a second phase of emersion, the charophyte- and Microco-
dium-bearing sediment was partially indurated, and intraclasts
formed through palustrine brecciation or nodule formation. At
the same time, new Microcodium colonies were established.
During the subsequent period of high water table or as a result
of heavy rainfall, these intraclasts were reworked, slightly
rounded, and redeposited within another Microcodium-bearing
mud. During a further period of emersion, another generation of
Microcodium colonies and alveolar texture formed to give this
lithofacies its final, complex appearance. The different size and
form of intraclasts indicates reworking during short periods of
high-energy events and suggests that they have not been trans-
ported far.
Intraclastic Floatstone and Rudstone
This lithofacies occurs seldom and only at the base of the
Faciès Rognacien. It is composed of up to 30 cm of sandy,
marly limestones that exhibit a very pronounced lateral change
in the content and size of intraclasts. Thin sections reveal that
intraclasts include encrusted charophyte stems and gyrogo-
nites, structureless carbonate intraclasts, and, locally, oncoids
(Figs. 8E and 8F). The size of encrusted charophyte stems is up
to 1–2 cm in length, while the gyrogonite-bearing intraclasts
 Palustrine carbonates of SW France
are mostly only a few millimeters across. The carbonate intra-
clasts are generally on the order of a few millimeters in size,
although some may reach up to one centimeter in diameter.
Oncoids have a spherical to elongate form and a diameter of
several millimeters up to 10 cm. They constitute alternating
fine-grained more or less dark micritic layers with wavy and
cauliflower-like fabrics. Nuclei are poorly defined, but where
present, they comprise small lithoclasts, or, more rarely, charo-
phyte stems (Fig. 8E). These rocks have a matrix to grain-sup-
ported fabric with a wackestone-packstone matrix containing
reworked and strongly corroded Microcodium prisms.
Interpretation. As with the intraclastic packstones, intra-
clastic floatstones and rudstones are the result of brecciation
due to emersion, reworking and resedimentation of lithified
carbonate grains and gravels. They are a common facies in the
littoral realm of modern lakes (Murphy and Wilkinson, 1980;
Platt and Wright, 1991). Oncoids commonly grow in alkaline,
Ca-rich waters in river channels, marshes, lakes, and flood-
plains (Monty, 1981). Recent freshwater oncoids generally
grow in rather quiet shallow-water environments (benches or
flats of lakes) with temporary turbulence during floods (Monty,
1972). Pronounced changes in clast size and the lateral strong
variation from matrix- to grain-supported fabrics suggest
transport over short distances only. This indicates deposition
in a pond that was repeatedly subjected to emersion, result-
ing in the formation of abundant Microcodium colonies and
carbonate intraclasts, which were in turn reworked during the
next rise of the water level or by water movement (waves) due
to storms.
DISCUSSION
The palustrine environments of the Faciès Rognacien devel-
oped within a continental succession in a tectonically bounded
foreland basin. The palustrine carbonates are intercalated with
floodplain deposits within a fluvial-lacustrine system. This palus-
trine environment is likely to have passed into a more lacustrine
environment eastward along the river Aude (Peybernès and
Combes, 1999), fluvial-alluvial environments to the south, and
marine environments progressively toward the west. Alonso-
Zarza (2003) suggested that palustrine deposits mostly form
during periods of strongly reduced subsidence with the limited
accommodation space of overfilled basins, leading to the deposi-
tion of palustrine facies as highstand depositional systems. Also
Platt and Wright (1992) stated that palustrine deposits are com-
mon in relatively stable basins, typically forming during peri-
ods of tectonic quiescence when clastic supply from inflowing
alluvial-fluvial systems is reduced. Platt and Pujalte (1994) and
Platt (1995) noted that the formation of palustrine carbonates in
the Cretaceous of Spain was associated with the subaerial expo-
sure and peneplanation of an underlying carapace or pediment
of marine Jurassic carbonates where clastic supply was limited.
A similar subcrop configuration might also be suggested for the
Faciès Rognacien.
181
Paleoclimate
Climate is a critical control factor in the development of
lacustrine and palustrine successions (Platt, 1989b, 1989c; Platt
and Wright, 1992; Camoin et al., 1997). Climate not only con-
trols the lacustrine and palustrine environment, but also the
surrounding, usually siliciclastic, depositional environments.
The development of palustrine carbonates is favored in climates
with seasonal aridity and environments of low clastic detrital
supply or carbonate-dominated source terrains (Alonso-Zarza
et al., 1992a; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Nevertheless, Schullen-
berger et al. (2004) stated that the presence of a groundwater-
fed regional water table is more important than climate in the
formation of extensive palustrine deposits. Further, Dunagan
and Turner (2004) noted that primary groundwater discharge
may give the appearance of increased humidity in an otherwise
semiarid climate.
However, according to Platt and Wright (1992), palustrine
sequences may form under three different types of climate:
semiarid, intermediate, and subhumid. These three climate
regimes are tied to specific palustrine features, documented
from Carboniferous to Quaternary palustrine sequences (Platt
and Wright, 1992; Dunagan and Driese, 1999). Platt and Wright
(1992) further developed a freshwater exposure index, similar
to the marine exposure index of Ginsburg et al. (1977); it links
characteristic palustrine features to both hydroperiod and sea-
sonality. The hydroperiod is defined as the mean number of days
per year during which the ground surface at a given site is cov-
ered with water (Ginsburg et al., 1977; Platt and Wright, 1992).
Throughout the Faciès Rognacien, neither evaporites and
calcretes (typical for a semiarid setting) nor blackened pebbles,
coal, and lignite horizons (typical for a subhumid setting) have
been found. However, Microcodium (typical for an intermedi-
ate setting) is abundant, and evidence of desiccation (brecciation
and nodule formation, pseudomicrokarst) is relatively common.
Thus, the Faciès Rognacien may be placed between the sub-
arid and intermediate types of Platt and Wright (1992). Assum-
ing that the exposure index model of Platt and Wright (1992) is
applicable to the palustrine carbonates of the Faciès Rognacien,
these carbonates may have an estimated hydroperiod somewhere
in between 100–320 d (Fig. 9), indicating that pond develop-
ment and lake expansion was probably associated with a distinct
wet season. Those sections in the Faciès Rognacien displaying
stronger evidence of subaerial exposure may record deposition
on paleotopographic highs or distal areas (“prairies”), where
flooding was rare and pedogenic modification was prolonged.
The fact that all carbonates of the lacustrine pond facies are
pedogenically modified, at least to some extent, also suggests
that the ponds dried out during the dry season. The presence
of Fe-coatings, Fe-concretions, and mottling points to a mean
annual temperature over 20 °C (Pédro, 1968). Clay mineral-
ogy analyses also support deposition in a warm and seasonally
humid climate (Groebke, 2001). In summary, an intermediate,
seasonally humid, subtropic climate might be suggested.
182 Marty and Meyer

Facies Palustrine Lacustrine

Environment Prairie Freshwater marsh Marginal lake Permanent
Ephemeral wetland Perennial wetland Fringing wetland + littoral Lake

Faciès Rognacien Topography

HWT

LWT

5m

Hydroperiod 30-90 days 100-250 days 100-320 days 100-320 days All year
Exposure Ind. 70-90% 30-70% 10-70% 10-70% 0%

Typical Calcretes, black Freshwater marsh: pseudo-microkarst, pronounced pedogenic Erosional breccias, Lamination, no pedogenic
features pebbles, root modification, articulated Microcodium colonies oncoids, charo- modification, charophyte
traces Ponds: little pedogenic modification, isolated occurrence, phytes, ostracodes, gyrogonites, fish
charophyte stems + gyrogonites, ostracodes, Microcodium debris pedogenic features

Facies associations in the Freshwater marsh Lacustrine pond HWT Highest water table
Faciès Rognacien facies association facies association
(Carbonate freshwater marshes) (Ephemeral, shallow, small ponds) LWT Lowest water table
Wooded vegetation

Lithofacies of the Calcareous marls Chalky marls Swamp vegetation (horsetail, reed)
Faciès Rognacien Mudstones Intraclastic pack/grainstones Marsh vegetation (sedge, grass)
Microcodium-bearing wacke/ Intraclastic wacke/packstones
packstones Intraclastic float/rudstones Water plant vegetation (charophytes)

Figure 9. Simplified block diagram showing a facies model for a palustrine-lacustrine setting. The freshwater marsh and the lacustrine pond
facies associations of the Faciès Rognacien are inferred to have been deposited in a freshwater marsh within a wetland environment, where
densely vegetated carbonate marshes and swamps prevented siliciclastic input. Extensive charophyte meadows developed in small, shallow, and
ephemeral ponds. Open lacustrine facies are not developed, and lateral changes in paleotopography are on the order of a few meters only. The
table links paleoenvironment, typical sedimentological and paleoecological features, as well as the described facies associations with the fresh-
water exposure index of Platt and Wright (1992). The hydroperiod represents the number of inundation days over the year. An exposure index of
100% is equivalent to a hydroperiod of zero days per year.

Paleoenvironment groundwater only, a possibility which is also consistent with the

The carbonates of the Faciès Rognacien display indicators
both of emergence and of water-saturation (hydromorphism),
but clearly do not show any evidence of marine influence. Fur-
ther, they do not include any deeper-water lacustrine facies
(such as laminites), or distal alluvial sediments. Macro- and
microfacies analysis allowed the grouping of the various litho-
facies into two distinct facies associations, namely the ubiq-
uitous freshwater marsh facies and the relatively much rarer
lacustrine pond facies.
Carbonate sedimentation of the lacustrine pond facies took
place in shallow and ephemeral ponds, and all lithofacies show
some evidence of subaerial exposure and pedogenic modifi-
cation. These ephemeral ponds may have been connected by
absence of any significant clastic input (Alonso-Zarza and Calvo,
2000). The low-diversity invertebrate fauna assemblage and the
absence of any vertebrate remains (e.g., fish) suggest elevated
environmental stress (alkalinity, oligotrophy, water-level instabil-
ity) or poor faunal preservation potential (diagenetic conditions
preventing preservation); this is consistent with the development
of individually isolated, small, very shallow, and probably short-
lived ponds at paleolows.
The general absence of shell lags, the rarity of oncoid-bear-
ing facies, and the predominance of mudstone to wackestone
textures indicate that wave energies were generally low due
to the very small size of the ponds, but, in part, perhaps also
because of the baffling effect of extensive stands of aquatic veg-
etation like charophyte meadows. Nevertheless, high-energy
 Palustrine carbonates of SW France
storm events (sheetfloods) occurring sporadically in this gen-
erally low-energy system might have been responsible for the
formation of intraclastic packstones in the lacustrine pond facies
and Microcodium wackestones to packstones in the freshwater
marsh facies, respectively.
The lack of evaporites points to low salinity. This is sup-
ported by the presence of charophytes, which are typical for envi-
ronments with low salinities of less than 16‰–20‰ (Schudack,
1993; Schudack et al., 1998), even if, for example, Burne et al.
(1980) and Mojon (1990) give examples of more saline cha-
rophytes. The source of the fine-grained carbonate (typically
low-Mg calcite) in palustrine carbonates is poorly understood,
but may be polygenetic in origin, reflecting biogenic production
from charophytes, ostracodes, molluscs, and cyanobacteria, as
well as inorganic and biogenically induced precipitation (Dean,
1981; Platt and Wright, 1992; Alonso-Zarza and Calvo, 2000;
Anadón et al., 2000).
The carbonates of the freshwater marsh facies were prob-
ably produced biogenically from microbial (blue-green algal) mats
(Monty, 1972; Monty and Hardie, 1976), from inorganic or bio-
genically induced precipitation around charophytes and other veg-
etation, as well as Microcodium. The presence of a fringing veg-
etation zone of shallow-water marsh and land plants would have
acted as an effective barrier to terrigenous clastic input. Tandon and
Andrews (2001) suggested that semiarid carbonate flats typically
have a low biomass, and under prolonged exposure, the dominantly
herbaceous vegetation would leave little or no evidence of the larger
root systems as expected from arboreal plants. This could explain
why well-developed rhizolites, as well as organic matter, have not
been observed in the Faciès Rognacien.
The predominance of the freshwater marsh facies and the
scarcity of the lacustrine pond facies cannot easily be explained
with the “marginal lake facies” model of Freytet and Plaziat
(1982) or the marginal lacustrine facies of Platt and Wright
(1991). It is suggested that the Faciès Rognacien in the study
area was deposited in an ancient wetland dominated by carbon-
ate-producing freshwater marshes with some intervening small
and shallow ephemeral ponds. Seasonal variations in water table
and minor topographic variations across the depositional area
could easily explain the distribution and sequence of the various
facies. Nevertheless, the depositional environment of the Faciès
Rognacien as described here might have been located within a
wider lacustrine environment, since Peybernès and Combes
(1999) noted that the Faciès Rognacien becomes more lacustrine
eastward along the river Aude. Further, this wetland-lacustrine
environment is likely to have passed into fluvial-alluvial envi-
ronments to the south and marine environments progressively
toward the west (Plaziat, 1981).
Modern Analogues
Platt and Wright (1992) stated that difficulties in identi-
fying a convincing modern analogue for palustrine carbonate
deposition had hindered the development of facies models for
183
palustrine carbonates. These authors went on to propose the
Florida Everglades wetland as an analogue for many aspects
of palustrine carbonate deposition. The Everglades, however,
are not a lake, nor a lake margin, but a vast, densely vegetated,
carbonate freshwater marsh complex, where lakes and ponds
make up only a small proportion of the total area (Mitsch and
Gosselink, 1993). A fall in water level of only a few meters can
cause exposure of wide areas, whereas comparable rises in lake
level are unlikely to permit development of a stratified water
column (Platt and Wright, 1992).
Today, wetlands are amongst the most important and sen-
sitive ecosystems and cover 6% of the world’s surface. They
are areas that are periodically flooded, and they are found in
every climatic zone and on every continent except Antarctica
(Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). As modern wetlands are very
diverse, their definition and classification is extremely problem-
atical (Finlayson and van der Valk, 1995a, 1995b; Scott and
Jones, 1995). Among the most widely accepted definitions for
a palustrine wetland is the one of Cowardin et al. (1979) (see
also Cowardin and Golet, 1995, for recent advances), which
was adapted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This defini-
tion requires “an area of less than 8 ha, a lack of wave-formed
or bedrock shoreline features, water depth in the deepest part of
the basin of less than 2 m at low water, and salinity stemming
from ocean-derived salts of less than 0.5 ppt” (Cowardin et al.,
1979, p. 10).
However, despite their abundance, many wetlands are
limited in areal extent and form small features relative to their
sedimentary basins (Quade et al., 1995). As such, their preser-
vational potential may be limited. Indeed, Deocampo (2002)
suggested that wetlands are likely to be difficult to recognize in
the sedimentary record, and Liutkus and Ashley (2003) noticed
that, as yet, no sedimentological facies models have been devel-
oped for (siliciclastic) freshwater wetlands.
To date, the Everglades wetland has been considered by
Armenteros and Daley (1998) as a modern analogue for the
palustrine Bembridge Limestone (Eocene, Isle of Wight), and
by Valero Garcés et al. (1994) for parts of the Upper Free-
port Formation (Pennsylvanian, Appalachian Basin). Platt and
Pujalte (1994) proposed that an ancient analogue for the Early
Cretaceous palustrine system of northern Spain might be rep-
resented by the extensive areas of shallow freshwater marshes
found in southeastern Iraq around Basra. These environments
pass laterally seaward into the marginal marine and peritidal
facies of the Persian Gulf (Baltzer and Purser, 1990) and later-
ally landward into the fluvial and semidesert environments of
central Iraq. Valero Garcés et al. (1994) also proposed that the
semiarid to subarid carbonate-dominated, extensive wetland
of Bahia in northeastern Brazil (Branner, 1910) might form a
good recent analogue. Another modern analogue might be pro-
vided by Lake Balaton in Hungary (Müller and Wagner, 1978).
Recently, Dunagan and Turner (2004) reinterpreted lacustrine
sediments of the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation as depos-
its of groundwater-fed, perennial carbonate wetlands, similar
184 Marty and Meyer
to the Quaternary wetland deposits of the U.S. southern Great
Basin (Quade et al., 1995, 2003).
All of the modern analogues listed display a complete
spectrum of lake, pond, and soil environments similar to those
recorded within the Faciès Rognacien. It is thus suggested that
the Faciès Rognacien was deposited in a seasonal, groundwater-
fed, nontidal, carbonate-producing, palustrine (sensu Cowardin et
al., 1979) wetland, which was probably characterized by hydro-
logically closed, ephemeral ponds surrounded by vast, more or
less densely vegetated (cf. Hofmann and Zetter, 2005) carbonate
freshwater marshes and swamps (Fig. 9). This environment could
also have formed within the marginal area of a larger perennial
lake complex, or within an extensive fluvial-alluvial plain. The
development of these palustrine environments within a lacus-
trine-fluvial system across a tectonically active foreland basin
margin to the north of the Pyrenean foredeep is closely equiva-
lent to the modern setting of the present-day Iraq analogue.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
1. The Faciès Rognacien is a very good example for palus-
trine facies. It exhibits a wide range of classical palustrine
features including well-developed palustrine brecciation,
nodule formation, horizontal, planar, and circumgranu-
lar cracking, pseudomicrokarst, alveolar texture, and
Microcodium. The abundance and distribution of these
features place the Faciès Rognacien somewhere between
the subarid and the intermediate palustrine climate type
of Platt and Wright (1992), an intermediate subtropical
climate with an estimated hydroperiod between 100
and 320 d.
2. The palustrine carbonates of the Faciès Rognacien show
a range of highly varied fabrics and lithofacies that reflect
primary depositional setting and subsequent subaerial
exposure, brecciation, pedoturbation, and pedogenesis.
The various lithofacies recognized have been grouped
into two facies associations, the lacustrine pond facies
and the freshwater marsh facies, which allow a recon-
struction of the paleoenvironment in greater detail.
3. Fossils are extremely scarce throughout the whole Faciès
Rognacien, particularly in the freshwater marsh facies,
where only Microcodium is frequently found. Neverthe-
less, paleontological and paleoecological data gained
from screen-washed samples and the analysis of thin
sections proved critical in resolving the complex history
of many lithofacies, especially those of the lacustrine
pond facies, where gyrogonites and encrusted stems of
charophytes, oncoids, and seldom ostracodes are the
only recognizable primary lacustrine features.
4. Within the research area, the pedogenically modified
mudstones of the freshwater marsh facies associa-
tion are by far the most prevalent. Hence, the Faciès
Rognacien is predominantly composed of the freshwa-
ter marsh facies, where most of the carbonates formed.
Only a minor part of the depositional area—probably
representing paleolows—can be attributed to the lacus-
trine pond facies. Thus, the Faciès Rognacien may be
better characterized as an assemblage of freshwater
marsh facies laid down within a carbonate wetland set-
ting (Wright and Platt 1995) rather than pedogenically
modified carbonates of a marginal lake setting.
5. The facies associations observed are consistent with
deposition within a seasonal, possibly groundwater-fed,
palustrine (sensu Cowardin et al., 1979) wetland system
characterized by possibly hydrologically closed, ephem-
eral ponds surrounded by vast, more or less densely veg-
etated areas of carbonate-producing freshwater marshes.
This wetland environment is likely to have passed into
fluvial-alluvial environments to the south and marine
environments progressively toward the west.
6. Further detailed sedimentological studies and facies
analysis of palustrine sequences are essential in any
attempts to develop more precise facies models and
to compare ancient successions with their still poorly
studied modern analogue environments, which occur
in a range of carbonate-producing wetlands distributed
worldwide.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper presents data submitted as part of a master’s
thesis of the first author at the Department of Geosciences of
the University of Basel. J. and C. Le Loeuff, L. Cavin, and D.
Viand (Musée des Dinosaures, Espéraza) are warmly thanked
for accommodation and support during the field studies. The first
author thanks A. Wetzel (University of Basel) and L. Hottinger
(Natural History Museum, Basel) for supervision. Thin sections
were produced by W. Tschudin (University of Basel). We thank
M. Schudack (Freie Universität Berlin) for comments on an ear-
lier draft of the manuscript, and the reviewers L. Cabrera and
N.H. Platt for numerous suggestions and comments that greatly
improved the manuscript. Finally, we thank A.M. Alonso-Zarza
for helpful comments for the interpretation of the paleoenviron-
ment and A.M. Alonso-Zarza and L.H. Tanner for editorial work
and for inviting us to contribute to this volume.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Reworked Microcodium calcarenites interbedded in pelagic

sedimentary rocks (Paleocene, Subbetic, southern Spain):
Paleoenvironmental reconstruction
José M. Molina†
Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Jaén, Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, 23071 Jaén, Spain

Juan A. Vera‡
Departamento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Universidad de Granada, Facultad de Ciencias, 18071 Granada, Spain

Roque Aguado§
Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Jaén, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Linares, 23700 Linares Jaén, Spain

ABSTRACT

The Majalcorón Formation (Paleocene) is an unusual lithostratigraphic unit

mainly made up of calcarenites with reworked Microcodium. Analysis of this unit
from different localities of the Subbetic (southern Spain) shows that the formation is
interbedded in pelagic sedimentary rocks. Calcareous nannofossils in the latter con-
firm that deposition of the Majalcorón Formation began in the early Danian and fin-
ished in the latest Danian–early Selandian. The reworked Microcodium calcarenites
are grainstones mainly constituting disaggregated Microcodium prisms and sparite
cement. Secondarily, they contain quartz grains, glauconite, mud clasts, benthonic
and planktonic foraminifera, coal fragments, and plant remains. In some beds, hum-
mocky cross-stratification and mound-shaped structures appear.
The reworked Microcodium calcarenites are derived from the erosion of cal-
careous paleosols in source areas located to the north. A eustatic regressive-trans-
gressive-regressive succession at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary and in the early
Paleocene is responsible for the beginning of the Microcodium paleosol development.
Sedimentation of the calcarenites took place in a shallow marine ramp after erosion
of the paleosols, and ended with the development of paleokarstic features on the
top of the formation. This interpretation of the Majalcorón Formation as a shallow-
marine deposit is important to the understanding of the paleogeography and depo-
sitional paleobathymetry of the adjacent pelagic facies during the Late Cretaceous
and Paleogene.

Keywords: calcarenites, Microcodium, sea-level changes, nannofossils, Paleocene,

Subbetic.

†
E-mail: jmmolina@ujaen.es
‡
E-mail: jvera@ugr.es
§
E-mail: raguado@ujaen.es

Molina, J.M., Vera, J.A., and Aguado, R., 2006, Reworked Microcodium calcarenites interbedded in pelagic sedimentary rocks (Paleocene, Subbetic, southern
Spain): Paleoenvironmental reconstruction, in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palus-
trine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 189–202, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(12). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.
org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

189
190 Molina et al.

RESUMEN

Se estudia una unidad estratigráfica peculiar, la Formación Majalcorón del Paleoceno

en el Subbético, compuesta mayoritariamente por calcarenitas con Microcodium
retrabajado. Esta unidad se encuentra intercalada entre rocas sedimentarias pelágicas
con nanoplancton calcáreo que ha permitido establecer que su depósito comenzó en el
Daniense inferior y finalizó en el Daniense terminal–Selandiense inferior. Las calcarenitas
de Microcodium resedimentado son grainstones compuestos mayoritariamente por
prismas disgregados de Microcodium y cemento esparítico. Además hay granos de
cuarzo, glauconita, intraclastos micríticos, foraminíferos planctónicos y bentónicos,
y fragmentos de plantas. En algunos estratos aparece estratificación cruzada de tipo
hummocky y estructuras en montículo.
Las calcarenitas de Microcodium proceden de la erosión de paleosuelos calcáreos.
Se propone que las áreas fuente que proporcionaron los importantes volúmenes de
Microcodium se localizaban al norte, en el Subbético Externo. Cambios eustáticos del
nivel del mar en el límite Cretácico-Terciario y en el Paleoceno inferior, en una sucesión
regresiva-transgresiva-regresiva fueron los principales responsables del comienzo del
desarrollo de los paleosuelos con Microcodium, de la sedimentación de las calcarenitas
después de la erosión de los paleosuelos y del final de su depósito con el desarollo de
rasgos paleokársticos en el techo de la formación. La consideración de la Formación
Majalcorón como un depósito marino somero es importante para interpretar la
paleogeografía y paleobatimetría de las facies pelágicas adyacentes durante el Cretácico
Superior y Paleógeno.

Palabras clave: calcarenitas, Microcodium, cambios del nivel del mar, nanofósiles,
Paleoceno, Subbético.

INTRODUCTION imentary rocks, such as the Majalcorón Formation and equiva-

The Paleogene of many Alpine-Mediterranean successions
is characterized by the presence of Microcodium, a typical fea-
ture of many calcretes and calcareous paleosols. Most of the
accumulations of Microcodium occur within continental depo-
sitional settings in palustrine, fluvial, and, more rarely, karstic
environments. The presence of important accumulations of
reworked disaggregated Microcodium in marine deposits is rare
but very interesting, mainly as a good criterion for recognizing
subaerial exposure environments. This paper studies the Majal-
corón Formation, which is composed of Microcodium calcaren-
ites deposited in marine environments.
Microcodium is a problematic calcareous structure of cylin-
drical or spherical shape and of millimeter to submillimeter scale;
it consists of aggregates of elongated calcite crystals surrounding
a small central hole. It is common in calcretes and eolianites, and
most researchers agree that it is a product of the edaphic altera-
tion of carbonates; it originates in subaerial environments and is
formed by the calcification of symbiotic associations of fungi and
plant roots (mycorrhiza) within paleosols (Klappa, 1978, 1980;
Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Wright and Tucker, 1991; Alonso-
Zarza, 2003; Kosir, 2004; and references therein). This creates an
interesting problem in explaining the origin and paleogeographi-
cal significance of the huge volumes of Microcodium that make
up Paleocene formations that are interbedded among pelagic sed-
lent deposits within and outside of the Betic Cordillera.
In this paper, we study the stratigraphy of the Microcodium
calcarenites of the Subbetic (Betic Cordillera) belonging to the
Majalcorón Formation, we indicate similar facies present in other
units of the Betic Cordillera, and finally we discuss the paleogeo-
graphical significance of this formation.
THE MAJALCORÓN FORMATION: SETTING AND
STRATIGRAPHY
The Betic Cordillera is an Alpine mountain belt in southern
Spain in which three areas are recognized (Fig. 1A): the Betic
external zones and the Betic internal zones, separated by the
Campo de Gibraltar units (Vera, 2004). The Betic external zones
Figure 1. (A) Geologic sketch of the Betic Cordillera with the location
of the studied outcrops of the Majalcorón Formation. (B) Geographi-
cal situation of the Majalcorón Formation outcrops with the location
of the holostratotype (Peñas de Majalcorón), parastratotype (Fuente
de la Pileta), and other analyzed sections: 1—northwest of Venta de
Agramaderos, 2—Cazuela del Pozo, 3—north of Fuente de la Pileta,
4—Rosal Bajo, 5—east of Cortijo de Santa Teresa, and 6—Pilas de la
Fuente del Soto.
A 1: HERCINIAN MASSIF

Atlantic Ocean
IBERIAN PLATE
(Emerged) IN
2 3-4 SPA 2: UNDEFORMED COVER
? OF THE IBERIAN MASSIF
1 anean S
ea
Mediterr
7 8 3: External Prebetic
s ÁFRICA

EXTERNAL ZONES
one
5 6
7 8 al Z 4: Internal Prebetic
In ter n
5: Intermediate Domain

AFRICAN PLATE ? 6: External Subbetic

ALICANTE
7: Median Subbetic
MURCIA 8: Internal Subbetic
JAÉN
si n
Ba 9: Olistostromic Unit
u ivir
alq M 10: INTERNAL ZONES
ad
Gu A
SE GIBRALTAR UNITS
N
GRANADA
A NE
A N Volcanic Neogene rocks
R
T ER Post-orogenic basins
DI
ME MAJALCORÓN Fm
0 50 100 150 km M STUDIED OUTCROPS

B 4° 05’ 4° 00’ 3° 55’

MAJALCORÓN FORMATION
ALCALÁ
LA REAL

N
STRATOTYPE
37° 25’ 37° 25’
Peñas de
Province of Córdoba Majalcorón La Pedriza
Villalobos
Province of Granada

Lojilla
Venta de Province of Jaén
Agramaderos

PARASTRATOTYPE
37° 20’ 37° 20’
0 1 2 km
MONTEFRÍO
4° 05’ 4° 00’ 3° 55’
192 Molina et al.
form a complex of thrust sheets composed of thick successions
of Triassic to Lower Miocene sedimentary rocks detached from
a Paleozoic basement that corresponds to the southern prolonga-
tion of the Iberian Variscan Massif. These rocks were deposited
on the southern Iberian continental margin. The external zones
are subdivided in two tectonic zones that are roughly based on
the two great paleogeographical domains of the southern Iberian
continental margin: a platform area to the north, the Prebetic;
and a mainly pelagic area to the south, the Subbetic. Four paleo-
geographical domains can be distinguished in the Subbetic area
(Fig. 1A); these formed well-defined troughs and swells during
Middle and Late Jurassic times. In the troughs, the Intermediate
Domain (5 in Fig. 1A) and the Median Subbetic (7 in Fig. 1A),
thick successions of pelagic sediments, were deposited. In con-
trast, reduced and/or condensed sequences were deposited in the
swells; these include the External and Internal Subbetic (6 and 8
in Fig. 1A).
The Majalcorón Formation was defined by Molina et al.
(2003) as a new lithostratigraphic unit in the Subbetic of the
Betic Cordillera (Fig. 1A). It is characterized by its lithology of
calcarenites with abundant Microcodium. This formation out-
crops mainly in the central sector of the Median Subbetic, in
the provinces of Granada and Jaén (Fig. 1). In most of these out-
crops, tectonic deformation and, additionally, intense cultivation
make it difficult to measure complete detailed stratigraphic sec-
tions. Two stratigraphic sections have enabled us, however, to
measure the entire formation, bed by bed: these sections are,
respectively, the holostratotype (Peñas of Majalcorón, Fig. 1B)
and the parastratotype (to the north of the Fuente de la Pileta,
Fig. 1B). We have studied other sections outcropping to the
northwest of Venta de Agramaderos, in Cazuela del Pozo, to the
north of Fuente de la Pileta, in Rosal Bajo, to the east of Cortijo
de Santa Teresa, and in Pilas de la Fuente de Soto. These loca-
tions, numbered 1–6 respectively, can be seen in the Figure 1B.
The Majalcorón Formation takes its name from the village
of Peñas de Majalcorón in Alcalá la Real (province of Jaén), very
near the boundary between the provinces of Jaén, Córdoba, and
Granada (Fig. 1B). This village is found at the foot of a sharp
relief (Peñas of Majalcorón) that contains a magnificent outcrop
of Microcodium calcarenites, where the formation holostratotype
has been established. Its thickness here is 56 m, and its main
characteristics are represented in Figure 2. Figures 3A and 3B
show the outcrop appearance. The parastratotype of this forma-
tion is located 3 km to the north-northeast of Montefrío (prov-
ince of Granada), 400 m to the north of the Fuente de la Pileta
(Fig. 1B). This section was previously studied by Martínez-Gal-
lego and Roca (1973), who dated it by its content in planktonic
foraminifera, as Late Danian (Globorotalia trinidadensis zone
of Bolli, equivalent to the Globorotalia compressa/Globigerina
daubjergensis zone of Loeblich and Tappan). The detailed strati-
graphic succession (Fig. 2) has a total thickness of 39.5 m (shown
in Fig. 3C).
The Majalcorón Formation is located on the Upper Creta-
ceous scaglia rossa-like, pinkish pelagic marly limestones of the
Capas Rojas Formation (Vera et al., 1982). Above the Majalcorón
Formation, which shows paleokarst features and neptunian dikes at
the top, there are marly limestones of the same Capas Rojas Forma-
tion or, in other sites, gray or yellowish marls with nummulite-bear-
ing turbiditic bioclastic sandstones of the Eocene. Preliminary data
on the age of this formation and on its sedimentological significance
have been provided by Aguado et al. (2003) and Vera et al. (2003),
respectively. The maximum thickness of this formation of ~60 m is
reached in the sector of the Peñas de Majalcorón and to the north-
west of the Venta de Agramaderos (Fig. 1B).
Biostratigraphy
A biostratigraphic study has been carried out by means of
nannofossils that show well-diversified associations characteris-
tic of median-low paleolatitudes. All Tertiary samples contained
a variable proportion of reworked nannoflora that included Late
Cretaceous (Campanian and Maastrichtian) and some Early
Cretaceous taxa. We applied the zonal outline of Varol (1989)
to the Tertiary samples, and that of Aguado (1993) to the Creta-
ceous samples for biostratigraphic assignment. Figure 4 shows
the position and age of the samples and illustrates the most char-
acteristic nannofossil assemblages.
In the holostratotype (Peñas de Majalcorón) and adjacent
areas (Pilas de la Fuente del Soto), the samples just below the
bottom of the Majalcorón Formation (FP-1 and FP-2) provided
a nannofossil assemblage typical of the NTp1B zone, of early
Danian age. The samples immediately above the calcarenitic
body (MJ-T-2 and MJ-T-3) contain a nannofossil assemblage
characteristic of the NTp8C zone of middle Selandian age
(Varol, 1989; see also Fig. 4). In the parastratotype (Fuente de
la Pileta), the samples below the Majalcorón Formation (PI-M-1
and PI-M-2) are assigned to the Micula prinsii zone (NBK24)
of latest Maastrichtian age. The nannofossil assemblages from
samples taken in marly levels located in the median part (PI-17),
and immediately above of the calcarenitic body (PI-T), belong to
the interval between the zones NTp5B and NTp7, both of a late
Danian or early Selandian age (Fig. 4).
In Venta de Agramaderos, the nannofossil assemblage
below the base of the Majalcorón Formation (sample VA-1)
corresponds to the NBK24 zone of latest Maastrichtian age. In
samples taken at the top of the calcarenitic body, the two lowest
(VA-10R and VA-11R) belong to the interval between the zones
NTp6 and NTp7 (latest Danian to early Selandian), but the high-
est sample (VA-12R), collected within a neptunian dike filling,
was assigned to zone NTp8A of early Selandian age (Fig. 4).
In Cazuela del Pozo, results for samples above the calcarenitic
body (CZ-51 and CZ- 52) are consistent with these findings (Fig.
4). In the area located to the north of Villalobos, the Majalcorón
Formation wedges laterally out, and the Microcodium calcaren-
itic body disappears. The marls and marly limestones, which, by
lateral correlation (VL-KT sample), overlie it, contain an asso-
ciation characteristic of zone NTp10C of Varol (1989) of latest
Selandian age (Fig. 4).
 HOLOSTRATOTYPE PARASTRATOTYPE
Peñas de Majalcorón Fuente de la Pileta
Thickness
Bed Thickness
Q-3 25 m Bed
H-6
Q-2 H-5
55 m H-4 26
H-3
Q-1
H-2 25
P-5 H-1 24
G-2 23
G-1 35 m
P-4 22
P-3 F-4
20 m 21
P-2 F-3
P-1 F-2
50 m F-1 20
O-3 E-3
30 m
O-2 19
E-2
O-1
18
Ñ-6 E-1
Ñ-5
Ñ-4 15 m 25 m
D-4
Ñ-3 17
45 m D-3
D-2
Ñ-2 16
D-1
15
C-1 14
Ñ-1 20 m
13
B-7 12
N-12 B-6 11
10 m
N-11 B-5 10
40 m B-4
N-10
N-9 9
B-3 15 m
N-8
B-2 8
N-7
N-6
N-5 B-1
A-8
N-4 A-7 7
5m
N-3 10 m
N-2 A-6
35 m
A-5 6
N-1 A-4
A-3 5
A-2
5m
M-1 4
A-1
L-3 0m 3
L-2
30 m Hummocky cross stratification Zoophycos 2
L-1 1
Wavy lamination Chondrites 0m
K-1
J-3 Parallel lamination Burrows
J-2 Wavy top bed Coal fragments
Calcarenites
Calcite veins and speleothems Slump
J-1
Neptunian dikes Limestones
Mud pebbles
I-1 Iron oxides Marly limestones
25 m
Figure 2. Stratigraphic sections of the holostratotype (Peñas de Majalcorón) and parastratotype (Fuente de la Pileta).
194 Molina et al.
Figure 3. (A) Panoramic view of the scarp relief from the southwest of Peñas de Majalcorón. This small village appears to the right, at the foot
of the scarp. (B) View of the outcrop to the north of Peñas de Majalcorón where the holostratotype was established. (C) Parastratotype outcrop
in the Pileta ravine.
FACIES
The Majalcorón Formation is formed by laterally continu-
ous, medium to thick (dm to m) parallel-bedded gray to brown
calcarenites, consisting mainly of medium- to fine-grained,
well-cemented Microcodium fragments. Locally, these alternate
with thin (mm- to cm-thick) beds of whitish to grayish, slightly
silty marls and some isolated micritic limestone beds (Figs. 2,
3B, and 3C).
The calcarenite beds are typically massive, although,
locally, they have horizontal lamination due to the orientation
of the Microcodium prisms with their long axes parallel to the
bedding, and to the preferential concentration of quartz grains.
Hummocky cross-stratification is present in some beds. Mound-
shaped structures also are present; they have a plane base and
wavy top, a wavelength between 60 and 370 cm and height from
4 to 23 cm, grading locally to wedge-shaped strata (Figs. 5A, 5B,
and 5C). Cross-beds indicate that the predominant paleocurrent
was toward the SE.
Mud intraclasts, up to 4 cm long (Fig. 5D), like those
described by Molina and Vera (2001), are abundant, as are simple
vertical (Skolithos) and horizontal dwelling burrows with micritic
fills (Fig. 5E). Water escape structures are present, mainly sand
volcanoes, burst-throughs, and flame structures (Fig. 5F). Sedi-
mentary structures change abruptly, from very well-preserved
stratification and lamination to massive forms, for example as
in the outcrops of Rosal Bajo (4 in Fig. 1), and imply important
Figure 4. Position of the studied samples for nannoplankton, in rela-
tion to the top and bottom of the Majalcorón Formation, in the studied
sections located in Figure 1B. Plane polarized light micrographs of
some selected calcareous nannofossils are shown according to the
calcareous nannofossil zones. All images were made under crossed
nicols and at magnification of 3000×. In NBK24: 1—Micula murus
(Martini) Bukry; 2—Micula prinsii Perch-Nielsen; 3—Cribroco-
rona gallica (Stradner) Perch-Nielsen; 4—Lithraphidites quadra-
tus Bramlette and Martini. In NTp1B: 1—Neobiscutum parvulum
(Romein) Varol; 2—Neobiscutum romeinii (Perch-Nielsen) Varol;
3—Cruciplacolithus primus Perch-Nielsen; 4—Neocrepidolithus
neocrassus (Perch-Nielsen) Romein; 5—Neocrepidolithus sp. cf. N.
dirimosus (Perch-Nielsen) Perch-Nielsen; 6—Neocrepidolithus fos-
sus (Romein) Romein. In NTp5-NTp7: 1—Prinsius martinii (Perch-
Nielsen) Haq; 2—Toweius pertusus (Sullivan) Romein; 3—Ericsonia
subpertusa Hay and Mohler; 4—Ericsonia robusta (Bramlette and
Sullivan) Perch-Nielsen; 5—Ellipsolithus macellus (Bramlette and
Sullivan) Sullivan; 6—Neochiastozygus modestus Perch-Nielsen.
In NTp8: 1—Fasciculithus pileatus Bukry; 2—Fasciculithus janii
Perch-Nielsen; 3—Fasciculithus involutus Bramlette and Sullivan;
4—Ellipsolithus macellus (Bramlette and Sullivan) Sullivan; 5—El-
lipsolithus distichus (Bramlette and Sullivan) Sullivan; 6—Sulliva-
nia danica (Brotzen) Varol; 7—Sphenolithus primus Perch-Nielsen;
8—Neochiastozygus modestus Perch-Nielsen. In NTp10C: 1—Chi-
asmolithus bidens (Bramlette and Sullivan) Hay and Mohler; 2 He-
liolithus kleinpellii Sullivan; 3—Fasciculithus tympaniformis Hay
and Mohler; 4—Fasciculithus pileatus Bukry; 5—Fasciculithus ja-
nii Perch-Nielsen.
 NTp10C

NANNOFOSSIL
ZONES

AGE

Aguado
(1993)
(1989)
Varol
C
B
NTp10
A

SELANDIAN
Fuente del Soto

Agramaderos

N. Villalobos

NTp9
Majalcorón

Pilas de la

Fuente de

C
Peñas de

del Pozo
Venta de

NTp8 B
Cazuela
la Pileta

P A L E O C E N E A NTp8
B
Capas NTp7
Rojas VL-KT
Fm.
MJ-T-3 VA-12R
MJ-T-2 PI-T VA-11R CZ-52 A
CZ-51 NTp6
VA-10R 10 µm
MAJALCORÓN Fm.

C
B
NTp5
DANIAN

A
NTp4
C
B
PI-17 NTp3 A

NTp2 B
A NTp5-NTp7
D
C
NTp1 B
A
FP-2 NBK24
Capas FP-1 PI-M-2 VA-1
U. CRETACEOUS

NBK23
Rojas 10
U. MAASTRICHT.

PI-M-1 B
Fm. m NBK22
A
C

NBK21 B
NTp1B
A

NBK24
196 Molina et al.

Figure 5. (A) Calcarenite bed with mound shape at the top. (B) Calcarenite beds with horizontal parallel lamination and wavy tops. (C) Typical
mound morphologies of one calcarenite bed in the holostratotype, with flat horizontal bottom and oblique top, and wedge shape. On the right,
hummocky cross-stratification appears. (D) Level with micritic intraclasts in the holostratotype. (E) Simple vertical (Skolithos) and horizontal
dwelling burrows. (F) Water-escape (sand volcano) structure in the calcarenites.

changes of differential cementation in the calcarenites in areas
that are bounded by approximately vertical fractures.
MICROFACIES
The microscopic analysis of more than 100 thin sections
shows that most calcarenitic beds are Microcodium grainstones,
with quartz grains, benthonic and planktonic foraminifera, bio-
clasts (mainly echinoid spines and coralline algae), peloids, car-
bonaceous fragments, glauconite, and small mica grains. The
Microcodium fragments generally comprise between 40% and
90% of the rock. They usually are disarticulated and appear as
individual prisms with maximum and minimum length from 0.3
to 0.5 mm and width from 0.03 to 0.05 mm (Fig. 6A). Some
prisms are organized in aggregates with more-or-less complete
rosette shapes like Microcodium (a) of Esteban (1972) or types
1 and 2 of Plaziat (1984). Most aggregates clearly resemble
Microcodium type 2 of Plaziat (1984), formed by prisms bunched
together around one side of the central channel or axis of growth
(Figs. 6B and 6C).
 Reworked Microcodium calcarenites 197

Figure 6. (A) Typical aspect of the calcarenitic microfacies with disaggregated prismatic crystals of Microcodium. (B) Calcarenitic microfacies,
in the central lower part with a “rosette” aggregate of Microcodium. (C) Prismatic fragments of Microcodium, forming aggregates in some places
(crossed nicols). (D) Microfacies of the micritic beds and mud clasts: wackestone-packstone with planktonic foraminifera.

The quartz grains form between the 5% and 15% of the
rock. They are very angular, have a maximum diameter of 700
μm, and average between 100 and 200 μm. The most abundant
and characteristic bioclasts are of corallinacean algae,
up to 1.3 mm long, and echinoid spines, which are locally silici-
fied. Coal fragments and plant remains are more than
2.5 mm long, and glauconite grains are from 100 to 400 μm in
size. Discontinuous centimeter-scale beds interbedded with cal-
carenite are composed of wackestone and packstone with small
planktonic foraminifera (Globigerina, Globorotalia), bioclasts,
quartz grains, parallel lamination, abundant bioturbation, and
silicified radiolarians up to 250 μm in diameter (Fig. 6D). The
cements are syntaxial and poikilotopic. Significant sparry
cement is associated with small veins of diagenetic dissolution.
OTHER MICROCODIUM CALCARENITES IN THE
BETIC CORDILLERA AND DIFFERENT ALPINE
MEDITERRANEAN DOMAINS
The fundamental characteristic of the Majalcorón Forma-
tion is the great abundance of Microcodium fragments, which
are generally disaggregated and form isolated calcite prisms,
but locally are more-or-less complete aggregates. Microco-
dium calcarenites are also present in the Paleogene (mainly in
the Paleocene and early Eocene) of other geological units of
the Betic Cordillera (Vera, 2000, 2004) and in other Mediter-
ranean-Alpine domains (Klappa, 1978; Kosir, 2004).
Microcodium Calcarenites in the Betic Cordillera
Microcodium calcarenites have been described in the Pre-
betic, Subbetic, Frontal units, Malaguide Complex, and Campo
de Gibraltar units. In the Prebetic of northernmost Murcia and
Albacete provinces, the Paleocene to early Eocene begins with
white limestones with algae and Microcodium. In the Prebetic of
Alicante province, the presence of Microcodium of Oligocene age
has been determined. The existence of Microcodium limestones
has been cited in the Montecorto unit and in the Corredor del Boyar
units of the western Subbetic (Martín-Algarra, 1987). The Oliva-
res Formation (Comas, 1978) of the Paleocene Subbetic, present
mainly in the sector of the Fardes River (province of Granada), is
composed of gray calcarenites with Microcodium. De Smet (1984)
indicated the presence of Microcodium turbidites of Paleocene age
with abundant Zoophycos in the eastern Subbetic.
198 Molina et al.
In the external Frontal units of Argüelles type (Martín-Algarra
et al., 2004), one of the most characteristic formations in the Tertiary
is formed by turbiditic limestones with Microcodium of Paleocene
age (Martín-Algarra, 1987). These calcarenites are interpreted as a
lateral facies change of the Capas Rojas Formation.
The Paleocene of the Sierra of Espuña (Maláguide Com-
plex) is represented by the 30-m-thick “Microcoditas of Mula
Formation” (Martín-Martín, 1996), constituted by calcarenites
rich in Microcodium alternating with beds of bluish sandy marls
and of calcareous conglomerates (Martín-Martín et al., 1997,
1998). In the vicinity of Málaga, Martín-Algarra (1987) recog-
nized Microcodium in place on Cretaceous limestones; this was
interpreted as an edaphic alteration formed during the Paleocene.
In the same region, Serrano et al. (1995) identified Microcodium
facies that they attributed to the Eocene.
In the Algeciras units (Mauritanian of the Campo de Gibral-
tar), the oldest Tertiary formation is the “Limestones with Microc-
odium Formation,” which outcrops very locally and is less than 50
m in thickness (Martín-Algarra, 1987). This formation, attributed
to the Paleocene, is composed of decimeter-scale beds of turbid-
itic calcarenites consisting almost totally of remains of Microco-
dium, separated by marly strata. In the Aljibe units (Numidian of
the Campo de Gibraltar), the lower part of the Paleocene is also
made up of turbiditic calcarenites with Microcodium fragments
(Esteras et al., 2004).
Microcodium Calcarenites in Other Alpine-Mediterranean
Domains
There are abundant examples in the literature of calcaren-
ites and reworked Microcodium in the peri-Tethyan realm. Here
we consider only some of the most important references. In the
Spanish Pyrenees, Arribas et al. (1996) and Rossi (1997) studied
calcarenites with Microcodium in Paleocene lacustrine and fluvial
facies. Freytet and Plaziat (1982) described continental Microco-
dium debris in the Paleogene of the French Pyrenees–Provençal
Basin. In the French-Italian Maritime Alps, the formation with
Microcodium (Faure-Mauret and Fallot, 1954; Varrone and Clari,
2003), consisting mainly of fluvial facies, has an early-middle
Eocene age. In Sardinia, Mateucci and Murru (2002) studied
lacustrine Microcodium calcarenites of late Thanetian–early
Ypresian age. Kosir (2004) described abundant disaggregated
Microcodium in calcrete profiles interbedded in Thanetian shal-
low-marine limestones of the Adriatic-Dinaric carbonate plat-
form (Slovenia).
PALEOGEOGRAPHICAL SIGNIFICANCE
From its lithology and sedimentology (Molina et al., 2003),
the Majalcorón Formation is interpreted as deposits on a distal
carbonate ramp in which storm waves were the principal mech-
anism responsible for resedimentation. The presence of disag-
gregated Microcodium as the main component in these shal-
low-marine deposits resulted from the erosion and reworking of
a subaerially exposed surface of calcareous paleosols during a
marine transgression.
In the Late Cretaceous, principally in the Maastrichtian,
there were high sea-level conditions, during which pelagic marly
limestones of the Capas Rojas Formation were deposited, some-
times including carbonate turbidites, in wide areas of the Sub-
betic (Fig. 7A). Microcodium was abundantly produced in the
early Paleocene, possibly as a consequence of important climatic
and ecologic changes that happened during the Cretaceous-Ter-
tiary transition. According to some authors (e.g., Hallam, 1998),
an abrupt global sea-level fall of more than 150 m took place at
this time; this would have caused the emergence of wide coastal
areas. Based on paleogeographical reconstructions (Smith et al.,
1994), the global increase in land area against marine domains
was considerable, from 109 × 106 km2 in the Maastrichtian (70
Ma) to 138 × 106 km2 in the Paleocene (60 Ma). In these emer-
gent areas, abundant paleosols with Microcodium were devel-
oped and subsequently were eroded and redeposited in marine
environments during transgression, thus producing Microcodium
calcarenites (Fig. 7B).
According to these reconstructions (Smith et al., 1994;
Cavazza et al., 2004), the proposed early Paleocene paleolati-
tude in the area corresponding to the Subbetic (southern Iberian
continental margin) was between 20 and 25°N, near the Tropic
of Cancer, in which arid or semiarid climatic conditions would
be predominant. Paleoclimatic reconstructions for the Paleo-
cene (e.g., Bolle et al., 2000; Zachos et al., 2001; Adatte et al.,
2002) indicate that a warm period of maximum humidity with
high rainfall characterized the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary.
Subsequently, in the Danian, arid climatic conditions evolved
that persisted during the Selandian and Thanetian and reached
a maximum during the latest Paleocene (late Paleocene thermal
maximum). In this sense, the occurrence of a carbonate and a
relatively abundant quartz fraction in the Majalcorón Formation
might indicate a subaerially exposed environment with a sparse
vegetation cover, possibly similar to modern scrubland vegeta-
tion in a semiarid Mediterranean climate.
An interesting paleogeographical aspect is that the potential
locations where the abundant calcareous paleosols were formed
could not have been very far away from the site of deposition,
thus allowing the preservation of Microcodium aggregates. In the
Subbetic, outcrops of Paleocene paleosols have not been found;
the regions of the Subbetic that lack Upper Cretaceous rocks
(Capas Rojas Formation), or where their possible erosion during
the Paleogene has been detected, are potential source areas for
the studied Microcodium calcarenites of the Majalcorón Forma-
tion. Hypothetically, favorable areas would be those located in
the Subbetic where the Capas Rojas Formation does not appear
and where the development of erosive and paleokarst features on
the Jurassic deposits is evident (Vera et al., 1988; Molina et al.,
1999). We refer specifically to the central sector of the Betic Cor-
dillera in the units of the northern external Subbetic (Camarena-
Lanchares and Grajales-Mentidero units) and parts of the south-
ern external Subbetic (Lobatejo-Pollos unit); in these areas, there
 Reworked Microcodium calcarenites 199

A LATEST CRETACEOUS Sea level

B DANIAN Karst Paleosols with Microcodium

Sea level

1
S.l.
Swbl

Majalcorón Fm Capas Rojas Fm

2
S.l.
Swbl

3
S.l.
Swbl

Figure 7. Sketch showing the genesis of the Majalcorón Formation before (A) and after (B) the important sea-level fall at the Cretaceous-Ter-
tiary boundary. Panels 1–3 show sea-level changes explaining the production of mud clasts and the reworking of Cretaceous nannoplankton and
foraminifera (see explanation in the text). S.l.—sea level; Swbl—base level of the storm waves.

is little or no representation of deposits with ages between Late
Cretaceous and early Oligocene (Molina, 1987; Molina and
Nieto, 2003).
The erosional boundary at the top of the Majalcorón Forma-
tion (Molina et al., 2003) could represent another important stage
of sea-level fall that took place in the early Selandian and pro-
duced erosion and karstification, at least in some areas, of the
formation top. Comparison with records from the North Sea
Basin, Western Pyrenees, the Nile Basin, and the eastern conti-
nental margin of North America suggests that sea-level changes
across the Danian-Selandian boundary were primarily caused by
eustatic fluctuations with an associated relative sea-level drop on
the order of 50–100 m (e.g., Pujalte et al., 1998; Clemmensen
and Thomsen, 2005). The general trend of sea level in the early
200
Paleocene, with a regressive-transgressive-regressive pattern
clearly controlling the beginning and the ending of the Majal-
corón Formation deposition, is shown in the Figure 8.
Other characteristic aspects of the Majalcorón Formation are
the presence of soft micritic intraclasts, and of reworked fora-
minifera and nannoflora including, principally, Upper Cretaceous
(Campanian and Maastrichtian), but also some Lower Creta-
ceous taxa. These can be explained by small oscillations in sea
level and consequently in the storm-wave base during the deposi-
tion of the Majalcorón Formation; this is in agreement with the
model presented in the Figures 7 and 8: (1) In a first stage, the
Microcodium calcarenites were deposited above the storm-wave
base (Swbl in the Fig. 7). (2) A rise in base level and decrease of
wave energy favored the deposition of micritic facies containing
planktonic foraminifera. (3) During the third stage, related to a
fall of storm-wave base, the reworking and resedimentation of
these micritic sediments took place, forming micritic intraclasts
that mixed with the calcarenitic sediment. In relation to the strati-
graphic units of the Late Cretaceous and Paleogene, the Maja-
lcorón Formation appears to be a unit consisting of reworked
sediments (Microcodium) of clear continental origin, deposited
on a shallow-marine ramp inserted among pelagic facies (Capas
Rojas Formation).
CONCLUSIONS
Lithologically, the Majalcorón Formation is characterized
mainly by its abundant content of Microcodium. This forma-
tion, located between pelagic sedimentary rocks (Capas Rojas
Formation), was deposited during the Lower Paleocene close to
emergent areas covered with abundant calcareous paleosols with
Microcodium. After, these paleosols were eroded and reworked,
the Microcodium calcifications were disaggregated and their
prismatic crystal debris resedimented in shallow-marine envi-
ronments affected by storm waves. According to nannofossil
CAPAS ROJAS Fm.
and other pelagic and
SELANDIAN turbiditic facies
PALEOCENE
61.7
Ma
MAJALCORÓN Fm.
DANIAN (Shallow marine platform
facies)
65.5
Ma
CAPAS ROJAS Fm.
MAASTRICHTIAN (Pelagic and hemipelagic
facies)
Figure 8. General evolution in a regressive-transgressive-regressive pattern of early Paleocene sea level mainly in relation to the beginning and
ending of the Majalcorón Formation deposition.
Molina et al.
biostratigraphy, the deposition of the Majalcorón Formation
started in the earliest Danian, coinciding with (or immediately
after) subzone NTp1B of Varol (1989). The end of the deposi-
tion of the sediments of the Majalcorón Formation was heteroch-
ronic and occurred between the latest Danian–early Selandian (as
maximum subzone NTp8A) and middle Selandian, at the top of
subzone NTp8C.
Eustatic sea-level changes from the Cretaceous-Tertiary
boundary through the early Paleocene with a regressive-trans-
gressive-regressive succession controlled the generation of the
paleosols with Microcodium, the sedimentation of the calcar-
enites after erosion and reworking paleosols, and the ending of
deposition with the development of paleokarstic features on the
top of the formation.
The Majalcorón Formation has great significance for under-
standing the paleogeographical evolution of the pelagic realms of
the Betic external zones during the Late Cretaceous and the Ter-
tiary. Its peculiar character is originally related to its deposition
close to subaerial exposure areas with abundant calcareous paleo-
sols that were redeposited on shallow carbonate ramps. These
paleosols with abundant Microcodium must have had extensive
development in the Subbetic, and probably in the External Sub-
betic, at the time of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. The pres-
ence of the Majalcorón Formation and its interpretation are very
important to understanding the paleogeography and the deposi-
tional paleobathymetry of the pelagic facies in the adjacent for-
mations along the southern Iberian continental margin during the
Late Cretaceous and the Paleogene.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Agustín Martín-
Algarra for the very precise, complete, and constructive revi-
sion of this article, and to Dario Varrone for many helpful sug-
gestions and useful criticism of the paper. We thank Ana M.
Rise Fall
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
Paleokarst
Small sea-level
oscillations
Reworking and redeposition
of Microcodium
SUBAERIAL EXPOSURE
Calcareous soils with
abundant Microcodium
 Reworked Microcodium calcarenites
Alonso-Zarza and L.H. Tanner for the continual aid during all
the stages of the manuscript preparation and editorial work.
Also we extend our appreciation to Elizabeth A. Adams, who
made the English text more readable. This work has been car-
ried out as a contribution to the groups of investigation RNM-
200, RNM-208, 4064 (Junta of Andalusia) and of Investigation
Projects BTE2000-1151 and BTE2001-2852 of the Spanish
Ministry of Science and Technology.
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Printed in the USA

 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete in the Triassic

New Haven Arkose (Newark Supergroup)
E. Troy Rasbury
Department of Geosciences, State University of New York (SUNY) Stony Brook, New York 11794-2100, USA

Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch
Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701-2979, USA

Jennifer M. Cole†
Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences, State University of New York (SUNY) Stony Brook, New York
11794-4364, USA

Cherri Sookdeo
Glenn Spataro
Jessica Nienstedt
Department of Geosciences, State University of New York (SUNY) Stony Brook, New York 11794-2100, USA

ABSTRACT

Nonpedogenic calcrete is difficult to distinguish from pedogenic calcrete in the

fossil record; both alpha and beta textures have been observed from fossil and mod-
ern examples. However, a calcrete from the New Haven Arkose (Hartford Basin,
Connecticut) is shown here to be of a nonpedogenic origin through sedimentologic
and petrographic evidence. An accumulation of thin sheets of displacive calcite layers
found in a decimeter-thick horizon of anastomosing veins within the upper portion
of a red mudstone is correlated to calcite cement found in the overlying sandstone.
Based on petrography, we recognize six generations of calcite in the mudstone-sand-
stone hosts. The first five generations are associated with rhizoliths that can be related
to deep taproots and are interpreted to have formed by precipitation from shallow
groundwater. There are no vadose-type cement morphologies; the calcite has lumi-
nescent zones, indicating that Mn was soluble and thus oxygen levels were low. These
cements clearly formed several meters below what would have been the surface of the
channel sand body. We suggest that calcite cement stratigraphy combined with redox
models for the behavior of Mn (as well as Fe and U) may aid in the identification of
nonpedogenic versus pedogenic carbonates in the geologic record. Additionally, the
calcite from this carbonate layer has been dated using the U-Pb method. Our results
provide insight into the environmental and diagenetic fluid conditions favorable for
providing a spread in U/Pb ratios that are suitable for precise dating of calcites in
otherwise undateable sections.

Keywords: groundwater calcrete, alveolar septal fabric, taproots, cement stratigraphy.

†
Present address: Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, 61 Route 9W, Palisades, New York 10964-8000, USA

Rasbury, E.T., Gierlowski-Kordesch, E.H., Cole, J.M., Sookdeo, C., Spataro, G., and Nienstedt, J., 2006, Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete in
the Triassic New Haven Arkose (Newark Supergroup), in Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes
and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America Special Paper 416, p. 203–221 doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(13). For permission to copy, contact editing@
geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

203
204 Rasbury et al.

RESUMEN

Las calcretas no-pedogénicas son difíciles de diferenciar de las pedogénicas en

el registro antiguo; los dos tipos de textura alfa y beta se reconocen en depósitos
antiguos y recientes. Sin embargo, en el caso concreto de la calcreta de New Haven
Arkose (Cuenca Hartford, Connecticut), los datos sedimentológicos y las evidencias
petrográficas permiten demostrar su origen no-pedogénico. La presencia, dentro de
lutitas rojas, de finas capas de calcita desplazativa dentro de un horizonte decimétrico
de venas anastomosadas se puede correlacionar con la formación de cemento calcítico
en las areniscas infrayacentes a dichas lutitas rojas. Petrográficametne se recono-
cen seis generaciones de calcita en las lutitas y areniscas que constituyen el sustrato.
Las cinco primeras generaciones están asociadas con rizolitos de sistemas radiculares
profundos y se pudieron formar por precipitación a partir de aguas freáticas someras.
No hay cementos vadosos y la calcita tiene zonas luminiscentes indicando que el Mn
era soluble y, por tanto, los niveles de oxígeno bajos. Estos cementos se formaron
claramente varios metros por debajo de lo que fue la superficie del canal de arenas.
Sugerimos que la estratigrafía de los cementos de calcita combinada con los modelos
redox de comportamiento de Mn (también Fe y U) pueden ayudar en la identificación
de los carbonatos pedogénicos y no-pedogénicos en el registro geológico. Además la
calcita de esta capa carbonática se ha datado por el método de U-Pb. Nuestros resul-
tados permiten una mejor caracterización de las condiciones ambientales y de los
tipos de fluidos más favorables para ampliar el rango de valores U/Pb necesarios para
datar calcitas en secciones que de otro modo no se podrían datar.

Palabras clave: calcretas freáticas, fábricas alveolares, raíces, estratigrafía de cementos.

INTRODUCTION
Calcite cement is one of the most important products of dia-
genesis in terrestrial sedimentary deposits. Based on assumptions
about its relationship to the atmosphere, calcite that forms in soil
profiles may archive pCO2 records (Cerling, 1984; Cerling and
Quade, 1993; Mermut et al., 2000), where pedogenic calcite is
attributed to dry conditions, at least seasonally (Semenuik and
Searle, 1985; Harden et al., 1991; Tandon and Kumar, 1999;
Lal and Kimble, 2000). Pedogenic calcrete contains both alpha
and beta fabrics, and the extent of each type is mostly depen-
dent on climate and hydrologic setting (Wright, 1990; Wright and
Tucker, 1991; Tandon and Kumar, 1999). Alpha textures include
rhombic calcite crystals, dense micritic fabric, floating sediment
grains, complex cracks and crystallaria, and displacive growth
features (cf. Watts, 1978; Rossinsky et al., 1992), and exhibit no
preserved biogenic features. Beta textures contain features indi-
cating biogenic influence, such as alveolar septal fabric, calcified
tubules, microbial coatings, and Microcodium.
Groundwater calcretes are nonpedogenic in origin, form
in the phreatic groundwater zone, and are typically linear and
tabular limestone bodies containing mostly alpha fabrics. These
are differentiated from capillary fringe, nonpedogenic calcretes,
which form in the vadose zone above the water table and contain
beta fabrics that result from phreatophytic plants extending their
roots down toward the water table (Carlisle, 1983; Purvis and
Wright, 1991; Wright and Tucker, 1991; Williams and Krause,
1998; Tandon and Kumar, 1999; Nash and Smith, 1998; Khadki-
kar et al., 1998; Tandon and Andrews, 2001). Groundwater and
capillary fringe nonpedogenic calcite precipitate in association
with Ca-rich groundwaters in response to the common ion effect,
degassing, and evapotranspiration through root activity with
associated microbes (bacteria, fungi, and cyanobacteria) (Wright
and Tucker, 1991; Chadwick and Graham, 2000).
Differentiation between pedogenic and nonpedogenic cal-
crete is not possible through stable isotopic analysis because the
controls on calcite precipitation are similar (Purvis and Wright,
1991; Quade and Roe, 1999; Mermut et al., 2000; Mack et al.,
2000; Tandon and Andrews, 2001). Calcrete origin is assessed
through field relationships (Nash, 1997), such as a position
immediately above a relatively impermeable layer or bedrock as
well as the presence/absence of alpha and beta fabrics. This still
is an inexact method (Wright and Tucker, 1991; Nash and Smith,
1998; Tandon and Kumar, 1999). The juxtaposition of calcite
cements with other diagenetic features in a calcrete horizon across
a mudstone-sandstone boundary is presented here as a valuable
technique in the establishment of relative timing of diagenesis in
order to assess origin. In addition, geochemical methods such as
the evaluation of redox-sensitive elements in petrographic work
can clarify the position of carbonate accumulation with respect
to the water table. Geochronologic dating of calcite cements
through U-Pb techniques can separate early and late diagenetic
cementation as well as provide an age for sedimentation (Ras-
bury et al., 1997, 1998, 2000; Wang et al., 1998). Because calcite
has a low distribution coefficient for uranium (Chung and Swart,
1990; Reeder et al., 2000), it is advantageous to understand the
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose
conditions that promote elevated U/Pb and U/Th ratios in car-
bonate sedimentary and diagenetic processes in order to predict
which kinds of calcrete might be amenable to dating.
Here we present detailed field and petrographic analyses of
cements from one of several similar carbonate intervals within
the Upper Triassic New Haven Arkose of the Newark Supergroup
in the Hartford Basin (Connecticut). These subhorizontal calcite
layers in red mudstone have been interpreted as pedogenic cal-
cretes in meandering fluvial facies that formed in a semiarid cli-
mate (McInerney and Hubert, 2003), after the sedimentary model
of Hubert (1977, 1978). Other sedimentologic work on the upper
New Haven mudrocks and sandstones instead suggests a wetter
seasonal (perhaps monsoonal) climate during sedimentation of a
medium-energy braided floodplain or a high-energy unconfined,
vertical accretion to cut-and-fill floodplain (after Krynine, 1950;
Nanson and Croke, 1992; Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling,
2002). A detailed examination of one of the calcrete layers present
along a sandstone-mudstone contact in the New Haven Arkose,
using evidence from sedimentologic relationships, cement stra-
tigraphy (after Meyers, 1974), and redox-sensitive elements, is
coupled with published U-Pb dating (Wang et al., 1998). This
study establishes the genesis and timing of the accumulation of
carbonate in an attempt to more easily distinguish between pedo-
genic and nonpedogenic calcrete in the geologic record.
205
GEOLOGIC SETTING
The Hartford Basin in Connecticut (Fig. 1) is one of the rift
basins of the Newark Supergroup, which line the eastern mar-
gin of North America (Lorenz, 1987; Olsen et al. 1989; Olsen,
1997). These basins formed in response to crustal extension and
rifting of Pangea during the early Mesozoic (Late Triassic to
Early Jurassic) (Manspeizer, 1988, 1994; Schlische, 1993, 2003;
Olsen, 1997). The sedimentary basin fill of the Hartford Basin is
composed of more than 4000 m distributed among four continen-
tal sedimentary formations and three basaltic units (Gierlowski-
Kordesch and Huber, 1995).
The New Haven Arkose is part of the Chatham Group
(Weems and Olsen, 1997; De Wet et al., 2002), the lowermost
Hartford Basin fill, and is postulated to have a maximum thick-
ness of 2250–2400 m or more (Olsen et al., 1989; Gierlowski-
Kordesch and Huber, 1995). The formation is lower Norian-
Rhaetian (Upper Triassic) to basal Hettangian (Lower Jurassic)
in age (Fig. 1) and is interpreted as a fluvial deposit (Gier-
lowski-Kordesch and Gibling, 2002; McInerney and Hubert,
2003). The Triassic-Jurassic boundary is placed biostratigraph-
ically a few meters below its upper contact with the Talcott
Basalt (Cornet and Traverse, 1975; Olsen et al., 1982), and the
section studied here is located ~1200 m below the Talcott
Figure 1. Geologic map and general-
ized stratigraphy of the southern Hart-
ford Basin in Connecticut showing the
location of the studied outcrop, south-
west of the Hanging Hills near Mer-
iden, Connecticut. The Upper Trias-
sic–Lower Jurassic boundary is pres-
ently drawn a few meters below the
New Haven–Talcott contact.
206 Rasbury et al.
Basalt. Age-equivalent basaltic sills and flows from other
genetically related basins give ages of around 200–201 Ma
(Dunning and Hodych, 1990; Hodych and Dunning, 1992;
Hames et al., 2000), which are consistent with but not further
constraining than a U-Pb age of 212 ± 2 Ma from early diage-
netic carbonate (calcrete) in the underlying New Haven Arkose
(Wang et al., 1998). A U-Pb age of late diagenetic cements from
within this same calcrete is 81 ± 11 Ma (Wang et al., 1998).
Thus, there is a record of 130 million years or more of calcite
cementation history.
The studied calcrete layer of the New Haven Arkose is
exposed in a 130-m-thick roadcut along the eastbound side of
Interstate Highway 691, just east of the intersection with Inter-
state Highway 84 near Meriden, Connecticut (Fig. 1). This inter-
val is projected to be ~650 m above the base of the New Haven
Arkose (Wang et al., 1998). Here the section contains fluvial
deposits that alternate between variable thicknesses of mudrocks
and sandstones, most with associated calcite layers. The stacked
nature of these deposits represents aggradation during basin sub-
sidence as high-energy streams deposited sand and mud sheets
associated with shallow channels (Gierlowski-Kordesch and
Gibling, 2002) or channel migration and climatic cycles (McIn-
erney and Hubert, 2003). In this outcrop, many of the upper
portions of mudrock units at their contact with overlying sand-
stones have quasihorizontal calcite vein-like bodies. Our focus
is a detailed study of one such interval, interpreted as a calcrete
and already dated geochronologically by Wang et al. (1998).
PREVIOUS WORK ON NEW HAVEN CALCRETE
Wang et al. (1998) describe and present U-Pb ages for the
calcite cements forming vein-like bodies in one mudstone unit in
the upper New Haven Arkose. The foundation for this work is the
fact that calcium carbonate in soils is generally low-Mg calcite,
which is stable and resistant to recrystallization. Most importantly,
soil carbonates accumulate quickly; between 103 and 105 yr (see
Machette, 1985), while the expected resolution of the U-Pb tech-
nique in low to intermediate U-Pb systems is on the order of 106
yr. Wang et al. (1998) identify three generations of calcite cement
in the New Haven Arkose carbonate layers exposed at Meriden,
Connecticut (Fig. 1). The first generation cement is dull-cathodo-
luminescent micritic calcite occurring as walls in alveolar struc-
tures, such as cylindrical linings of rhizoliths, crack fillings, and
dense nodules. The second calcite generation is nonluminescent
blocky calcite that fills pores of rhizoliths, alveolar features, and
cracks. Both of these two cement generations are interpreted as
beta textures diagnostic of pedogenic carbonates (Wright and
Tucker, 1991). This fabric is used as the best line of evidence
supporting a pedogenic origin (Hubert, 1977, 1978; McInerney
and Hubert, 2003). A horizontal “sheet crack” containing the first
two generations of cement, variably enriched in U (1–14 ppm),
gives an age of 212 ± 2 Ma. Carbon and oxygen isotopic values
as well as trace-element data support the conclusion that the cal-
cite cements formed through meteoric diagenesis.
The third generation of calcite is brightly luminescent, fills
pore spaces within the first two cements, and in some cases,
replaces the earlier cement generations. Clearly occurring after
the deposition of crack-filling cements, this third generation
cement is interpreted as late diagenetic cement based on cross-
cutting relationships and a U-Pb age of 81 ± 11 Ma. Carbon iso-
topic values from this late cement mostly overlap with those of
the first two calcite generations, but oxygen isotopes are mostly
more negative, and trace-element data are distinctly different,
with much lower U and Mg and higher Mn concentrations. Thus,
carbon and oxygen isotope data of the early generation cements
reported by Wang et al. (1998) are consistent with either a non-
pedogenic or pedogenic history.
Generally, both types of calcrete form relatively soon after
sedimentation and are dateable using U-Pb techniques; thus,
they provide an age for sedimentation as well as important cli-
matic or biologic events. Additionally, U-series studies on cal-
cite cement in soils demonstrate great potential for constrain-
ing landforms and climate change in the Quaternary (Ludwig
and Paces, 2002; Sharp et al., 2003; Blisniuk and Sharp, 2003).
While some studies suggest that U-series ages may record
mixed histories of pedogenic and nonpedogenic calcite forma-
tion (Kelly et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2003), this is not likely to
have an adverse affect on U-Pb dating, simply because the time
resolution for fossil calcretes is much larger. The diagenetic his-
tory recorded in the cement stratigraphy can aid in assessing
the reliability of radiometric ages for both U-series and U-Pb
studies of calcrete layers.
The sedimentology and petrography of the entire targeted
calcrete layer in the New Haven Arkose, including the cemented
sandstone in conformable contact with and above the U-Pb dated
calcitic vein-like bodies of the mudstone, are now presented.
Petrographic analysis includes microscopic work under transmit-
ted light as well as cathodoluminescence.
FIELD AND PETROGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS
At the Meriden section containing the New Haven Arkose,
a 130-m-thick succession of red mudrock units (50 cm to 3 m in
thickness), overlain by thick, commonly massive arkose units,
up to 2.5 m thick, is exposed. The contact between the mudrock
units and their overlying sandstones is the locus of significant
displacive calcite cementation (cf. Watts, 1978; Rossinsky et al.,
1992). The calcite cement is present in the uppermost portion
of red mudstone units as anastomosing subhorizontal vein-like
bodies that separate mudstone blocks (Fig. 2A) and as displacive
micrite that separates sand grains in the overlying sandstone. No
clasts of the calcrete are observed as lag deposits in the sand-
stone above, nor is there any other macroscopic line of evidence
that the calcites formed prior to sandstone deposition. The cal-
cite cements are particularly concentrated within the base of the
sandstone (Fig. 2B). There is extensive evidence of pedogenesis
in the mudstone, including randomly oriented slickensides in the
massive mudstones, as well as tubular features, which are inter-
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 207

Figure 2. Field photos from the Meriden section of the Upper Triassic New Haven Arkose. (A) Mudstone facies with horizontal layers of calcite.
Scale on left has centimeter scale on the right and inch scale on the left. (B) Mudstone-sandstone contact showing preferential cementation at the
base of the sandstone. Mallet hammer for scale is 10 cm wide. (C) Concentric features with a central cavity surrounded by calcite, interpreted
as rhizoliths. Lens cap is 6 cm in diameter. (D) Long vertical features within the sandstone. The area near these features is bleached, suggesting
that reducing fluids removed Fe. These features are interpreted as taproots. Hammer for scale is 28 cm long.

preted as rhizoliths (after Klappa, 1980). These rhizoliths range
in diameter from 6 mm to 2 cm; they branch and curve around
each other with orientations from horizontal through vertical. In
cross section, some of these rhizoliths contain a circular inner
tube filled with calcite-cemented green mudstone, which is inter-
preted as the location of the original root (Fig. 2C). On the other
hand, sandstones are commonly massive to rarely trough cross-
bedded with no obvious macroscopic pedogenic features outside
of rare, though prominent, 5–7-cm-diameter, vertically tapering
structures filled with finer-grained material and abundant calcite
cement; penetrating the entire thickness of the massive sandstone
units (Fig. 2D). These vertical structures are much more green
(drab) in color than the surrounding sandstone and are interpreted
to have resulted from taproots of large plants or trees that pen-
etrated the sandstone to reach the water table below.
Based on these field relationships, rock samples were col-
lected from the dated carbonate interval of Wang et al. (1998) as
well as from the sandstone above. Samples are from: (1) the
topmost calcite-bearing interval of the mudstone; (2) the tap-
roots that penetrate the sandstone; (3) the base of the overlying
sandstone; and (4) the middle to top portion of the same sand-
stone channel unit. If the carbonate deposits in the mudstone
are indeed pedogenic calcrete, then the overlying sandstone
should not contain any of the early calcite cements found in the
mudstone. The sandstone channel would then have migrated
upon the pedogenically altered mud surface at a later time and
contained genetically different calcite cements. If the carbonate
unit in the mudstone is a nonpedogenic calcrete associated with
the water table, then the lowermost portion of the sandstone in
contact with the underlying mudstone should contain geneti-
cally related calcite cement because groundwater flow along the
sand-mud contact would have been contemporaneous.
Hand-specimen-scale examination of the cement fabrics in
the mudstone and taproots from the overlying sandstone reveals
208 Rasbury et al.

striking similarities. The red mudstone has a horizontal fabric
created by gleyed veins that are commonly filled with calcite
(Fig. 3A). The taproot is drab with brecciated rock fragments
separated by calcite veins at a similar scale to those in the
mudstone (Fig. 3B). Individual grains display a floating tex-
ture requiring displacive calcite growth (Watts, 1978). Using
the white and black card techniques (Folk, 1987) at low mag-
nification, one can see that the earliest generation of calcite in
the mudstone is micrite (Fig. 3C), while the earliest genera-
tion of calcite in the sandstone forms a prismatic layer that is
perpendicular to grain surfaces followed by micritic calcite
(Fig. 3D).

Figure 3. (A) Scanned image of an entire normal-sized thin section using a slide scanner. The bright white subhorizontal features are filled with
calcite. Other areas are lighter than the host red mudstone but do not have visible calcite. Bleaching is interpreted to result from reducing fluids
that removed Fe. Dark spots are hematite nodules. (B) Scanned image of an entire thin section using a slide scanner. The clast at the bottom left
is shattered by displacive calcite growth. The white band through the middle of the thin section is a calcite vein with a variety of crystal sizes
ranging from microspar near the edges to over 350 microns in the center. (C) Incident light image of one of the calcite veins in the mudstone.
The white material is micritic calcite that lines roots. Sparry calcite is seen in the center of the vein. (D) Incident light image of one of the veins
that breaks up the clast in C. The first recognizable calcite cement at this scale is a bladed calcite, followed by micritic calcite, and then by sparry
calcite in the center of the veins.
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose
Cement Stratigraphy in Mudstone
Based on petrography, five generations of calcite cements
are recognized in the mudstone facies. Anastomosing micro-
scopic vein-like bodies with alternating micrite and sparry
calcite break up the host mudrock into progressively smaller
“clods” (Figs. 4A and 4B). We consider these the first two cal-
cite generations (G1, G2, Table 1). These cements are evenly
isopachous on grain surfaces and are clearly followed by, but
are likely also quasisynchronous with, micrite and bladed cal-
cite (G3, Table 1), which line much larger-scale (visible in hand
specimen) veins that cut the host mudstone (Figs. 4C and 4D;
cf. 3A and 3B). This fringing calcite is followed by a void-
filling, mostly nonluminescent, blocky calcite (G4, Table 1),
with some bright orange luminescent zones (Figs. 4C and 4D).
The three generations of calcite cement identified by Wang et
al. (1998) occur in rhizoliths, which are extremely prevalent in
the top of the mudstone deposit. A dull-luminescent micritic
calcite (G3, Table 1) forms the walls of the rhizoliths (Figs. 4E
and 4F). A nonluminescent sparry calcite (G4, Table 1) fills the
holes presumably left by roots (Figs. 4E and 4F). A brightly
luminescent calcite (G6, Table 1) is observable as tiny veins
and as a replacement of the earlier calcite generations (Figs.
4E and 4F).
Cement Stratigraphy in Taproot
Petrographic investigation reveals six generations of calcite
cements in the sandstone associated with the taproot structure.
Sand grains float in calcite cement (Fig. 5). A very thin layer of
brightly orange, luminescent micritic calcite coats some grains
and is identified as the first generation of cement (G1, Table 1),
although it is not always seen prior to the precipitation of the
second generation, bladed calcite (Fig. 5). Bladed calcite is the
second-generation cement (G2, Table 1), which grew perpen-
dicular to grain surfaces (Figs. 5 and 6E). Although the bladed
calcite appears as a pervasive coating on sand grains, some but
not all veins of calcite exhibit this bladed calcite (Figs. 6A and
6B), suggesting that the veins record a progressive history that
is synchronous with and also postdates grain-coating cements.
The first two generations of calcite appear to be equivalent
to the calcite generations that exploded apart the underly-
ing mudstone, based on similarity in crystal size, layer size,
and cathodoluminescence. Dull-luminescent micritic calcite
is the third generation of cement (G3, Table 1) in the taproot
sandstone (Figs. 6A and 6B). The fourth cement generation is
nonluminescent blocky calcite (G4, Table 1) that cores calcite
crystals within large veins (Figs. 6C and 6D). The fifth cement
generation is zoned under cathodoluminescence (G5, Table 1),
occurs as overgrowths on G4 calcite cores (Figs. 6C and 6D),
and is the sole generation observed in 350–500 micron crystals
within the large veins. The fourth and fifth generations of cal-
cite clearly cut horizontal veins defined by the first and second
cement generations, but may reflect progression of the same
209
fluid. Veins in which G4 and G5 are recognized are lined by
sparry calcite that has the granular mosaic texture described
by Purvis and Wright (1991) in capillary fringe nonpedogenic
calcretes of the Middle Triassic Otter Sandstone in England. A
sixth generation of calcite (G6) is brightly luminescent (Figs.
5E and 5F). Brightly orange, luminescent, fluid inclusion–rich
calcite is also present in the center of the largest oscillatory-
zoned calcite crystals (G5), which make up the center of a large
vein (see Fig. 3C). We also interpret this brightly luminescent
cement as the sixth generation (Figs. 6A and 6B). The G6 cal-
cite is seen replacing grains and as fine veins that crosscut all
other cement generations (Figs. 6E and 6F).
Cement Stratigraphy in Sandstone
Based on petrography, we recognize four generations of
calcite in the overlying sandstone unit not directly associated
with a taproot. Both the basal sandstone and middle to upper
sandstone exhibit the same cement generations and approximate
proportions (Fig. 7). The first generation is dull-luminescent
micrite with floating sand grains, reflecting a dramatic volume
increase with displacive calcite growth (Fig. 7). This micrite is
interpreted as analogous to the early micrite seen in the mud-
stone and taproot sandstone (G3, Table 1), because of its similar-
ity in cathodoluminescence, and because cylindrical linings of
rhizoliths similar in scale to those in the underlying mudstone
are common in the basal sandstone and present throughout the
sandstone (Fig. 7).
The second generation of calcite observed in the sandstone
is nonluminescent and forms very thin layers on the micrite coat-
ings (Figs. 7B and 7D), equivalent to the nonluminescent G4
cement observed in the mudstone and taproots. This nonlumi-
nescent calcite is followed by a volumetrically far more impor-
tant, brightly orange luminescent calcite that fills the remainder
of the rhizolith voids (G5). Although this calcite is unzoned, it
is likely equivalent to G4 (Table 1) based on its occurrence as
pore-filling cement in rhizoliths. Crosscutting rhizoliths show
that all the early generations of calcite reflect a time progression
of the process of calcification around roots (Figs. 7E and 7F).
Although most of the sandstone exhibits the floating
grain texture with the displacive calcite, there are millimeter-
scale bands that are grain-supported, and, within these bands,
deformed grains, such as muscovite, provide evidence of com-
paction that predates calcite cementation (Fig. 8A). In these
compacted layers, only one calcite cement type is present, a
brightly luminescent calcite that replaces many of the feldspar
grains (see Saad, 1991; Hubert et al., 1992; van de Kamp and
Leake, 1996). This brightly luminescent sparry calcite is inter-
preted as the sixth generation cement, which is always brightly
luminescent and commonly replaces grains and older cement
generations (G6, Table 1). Based on thin sections examination,
these compacted bands of sandstone are not common, but our
thin section samples may not be an accurate representation of
the density of these features within the sandstone.
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 211

Summary of Cement Stratigraphy Across Mudstone-

Late: after burial; 81 ± 11 Ma

Sandstone Contact

Early: right after deposition;

Early: right after deposition

Early: right after deposition

Calcite generations G1–G3 coexist and may have formed
synchronously, although G3 lines rhizoliths that clearly cut the

Age
first two generations, which break up clasts in the sandstone and

Prior to burial

Prior to burial
212 ± 2 Ma
“clods” in the mudstone. Generations G4 and G5 fill rhizoliths
and are interpreted to be early cements. These cements (G4, G5)
are considered two distinct generations because the mudstone has
uniformly nonluminescent calcite cement (G4) forming only the

Dull-luminescent dense micrite

Brightly luminescent veins and

first thin layer of sparry calcite in the sandstone rhizoliths fol-

Nonluminescent sparry calcite

Brightly luminescent sparry

lowed by bright and zoned luminescent sparry calcite (G5).

calcite associated with

A cartoon relating the cement stratigraphy of the New

Top sandstone

replacement calcite
Haven calcrete interval reflects our understanding of the inter-

IN THE NEW HAVEN ARKOSE (NEWARK SUPERGROUP) AT MERIDEN, CONNECTICUT

TABLE 1. CALCITE CEMENT GENERATIONS IN A MUDSTONE-SANDSTONE PROFILE

alveolar features
relationships among the cements (Fig. 9). It is our interpretation
that taproots provide a permeable pathway for meteoric water,
and the mudstone layer is an impermeable barrier to the passage

Not seen

Not seen

calcite
of groundwater. Thus, the cements are concentrated at the mud-
stone-sandstone interface where roots and groundwater meet.
Similarities in color and texture of the calcite-cemented sand-

Nonluminescent sparry calcite

stone and the calcite deposited in subhorizontal cracks in the

micrite calcite associated

underlying mudstone suggest that the same fluids were respon-

Brightly luminescent veins

and replacement calcite
Dull-luminescent dense

with alveolar features

sible for precipitating calcite across the mud-sand boundary
Basal sandstone
(Figs. 8, 2A, and 2B). However, all but the very latest cements
formed very early based on their association with roots. There
are no clay cutans or other features in the massive to trough
cross-bedded sandstone that might suggest this was simply a

Not seen
Not seen

Not seen
thick soil profile, and the cements show no textures that could
be considered of vadose origin. This points toward a groundwa-
ter, not a capillary fringe, nonpedogenic origin. Also, no clasts
of the mudstone calcretes are incorporated into the bottom of
Dull-luminescent bladed calcite

Dull-luminescent dense micrite

Brightly luminescent veins and

Nonluminescent sparry calcite
the overlying sandstone. The calcified mud-sand interval is a
Thin, grain-coating brightly

groundwater calcrete with capillary fringe affinities (after

Taproot sandstone

calcite associated with

replacement calcite
luminescent calcite

alveolar features

Not seen

Figure 4. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of displacive calcite that

brecciates the mudstone. An anastomosing network of micrite appears
to have formed around rootlets. There is an intimate association with
sparry calcite (G1, G2). (B) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph
calcite associated with alveolar

of the same area shown in A. The anastomosing network of micrite

Dull-luminescent dense micrite

Brightly luminescent veins and

Nonluminescent sparry calcite

has dull luminescence and alternates with sparry calcite that is both
Brightly luminescent micrite

Dull-luminescent microspar

brightly luminescent and nonluminescent. While crosscutting relation-

Upper mudstone

ships do not allow us to demonstrate that the micrite was the earliest
replacement calcite

generation, based on its probable association with roots, micrite may

have formed first. (C–D) Large areas in the mudstone facies are com-
posed only of calcite. The bottom half of these photomicrographs has
a fringing interlayered micrite with bright luminescence and bladed
features

Not seen

(vaguely) dull-luminescent calcite (G3). This is followed by largely

calcite

nonluminescent blocky calcite with zones of bright luminescence

(G4). Although not labeled, it appears that the micritic calcite near
the boundary with the fringing calcite has been replaced by brightly
luminescent calcite (G6). (E) Micrite-lined rhizolith (G3) filled with a
generation

blocky calcite (G4). (F) Micrite lining the roots is dully luminescent
Cement

and filled by a nonluminescent calcite. Both the micrite and sparry

G4

G5

G6
G1

G2

G3

calcite may be replaced by brightly luminescent calcite (G6).

212 Rasbury et al.

Figure 5. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of displacive calcite that separates and fractures sand grains from the taproot area (Fig. 2D). (B) Cath-
odoluminescence photomicrograph of the same area as A. (C) Plane-light photomicrograph of displacive calcite that separates and fractures sand
grains from the taproot area. (D) Cathodoluminescence photomicrographs of the same area as C. Most grains have a thin brightly luminescent
layer of calcite (G1) followed by bladed dull-luminescent calcite (G2). Micrite calcite (G3) is almost always associated with this bladed calcite,
and here it can be shown to postdate the bladed calcite. Quartz grains may be fractured, but there is no evidence of replacement. Feldspar(?)
grains are replaced to variable degrees by brightly luminescent calcite (G6).

Semenuik and Meagher, 1981; Carlisle, 1983; Semenuik and
Searle, 1985; Purvis and Wright, 1991; Spötl and Wright, 1992;
Slate et al., 1996; Nash and Smith, 1998; Tandon and Kumar,
1999; Khadkikar et al., 2000; Mack et al., 2000; Tandon and
Andrews, 2001), resembling the penetrative calcrete of Rossin-
sky et al. (1992).
Reducing groundwater fluids may be indicated because of
the leaching of Fe responsible for the drab, green colors associ-
ated with the calcite cement (Retallack, 1988, 1991; Wright,
1992; Quade and Roe, 1999). The green, drab coloration (Fig.
3A) is interpreted as the preservation of gleying features (Retal-
lack, 1991; PiPujol and Buurman, 1994). The long vertical fea-
tures in the overlying sandstone, interpreted as taproots, are
also drab green (Figs. 9, 2C, and 2D), perhaps due to the local
reducing conditions created by decaying organic matter from
plant roots. Large taproot holes may have provided a permeable
conduit for fluids responsible for the early generations of calcite
cementation (Semenuik and Meagher, 1981; Purvis and Wright,
1991; Clothier and Green, 1997). These observations suggest
that the groundwater table (which could have been perched)
was within a few meters of the surface during the formation
of the calcite cements. This would explain the alpha and beta
fabrics associated with both groundwater and capillary fringe
nonpedogenic calcrete, respectively.
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose
Features that could be attributed to soils are not seen in the
later two early calcite cement generations (G4 and G5). There
is little evidence for the timing of the massive micrite cements
with floating grains that are pervasive throughout the sandstone
away from the taproots with respect to the grain-coating cement
generations (G1, G2) found only in the taproot. However, this
micrite cement in the sandstone away from the taproot is cut by
rhizoliths that are lined by similarly luminescent micrite, and thus
we interpret this as the third cement generation (G3). This texture
is analogous to the dense micrite zones recognized by Purvis and
Wright (1991).
The sixth generation of cement (G6), which cuts and
replaces former cement generations in the mudstone and sand-
stone and replaces some grains in the sandstone, is interpreted to
have formed after burial and lithification based on these crosscut-
ting relationships. This calcite was dated at 81 ± 11 Ma (Wang
et al., 1998). The age suggests a possible relationship to the
maximum advance of the Cretaceous seas during Upper Zuni A
time (Haq et al., 1988). The Hartford Basin, at this time, is pos-
tulated to have been undergoing tectonic inversion and thermal
subsidence (Schlische, 2003). Perhaps this combination of events
established a large-scale fluid flow that was responsible for the
late-formed calcite cements. However, we were not implying
these are marine fluids, rather, that the rise in sea level would
necessarily cause a change in base level and drive fluids through
the system. Carbon isotope values from the latest cements are
indistinguishable from those of the earlier cements (Wang et al.,
1998). However, the oxygen isotopes have a much greater range
(−10.7‰ to –5.0‰ versus –6.5‰ to –4.6‰), extending to more
negative values, consistent with the higher temperatures that
would be expected with a burial history. The lower uranium con-
centrations and much higher manganese concentrations (Wang
et al., 1998) in this generation of calcite (G6) are consistent with
far more reducing fluids, because uranium is insoluble and man-
ganese is soluble in reducing fluids. These observations support
our contention that the fluids responsible for G6 cements are not
directly surface-derived.
GENESIS OF CALCRETE
Nonpedogenic calcretes, such as capillary fringe and
groundwater calcretes (Tandon and Kumar, 1999), are carbon-
ate accumulations in soil, sediment, or bedrock associated with
the groundwater table, in vadose and phreatic conditions, respec-
tively (Nash, 1997; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Arid to semiarid as
well as humid climate regimes may be conducive to groundwa-
ter calcrete formation (Semenuik and Searle, 1985; Tandon and
Kumar, 1999), especially related to plant root influences from
evapotranspiration (Lucas, 2001). Also important is a high vol-
ume of discharge of Ca-rich subsurface waters “where drainages
converge, flow gradient decreases, saline waters mix, or perme-
abilities are low” (Wright and Tucker, 1991, p. 8). A composite
origin of groundwater precipitation and pedogenic alteration by
rooting has been suggested for nonpedogenic calcrete containing
213
both alpha and beta fabrics (Nash and Smith, 1998; Mack et al.,
2000), though timing for the accumulation of associated ground-
water and capillary fringe calcretes has been unclear.
The New Haven calcrete interval contains calcrete fabrics
and gley features. The presence of redox-sensitive elements such
as U, Mn, and Fe, combined with detailed study of the cement
relationships, strongly suggests a saturated-zone origin for most
of this nonpedogenic calcrete interval. Cements G1 and G2 are
interpreted as groundwater calcrete based on their isopachous
cements and lack of biogenic structures, in addition to the dis-
placive morphology. Cement G3, with its alveolar septal fab-
ric, is interpreted as having a beta texture and is interpreted as a
capillary fringe nonpedogenic calcrete that developed when the
groundwater level was lower or in contact. No clear vadose tex-
tures can be found associated with the G3 cement, but this type of
texture may not be preserved with the changing levels of ground-
water. Perched water tables can potentially oscillate with respect
to climatic stresses, such as variations in precipitation (e.g., Hunt
et al., 1988; Fetter, 2001), and can be temporary or permanent,
contingent on soil, sediment, and bedrock hydraulic conductivi-
ties (Davie, 2003). Groundwater movement can be directed along
a sand-mud interface with the impermeable mud preventing infil-
tration of meteoric water down to the regional water table (Davie,
2003; Rushton, 2003). With the presence of a perched water table
in a zone of phreatophytic plant growth during New Haven depo-
sition, both kinds of nonpedogenic calcrete must have formed
contemporaneously, producing both alpha and beta textures. The
time period between the deposition of cements G4 and G5 and
the first three cements in the New Haven Arkose is not known,
but G4 may be related to groundwater processes flowing through
both the sandstone and mudstone as burial proceeded. Cement G5
is limited to the uppermost part of the sandstone and clearly is not
related to the groundwater processes of the first three cements.
Cement G6 is a much later diagenetic cement.
Most thick groundwater calcretes are interpreted as form-
ing in arid to semiarid conditions (see previous references).
However, the New Haven Arkose contains many indicators of
frequent flooding (higher sedimentation rate) under a “humid to
subhumid” seasonal (monsoonal?) setting, such as poor preser-
vation of well-defined paleosol horizons, ferruginous concre-
tions, intense rooting, multistory channels with wings, and rare
preserved primary sedimentary structures in sandstones and
mudrocks (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling, 2002). The pres-
ence of deep taproots and pedogenic mud aggregates in the New
Haven Arkose (Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling, 2002) points
to seasonality, as would be expected in the monsoonal regime
postulated for the Middle to Upper Triassic in eastern North
America and Europe (Hay et al., 1982; Sims and Ruffell, 1990;
Parrish, 1993; Wilson et al., 1994; Olsen and Kent, 1996; Rein-
hardt and Ricken, 2000; Kent and Muttoni, 2003). One possible
paleoenvironmental interpretation for the studied New Haven
Arkose section is a subhumid monsoonal setting with a short dry
period. The projected paleolatitude of 7º to 11ºN (Olsen, 1997;
Kent and Olsen, 2000) is consistent with this scenario. Ca-rich
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose
groundwaters could have been sourced from the Paleozoic lime-
stones and marbles exposed at the basin margin to the northwest
(see Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998; De Wet et al., 2002). Extensive
recharge of groundwaters is possible in a rift setting (see Rosen,
1994), especially in the tectonically active, incipient Hartford rift
(Smoot, 1991), where groundwater and surface water converged
into an extensive braided plain undergoing high rates of subsid-
ence. Other calcrete layers within the New Haven Arkose should
be reassessed using these new criteria for recognizing pedogenic
versus nonpedogenic origin.
Significance for U-Pb Dating
A better understanding of the conditions that promote favor-
able U/Pb and U/Th ratios in calcretes will encourage more exact
identification of dateable calcrete zones in the geologic record.
Because Pb and Th have a low solubility in most fluids (Shen and
Boyle, 1988; Langmuir and Herman, 1980), the major influence
on these ratios is perhaps the solubility of uranium. Uranium in
the oxidized state is known to be quite soluble (Langmuir, 1978;
Carlisle, 1983), and reduction should remove it from solution,
although it is not clear how this would influence its co-precipi-
tation in calcite. Pedogenic carbonates form in the unsaturated
Figure 6. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of a brecciated clast at the
bottom of Figure 3C. The metamorphic rock fragment is shattered
along planes that are parallel to foliation. Fragment of the clast at the
bottom of the photomicrograph has layers of micrite and bladed calcite
(G1, G2) followed by micrite calcite. Fragment of the clast at the top of
the photomicrograph is surrounded by micrite (G3). (B) Cathodolumi-
nescence photomicrograph of the same area as A. Calcite that fringes
the clast fragment at the bottom of the photomicrograph has alternating
bright luminescent micritic calcite and dull-luminescent bladed calcite.
A millimeter-scale vein separates the fragments of the metamorphic
rock clast. This vein contains dull-luminescent micrite (G3) interpret-
ed to have lined roots and is filled by a blotchy brightly luminescent
sparry calcite. Although not labeled, the brightly luminescent calcite is
likely replacement calcite by fluids responsible for G6. (C–D) Plane-
light and cathodoluminescence photomicrographs of the boundary be-
tween the brecciated metamorphic rock fragment (upper right corner)
and vein that surrounds the clast. Sparry calcite of the large vein can
be followed into smaller veins that break apart the clast and appear to
be equivalent to the root-cast-filling sparry calcite (G4). Calcite in the
large veins is similar to the granular mosaic calcite described by Purvis
and Wright (1991) in that the crystals display a zoned luminescence.
Interestingly, the granular mosaic nature of this calcite is not observed
in the smaller veins, although petrography suggests that they are ver-
sions of the same cement generation. (E–F) Plane-light and cathodo-
luminescence photomicrographs of a clast with alteration at the edges
that is rimmed by dull-luminescent bladed calcite followed by root-lin-
ing–type micrite cement with associated sparry calcite. Although not
obvious on the plane-light image, there are numerous small veins of
brightly luminescent calcite (G6) that cut the root-lining cement (G3)
and sparry fill (G4). Here, the micrite calcite is brightly luminescent,
suggesting alteration by the G6 fluid.
215
vadose zone and are normally formed from oxidizing fluids. On
the other hand, the groundwater table is often associated with a
redox boundary (Fig. 10) and would be a zone where fluctuating
redox conditions might be expected seasonally.
The association of the New Haven calcite with gleying, the
fairly high U concentrations (1–14 ppm) within the calcite, and
the presence of Mn as evidenced by trace-element analyses and
luminescence (Wang et al., 1998) are all consistent with the pre-
cipitation of these calcites in a mostly reducing fluid. Addition-
ally, Chung and Swart (1990) concluded that U concentration
is higher in the bulk carbonate of the phreatic zone than in the
bulk carbonate of the vadose zone and suggested that: (1) higher
pCO2 in the phreatic zone leads to more U-rich carbonate com-
plexes; and (2) selective exclusion of U in the vadose zone leads
to increased U/Ca ratios in the phreatic zone. These two mecha-
nisms combine to force calcite precipitation from phreatic-zone
waters with higher U concentrations.
More work is required to examine the desirability of pedo-
genic calcrete for U-Pb dating. While soil calcretes archive
important information about pCO2 as well as climatic data, their
formation in the vadose zone may limit the availability of U,
which is highly mobile in oxidized fluids.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In addition to field relationships and calcrete fabric analy-
sis, calcite cement stratigraphy, combined with redox mod-
els for the behavior of Mn, Fe, and U, is a useful technique
to distinguish between pedogenic versus nonpedogenic
calcrete, as well as between capillary fringe and ground-
water calcrete timing.
2. The carbonate accumulation associated with the bound-
ary between one of many sandstone-mudstone units in
the New Haven Arkose near Meriden, Connecticut, is
interpreted as a nonpedogenic calcrete rather than one of
pedogenic origin. The presence of rhizoliths within this
calcitized horizon highlights the fact that the presence of
rhizoliths does not by itself require a soil origin. A fluctu-
ating perched paleo–water table, coupled with a zone con-
taining phreatophytic vegetation with deep taproots, can
produce alpha and beta fabrics in a groundwater and cap-
illary fringe nonpedogenic calcrete. Reducing conditions
are postulated for calcite precipitation because of gleying
features, the presence of Mn and U, and an absence of
vadose cementation structures.
3. Cement stratigraphy establishes a diagenetic history of
calcite precipitation in a calcrete interval of the Triassic
New Haven Arkose. Cements G1 and G2 are interpreted
as groundwater calcrete because of displacive features
and alpha fabrics. Cement G3 is interpreted as having
formed from phreatophytic vegetation at or just above an
oscillating groundwater table of a perched aquifer. This
cement contains beta fabric features, such as alveolar sep-
tal fabric. Cement G4 and G5 are interpreted as diagenetic
Figure 7. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph of the basal sandstone showing sand grains floating in a micrite matrix. This is cut by micrite-lined
rhizoliths that are filled by sparry calcite. (B) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph of the same area as A. Micrite that displaces the sand
grains is dull-luminescent, like that of the micrite that lines the roots. It seems clear that this dense micrite calcite predates the roots that appear
to cut it. The first layer of sparry calcite following this micrite is nonluminescent, analogous to the sparry calcite that completely fills roots in
the mudstone (G4). However, this is followed by a volumetrically more significant sparry calcite that is brightly luminescent (G5). Although we
have broken these into two generations, they are almost certainly variations of the same fluid event. (C–D) Plane-light and cathodoluminescence
photomicrographs of the upper part of the sandstone showing the same floating grains in micrite cement and crosscutting rhizoliths with non-
luminescent spar followed by brightly luminescent spar. Several clasts are replaced by brightly luminescent calcite (G6). (E–F) Plane-light and
cathodoluminescence photomicrographs from the upper sandstone showing grains floating in the dull-luminescent micrite. The micrite-bearing
host is then cut by several generations of rhizoliths. A branch of the rhizolith on the left clearly cuts the rhizolith on the right. The rhizoliths ap-
pear to be largely replaced by brightly luminescent calcite, interpreted as G6.

Figure 8. Photomicrographs from one of the millimeter-scale layers of compacted sandstone. (A) Plane-light photomicrograph showing inter-
penetrating and deformed grains. (B) Cathodoluminescence image of the area shown in A, showing only one generation of brightly luminescent
calcite that replaces some of the grains. (C) Plane-light photomicrograph that shows interpenetrating and deformed grains. (D) Cathodolumines-
cence image of the area shown in C. We hypothesize that the replaced grains were originally feldspars.
218 Rasbury et al.

precipitation not associated with the calcretization. Cement
G6 is a late diagenetic cement.
4. The U-Pb age of cement G3 obtained by Wang et al. (1998)
dates the time of sedimentation within the resolution of the
dating technique. The reducing conditions of calcrete forma-
tion associated with phreatic groundwater conditions are
conducive to the accumulation and preservation of U for
geochronologic dating. This research, combined with that of
Wang et al. (1998) and Rasbury et al. (2000), shows great
scope for U-Pb dating of nonpedogenic calcretes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks to David Nash for his insightful reviews
that improved the manuscript greatly. We are grateful to the edi-
tors for their direction and patience. This research was funded

Figure 9. Cartoon summarizing the sedimentologic and petrographic relationships of calcite cement in a fluvial unit of the New Haven Arkose.
At the field scale, there is an obvious concentration of carbonate cement and gleying at the sandstone-mudstone interface. Additionally, there are
vertical features, interpreted as having originally been taproots, in which gleying is also prominent. Throughout the sequence on the millimeter
scale, veins are composed of alveolar textures (beta fabrics), which are composed of micrite (G3). This micrite cuts sandstone and mudstone
that are characterized by floating grains in calcite (alpha fabrics). In the sandstone, this displacive calcite is mostly micrite. In the mudstone, it
is mixed micrite and sparry calcite with zoned cathodoluminescence. There are also millimeter-scale zones that appear not to have experienced
early calcite cementation and show abundant evidence of physical compaction. These zones have only the last calcite cement generation (G5),
which in this case is mostly seen as a replacement of grains that were most likely feldspars. At the submillimeter scale, sand grains are often
coated by a prismatic calcite (G1). In veins, this prismatic calcite is followed by a dull-luminescent sparry calcite (G2) and micrite that forms
rhizoliths (G3). Toothpick-shaped veins in the mudstone are composed of cathodoluminescence-zoned sparry calcite (G2). Not shown in this
cartoon is the nonluminescent sparry calcite that fills the voids in rhizoliths (G4).
 Nonpedogenic calcrete in the New Haven Arkose 219

Vertical roots
low organic matter preservation
high Eh
Horizontal roots
high organic matter preservation
low Eh

Figure 10. Morphology of roots and the geochemical conditions expected in vadose versus phreatic type soils (modified from Mount and Cohen,
1984). Often, ancient soils are recognized by the presence of fossil roots. These roots may be preserved by precipitation of calcite around the
roots, forming rhizoliths. In the vadose zone, roots are vertical because trees have to penetrate to the water table. When the water table is at or
near the surface, roots are often horizontal. The vadose zone is usually oxidizing, while below the water table, conditions are often reducing. Eh
is a measure of the redox potential of a system, where high values tend to indicate more oxidizing environments and low values indicate more
reducing environments.

through NSF grant EAR9814639 to Troy Rasbury and was
largely accomplished by undergraduate researchers funded by a
REU supplement to that grant. We also thank Bruce Ward and
Carol DeWet for ideas and valuable input.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416
2006

Calcrete features and age estimates from U/Th dating: Implications

for the analysis of Quaternary erosion rates in the northern limb of
the Sierra Nevada range (Betic Cordillera, southeast Spain)
J.M. Azañón
Departamento de Geodinámica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain, and Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la
Tierra, CSIC-Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain

P. Tuccimei
Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche, Universitá Roma Tre, 00146 Roma, Italy

A. Azor
Departamento de Geodinámica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain

I.M. Sánchez-Almazo
Centro Andaluz de Medio Ambiente (CEAMA), Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain

A.M. Alonso-Zarza
Departamento de Petrología y Geoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain

M. Soligo
Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche, Universitá Roma Tre, 00146 Roma, Italy

J.V. Pérez-Peña
Departamento de Geodinámica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain

ABSTRACT

The Guadix topographic depression is a Neogene-Quaternary basin located in

the central sector of the Betic Cordillera at the boundary between the South Iberian
margin and the Alboran domain. This topographic depression is a plateau with an
average elevation of 1000 m in the northern limb of the Sierra Nevada range. The
continental deposits infilling the Guadix basin span time from the late Tortonian to
the Pleistocene, when a laminar calcrete developed on fine- to coarse-grained fluvial
and lacustrine deposits. The drainage pattern is strongly incised (up to 200 m) below
the calcrete layer. Four coeval subsamples from the top laminae of the calcrete were
collected and dated by the U/Th method. The resulting date is 42.6 ± 5.6 ka, which
indicates the minimum age for the cessation of active sedimentation in the Guadix
basin. Using this age, we have calculated the incision and erosion rates for the late
Pleistocene to present-day time span in the Arroyo de Gor, a highly incised canyon in
the eastern border of the Guadix basin. The minimum incision rates in this canyon
are around 4 mm/yr. We envisage the capture of the Pliocene-Pleistocene endorheic

Azañón, J.M., Tuccimei, P., Azor, A., Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., Alonso-Zarza, A.M., Soligo, M., and Pérez-Peña, J.V., 2006, Calcrete features and age estimates
from U/Th dating: Implications for the analysis of Quaternary erosion rates in the northern limb of the Sierra Nevada range (Betic Cordillera, southeast Spain), in
Alonso-Zarza, A.M., and Tanner, L.H., eds., Paleoenvironmental Record and Applications of Calcretes and Palustrine Carbonates: Geological Society of America
Special Paper 416, p. 223–239, doi: 10.1130/2006.2416(14). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2006 Geological Society of America. All
rights reserved.

223
224 Azañón et al.

Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir River after 42 ka as the main factor triggering the
formation of the present-day eroded landscape. After the capture, the combination of
climatic (wet periods), lithological (soft and loose sediments), and topographic (high
average altitude) features allowed the development of the present-day entrenched
drainage pattern.

Keywords: calcretes, U/Th dating, stable isotopes, Quaternary incision rates, river
capture, Guadix basin, Betic Cordillera, SE Spain.

RESUMEN

La depresión de Guadix es una cuenca neógeno-cuaternaria situada en el sector

central de la Cordillera Bética cubriendo el contacto entre el Margen Sudibérico y
el Dominio de Alborán. Esta depresión topográfica es, sin embargo, una superficie
elevada (sobre unos 1000 m) desarrollada en el flanco N de Sierra Nevada. El relleno
continental de la cuenca de Guadix abarca desde el Tortoniense superior al Pleisto-
ceno, y está coronado por una calcreta laminar que se desarrolló sobre materiales
detríticos lacustres y fluviales. La red de drenaje está fuertemente encajada (hasta 200
m) bajo este nivel de calcretas. Se han datado, mediante el método de U/Th, cuatro
sub-muestras correspondientes a las facies laminares situadas en el techo del nivel
de calcretas más alto. El resultado de la datación de la calcreta es 42.6 ± 5.6 ka, que
puede interpretarse como la edad mínima para el final de la sedimentación activa en
la cuenca de Guadix. Usando esta edad como referencia, hemos calculado las tasas de
incisión y erosión desde el Pleistoceno superior en el Arroyo de Gor, un cañón fuerte-
mente encajado en el borde oriental de la cuenca de Guadix. Las tasas de incisión
en este cañón están alrededor de 4 mm/año. Consideramos que la captura Pliocena-
Pleistocena (post–42 ka) de la cuenca, con carácter endorreico en ese momento, por
parte del río Guadalquivir es el principal factor desencadenante del actual relieve
erosivo que presenta la cuenca de Guadix. Tras la captura, la combinación de factores
climáticos (periodos húmedos), litológicos (sedimentos detríticos con escasa cohesión)
y topográficos (alta altitud media) han favorecido el encajamiento progresivo de la
red de drenaje actual.

Palabras clave: calcretas, datación U/Th, Isótopos estables, tasas de incisión cuater-
naria, captura fluvial, Cuenca de Guadix, Cordilleras Béticas, SE España.

INTRODUCTION
Quaternary calcretes are widespread in many ancient ter-
restrial basins from all over the world, including Australia (Ara-
kel, 1986), southern Africa (Watts, 1980; Nash and McLaren,
2003), northwestern America (Machette, 1985), and southern
Europe, especially Spain (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998a). In the
case of the Spanish Quaternary calcretes, they occur either in
aggradational regimes interbedded with alluvial sediments
(Jiménez-Espinosa and Jiménez-Millán, 2003), or, most com-
monly, in degradational regimes on different terrace levels (San-
cho et al., 2004). In both cases, detailed studies of the calcretes
have provided most valuable data that illuminate rates of fluvial
aggradation, fluvial incision, climatic regime, and even tectonic
activity. Additionally, Quaternary calcretes cap the sedimentary
infill of some of the mostly terrestrial Cenozoic basins in Spain,
such as the Ebro basin (Sancho and Meléndez, 1992) and the
Teruel basin (Alonso-Zarza and Arenas, 2004). In these cases,
thick laminar calcretes constitute the last material accumulated
at the top of the sedimentary sequences, which are incised by the
present-day fluvial network. Further to the south and southeast,
thick calcrete profiles also formed at the top of some Neogene-
Quaternary basins in the Betic Cordillera (Dumas, 1969; Kelly
et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2003; García et al., 2003; Nash and
Smith, 2003). Calcrete formation in the Betic Neogene-Quater-
nary basins predates the incision of the present-day fluvial net-
work, thus, if dated radiometrically, its presents a potentially use-
ful geomorphic tool to establish incision rates of the main rivers.
Precise dating of pedogenic carbonates either by 14C or U/Th
series has proved to be a useful tool to establish both the chronol-
ogy of sequences of terraces and incision rates in SE Spain (Kelly
et al., 2000; Candy et al., 2004). Moreover, the radiometric date
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain
of pedogenic carbonates, together with oxygen and carbon stable
isotope studies, is of paramount importance in establishing Qua-
ternary paleoclimatic regimes.
In this paper, we use a multidisciplinary approach to study a
calcrete layer developed at the top of the sedimentary infilling of
the Guadix basin in SE Spain (Figs. 1 and 2). The calcrete consti-
tutes a flat geomorphic surface in which the present-day drainage
network is entrenched. U/Th dating and stable isotope analyses of
the top laminae in this calcrete have provided us with a radiomet-
ric age and allowed us to propose a paleoclimatic setting for the
development of this surface. Moreover, a detailed petrographic
study of the calcrete reveals different vadose-phreatic phases pre-
vious to or coeval with the initial stages of river incision. Finally,
we draw on the radiometric age obtained to estimate the incision
rates of the present-day drainage network, while also addressing
the possible causes behind the relatively high values calculated.
A brief description of each technique or method used in this study
will be provided in the appropriate context.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The area of study is located in the Betic Cordillera in south-
eastern Spain (Fig. 1), which represents a tectonically active
region related to the collision between Africa and Iberia (DeMets
et al., 1994; Morales et al., 1999; Galindo-Zaldívar et al., 1999,
2003). Despite this general compressional tectonic setting, the
main tectonic and geomorphic features of the Betic Cordillera
are related to extensional tectonics (e.g., Galindo-Zaldívar et
al., 1989; García-Dueñas et al., 1992; Crespo-Blanc et al., 1994;
Martínez-Martínez and Azañón, 1997; Martínez-Martínez et al.,
2002). In this context, the present-day topography of the Betic
Cordillera can be described as a succession of mountain ranges
Figure 1. Geological setting of the Guadix-Baza basin in the Betic Cordillera (SE Spain).
225
and basins dissected by the main rivers, which incised both the
ranges and the basins (Fig. 2A). The highest range in the Betic
Cordillera is the Sierra Nevada, which has been recently inter-
preted as an elongated dome resulting from the interference of
two orthogonal fold systems: one due to a rolling-hinge mecha-
nism in the footwall of a WSW-directed extensional detachment
and the other due to coeval N-S compression (Martínez-Martínez
et al., 2004). The Sierra Nevada (and other neighboring ranges)
emerged in middle Miocene times, progressively isolating dif-
ferent intramontane basins, such as the Granada and the Guadix-
Baza basins (Fig. 2A). Long-term uplift rates in this region are
low to moderate (0.02–0.3 mm/yr) according to present-day alti-
tudes of shallow-marine Miocene and Pliocene sediments (Braga
et al., 2003; Silva et al., 2003; Booth-Rea et al., 2004; Sanz de
Galdeano and Alfaro, 2004).
The Guadix-Baza basin is one of the intramontane Neogene-
Quaternary basins of the Betic Cordillera (Figs. 1 and 2), located
in the central part of the orogen between the external (South
Iberian margin) and the internal (Alboran domain) zones. The
present-day topography of this basin corresponds to a depres-
sion bounded by ranges (Fig. 2). The continental infilling of this
basin spans from the latest Tortonian to the Pleistocene (Vera,
1970; Peña, 1979; Viseras, 1991; Fernández et al., 1996). From
a paleogeographical point of view, the Guadix-Baza basin can be
viewed in Pliocene-Pleistocene times as an endorheic depression
surrounded by mountains. The sedimentary record of Pliocene-
Pleistocene age suggests the existence at the marginal parts of the
Guadix basin of alluvial systems, which flowed into a central lake
(Viseras, 1991; Viseras and Fernández, 1992). In the eastern and
southern borders of the Guadix subbasin (Guadix basin hence-
forth), the continental infill is represented by alternating poorly
cemented conglomerates and sands of Pliocene-Pleistocene age
 A

Figure 2. (A) Topographic sketch of the eastern Betic Cordillera with the locations of the main basin and mountain ranges. (B) Digital elevation
model (DEM) of the Guadix basin (see location in Figures 1 and 2A), where the main geomorphic features (elevated flat surface defined by the
calcrete, badland areas, and main streams) can be observed.
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 227

(Viseras, 1991). The conglomeratic layers are dominant toward
the upper part of the sequence and are capped by a 0.5–1-m-thick
calcrete, which outcrops in a widespread area of the Guadix basin
(Fig. 3). Toward the center of the basin, the conglomerates and
sands grade laterally to lacustrine deposits represented by marls
and clays. These marly sediments are also capped by the cal-
crete layer. The uppermost outcropping layers of the lacustrine
deposits in the Baza subbasin have been dated by amino acid
racemization on ostracodes, yielding ages around 280 ka (Ortiz
et al., 2004). The lacustrine layers dated in the Baza subbasin

Figure 3. (A) Oblique aerial view looking north of the surface defined by the calcrete into which canyon-shaped streams incise. Note the badlands
in the upper part of the image (photograph by Javier Sanz de Galdeano). (B) Photograph of the Pliocene-Pleistocene stratigraphic sequence of
the Guadix basin capped by the calcrete layer defining the flat surface.
228 Azañón et al.

occupy a stratigraphic position lower than the top calcrete layer. A second and lower flat surface corresponds to the pres-
The calcrete and the associated geomorphic surface are less well ent-day cultivated floodplain of the Fardes River, the main river
preserved in the Baza subbasin, outcropping only at the margins, draining the Guadix basin (Fig. 2B). This main axial valley
near the surrounding mountain ranges. does not run in a central position along the Guadix basin, but
rather close to its western border. The Fardes River is the only
GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE GUADIX BASIN one in the Guadix basin with terrace deposits at its margins. In
one locality (Alicún de las Torres; Fig. 2B), three terrace levels
While forming a topographic depression, the Guadix basin made up of travertine deposits can be recognized at one margin
has at present an external drainage to the Atlantic Ocean through of the Fardes River.
the Guadalquivir River. The main mountain ranges surrounding In summary, three main geomorphic domains can be distin-
the Guadix basin are the Sierra Nevada to the south, Sierra de guished in the Guadix basin (Figs. 2 and 3): (1) the flat elevated
Baza to the east, Sierra Cazorla to the north, and Sierra Arana to surface cut by canyons; (2) the intermediate steep badland area;
the west (Fig. 2A). The basin itself is an elevated (average alti- and (3) the lower surface of the Fardes floodplain.
tude around 1000 m) plateau capped by the calcrete layer (Fig.
3). The flat geomorphic surface defined by the calcrete is strongly THE CALCRETE
dissected by canyons and a main trunk river with a well-devel-
oped floodplain, the Fardes River (Fig. 2B). At present, most of Profile and Micromorphology
the streams in this area have an ephemeral hydraulic regime with
no discharge most of the time punctuated by episodic flooding The calcrete constitutes the top of the Pliocene-Pleistocene
events caused by heavy rains. This hydrology is controlled by sedimentary sequence, featuring a very continuous, but heteroge-
the present-day climate in this region, which is semiarid, with an neous, layer along the Guadix basin. Up to three different calcrete
average annual rainfall between 300 and 350 mm. The only river layers can be observed, depending on the locality. The maximal
with permanent discharge is the Fardes River. thickness of each layer is around 1.5 m, and nonweathered clastic
The flat surface defined by the calcrete is mostly horizontal deposits are intercalated between the calcrete layers, as in the
(Fig. 3), except at the margins of the basin, where it inclines Aljibe Quebrado section (Fig. 4). This section is the most com-
slightly basinward. This surface of regional extent represents the plete—it is composed of three layers of laminar calcrete up to
end of the sedimentation in the Guadix basin and was devel- 20 cm thick (Fig. 4). The calcrete layers are developed on top of
oped under a soil covering the underlying fluvial and lacustrine
deposits (see next section). The calcrete layer formed prior to the
present-day external drainage pattern, when the Guadix basin
was still an endorheic catchment area. Thus, the calcrete marks
a residual surface of an old flat area that lacked well-organized
streams and extended throughout the entire Guadix basin.
After the formation of the above-mentioned surface, the
former Pleistocene endorheic Guadix basin must have been
captured by the Guadalquivir River (Calvache and Viseras,
1997), thus starting the development of the present-day
strongly entrenched drainage pattern. The capture was prob-
ably caused by headward erosion of the Guadalquivir River,
favored by the topographically elevated position of the Guadix
basin. Thus, the capture can be viewed, via a base-level lower-
ing, as the triggering factor responsible for the formation of the
present-day eroded landscape. Furthermore, the erosion would
not have been a coeval process throughout the basin. Instead,
once the Guadix basin was captured by the Guadalquivir River,
an incision wave would have progressed headward along the
basin, eventually reaching its southern margin. At the margins
of the Guadix basin, the flat elevated surface marked by the
calcrete appears dissected by a few narrow and rectilinear can-
yons (Fig. 3A), such as the Arroyo de Gor (Fig. 2B). Toward
the north and northwest, the landscape is much more eroded
and dominated by gullies and pipes (Vandekerckhove et al.,
2000, 2003), with some buttes being the only remains of the Figure 4. Aljibe Quebrado section showing the transition from palus-
flat geomorphic surface. trine deposits to the studied calcretes (at the top).
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain
a thick gravel bed with intercalated red mudstones at the upper
part. In other sections, such as in the Arroyo de Gor, the calcrete
consists of a single layer around 1 m thick (Fig. 5), developed on
brown silts with gravel clasts. In this locality, the single calcrete
layer, in turn, includes three main horizons, which from bottom
to top are: nodular, massive, and laminar.
229
At the macroscale, this three-horizon pattern is observed
throughout the Guadix basin. The nodular horizon is ~30 cm
thick and occurs at the base of the calcrete profiles. The host
rocks are red mudstones in which spheroidal to cylindrical car-
bonate nodules are present. The nodules consist of homogeneous
micrite with some floating sand grains, representing calcification
Figure 5. View of the top calcrete at
Arroyo de Gor. Several indurated lami-
nar horizons can be seen.
Figure 6. Hand sample of the uppermost
part of the calcrete layer at the Arroyo
de Gor. The laminae coat all the gravel
bed. The indurated gravel constitutes, in
this case, the massive horizon.
230 Azañón et al.
around roots. The massive horizon is decimeter-scale and con-
sists of polygenic rock fragments (Fig. 6) incorporated in a dense
and hard red micrite matrix. This matrix shows nonbiogenic
features, such as desiccation cracks and floating etched detrital
grains. Nevertheless, biogenic features are dominant and include
root traces, calcified root cells, calcite spheres, vadose pisoliths,
and micritic peloids. Moreover, coarse calcite mosaics, either
as cement or as a result of recrystallization and displacement,
are common. The laminar horizon occurs at the uppermost part
of the profiles, in some cases constituting a sort of fine-grained
detrital jacket around the uppermost part of the nodular horizon
(Figs. 6 and 7). This horizon consists of alternating of light and
dark laminae. The dark laminae contain more detrital grains and
show alveolar septal structures as well as lines of calcite crys-
tals, probably indicating calcified root structures (Alonso-Zarza
et al., 1998b). The light laminae are richer in micrite and have
fewer detrital grains, although they have more clay (sepiolite or
palygorskite) minerals. These light laminae also contain spheru-
lites, calcified root spheres, and needle fiber calcite (Figs. 7 and
8). In those cases in which the laminar horizon envelops the mas-
sive one, there are also vadose-gravitational cements underlying
the lowermost laminae. This fact probably indicates the progres-
sive lowering of local-scale hanging water tables.
The macro- and microfeatures described above are indica-
tive of a pedogenic calcrete, where roots must have played an
important role, as evidenced by the occurrence of calcified root
traces and alveolar septal structures. The presence of spherulites
may be taken to indicate that cyanobacterial mats (Verrecchia et
al., 1995) developed at the top part of the profiles. The alterna-
tion of laminae with different proportions of detrital grains and
biogenic features suggests successive small-scale periods of
sedimentation, erosion, and soil formation in the uppermost part
Figure 7. View of the sample drilled for stable isotope
characterization of the laminar horizon with locations
of the different points of analysis. Massive (M) and
laminar (L) horizons are easily separated. Massive
horizons are very rich in etched detrital clasts. The
different zones (I–V) within the laminar horizon are
also indicated. See text for further explanations.
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain
of a relatively stable surface. These sedimentation–erosion–soil-
forming periods might be related to climate-vegetation changes
(Alonso-Zarza and Silva, 2002). The overall features of the cal-
crete indicate that it was formed due to the influence of a sparse
vegetation cover of bushes and shrubs developed under a semi-
arid climate. This is the context deduced for the formation of sim-
ilar calcretes in Spain (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998a) and all over
the world (Mack and James, 1994; Alonso-Zarza, 2003).
Stable Isotope Geochemistry
We performed a stable isotope study of 17 samples drilled
from the uppermost centimeters of the laminar calcrete horizon
(Figs. 7 and 9). The powder samples were baked under vac-
uum at 360 ºC for 30 min to remove any organic matter. The
stable isotope analyses were performed at Cambridge University
(UK), using a Micromass Multicarb Sample Preparation System
attached to a VG Isotech PRIMS mass spectrometer. The isotope
data are reported according to Vienna Peedee belemnite (VPDB)
international standards. The precision of the results is better than
±0.06‰ for 12C/13C and ±0.08‰ for 16O/18O.
The values of δ18O and δ13C (Figs. 9 and 10) vary from −9.17‰
to −6.28‰ and from −11.18‰ to −6.36‰ (VPDB), respectively.
These values fall within the ranges described for calcretes by
Alonso-Zarza (2003) in a recent and detailed review of the paleon-
vironmental significance of palustrine and pedogenic carbonates. As
a whole, our results reveal a considerable variation of δ13C, greater
than that of δ18O, which seems to be a common feature in calcretes
(Alonso-Zarza, 2003; Alonso-Zarza and Arenas, 2004). Both δ18O
231
Figure 8. Scanning electron microscope
(SEM) view in which needle fiber cal-
cite crystals and calcified filaments form
most of the laminae with alveolar septal
structure.
and δ13C show several fluctuations from the bottom to the top of the
profile, although the general trend is toward heavier values upward
(Fig. 9). Moreover, there is a strong positive correlation between
δ13C and δ18O (r2 = 0.89; Fig. 10).
The stable isotope composition of pedogenic carbonates
has proved to be a powerful tool for paleoenvironmental stud-
ies (Cerling, 1984; Cerling and Quade, 1993; Alam et al., 1997)
and has been used to reconstruct climate and vegetation changes
through time (Ding and Yang, 2000; Fox and Koch, 2003, 2004;
Alonso-Zarza and Arenas, 2004; Sanyal et al., 2004). Values of
δ18O in calcretes depend on both the stable isotopic composition
of soil water (Cerling, 1984; Cerling and Quade, 1993) and tem-
perature. The δ18O of soil water, in turn, is related to the isotopic
composition of local rainfall, which also is strongly controlled by
temperature (Cerling and Quade, 1993). Additionally, evapora-
tion in the uppermost horizons of the soil can also affect δ18O
values in pedogenic carbonates and result in δ18O enrichment
(Cerling and Quade, 1993). In the samples studied, the general
δ18O trend toward heavier values higher in the profile (Fig. 9)
might be taken to indicate a tendency toward aridity at the final
stages of calcrete development.
The values of δ18O obtained enable us to estimate the iso-
topic composition of the rain water during the initial stages of
formation of the laminar calcrete. To do so, we have applied the
equation proposed by Jiamao et al. (1997), which relates δ18O
of pedogenic carbonate to δ18O of rainfall and also includes the
effect of evaporation (Zanchetta et al., 2000). The resulting δ18O
value for rain water at the time when the laminar calcrete started
to develop is –10.12‰, i.e., a value 2.63‰ lower than that of
232 Azañón et al.

Figure 10. Relationship between δ18O and δ13C for the laminar calcrete.

Figure 9. δ18O and δ13C in the top laminar calcrete. The isotope values
are referenced to the Pee Dee belemnite (PDB) standard. See location
of the samples in Figure 7. The different zones (I–V) within the lami-
nar horizon are also indicated.

present-day rain water (−7.49‰; Caballero et al., 1996). These

lighter δ18O values in rain water could indicate that the climate
was cooler than present during the formation of the calcrete.
The δ13C of pedogenic carbonate depends on the isotopic
composition of soil CO2 (Quade et al., 1989), which, in turn,
is related to the composition of the local vegetation (Cerling,
1984). Thus, δ13C of pedogenic carbonate is controlled mainly Figure 11. Calcrete isochron plots (2-dimensional versions) based on
by the ratio of C4/CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) to C3 total dissolution of four coeval subsamples, with 1σ error crosses. The
plants. C3 plants (trees, most shrubs, and cool-season grasses) slopes in the (234U/232Th)-(238U/232Th) and (230Th/232Th)-(234U/232Th)
diagrams represent the (234U/238U) and (230Th/234U) activity ratios, re-
have lighter δ13C values (about −27‰) than C4 plants (about spectively, of the pure carbonate. MSWD—mean square of weighted
−12‰; Cerling and Quade, 1993). Consequently, when vegeta- deviates. 1d, 3b, 2b, and 3a are subsamples that have been used in the
tion cover is dominated by C3 plants, δ13C in soil CO2 is lower isochron calculation.
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain
than when C4 plants dominate (Cerling, 1984; Alonso-Zarza,
2003). The respective distributions and abundances of C3 and
C4 plants are controlled by climate. C4 plants are adapted to
high water stress and elevated temperatures; their relative
abundance has been used as an index of past aridity (Jiamao
et al., 1997). In contrast, C3 plants prefer cool temperatures
during the growing season and live at present at high latitudes
(Alam et al., 1997; Ding and Yang, 2000). On these grounds,
several authors have established that the δ13C values of pedo-
genic carbonate which formed at 25 ºC from pure C4 and C3
biomasses are approximately +2‰ and −12‰, respectively
(Cerling, 1984; Alam et al., 1997). After comparing these val-
ues with δ13C in the calcrete studied here (−11.18‰ to −6.36‰),
we conclude that C3 plants dominated the local ecosystem dur-
ing the calcrete formation period. Similarly, the trend to higher
δ13C values higher in the profile can be interpreted as a response
to changing vegetation, with an increase in C4 plants due to a
substantial increase in aridity. In the same way, the positive
correlation between δ18O and δ13C (Fig. 10) can be related to
increasing aridity during the final stages of calcrete formation.
This is commonly true during the formation of pedogenic car-
bonates (Cerling, 1984).
A comparison between the petrographic features and the
stable isotope record in the laminar calcrete enables us to char-
acterize five different zones, which are from bottom to top as
follows (Figs. 7 and 9): (I) mostly laminar calcrete with alveo-
lar structures, which have average δ18O and δ13C of −8.18‰
and −9.85‰, respectively; (II) a laminated zone characterized
by the presence of laminae very rich in quartz silt, with average
δ18O of −7.87‰ and δ13C of −9.03‰, where the quartz laminae
correspond to the heaviest values in δ18O and δ13C within this
zone; (III) massive micrite, with the heaviest isotope values in
all of the profile; and (IV) and (V) two laminated zones, with
average δ18O of −6.97‰ for 4 and −6.85‰ for 5. The δ13C val-
ues are −7.82‰ for 4 and −6.64‰ for 5.
Zones I and II have the lighter values, indicating the
development of a vegetation cover, probably under the least
arid conditions in the entire profile. Quartz-rich laminae (with
the heaviest isotopic composition) may indicate an increase of
aridity and maybe an eolian dust influx. Zone III corresponds
to the most arid conditions and probably the least biogenic con-
trol on the carbonate precipitated in the soil zone. The last two
zones (IV and V) have similar δ18O values, thus pointing to a
more stable climate, although the vegetation cover could be
slightly different than in the lower part of the calcrete.
In short, both micromorphology and stable isotope fea-
tures are related to the climatic conditions prevailing during
the formation of the different calcrete laminae. Generally,
the massive micritic laminae with the heaviest isotope values
represent the most arid conditions, which, in turn, indicate
inhibited biogenic activity. Conversely, the occurrence of
alveolar septal structures in zones with the lightest isotope
values (I and II) is related to a wider vegetation cover under
less arid climate.
233
U/Th Dating
Four coeval subsamples of the very top laminar horizon
of the calcrete were collected and dated by the U/Th isochron
method (Bischoff and Fitzpatrick, 1991). The analytical basis
for dating calcretes is the measurement of the 230Th formed by
the decay of authigenic 234U and, indirectly, 238U, the uranium
having been co-precipitated from solution with the carbonate
(Kelly et al., 2000). Calcretes are, however, impure mixtures of
calcium carbonate and incorporated detrital minerals, resulting
in the same radionuclides being present in both the authigenic
and detrital fractions. Our approach is to use an isochron method
to determine the authigenic radionuclide component and, on the
basis of this, its age (Bischoff and Fitzpatrick, 1991). The sub-
samples are assumed to be mixtures, in different proportions, of
homogeneous detrital and authigenic carbonate end members.
This method has been successfully applied to calcrete dating
from alluvial terraces in the Sorbas basin (Kelly et al., 2000;
Candy et al., 2004).
The samples were cut with a diamond saw in order to remove
the altered parts, then crushed and washed ultrasonically in deion-
ized water. The fragments were checked with a stereoscopic micro-
scope to identify and discard any recrystallized portions. About 20 g
of each subsample were dissolved in an HCl-HNO3-HF mixture, fol-
lowing the standard “total dissolution” method outlined by Bischoff
and Fitzpatrick (1991) and Luo and Ku (1991). After dissolution,
isotopic complexes of uranium and thorium were extracted accord-
ing to the procedure described by Edwards et al. (1987) and alpha-
counted using high-resolution ion implanted Ortec silicon surface
barrier detectors at the Radiochemistry Laboratory of Roma Tre
University (Italy). A standardized 232U-228Th tracer was used as a
yield monitor, and a correction was made for the presence of detrital
228
Th and in-growth of 224Ra. 228Th/232Th equilibrium was checked
on an unspiked subsample. The (230Th/234U) and (234U/238U) activity
ratios of the authigenic fraction were calculated from the slope of a 3-
dimensional isochron fitted to the x-y-z data (238U/232Th, 230Th/232Th,
234
U/232Th) using the method of minimum likelihood estimation,
outlined by Ludwig and Titterington (1994), in which the analytical
data are weighed for analytical errors and error correlations. The
corresponding age was determined from these authigenic fraction
activity ratios using ISOPLOT, a plotting and regression program
for radiogenic isotope data (Ludwig, 2003). The analytical data are
given in Table 1, and the isochron diagrams are shown in Figure
11. The calculated age uncertainties are expressed as 1σ. The prob-
ability that the uncertainty in the age is due to the analytical errors
alone is quantified through the calculation of the mean square of
weighted deviates (MSWD). A high probability (or MSWD < 1;
Fig. 11) indicates that, in this case, the uncertainty regarding the
age is due only to analytical errors rather than to other sources of
geological origin, e.g., subsamples are not coeval or mixture end
members are not homogeneous. The resulting date is 42.6 ± 5.6 ka
(Table 1), which indicates the age of the very top laminar part of the
calcrete and thus gives a minimum time for the cessation of active
sedimentation in the Guadix basin.
234 Azañón et al.

TABLE 1. ANALYTICAL DATA FOR CALCRETE SUBSAMPLES, GUADIX, SPAIN

234 232 238 232 230 232 234 238 230 234
Subsample ( U/ Th) ( U/ Th) ( Th/ Th) ( U/ U)carb ( Th/ U)carb. Age
(ka)
1d 10.005 ± 0.867 8.641 ± 0.753 4.205 ± 0.383
2b 13.492 ± 1.577 10.912 ± 1.281 5.455 ± 0.630 1.358 ± 0.132 0.328 ± 0.036 42.6 ± 5.6
3a 14.647 ± 1.161 12.144 ± 0.971 5.684 ± 0.407
3b 12.229 ± 0.909 9.950 ± 0.748 4.776 ± 0.309
230 234 234 238
Note: Errors are quoted as 1V. ( Th/ U)carb and ( U/ U)carb are referenced to the pure carbonate authigenic
fraction used in the calculation of the age.

INCISION RATES
Estimating incision rates in fluvial environments is not an
easy task due to the difficulties in establishing absolute ages
of reference surfaces. Typically, local-scale, but not regional-
scale, incision rates can be derived, since the processes caus-
ing entrenchment can be very variable throughout catchments
through time and space. In this respect, it must be emphasized
that river incision always progresses headward as a consequence
of increasing stream power, which, in turn, can be due to base-
level lowering and/or profile steeping. Therefore, a single river
can incise at different times along its different reaches, thus prop-
agating an incision wave headward. Moreover, rock resistance
can be quite variable along a river and can also affect local-scale
incision rates.
Taking into account the above drawbacks and using the age
obtained for the calcrete as a reference, we have calculated inci-
sion and erosion rates for the late Pleistocene to present-day time
span in the Guadix basin. These estimated rates can be consid-
ered as minimum values since the surface defined by the calcrete
predates river entrenchment (see next section) and the process
was not coeval throughout the basin, but probably progressed as
an incision wave.
We made calculations for the Arroyo de Gor, a stream with
well-known geomorphologic features. This stream is a 30-km-long
canyon highly incised (up to 200 m) into the Pliocene-Pleistocene
infill (including the capping calcrete layer) of the eastern border of
the Guadix basin (Figs. 2B and 12). This canyon is characterized by
the absence of terrace deposits and by an abundance of large-scale
rotational slides (Azañón et al., 2005). The present-day morphology
of the Arroyo de Gor is the result of a combination of entrenchment,
fracturing, and landsliding. The initial deep entrenchment of the
stream is attributed to the base-level lowering related to the capture
of the former endorheic Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir river in
the late Pleistocene, i.e., after the formation of the calcrete layer at
42 ka. This river incision created a canyon with unstable subvertical
walls, which, due to gravitational instability, give way to vertical
open tension cracks at some distance from the canyon edge. The
rotational slides are thought to have occurred during heavy rains by
a combination of piping, which lengthened the tension cracks, and
infiltration, thus reducing the shear strength along the subhorizontal
lithological contact between conglomerates and underlying clays
(Azañón et al., 2005).
The rock volume remobilized by erosion in the Arroyo de
Gor has been calculated from a digital elevation model (DEM)
with a resolution of 1 pixel per 20 m (Fig. 12). The canyon vol-
ume was estimated with the aid of ArcGis 8.2 by counting the
number of pixels between a top level defined by the flat geo-
morphic surface formed by the calcrete and the topography. The
resulting volume of rock remobilized by erosion in the Arroyo de
Gor is 7972 m3 ha–1. With these data, the estimation of the erosion
rate is 15.62 m3 ha–1 yr–1 or 28 t ha–1 yr–1 (assuming an average
density of 1.8 t/m3 for the sedimentary infilling). Thus, the aver-
age minimum vertical incision rates in this canyon are around 4
mm/yr. Realistically, these average rates probably underestimate
the actual values, since the Arroyo de Gor had almost reached its
present morphology before 6 ka, as indicated by the presence of
dolmens of that age built on the landslide bodies (Azañón et al.,
2005). After the dolmens were built at around 6 ka, the canyon
was 30–50 m into the landslide bodies, which yields a minimum
Holocene vertical incision rate of roughly 5–7 mm/yr. This more
recent rate is naturally higher than the average minimum rate
calculated for the last 42 ka (around 4 mm/yr). Moreover, the
Arroyo de Gor was developed by an initial vertical entrenchment
of ~150 m that must have occurred prior to the large-scale land-
sliding, which, in turn, enlarged the initially very narrow canyon
(Azañón et al., 2005). The age of the initial vertical entrench-
ment is unknown, having occurring sometime between the cap-
ture of the former endorheic Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir
River and the large-scale landsliding, i.e., between 42 and 6 ka.
With these observations in mind, we tentatively hypothesize that
the river capture and the subsequent vertical entrenchment and
landsliding could have occurred in a period between 38 and 28
ka, when several millennial-scale episodes (Is8 to Is3) of higher
mean annual rainfall (up to 900 mm) occurred (Sánchez Goñi et
al., 2002). Assuming that both the vertical entrenchment of 150
m and the large-scale landsliding were completed during this 10
k.y. period, the real rates of vertical incision for that period may
have been as high as 15 mm/yr, i.e., 3–4 times higher than the
average minimum rates.
DISCUSSION
The continental infill in the Guadix basin ended with the
formation of a calcrete layer, which extends some hundreds of
square kilometers and defines a flat elevated surface. Four coeval
carbonate subsamples from the top laminae of the calcrete have
been dated by the U/Th method, yielding an age of 42.6 ± 5.6
ka. This datum is in accordance with other ages obtained on the
uppermost alluvial-lacustrine layers of the Guadix-Baza basin,
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain 235

Figure 12. Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Arroyo de Gor stream. Calculations of volume eroded have been performed on this DEM with
the aid of ArcGis 8.2, using the geomorphic surface defined by the calcrete and the topography of the canyon as reference.

namely, an amino acid racemization age of 280 ka (Ortiz et al.,
2004) and an age of 100 ka estimated for archaeological activity
coeval to the most recent deposits (Botella et al., 1985, 1986,
cited in Calvache and Viseras, 1997). These dates correspond to
stratigraphic levels located below the calcrete layer investigated
here. Therefore, the age of 42.6 ka is a more accurate estima-
tion for the end of the sedimentation in the Guadix basin, since
the calcrete layer is at the very top of the stratigraphic sequence.
The regional extent of the calcrete and the lack of any observable
relationship between lateral facies variation within the calcrete
and the present-day stream distribution prove that the present-
day drainage pattern formed later than calcrete formation, i.e.,
later than final sedimentation in the Guadix basin. Moreover, the
Pliocene-Pleistocene sedimentary facies distribution shows that
there is no spatial coincidence between present-day streams and
Pliocene-Pleistocene paleorivers.
The petrographic features and the stable isotope geochem-
istry of the calcrete indicate a pedogenic origin under a semi-
arid climate in which vegetation was sparse and dominated by
bushes and shrubs. Variations in humidity and vegetation cover
are indicated by changes in both micromorphology and isotopic
composition in the top laminar calcrete. In general, the better-
laminated zones that include more alveolar features are the iso-
topically lighter, both in carbon and oxygen, whereas the more
massive zones are the heaviest. The results of the stable isotope
study enable us to propose that during the initial stages of laminar
calcrete formation, the climate was cooler than it is today, and
aridity increased upward, when the sedimentation was ending.
Some inferences can be made by considering the age
obtained for the calcrete (42.6 ± 5.6 ka) in conjunction with the
paleoclimatic conditions deduced from its petrographic and sta-
ble isotope geochemical features. In this regard, calcrete forma-
tion approximately coincides with the H5 and H4 Heinrich events
(Dansgaard et al., 1993), which correspond to millennial-scale
variations in atmospheric temperatures over Greenland. These
events have been identified in the recent stratigraphic record of
the Alboran Sea and have been related to sharp changes in sur-
face water temperature (Pérez-Folgado et al., 2003), as well as to
rapid vegetation shifts in Southern Iberia (Sánchez Goñi et al.,
2002). According to these authors, H5 and H4 were characterized
by a very arid climate with an average annual rainfall of ~300
mm and average winter temperatures 10 ºC cooler than present
236 Azañón et al.
day. We hypothesize that calcrete formation in the Guadix basin
occurred during these extremely dry and cold climatic periods.
Calcretes have been used as a basis for establishing relative
landform chronologies in Quaternary alluvial sequences of the
eastern Betic Cordillera (Harvey et al., 1995, 1999; Kelly et al.,
2000). These chronologies, in turn, have been used to determine
the rates of operation of geomorphic processes over the Qua-
ternary period. However, a detailed calcrete micromorphologi-
cal analysis must be carried out before using calcrete layers as
chronomorphologic gauges (Candy et al., 2003). Particularly,
Candy et al. (2003) highlighted that the pedogenic- or groundwa-
ter-linked character of the calcretes is of paramount importance
for the geomorphic analysis. In this respect, the age derived for
a typical pedogenic calcrete, such as the top layer of the Guadix
basin, marks the end of the continental infill, when the basin was
still endorheic and the present-day drainage pattern had not yet
developed. In contrast, a groundwater calcrete would be much
more ambiguous in terms of sedimentologic and geomorphic sig-
nificance, because its formation would be related either to the final
sedimentation or to the subsequent development of the present-
day drainage pattern. Therefore, the calcrete layer studied here
constrains both the age of the capture of the former endorheic
Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir River and the minimal values
of incision rates in this area.
Using the age of the calcrete as a reference, we have calcu-
lated minimum incision and erosion rates for the late Pleistocene
to present-day time span in the Guadix basin. In fact, estimations
were performed for a canyon-shaped stream (the Arroyo de Gor)
with well-known geomorphic features. The significance of the
resulting incision rates, particularly whether they represent local
(one single stream) or regional (the whole basin) values, must be
discussed according to the geomorphic features of the Guadix
basin. In this regard, we first highlight the homogeneous river
incision throughout the Guadix basin, i.e., both the Fardes River
and the Arroyo de Gor canyon have been incised to approxi-
mately the same depth in the flat surface defined by the calcrete.
Nevertheless, the Fardes River attests to a more complicated evo-
lution, including the formation of several terrace levels and a very
intense lateral erosion with development of a badland landscape.
Furthermore, the 30-km-long Arroyo de Gor itself, which repre-
sents half the length of the Guadix basin, is incised into a bedrock
with homogeneous resistance and lacks important gradient varia-
tions. Thus, despite the fact that river incision would progress as
a headward wave along the Arroyo the Gor, the values obtained,
always considered minimums and subject to several uncertain-
ties, can be viewed reasonably as regional-scale incision rates.
Average minimum incision rates in the Arroyo de Gor
stream are around 4 mm/yr. These values are relatively high (up
to ten times higher) compared to available Pleistocene-Holocene
incision rates, also minimum values, obtained in other Neogene-
Quaternary basins of the Betic Cordillera: 0.1–0.4 mm/yr in the
Sorbas basin (Mather and Harvey, 1995; Kelly et al., 2000), 0.3–
0.7 mm/yr in the Alpujarra Corridor (García et al., 2004), and
0.1–0.7 mm/yr in the Granada basin (Martín-Martín et al., 2001).
A number of factors, such as lithologies, stream piracy, climate,
topography, and tectonics, can be invoked as being responsible
for the high incision rates in the Guadix basin. A closer compari-
son with the other basins reduces these factors to three, namely,
stream piracy, topography, and tectonics, since the lithologies
and the climate are quite homogeneous in all the Neogene-Qua-
ternary basins of the Betic Cordillera. Stream piracy, via the cap-
ture of a former endorheic basin by a river with a lower base
level, namely sea level, can be assumed to have occurred dur-
ing the Quaternary in all of the aforementioned basins. The tim-
ing of the capture, as well as the site where it took place, would
notably influence the local-scale incision rates and the upstream
progression of the incision wave. Nevertheless, drawing on the
quite similar erosive state of these basins, one can reasonably
consider that the late Quaternary incision waves have progressed
headward comparably in all of them, reaching the surrounding
mountain areas. Thus, at first glance, the high incision rates in
the Guadix basin are probably related to the high average altitude
(around 1000 m). This, in addition to the poorly indurated lithol-
ogies, would facilitate fast incision of the rivers during episodic
heavy rains. In contrast, the Sorbas basin and the Alpujarra Cor-
ridor (Fig. 2A) have an average altitude of less than 400 m, which
accounts for the low estimated incision rates. In the case of the
Granada basin (Fig. 2A), which has an average altitude around
600 m, one would expect intermediate incision rates. The reason
for the low values (quite similar to the ones of the Sorbas basin
and the Alpujarra Corridor) cannot be justified solely on the basis
of the difference in altitude between the Guadix and the Granada
basins (see following discussion).
Several issues must be discussed in regard to the possible
contribution of tectonic activity to the high incision rates. First
of all, the incision rates estimated for the Guadix basin are one
or two orders of magnitude higher than the long-term regional
uplift rates (0.02–0.3 mm/yr), calculated from the ages of
marine deposits (Braga et al., 2003; Silva et al., 2003; Booth-
Rea et al., 2004; Sanz de Galdeano and Alfaro, 2004). In the
case of the Guadix basin, an uplift rate of 0.15 mm/yr, corre-
sponding to the late Tortonian to present-day period, can be
estimated according to the altitude of shallow-marine deposits
of that age preserved at its southern border. The absence of
marine deposits younger than the late Tortonian precludes the
estimation of uplift rates for shorter time spans. Nevertheless,
drawing on geological and seismological evidence, the possi-
bility of very high uplift rates for the late Pleistocene to Holo-
cene period can be reasonably discarded. In this respect, two
salient aspects must be emphasized: (1) no faults with Pleisto-
cene-Holocene activity are observed to affect the infill of the
Guadix basin or its borders, and (2) both present-day and his-
torical seismicity is concentrated to the south (Granada basin,
Alpujarra Corridor) and east (Lorca basin, Fig. 1) of the Gua-
dix basin (Morales et al., 1999; Mancilla et al., 2002; Muñoz et
al., 2002; Serrano et al., 2002). Therefore, it can be concluded
that the high late Pleistocene to Holocene incision rates in the
Guadix basin do not represent a response to an accelerated
 Calcrete features and age estimates in southeast Spain
tectonic activity during the Quaternary. Nevertheless, the high
average altitude of the Guadix basin is probably related to
large-scale long-term isostatic uplift after the pre-Miocene
crustal thickening in the Betic Cordillera. Interestingly, the
only sector of the Betic Cordillera with a present-day crustal
thickness exceeding 35 km is the Guadix basin and the Sierra
Nevada (Banda et al., 1993). Therefore, we suggest that sus-
tained isostatic uplift may be responsible for maintaining the
high average altitude of the Guadix basin, while also facilitat-
ing the estimated high incision rates.
We have argued before that the differences in elevation
do not seem great enough to account for the considerably dif-
ferent Pleistocene-Holocene incision rates. At a greater scale,
some differences in the tectonic activity could be the main rea-
son for the different incision rates between the Guadix and the
Granada basin. The Granada basin is bounded to the east by
the western Sierra Nevada mountain front, which is thought to
be one of the main active areas in all of the Betic Cordillera.
This mountain front is marked by NW-SE–oriented, SW-dip-
ping normal faults with Quaternary activity and present-day
seismicity (Sanz de Galdeano et al., 2003; Azañón et al., 2004).
The Granada basin is located in the hanging wall of this active
normal-fault system; thus, it is undergoing Quaternary tectonic
subsidence, which would preclude high rates of river incision.
In contrast, the Guadix basin, together with the whole Sierra
Nevada, constitutes a single block located in the footwall of
this active normal-fault system, and thus it is subjected to tec-
tonic and/or isostatic uplift.
CONCLUSIONS
The Guadix basin is a very special landscape when com-
pared with other Neogene-Quaternary basins in the Betic Cor-
dillera. It represents an elevated plateau strongly incised by
the drainage pattern. Moreover, this landscape seems to be the
result of a very fast incision process of the main rivers dissect-
ing the geomorphic surface marked by the 42 ka calcrete layer.
We envisage the capture of the Pliocene-Pleistocene endorheic
Guadix basin by the Guadalquivir River during the late Pleis-
tocene as the starting point for the formation of this landscape.
This capture was probably a climatically driven process that
must have occurred under wetter (and also possibly warmer)
conditions than the present-day semiarid climate. Sánchez
Goñi et al. (2002) described several millennial-scale episodes
(Is8 to Is3) between 38 and 28 ka with a mean annual rain-
fall up to 900 mm during which the basin capture could have
occurred. Undoubtedly, the capture process was facilitated
by the high average altitude of the Guadix basin. Thus, the
capture can be considered as an isostatically assisted process,
since the high elevation of the Guadix basin seems to be in
part the result of long-term large-scale isostatic uplift. After
the capture, the combination of climatic, lithological, and topo-
graphic features would have facilitated the development of the
present-day entrenched drainage pattern.
237
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research reported in this work has been financed by the
Spanish Ministry of Education with Fondos Europeos de Desar-
rollo Regional funds of the European Union, through grants num-
bers REN2001-3378, CGL2004-03333/BTE, and CGL2004-
04342/BTE. Comments and suggestions by Pablo Silva and an
anonymous reviewer are kindly acknowledged. We thank Fran-
cisco Gonzálvez García for reviewing our English text.
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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 17 MAY 2006
Printed in the USA
 Contents
Preface
Ancient Landscapes, Climate and Sequence Boundaries
1. Calcic pedocomplexes-Regional sequence boundary
indicators in Tertiary deposits of the Great Plains
and western United States
D.L. Hanneman and C.J. Wideman
2. A Late Triassic soil catena: Landscape and climate
controls on paleosol morphology and chemistry
across the Carnian-age /schigua/asto-Vil/a Union basin,
northwestern Argentina
N.J. Tabor, I.P. Montanez, K.A. Kelso, B. Currie, T. Shipma n,
and C. Colombi
3. Investigating paleosol completeness and preservation in
mid-Paleozoic alluvial paleosols: A case study in paleosol
taphonomy from the Lower Old Red Sandstone
S.B. Marriott and V.P. Wright
4. Calcareous paleosols of the Upper Triassic Chinle Group,
Four Corners region, southwestern United States:
Climatic implications
L.H. Tanner and S.G. Lucas
5. Estimates of atmospheric C02 levels during the
mid-Turonian derived from stable isotope composition
of paleosol calcite from Israel
A. Sandier
6. Pedogenic carbonate distribution within glacial till
in Taylor Valley, Southern Victoria Land, Antarctica
K.K. Fol ey, W.B . Lyons, J.E. Barrett, and R.A. Virgin ia
Sedimentary Environments and Facies
7. Calcretes, oncolites, and lacustrine limestones in
Upper Oligocene alluvial fans of the Montgat area
(Catalan Coastal Ranges, Spain)
D. Parc erisa, D. Gom ez-Gras, and J.D. Martfn -Martfn
8. The role of clastic sediment influx in the formation of
calcrete and palustrine facies: A response to paleographic
and climatic conditions in the southeastern Tertiary Ouero
basin (northern Spain)
I. Arm enteros and P. Huerta
~THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
. OF AMERICA
3300 Penrose Pl ace • P.O. Box 9140 • Bould er, CO 80301 -9140, US A
9. The Upper Triassic crenogenic limestones
in Upper Si/esia (southern Poland) and their
paleoenvironmental context
J. Szulc, M. Gradzifl ski, A. Lewandowska, and C. Heu nisch
10. A recent analogue for palustrine carbonate environments:
The Quaternary deposits of Las Tab/as de Oaimie/
wetlands, Ciudad Real, Spain
A.M. Alonso-Za rza, M. Dorado-Valifi o,
A. Valdeo lmillos-Rodrfguez, an d M. Blan ca Ruiz-Zapata
11. Depositional conditions of carbonate-dominated palustrine
sedimentation around the K-T boundary (Facies Rognacien,
northeastern Pyrenean foreland, southwestern France)
D. Marty and C.A. Meyer
12. ReworkedMicrocodium calcarenites interbedded in
pelagic sedimentary rocks (Paleocene, Subbetic,
southern Spain): Paleoenvironmental reconstruction
J.M . Molina, J.A. Vera, and R. Aguad o
Dating of Calcretes: Applications
13. Calcite cement stratigraphy of a nonpedogenic calcrete
in the Triassic New Haven Arkose (Newark Supergroup)
E.T. Rasbury, E. H. Gierlowski-Kordesch, J. M. Cole,
C. Sookdeo, G. Spat aro, an d J. Nienst edt
14. Calcrete features and age estimates from U/Th dating:
Implications for the analysis of Quaternary erosion rates
in the northern limb ofthe Sierra Nevada range (Betic
Cordillera, southeast Spain)
J.M . Azafi6n, P. Tucc ime i, A. Azo r, I.M. Sanchez-Aimazo,
A.M. Alon so-Zarza, M. Solig o, an d J.V. Perez- Pefia
ISBN-100-8137-2416-3
ISBN-13978-0-81 37-2416-4