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En Metalwork Formulas and Tables Metal
En Metalwork Formulas and Tables Metal
Table of Contents
Textbook for Vocational Training − Formulas and Tables Metal..................................................................1
Preface...................................................................................................................................................1
1. Mathematics.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Mathematical symbols...............................................................................................................2
1.2. Greek alphabet..........................................................................................................................3
1.3. Rounding off numbers...............................................................................................................4
1.4. Basic arithmetical operations....................................................................................................5
1.5. Calculation of plane faces.........................................................................................................8
1.6. Calculation of bodies...............................................................................................................11
1.7. Preferred numbers..................................................................................................................13
2. Physics, mechanics..........................................................................................................................14
2.1. Physico−technical quantities...................................................................................................14
2.2. Quantities and their admissible units......................................................................................15
2.3. Transformation of forces.........................................................................................................22
2.4. Translation and rotation..........................................................................................................26
2.5. Friction coefficients.................................................................................................................27
2.6. Mass moments of inertia.........................................................................................................27
2.7. Stress and strain.....................................................................................................................27
2.8. Deformation in the case of bending stress..............................................................................30
2.9. Areal moments of inertia, moments of resistance...................................................................31
2.10. Moduli of elasticity.................................................................................................................33
2.11. Admissible strains (reference values)...................................................................................34
3. Technical drawing.............................................................................................................................34
3.1. Types of drawing.....................................................................................................................34
3.2. Sizes of drawings....................................................................................................................36
3.3. Subdivision of the sheet..........................................................................................................36
3.4. Lines........................................................................................................................................36
3.5. Lettering..................................................................................................................................38
3.6. Scales.....................................................................................................................................39
3.7. Rectangular project ion...........................................................................................................40
3.8. Figuring...................................................................................................................................42
3.9. Working and material characteristics......................................................................................48
3.10. Sectional view.......................................................................................................................49
3.11. Partial and interrupted representation...................................................................................52
3.12. Representation of thread.......................................................................................................53
3.13. Simplified representation of holes and counterbores............................................................54
3.14. Simplified representation of disconnectable connections.....................................................55
4. Metal materials.................................................................................................................................58
4.1. Characteristics........................................................................................................................58
4.2. Subdivision..............................................................................................................................58
4.3. Properties and use of important metals..................................................................................59
4.4. Ferrous materials....................................................................................................................65
4.5. Alloys of non−ferrous metals...................................................................................................75
4.6. Hard metals.............................................................................................................................79
5. Plastics.............................................................................................................................................80
6. Semi−finished products of steel........................................................................................................81
6.1. Bars, strips, sheets..................................................................................................................81
6.2. Standard sections...................................................................................................................85
6.3. Steel pipes for water and gas lines.........................................................................................91
7. Semi−finished products of aluminium and aluminium alloys............................................................92
7.1. Square bars.............................................................................................................................92
7.2. Hexagon bars..........................................................................................................................92
7.3. Round bars..............................................................................................................................93
8. Semi−finished products of copper and copper alloys.......................................................................94
8.1. Square bars.............................................................................................................................94
8.2. Hexagon bars..........................................................................................................................95
8.3. Round bars..............................................................................................................................96
9. Semi−finished products of hard metal..............................................................................................97
9.1. Blanks of sintered metal carbide.............................................................................................98
9.2. Cutting ceramics.....................................................................................................................98
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Table of Contents
Textbook for Vocational Training − Formulas and Tables Metal
10. Semi−finished products of rigid polyvinyl chloride..........................................................................98
10.1. Thin sheets of rigid PVC.......................................................................................................98
10.2. Panels of rigid PVC, standard types.....................................................................................99
11. Semi−finished products of moulded laminate...............................................................................100
11.1. Laminated paper sheets......................................................................................................100
11.2. Laminated fabric sheets......................................................................................................100
12. Plates and sheets of different materials........................................................................................100
13. Wire of different materials.............................................................................................................101
13.1. Steel wire............................................................................................................................101
13.2. Copper or brass wire...........................................................................................................102
14. Types and functions......................................................................................................................103
15. Connecting elements....................................................................................................................103
15.1. Bolts....................................................................................................................................103
15.2. Screws................................................................................................................................106
15.3. Nuts.....................................................................................................................................107
15.4. Washers..............................................................................................................................108
15.5. Securing devices for screws...............................................................................................108
15.6. Pins.....................................................................................................................................109
15.7. Keys....................................................................................................................................110
15.8. Springs................................................................................................................................112
15.9. Rivets..................................................................................................................................115
16. Load−carrying elements...............................................................................................................116
16.1. Elastic springs.....................................................................................................................116
16.2. Bearings..............................................................................................................................117
17. Transmission elements.................................................................................................................123
17.1. Shafts..................................................................................................................................123
17.2. Toothed gears.....................................................................................................................129
18. Subdivision of test procedures......................................................................................................133
18.1. Non−dimensional testing.....................................................................................................133
18.2. Dimensional testing.............................................................................................................135
19. Fitting systems..............................................................................................................................145
19.1. Types of fits.........................................................................................................................145
19.2. Systems of fits, basic hole, basic shaft...............................................................................146
19.3. Examples of fits...................................................................................................................148
20. Scribing.........................................................................................................................................152
20.1. Types of scribing.................................................................................................................152
20.2. Notes on scribing................................................................................................................155
21. Fundamental forming by casting...................................................................................................157
21.1. Shrinkage measures...........................................................................................................157
21.2. Machining allowances for castings......................................................................................158
22. Forming.........................................................................................................................................159
22.1. Mechanical bevelling...........................................................................................................159
22.2. Bending...............................................................................................................................160
22.3. Forging................................................................................................................................161
23. Separating....................................................................................................................................162
23.1. Chiseling.............................................................................................................................162
23.2. Shearing..............................................................................................................................166
23.3. Sawing................................................................................................................................168
23.4. Filing....................................................................................................................................170
23.5. Flame cutting.......................................................................................................................171
23.6. Drilling.................................................................................................................................172
23.7. Countersinking....................................................................................................................175
23.8. Reaming..............................................................................................................................179
23.9. Thread cutting.....................................................................................................................180
23.10. Turning..............................................................................................................................183
23.11. Milling................................................................................................................................188
23.12. Planing, slotting.................................................................................................................192
23.13. Broaching..........................................................................................................................196
23.14. Grinding.............................................................................................................................196
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Table of Contents
Textbook for Vocational Training − Formulas and Tables Metal
23.15. General data on cutting.....................................................................................................200
24. Joining..........................................................................................................................................203
24.1. Screw joints.........................................................................................................................203
24.2. Welded joints.......................................................................................................................210
24.3. Riveted joints.......................................................................................................................215
24.4. Soldered joints....................................................................................................................221
25. Changing of material properties....................................................................................................224
25.1. Annealing of steel................................................................................................................224
25.2. Hardening of steel...............................................................................................................226
25.3. Tempering and hardening with subsequent drawing of steel..............................................230
iii
iv
Textbook for Vocational Training − Formulas and Tables Metal
CRYSTAL
Educational Aids
Literature, Consulting
Moyens didactiques,
Informations, Service−conseil
Material didáctico,
Informaciones, Asesoría
Original title:
“Formeln und Tabellen − Metall”
Horst Thulke
Second edition © IBE
Preface
This book of tables concentrates on the fields of the metal−working industry and the metal trade. The book is
intended as a proper reference book, both for trainees and as an aid to practical work by craftsmen. Important
mathematical, physical and technical fundamentals and essential specific technical concepts, work tables,
work rules, etc., are given in the clear and concise manner characteristic of a book of tables.
This book has been elaborated on the basis of advanced knowledge and findings contained in the vocational
training.
1. Mathematics
1
1.1. Mathematical symbols
Symbol Explanation
... to
e.g.: k = 1, 2, ..., n
= equal to
identically equal to
~ proportional, similar
corresponds to
+ plus
− minus
.,x times
|| parallel
not parallel
triangle
E congruent
angle
2
line AB
arc AB
z amount of z
arc z arc z
n! factorial n
? sum
? product
f(x) f of x
? infinite
tan tangent or
A ? Alpha A, a
B ? Beta B, b
? ? Gamma G, g
? ? Delta D, d
E ? Epsilon E, e
Z ? Zeta Z, z
H ? Eta E, e
3
? ? Theta Th, th
I ? Jota I, i
K ? Kappa K, k
? ? Lambda L, l
M ? My M, m
N ? Ny N, n
? ? Xi X, x
O ? Omikron O, o
? ? Pi P, p
? ? Sigma S, s
T ? Tau T, t
Y ? Ypsilon Y, y
? ? Phi Ph, ph
X ? Chi Ch, ch
? ? Psi Ps, ps
? ? Omega O, o
In technology, letters of the Greek Alphabet are frequently used as symbols of physical quantities; e.g. ?, ?, ?
for angle quantities; ? for efficiency; ? as the unit symbol for electrical resistance. (See Section 2.1.).
When rounding off numbers, one or more figures at the end of a number are substituted by zeros. The figure
immediately to the left is either retained (rounding down) or increased by 1 (rounding up).
? 3.0123
? 3.012
? 3.01
? 3.0 ? 3
? 4.679
? 4.68
? 4.7 ? 5
Rounding off If the last figure to be given is followed by at least one number which differs 5.153 ?
5 from 0 after a 5, the last figure is increased by 1. 5.2
If the last figure to be given is followed by a 5 which is known to have been
obtained by rounding off,
4
rounding down is done if the 5 was rounded up and 7.4149
? 7.415
? 7.41
? 8.475
? 8.48
? 0.12
? 0.38
1.4.1. Designations
(Inversion of multiplication)
Designation Operation
a − 0 = a; 0 − a = −a
a: 0 (not explained);
a: 1 = a; 0: a = 0
5
1.4.3. Laws of addition and multiplication
Addition Multiplication
Commutation laws
a+b=b+a a·b=b·a
13 + 3 = 3 + 13 13 · 3 = 3 · 13
Association laws
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c
3 + (5 + 2) = (3 + 5) + 2 3 · (5 · 2) = (3 · 5) · 2
3+7=8+2 3 · 10 = 15 · 2
Distribution law
a · (b + c) = ab + ac
3 · (5 + 2) = 3 · 5 + 3 · 2
3 · 7 = 15 + 6
Operation Rule
Addition a + (b + c) = a + b + c;
a + (b − c) = a + b − c
Subtraction a − (b + c) = a − b − c;
a − (b − c) = a − b + c
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd;
(a + b)(c − d) = ac − ad + bc − bd
(a − b)(c + d) = ac + ad − bc − bd;
(a − b)(c − d) = ac − ad − bc + bd
Binomial formulae
(a + b) (a − b) = a2 − b2
Division
Definition
6
an = c (a ? 0)
In the case of natural exponents, raising to a power can be explained as the repeated multiplication of the
same factors:
Laws
1 0
a = a; a = 1; (a ? 0); (a ? 0)
am · an = am+n; am · bm = (ab)m
m n m·n
; (a ) = a
Roots
Definition
The nth root from radicand b is equal to that non−negative value a which results in b when raised to the power
n:
(b ? 0; n natural)
Laws
(n natural); (n natural)
(not explained)
Logarithms
Definition
7
The logarithm of b to base a is the number c which must be used for raising to a power in order to obtain b:
Laws
loga 1 ? 0 (a ? 1; positive)
loga bn = n · loga b
u=a+b+c
General triangle
Equilateral triangle
Altitude theorem: h2 = p ·
Euclidean theorem: a2 =
b2 = q · c
Pythagoras theorem; a2 +
= c2
Right−angled triangle
8
A = a2
u = 4a
Square
A=a·b
u = 2a + 2b
Rectangle
A=g·h
u = 2g + 2a
Parallelogram
u=a+b+c+d
Trapezoid
9
u = 2? · r = ? · d
Circle
Circular ring
u = b + 2r
Ellipse
10
1.6. Calculation of bodies
V = a3
A0 = 6a2
Cube
V=a·b·c
A0 = 2 · (ab + ac + bc)
Cuboid
Pyramid
11
Cylinder
V = ? · h · (R2 − r2)
Hollow cylinder
A0 = ? · r · (r + s)
Cone
12
A0 = 4? · r2 = ? · d2
Sphere
R5 R 10 R 20 R 40 R5 R 10 R 20 R
40
1.06 4.25
1.18 4.75
1.32 5.30
1.50 6.00
1.70 6.70
1.90 7.50
2.12 8.50
2.36 9.50
2.65
2.80 2.80
3.00
3.35
3.55 3.55
3.75
13
2. Physics, mechanics
Example:
3.500 · mm =1
Basic units of SI Basic units are defined units which are chosen independently of Metre for length
one another and form the basis of the international system of units Kilogramme for
(Système International d’Unités, abbreviated “SI” in all languages) weight
Second for time;
Ampère for
current intensity;
Kelvin for
temperature;
Mol for amount of
substance;
Candela for
luminous intensity
Derived SI units Derived SI units are all units formed as a power product with the 1 N = 1m · kg · s−2
numerical factor 1 from the basic of the SI 1 Pa = 1N · m−2
Supplementary SI The supplementary SI units should be used like basic units of the Radian for plane
units SI if physical circumstances require it angle;
Steradian for solid
angle;
Units extraneous Units extraneous to SI do not belong to the SI and are units whose
to SI relation to the SI units contains a numerical factor which differs
from one.
Units extraneous These are admissible units which are extraneous to the SI:
to the SI
2.1.2. SI prefixes
SI prefixes are used for forming decimal multiples and parts of SI units and units extraneous to the SI (if not
expressly omitted).
14
Examples: 1 mm = 10−3 m
1 MN = 106 N
Deca da 10 (101)
Area A SI unit
A = l2 Square metre m2
1 m2 = 1 m · 1 m
Other customary units
Square centimetre cm2
1 cm2 = 10−2 m · 10−2 m
100,000 cm2 = 1 m2
Square millimetre
1 mm2 = 10−3 m · 10−3 m
1,000,000 mm2 = 1 m2
10,000 mm2 = 1 cm2
Volume V SI unit
V = l3 Cubic metre m3
1 m3 = 1 m · 1 m · 1 m
Other customary units
Cubic millimetre mm3
15
1 mm3 = 10−3 m · 10−3 m · 10−3 m
1,000,000,000 mm3 = 1 m3
Millilitre ml
1 ml = 10−9 m3
1 ml = 1 mm3
Litre l
1 l = 10−3 m3
1 l = 1,000 ml
Hectolitre hl
1 hl = 10−1 m3
1 hl = 100 l
1° = 60’ = 3600”
Minute ‘
60’ = 1°
Second “
60” = 1’
Frequency f SI unit
Hertz Hz
1 Hz = 1/s = 1 s−1
Other customary units
Kilohertz kHz
1 kHz = 103 Hz
Megahertz MHz
1 MHz = 106 Hz
Velocity v SI unit
Metre per second m/s
Other customary units
Kilometre per hour km/h
1 km/h = 0.2778 m/s
Cutting speed
Metre per minute m/min
v=?·d·n
1 m/min = 1.667 · 10−2 m/s
16
Acceleration a SI unit
Metre per square second m/s2
SI unit
Volumetric rate of flow (volume flow, volume throughput) Cubic metre per second m3/s
Other customary units
Cubic metre per hour m3/h
Litre per minute l/min
2.2.2. Mechanics
Megagramme Mg
1 Mg = 106 g = 103 kg
Decitonne dt 1 dt = 102 kg
Tonne t 1 t = 103 kg
Megatonne Mt 1 Mt = 109 kg
Density ? SI unit
Kilogramme per cubic metre kg/m3
Other customary units
Kilogramme per cubic decimetre kg/dm3
1 kg/dm3 = 103 kg/m3
Gramme per cubic centimetre g/cm3
1 g/cm3 = 103 kg/m3
Force F SI unit
Mechanical F = m · a Newton N 1 N = 1 m · kg · 3−2
Weight force Other customary units
F=m·g Kilonewton kN 1 kN = 103 N
Electrical Meganewton MN 1 MN = 106 N
F=E·Q
17
Pressure SI unit
Pascal Pa
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 1 m−1 · kg · s−2
Other customary units
Mechanical stress
Kilopascal kPa 1 kPa = 103 Pa
Megapascal MPa 1 MPa = 106 Pa
Bar bar 1 bar = 105 Pa
Millibar mbar 1 mbar = 102 Pa
Kilobar kbar 1 kbar = 108 Pa
Work W, A SI unit
Mechanical work Joule J
Watt second Ws
1J=1W·s=1N·m
W=F·s Other customary units
Electrical work Kilojoule kJ 1 kJ = 103 J
W=I·U·t Megajoule MJ 1 MJ = 106 J
Gigajoule GJ 1 GJ = 109 J
Terajoule TJ 1 TJ = 1012 J
Heat quantity W, R
Q = m · c · ?T
Power P SI unit
Mechanical power Watt W
1 W = 1 J/s
Other customary units
Milliwatt mW 1 mW = 10−3 W
Kilowatt kW 1 kW = 103 W
Electrical power
Megawatt MW 1 MW = 106 W
Heat output
18
Kiloampère kA
1 kA = 103 A
Voltage U SI unit
Volt V 1 V = 1 W/A
Other customary units
Millivolt mV 1 mV = 10−3 V
Kilovolt kV 1 kV = 103 V
Megavolt MV 1 MV = 106 V
19
Electric conductivity SI unit
Siemens per metre S/m
1 S/m = 1/(? · m)
Inductance H SI unit
Henry H 1 H = 1 Wb/A
Other customary units
Picohenry pH 1 pH = 10−12 H
Nanohenry nH 1 nH = 10−9 H
Millihenry mH 1 mH = 10−3 H
2.2.4. Heat
20
Micromol ?mol
1 ?mol = 10−6 mol
Millimol mmol
1 mmol = 10−3 mol
Kilomol kmol
1 kmol = 103 mol
Luminance LV SI unit
Candela per square metre cd/m2
Other customary units
Candela per square centimetre cd/cm2
1 cd/cm2 = 104 cd/m2
Illumination EV SI unit
Lux lx 1 lx = 1 lm/m2
Other customary units
Millilux mlx 1 mlx = 10−3 lx
21
Kilolux klx 1 klx = 103 lx
Designation Equilibrium
Parallelogram of forces
F has the same effect as F1 and
F1 · l1 = F2 · l2
FH = FG. sin ?
FN = FG. cos ?
FH · l = FG · h
FN · l = FG · g
FH = force at the slope
FN = normal force
FG = weight
22
Inclined plane
Two−sided wedge−shape
ME driving−in moment
FSp interior force in the core
FH force at the lever (e.g. hand forc
FE driving−in force
l vertical distance from the axis of t
r2 flank radius
p pitch
23
Thread with vertical flanks
F1 = F2
s1 = s2
F1 · S1 = F2 · S2
Fixed pulley
s1 = 2 · s2
Loose pulley
24
Shaft with pulleys
s1 = n · s2
n Number of carrying cables
Pulley block
;
Fu Peripheral force
Vu Peripheral velocity
Belt drive
25
A piston area
p pressure in the medium
Hydraulic systems
Translation Rotation
Peripheral velocity
vu = ? · r = 2 · ? · r · n
Angle
Path
Tangential acceleration
Free fall at = ? · r
Radial acceleration
(g = 9.81 m/s2)
Total acceleration
26
Kinetic energy
Body Equation
I = axis of rotation
Cylinder
I = axis of rotation
Hollow cylinder
27
1 bar axis
Tension
1 bar axis
Pressure
28
A=d·l
Mb bending moment
Ja axial areal moment of intertia
Y distance from the neutral layer
Wa axial moment of resistance
1 line of cut, 2 pressure, 3 tension, 4
neutral layer
Bending
Mt torsional moment
Jp polar areal moment of inertia
? distance from the centre of the
cross−sectional area
Wp polar moment of resistance
29
1 line of cut
Torsion (distortion)
1 plane of shear
Shear
Hooke’s law
?=E·?
? = elastic strain
E = modulus of elasticity
l1 = length before loading
l2 = length after loading
Stress
30
Bearing reactions
Deflection
31
Figure Polar areal moment of resistance Moment of resistance
32
2.10. Moduli of elasticity
33
Lead 15...18 Silver 70...80
II 50 50 40 50
III − 40 30 40
Cast iron I 90 30 30 −
II 55 13 18 −
III − 18 15 −
Nickel steel I − 75 75 80
II 65 60 60 60
III − 45 45 45
Wrought steel I 90 90 75 90
II 60 60 50 60
III − 30 25 30
II 75 50 45 55
III − 40 35 47
Tool steel
I dead; II increasing; III varying
3. Technical drawing
34
Total drawing Assembly, machine,
building, plant ready
for operation
Erlenmeyer flask; the letters show that it can be manufactured in different sizes
35
3.2. Sizes of drawings
3.4. Lines
36
Broad solid line
Dashed line
Dash−dot−dot−line
The group of lines with the bradest lines which are practical with regard to size, type and purpose of the
drawing should be used on a drawing. The breadths of lines specified for the individual types of lines within a
group should be observed as far as possible.
The different breadths of lines within a group of lines facilitate reading of the drawing.
1 broad solid line visible edges of bodies characteristic lines of internal threads
(e.g. 0.5 mm)
37
3.5. Lettering
For lettering technical drawings, standardized vertical medium−spaced lettering is being used increasingly.
38
3.6. Scales
− − 2:1
39
Diagram for selected scales
I Picture size
II Natural size
40
Perspective representation
1 Front view
2 Left−hand view
3 Right−hand view
4 Top plan view
5 Bottom view
6 Rear−side view
front views, top−plan views and lateral views are most frequently shown.
41
3.8. Figuring
Depending on its purpose, the drawing contains the figuring corresponding to the final state valid for the
workpiece. The following are used for figuring: dimension lines, reference lines, arrowheads, dimension
figures. The following aspects in particular are decisive for figuring:
− The drawing should contain all dimensions required for the manufacturing of the workpiece
− Dimensions which are checked particularly well by the customer should be marked
− Figuring is done in millimetres, otherwiese the units should be entered after the dimension
figure
Elements of figuring
M1 dimension figure
M2 dimension line
M3 arrowhead
M4 reference line
The dimension figures must be able to be read from below or from the right.
42
Arrangement of dimension figures and arrowheads
Figuring between
Diameter symbol
43
Symbol for circular cross
sections entered before the
dimension figure
Square symbol
Diagonal cross
Radius symbol R
44
Symbol for roundings, entered
before the dimension figure
Axis − area
Area − area
Two areas at right angles to each other are decisive for for symmetrical parts supported on one surface
function
Dimensional reference system
45
Axis − axis
for parts with which bores are principally decisive for function, no bearing surfaces existing (castings)
46
Symmetrical parts
External dimension
47
Internal dimension
Spacing dimension
Angular dimension
48
Example of figuring
Liquids Earth
Use Representation
49
Full section
Half section
50
Part section
51
3.11. Partial and interrupted representation
Type Examples
Partial representation
52
Partial representation
Interrupted representation
External thread
1 Thread symbol line
53
Internal thread
1 Thread symbol line
Type Representation
Tapped through
hole (thread symbol
and numerical
value are indicated)
Holes with
tolerances
(Tolerances to be
indicated after the
dimension)
54
Counterbores;
conical or
cylindrical
(Diameter and
angle of cone or
diameter and depth
to be indicated after
the dimension)
Cross−slotted screw
with fillister head
Screw with
countersunk fillister
head and transverse
slot
55
Plain pin
Taper pin
Hexagon nut
Washer
Spring washer
56
Screw joint with cheese−head screw
57
4. Metal materials
4.1. Characteristics
Characteristics of metals
Crystalline structure;
Metallic lustre;
Solid (crystalline) state at room temperature and normal pressures (with the exception of mercury)
4.2. Subdivision
58
according to melting point low melting high−melting very high−melting
(ts 900°C) (ts 900...2000°C) (ts 2000 °C)
lithium silver molybdenum
tin copper tantalum
lead iron tungsten
Use
Use
59
Bright, white; easily soluble in nitric acid, vapours
and soluble salts are toxic; soft, well formed by
hammering, rolling, drawing
Use
Use
Use
Use
60
rolling, drawing, forging, hammering
Use
Use
Use
Use
61
Silver white, steel−grey if containing carbon; easily
soluble in diluted acids, has a deoxidizing effect in
steel and casting melts; very hard, brittle
Use
Use
Use
Use
62
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
63
Cu; important tin alloys; tin solders, tin bearing
metals
Use
Use
Use
Use
64
4.4. Ferrous materials
4.4.1. Terms
Term Explanation
0.8 % Mn
0.5 % Si
0.25 % Cu
0.1 % Al or Ti
0.1 % P and S together
Low−alloy steel
alloying elements
<5%
High−alloy steel
alloying elements
>5%
65
Cast steel tough, forgeable, strong
steel for highly stressed
castings, cast into
moulds
C = 2.8 − 3.5 %
Si ? 3.8 %
Mn ? 1.2 %
P ? 1.0 %
S ? 0.15 %
not forgeable, great
rigidity and damping
property
C = 2.06 − 3 %
Si = 0.4 − 1.2 %
Mn = 0.8 − 1.3 %
4.4.2. Steel
Elements of symbols
Symbol Meaning
X high−alloy steel
E electric steel
M open−hearth steel
66
T Thomas steel
2 Grade 2, type of melting either according to the open−hearth process, the Ld process or
the improved Bessemer process
u Cast unkilled, gas formation during casting results in voids in the material
hb Cast semi−killed
b Cast killed, gas formation is prevented by the addition of metals (e.g. aluminium)
Heat treatment condition
100 C, Ce, N, P, S
Scope of guarantee in the case of cast steel
Symbol Meaning
.1 Yield point
.9 Magnetic induction
Examples of designation
Examples:
St 38 u − 2
MSt 42 − 3
67
Meaning:
St 38 u− 2
General structural steel Minimum tensile strength 380 Mpa unkilled Grade 2
M St 42 − 3
Open−hearth Steel structural steel minimum tensile strength 420 MPa Grade 3
Unalloyed high−grade steel or stainless steel
Examples:
C 45 V 90
C 115 W 1
Meaning:
C 45 V 90
Unalloyed high−grade steel or stainless steel; 0.45 % hardened and tempered minimum tensile strength
C 900 MPa
C 115 W 1
Examples:
13 Cr Mo 4.4
M 37 Mn Si 5 V
High−alloy steel
Examples:
X 97 W Mo 3.3
X 125 W V 12.4
68
Cast steel
Examples:
GS − 40.2
GS − 22 Cr Mo 5.4
GS − X 10 Cr 13
Meaning:
Unalloyed steels of high toughness, marked yield point and guaranteed minimum tensile strength; frequently
used in mechanical engineering and steel construction
Steel brand of grade Tensile Yield point in MPa Strain at Rolling and forging
strength in at a thickness in failure in % temperature in °C
MPa mm of
1 2 3 ? 20 to 40 to (l0 = 5d0)
20 40 100
St 33 ? 330 − − − 22 1200...900
St 34
hb−2
St 34
b−2
69
St 38 St
u−2 38−3
St St 38
385 hb−2
St 38
b−2
St 42
hb−2
St 42
b−2
Unalloyed and alloyed structural steels in which the external zone is enriched with carbon after forming
(possibly at the same time with nitrogen) and subsequently hardened
70
18 Cr 950...1200 245 850...880 870...900 170...210 Toothed gears,
Mn Ti shafts, axles
5
Quenched and subsequently tempered steels
Unalloyed and alloyed structural steels, whose toughness, tensile strength and yield point can be adapted to
the purpose of use by hardening (800 − 900 C) and subsequent tempering (530 − 670 °C)
heat−treatable steels whose resistance to pressurized hydrogen at operating temperature is ensured by the
addition of Cr, Mo, W, or V
Pü in MPa t in °C
71
1 C 100 W 760 to 790 to Milling cutters, reamers, cutting dies,
1 thread cutting tools, cutting dies
C 90 W 2 810 830
C 75 W 3 810 830
− 780 to
810
Steels for special C 55 WS 800 to 830 − Hand saws, mill saws and circular
purposes saws, anvils, axes
Tool steels for chipless or metal−removing shaping of materials, mainly when cold (room temperature)
Tool steels for chipless or metal−removing forming of materials, mainly when hot (> 300 °C); the working
surfaces are subject to great heat and frequent temperature change.
1000...1050 air
72
alloys
850...870 air
High−alloy tool steels with a high wear resistance and special suitability for metal−removing tools for high
cutting speeds at great thermal stress (? 600 °C)
High−alloy steels with a chromium content ? 12 %, highly resistant to atmospheric attack, and to numerous
organic and inorganic acids, lyes and salt solutions
High−alloy steels which form protective layers at temperatures above 600 °C and for this reason have an
increased resistance to scale in air, fuel gases and other chemical substances
73
Steel brand Tensile Hardness Usable in air up Examples of use
strength HB to °C
in MPa
Steel cast into metal or non−metal moulds (free of graphite and ledeburite) with guaranteed mechanical
properties at temperatures from 10 − 250 °C; no particular specifications
GS − 40 400 − 20
GS − 45 450 − 17
Cast steel with a Cr content of ? 12 %, highly resistant to atmospheric influences, to numerous organic and
inorganic acids, lyes and salt solutions; high resistance to corrosion and strength owing to the addition of Ni,
No, Ti and Nb
Cast steel with favourable strength values (in particular a relatively high yield point), usable in the temperature
range of 250 − 540 °C
74
GS − 22 Cr Mo 5.4 530...700 300 290 280 260 240 20
Elements of symbols
Symbol Meaning
GH − 300 − ? 300
GHK − 400 − −
GT − 45 450 200
GT − 65 650 250
4.5.1. Terms
Term Explanation
75
Wrought Alloy which is to be further formed without chips after casting into ingot moulds, pig or ingot
alloy slab moulds (e.g. to pressed parts, bars, sections, sheets or strips)
Cast alloy Alloy which, in most cases, is cast into moulds (by sand casting, pressure casting or die
casting) and, as a rule, is finished by metal removal only
76
properties;
pistons of combustion
engines
77
springs
Zn19Pb
78
G−ZnAl4 250 70 Components with high
requirements on
dimensional stability
GK−Zn 220 80
Al6Cu1
Tin alloys
4.6.1. Term
Hard metals contain tungsten, titanium and vanadium carbide and cobalt, nickel and molybdenum as binding
agents; they are presintered (pressing with subsequent heat treatment), worked to shape and then finally
sintered (at 1500 − 1900° C); used as cutting tools and for drawing tools, wire drawing dies and mining tools;
cutting tips are brazed on basic bodies of low−alloy steel.
Properties
HS 01 6.1 − 6.4 91.5 − 93.0 blue increasing cutting speed feed possible
79
HG 20 14.6 − 14.9 89.0 − 90.5
HS 01 metal−removing long chips Smoothing, finish−machining of steel and cast steel; high
HS 02 cutting speed
HU 10 long or short chips Roughing, smoothing of steel, cast steel, grey iron,
HU 30 malleable cast iron, hard castings (hardness = 5000 MPa),
copper alloys
HG 01 short chips Turning, fine hole drilling of grey iron, chilled cast iron,
Al−Si alloys, plastics
HG 15 chippless wearing parts Guide bushes, sand blasting nozzle sets, centres,
measuring gauges, liners
5. Plastics
Cellulose acetate Photographic industry (safety films), packing, clothing and varnish industries
Phenolic resins Electrical engineering, optical industry, machine and vehicle construction,
medical instruments, domestic appliances
Urea resins Electrical engineering, foodstuffs, varnish and toy industry, commodities)
(aminoplastics)
80
Polymerization products (thermoplastics)
soft PVC Almost all branches of industry, chemical industry, building and packing
industries
rigid PVC Almost all branches of industry, chemical and consumer goods industry,
electrical engineering
Polymethacrylate Vehicle and aircraft construction, measuring and drawing instruments, dress
jewellery
Polyaddition products
Polyurethane Wear−resistant technical parts and commodities, e.g. varnish, cast resins, elastic
rubber materials, foamed plastics, adhesives, compression moulding material
Poly−utilization products
Unsaturated polyester For casting purposes and adhesion with fillers for moulded bodies
resins (PU)
Epoxy resins (EP) Casting resins, adhesive resins and resin binders (casting together with fillers)
Designation
a lateral length
A cross−sectional area
m weight
81
Weight of square bar steel in kilogrammes per metre
a A m a A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in
kg
Designations
82
m weight
SW A m SW A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in
kg
Designations
d diameter
A cross−sectional area
m weight
d A m d A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in
kg
83
7 38.48 0.302 45 1590 12.5
Designations
b width
s thickness
m weight
84
Weight of strip steel, flat steel, universal mill products and sheet steel in kilogrammes per metre
b s in mm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
in mm 0.75
m in kg
4 0.024 0.031 0.063 0.094 0.126 0.157 0.188 0.251 0.314 0.377 0.471
5 0.030 0.039 0.079 0.118 0.157 0.196 0.235 0.314 0.393 0.471 0.588
6 0.036 0.047 0.094 0.141 0.188 0.236 0.283 0.377 0.471 0.565 0.707
7 0.039 0.055 0.110 0.165 0.220 0.275 0.330 0.440 0.550 0.660 0.825
8 0.046 0.063 0.126 0.188 0.251 0.314 0.377 0.502 0.628 0.754 0.942
10 0.059 0.079 0.157 0.236 0.314 0.393 0.471 0.628 0.785 0.942 1.178
12 0.065 0.094 0.188 0.283 0.377 0.471 0.565 0.754 0.942 1.130 1.230
16 0.094 0.126 0.251 0.377 0.502 0.628 0.754 1.005 1.260 1.510 1.880
20 0.118 0.157 0.314 0.471 0.628 0.785 0.942 1.256 1.570 1.880 2.360
25 0.147 0.196 0.393 0.589 0.785 0.981 1.178 1.570 1.960 2.360 2.940
30 0.177 0.236 0.471 0.707 0.942 1.178 1.413 1.884 2.360 2.830 3.530
35 0.207 0.257 0.550 0.824 1.099 1.374 1.649 2.198 2.750 3.300 4.120
40 0.236 0.314 0.628 0.942 1.256 1.570 1.884 2.512 3.140 3.770 4.710
45 0.266 0.353 0.707 1.060 1.410 1.770 2.120 2.830 3.530 4.240 5.300
50 0.294 0.393 0.785 1.178 1.570 1.962 2.355 3.140 3.930 4.710 5.890
60 0.354 0.471 0.942 1.415 1.884 2.355 2.826 3.768 4.710 5.650 7.070
70 0.412 0.549 1.099 1.649 2.198 2.748 3.297 4.396 5.500 6.590 8.240
80 0.471 0.628 1.256 1.884 2.512 3.140 3.768 5.024 6.280 7.540 9.420
90 0.530 0.706 1.413 2.119 2.826 3.532 4.239 5.652 7.070 8.480 10.60
100 0.589 0.785 1.570 2.355 3.140 3.925 4.710 6.280 7.850 9.420 11.80
150 0.883 1.177 2.355 3.532 4.710 5.887 7.065 9.420 11.80 14.10 17.70
200 1.178 1.570 3.140 4.710 6.280 7.850 9.420 12.56 15.70 18.90 23.60
300 1.767 2.355 4.710 7.065 9.420 11.78 14.13 18.84 23.55 28.30 35.30
400 2.355 3.140 6.280 9.420 12.56 15.70 18.83 25.10 31.40 37.70 47.10
500 2.945 3.925 7.850 11.78 15.70 19.63 23.55 31.40 39.25 47.10 58.90
750 4.417 5.888 11.78 17.67 23.55 29.44 35.33 47.10 58.88 70.60 88.30
1000 5.887 7.850 15.70 23.55 31.40 39.25 47.10 62.80 78.50 94.20 118.0
85
Designations
b widths of legs
s thickness of legs
r radii of curvature of the legs
A cross−sectional area
m weight
(a × b × s) r A m
in mm in cm2 in
kg
30 × 30 × 5 5 2.78 2.18
40 × 40 × 4 6 3.08 2.42
40 × 40 × 6 6 4.48 3.52
50 × 50 × 5 7 4.80 3.77
60 × 60 × 6 8 6.91 5.42
60 × 60 × 10 10 11.1 8.68
80 × 80 × 8 10 12.3 9.66
80 × 80 × 12 10 17.9 14.1
86
6.2.2. steel, unequal−sided
Designations
(a × b × s) r A m
in mm in cm2 in
kg
65 × 80 × 8 8 11.0 8.66
87
6.2.3. T−steel
Designations
h height of section
b width of base
(b = h) (s = t) A m (b = h) (s = t) A m
mm mm in cm2 in kg mm mm in cm2 in
kg
88
Designations
h height of section
b width of flange
s thickness of web
− dimensions
h b s t r r1 A m
mm mm mm mm mm mm in cm2 in
kg
89
400 155 14.4 21.6 14.4 8.6 118 92.6
Designations
h height of section
b width of flange
s thickness of web
t average thickness of flange
r1 inside radius, r2 radius of curvature
A cross−sectional area
m weight
− dimensions
h b s r1t r2 A m
mm mm mm mm mm in cm2 in
kg
80 45 6 8 4 11.0 8.64
90
240 85 9.5 13 6.5 42.3 33.2
Designations
D outside diameter
s wall thickness
m weight
Weight of steel pipes for water and gas lines in kilogrammes per metre
D s in mm
in mm
m in kg
91
7. Semi−finished products of aluminium and aluminium alloys
Designations
a lateral length
A cross−sectional area
m weight
a A m a A m
in mm in cm2 in kg in mm in cm2 in kg
28 7.84 2.12
92
Designations
SW A m SW A m
in mm in cm2 in kg in mm in cm2 in kg
17 2.50 0.676
Designations
93
d diameter
A cross−sectional area
m weight
d A m d A m
in mm in cm2 in kg in mm in cm2 in kg
94
Designations
a lateral length
A cross−sectional area
m weight
a A m a A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in kg
95
Designations
SW A m SW A m
in mm in mm2 in kg in mm in mm2 in
kg
96
Designations
d diameter
A cross−sectional area
m weight
d A m d A m
in mm in cm2 in kg in mm in cm2 in kg
97
9.1. Blanks of sintered metal carbide
above up to above up to
4 0.3 45 50 1.6
4 6 0.4 50 55 1.8
6 8 0.5 55 60 2
8 10 0.6 60 70 2.4
10 13 0.7 70 80 2.8
13 16 0.8 80 90 3.2
20 25 1 100 110 4
1.2; 2
1.2; 2 −
Mechanical characteristics
Uncoloured Coloured
Quality Quality
1 2 1 2
98
transversely 50 40 42 37
0.04 1000 2 30
0.05 1000 2 30
0.06 1000 2 30
0.08 1000 2 30
0.10 1000 2 30
0.15 1000 2 30
Mechanical characteristics
Types
H HS HA HL
Strain at failure in % 15 10 10 10
Dimensional stability in °C 70 70 70 70
Dimensions
99
11. Semi−finished products of moulded laminate
Dimensions in mm Dimensions in mm
550 × 1050
970 × 2500
Dimensions in mm Dimensions in mm
Grey Mild steel, Copper, Brass Bronze Zinc Lead Aluminium Synthetic
100
iron cast steel resin
101
0.8 3.95 9.4 545.0
1.0 6.17
1.1 7.46
1.2 8.88
102
14. Types and functions
Connecting disconnectable and permanent connection bolts, screws, nuts washers, locking
elements of structural members screws, pins, springs, keys, rivets
Driving elements Provision of the required energy by energy electric motor, combustion engine
conversion
Control elements Control of energy and mass flow hand crank, hand wheel, switch
15.1. Bolts
103
without split−pin hole
104
without split−pin holes
105
15.2. Screws
Hexagon Hexagon
head screw head scre
for steel M3 − M4
structure 14 − 220
M 10 − M 30 mg
30 − 175, m
Hexagon Hexagon
head screw head scre
thread with journ
almost up to M6 − M4
the head 12 − 220
M 5 − M 24 mg
15 − 80, g
Hexagon Hexagon
head screw dowel bo
with fine M10 − M
screw thread 30 − 200
M12 x 1.5 to mg
M24 x 2
30 − 220, m,
mg
Countersunk Oval−hea
screw with screw wit
cross slot large hea
M1 − M10 M1 − M3
2 − 70, m 2 − 18, m
106
Oval−head O
countersunk s
screw with s
cross slot M
M1 − M10 1
2 − 60, m
Designation Dimensions
Fillister head sheet metal screw with cross slot d1 2.2 − 6.3; 9.5 − 50, m
15.3. Nuts
Hexagon nuts
Hexagon nut H
M1.6 − M150 f
× 2, m M
m
107
Hexagon nut Hexagon
M5 − M42, g pipe nut
Whitwort
pipe thre
R 1/8” − R
mg
15.4. Washers
Figure Designation
Washers
Hole diameter
5,8 − 52, g
108
Spring
washers
a) bent open
b) smooth 2
− 48, m
Locking
plates with
tangs
d 3.2 − 50,
m
15.6. Pins
109
Taper 1:50
Dimensions in mm
r 1 1.6 3 6 10
l 8 −160
d l
15.7. Keys
110
A sunk key, B drive−fitted key; 1: 100 inclination
b width of key, bN width of keyway, d shaft diameter, h height of key, l length of key, t1 depth of shaft groove, t2
depth of hub groove
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
b 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20
h 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 12
l from 6 6 8 10 14 18 22 28 45 56
d from 5 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 48 65
to 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 42 55 75
111
b Width of key, bn width of keyway, d shaft diameter, k height of key, h1 height of gib, length of key, t depth of
shaft groove, t2 depth of hub groove 1 fitted in
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
b 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
h 4 5 6 7 8 8 9 9 11 12
l from 14 14 14 18 22 28 36 45 50 56
d above 10 14 18 24 30 36 42 48 55 65
to 14 18 24 30 36 42 48 55 65 75
15.8. Springs
112
Designation example
Version Use
b 2 2.5 3 4
h9
d1 7 10 10 10 13 16 13 16 19
d2A 7 10
above 5 to 7 10 14
B above 7 10 14
to 14 8 24
113
without
holding
screw
Shape B
Shape A
with
holding
screw
Shape D
Shape C
with two
holding
screws
and
forcing
screws
Shape F
Shape E
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
b h9 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20
114
h f3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 12
l1 from 6 6 8 10 14 18 22 28 45 56
d1 above 5 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 48 65
to 7 10 14 18 24 30 36 42 55 75
15.9. Rivets
d l
Countersunk−head rivets 10 − 20 −
30 150
115
Belt rivets 3−5
Compression springs
Symbol
Tension springs
0.5 − 60 10 − 60 A, B
Symbol
116
Designation example
16.2. Bearings
Direction of force Radial or thrust bearing (journal the bearing forces act transversely to
application bearing) the bearing axis
Axial or side bearing (step bearing) the bearing forces act in the direction of
the bearing axis
Shells
117
1 sliding layer, 2 supporting body, 3 marking
Dimensions in mm
l 20 − 250
Bushes
118
Bushes without collars
Type Material
Solid steel, grey cast iron, non−ferrous metal sinter metal moulded material
Designation example
Dimensions in mm
36, 40, 45, 50, 55, 63, 70, 80, 90, 100
l 3 − 100
119
Bushes with steel collars, cast iron, material other than metal
Dimensions
in mm
d1 20 − 100
l1 10 − 100
Axial bearing
51 200 − 51
252
51 305 − 51
330
51 405 − 51
440
120
Axial grooved ball bearings, acting on two sides 52 202 − 52
220
52 305 − 52
314
52 408 − 52
420
Radial bearings
607 − 609
623 − 626
627, 629
634, 635
6200 − 6244
6300 − 6330
1204k −
1222k
1300 − 1318
1340k −
1318k
121
NU 204 − NU
264
NU 304 − NU
348
NJ 204 − NO
264
NJ 304 − NJ
348
Bearing symbols
1 Bearing symbol
2 Year of manufacture
3 Distinguishing mark
4 Material
5 Country of manufacture
Designation example
Bore characteristic
(d = 44 × 5 = 220)
122
Bore diameter in mm Bore characteristic Example
10 00 62 00
12 01 62 01
15 02 62 02
17 03 62 03
(d = 44 × 5
= 220)
> 480 Separated by diagonal stroke from the symbol of the 60/500 bearing
series
17.1. Shafts
Mobility Rigid shafts, articulated shafts like straight shafts compensation of parallel
displacement or angular displacement between the
central axes of two shafts
123
Flexible shafts drive of mechanical tools which must be freely
handled, multiple deflection of rotary motion
(tachometer)
124
17.1.2. Diameters of shafts (axle diameters)
10 10 10 10 32 32 32
10.5 34
11 11 36 36
11.5 38
12 12 12 40 40 40 40
13 42
14 14 45 45
15 48
16 16 16 16 50 50 50
17 52
18 18 55 55
19 60
20 20 20 60 60 60 63
21 65
22 22 70 70
24 75
25 25 25 25 80 80 80
26 85
28 28 90 90
30 95
105 210
120 240
125
125 125 125 250 250 250 250
130 260
150 300
170 340
190 380
easy to
manufacture and
install
frequently split
bearing shells
required,
time−consuming
installation
unfavourable,
lubricating
conditions, since
there is slow
sliding speed at
the pivot point
126
Pivot journal improved
lubricating
conditions 1 oil
duct
Ring pivot
changes in
angles of axles
and shafts have
not influence on
bearing
conditions
Ball journal
Designation Explanation
Felt ring
127
prevents oil leakage; contact
force is increased by spring
washer (gear shafts)
1 inner ring, 2 spring washer, 3
casing, 4 gasket
Radial packing
Sealing grooves
128
Oil−thrower ring
1 pitch circle
2 outside circle
t tooth pitch
(T = m · ?)
m module
d0 pitch circle diameter
dk outside circle diameter
z number of teeth
m t m t m t
in mm in mm in mm in mm in mm in mm
129
0.8 2.513 4 12.566 14 43.982
2.5 7.854
130
1 straight teeth. 2 herringbone teeth
Helical gears
cylindrical crossed helical gears, crossing angle ? 90°
Worm gear
cylindrical worm
131
17.2.3. Transmission ratios
Transmission ratio
Series i
R 10 1 1.25
R 10 1.60 2.00
R 10 2.50 3.15
132
R 10 4.00 5.00
R 10 6.30 8.00
Term Explanation
Testing Comparison of workpieces in the respective stage of manufacture with the technical
specifications for dimensions, form, surface condition, hardness and strength
Non−dimensional Comparison without auxiliary means, e.g. visual inspection, resonance test
testing
Dimensional testing Comparison with technical auxiliaries (testing tools); the workpiece is not changed
during testing
Gauging Testing whether dimensions vary from the required measures only by a permissible
quantity (observance of the specified tolerance band),e.g. limit gauging, form
gauging.
Test
The test specimen and the reference bar (steel grade known) must be pressed gently onto a medium grained,
hard grinding wheel (dia. = 250 mm; n = 1400 r.p.m)
Appearance of sparks
133
1 few spear−shaped lines, bright 2 bunch of spears denser than in 1. bright 3 bunch, thicker than in
yellow yellow 2, ramified, bright yellow
Alloyed tool steels with
figure
figure
bright part shorter and brighter form as with 1−3, ray ray short, fine, ray long, interrupted
tan in 3, yellowish−white brighter, bright yellow ramified, orange dark red lines
134
Specimen for Notch the specimen, clamp into vice and bend to Case−hardened:
strength test and for until it ruptures fine grained barrier layer and fibrous
core;
hardened steel:
fine grained point of rupture of
velvet−like appearance;
unhardened steel:
coarse fibrous point of rupture;
workpiece cracked:
old point of rupture dark, new point
of rupture light
Resonance Strike rods; plates, hollow bodies, Cracks and loose joints are recognizable by a
test screwed and riveted joints with a clinking sound; Structural steel: simple metal sound;
light hammer Tool steel: pure, continuous metal sound
Oil test Dip the workpiece into thin fluid oil Cracks on the surface are recognizable by
(100 − 180 °C); then clean and dark−coloured spots (oil is absorbed by the powder)
dust with talc powder
Magnetic Place the workpiece into a Cracks or slag inclusions below the surface change
powder testing magnetic field and suspend with the magnetic field; chips collect here in larger
fine iron dust numbers
135
Vernier caliper (0.1 mm)
136
1 anvil, 2 measuring spindle, 3 clamping device, 4 1 mm reading, 5 graduated drum, 6 ratchet
stop, 7 1/2 mm reading, 8 bow
When using a goniometer with pointer, the angle is measured on one side of the measuring leg and read on
the other side.
1 Measuring the angle on the workpiece, 2 reading the measured angle on the scale
If the workpiece with the angle to be measured is placed on the right of the measuring leg, the measuring
value corresponds to the indicated value, measuring value = 79
137
If the workpiece with the angle to be measured is on the left of the measuring leg, the indicated value does not
correspond to the measuring value. The measuring value must be calculated by subtraction. 180° − 103°,
measuring value = 77°
Main division and vernier of a universal bevel protractor 1 the main division is subdivided into 4 ranges of 90°
each, one graduation mark corresponding to 1°, 2 the vernier is subdivided in two directions of 60’ each, one
graduation mark corresponding to 5’
138
Measuring range: 0 − 180°
Measuring accuracy: ±5’
When reading the measuring value, starting from zero, the full degrees at the zero stroke of the vernier are
read on the main division, and the minutes are read in the same direction at the graduation mark of the vernier
which coincides with a graduation mark on the main division.
139
18.2.3. Limit gauging
Limit gauge
Includes the maximum and minimum dimension; tolerances and dimensional variations are marked
• Limit gauge plug two test cylinders or plugs; cylinder diameter of the go end = minimum diameter, cylinder
diameter of the not−go end = maximum diameter
• Limit snap gauge two test gaps; width of gap of the go end = maximum diameter, width of gap of the not−go
end = minimum diameter;
140
• Use of limit gauges
Workpiece dimension between maximum and Workpiece dimension greater than maximum Workpiece dimen
minimum dimension dimension reworking dimension reject
Feeler gauge
Dimensional testing of narrow distances, e.g. when adjusting valves or set screws; in steps of 0.1 mm or 0.05
mm
Sheet−iron gauge
The widening at the end of the slot receives the burr of the sheet; steps according to commercial sheet
thicknesses
141
Hole gauge
Block gauges
Prismatic steel pieces, hardened throughout, with polished gauging surfaces; plane and faces which are
parallel to each other embody a particular length; any dimensions can be achieved by joining the
corresponding gauge blocks
142
18.2.4. Form gauging
Hairline gauge
Test patterns:
Squares
Design as solid steel squares (30°, 45°, 60°. 90°, 120°), try squares, bevelled edge steel squares
143
Drill grinding gauge
Roundness gauge
Screw−pitch gauge
144
19. Fitting systems
Clearance fit
Sg maximum clearance,
Sk minimum clearance
The minimum size of the hole is greater than the maximum size of the shaft. After assembly, there is
clearance; it is possible to move the shaft in the bore.
Transition fit
Sg maximum clearance,
Ug maximum allowance for fit
Interference fit
145
Ug maximum fit,
Ub minimum allowance for fit
The maximum size of the hole is smaller than the minimum size of the shaft.
After assembly there is compression. Shaft and hole are securely connected to each other.
In the system of fits, 21 tolerance zones are marked by letters of the alphabet. Capital letters are used for
marking the hole and small letters for marking the shaft.
In the basic hole system a standard hole with uniform diameter is used.
146
1 clearance fit,
2 transition fit,
3 interference fit,
4 clearance is increased,
5 fit becomes tighter,
6 nominal size,
7 clearance,
8 allowance for fit
The shafts a − g are below the 0−line. They are therefore smaller than the nominal size, thus having
clearance. The shafts h − n are below or above the 0−line. They are samller or greater than the nominal size,
thus having either clearance or allowance for fit. The shafts p − z are above the 0−line. They are greater than
the nominal size, thus having allowance for fit.
In the basic shaft system a standard shaft with uniform diameter is used.
Use: Office machines, textile machines, construction and agricultural machinery, lifting appliances and
conveying plants.
147
1 clearance fits,
2 transition fits,
3 interference fits,
4 clearance is increased,
5 fit becomes tighter,
6 nominal size,
7 clearance,
8 allowance for fit
Holes A−G are above the 0−line. They are therefore greater than the nominal size, thus having clearance.
The holes H−N are above and below the 0−line. They are greater or smaller than the nominal size, thus
having either clearance or allowance for fit. The holes P − Z are below the 0−line. They are smaller than the
nominal size, thus having allowance for fit.
148
Example: dia. 10r6
Nominal dimensions in ?m
over 1 + 80 + 32 + 21 + 90 + 60 + 40 + +9 +3 +3 − − −4
to 3 + 20 +7 +7 +0 0 0 14 0 −6 −4 − − −
0 13
over 3 + + 40 + 28 + + 75 + 48 + + +5 +4 − − −4
to 6 105 + 10 + 10 120 0 0 18 12 −7 −4 − − −
+ 30 0 0 0 16
over 6 + + 49 + 35 + + 90 + 58 + + +8 +5 +5 +2 −4
to 10 130 + 13 + 13 150 0 0 22 15 −7 −4 − −7 −
+ 40 0 0 0 10 19
over 10 + + 59 + 43 + + + 70 + + + +6 +6 +2 −5
to 14 160 + 16 + 16 180 110 0 27 18 10 −5 − −9 −
+ 50 0 0 0 0 −8 12 23
over 14
to 18
over 18 + + 72 + 53 + + + 84 + + + +8 +6 +2 −7
to 24 195 + 20 + 20 210 130 0 33 21 12 −5 − − −
+ 65 0 0 0 0 −9 15 11 28
over 24
to 30
over 30 + + 87 + 64 + + + + + + + 10 +7 +3 −0
to 40 240 + 25 + 25 250 160 100 39 25 14 −6 − − −
+ 80 0 0 0 0 0 + 18 13 33
11
over 40
to 50
over 50 + + + 76 + + + + + + + 13 +9 +4 −9
to 65 290 104 + 30 300 190 120 46 30 18 −6 − − −
+ + 30 +0 0 0 0 0 − 21 15 39
100 12
over 65
to 80
over 80 + + + 90 + + + + + + + 16 + +4 −
to 100 340 123 + 36 350 220 140 54 35 22 6 10 − 10
+ + 36 0 0 0 0 0 − − 18 −
120 13 25 45
over 100
to 120
149
over 120
to 140
over 140 + + + + + + + + + + 18 + +4 −
to 160 395 143 106 400 250 160 63 40 26 7 12 − 12
+ + 43 + 43 0 0 0 0 0 − − 21 −
145 14 28 52
over 160
to 180
over 180
to 200
over 200 + + + + + + + + + + 22 + +5 −
to 225 460 165 122 460 290 185 72 46 30 −7 13 − 14
+ + 50 + 50 0 0 0 0 0 − − 24 −
170 16 33 60
over 225
to 250
over 250
to 280 + + + + + + + + + + 25 + +5 −
510 186 137 520 320 210 81 52 36 16 14
over 280 + + 56 + 56 0 0 0 0 0 − 7 − − −
to 315 190 16 36 27 66
over 315
to 355 + + + + + + + + + + 29 + +7 −
570 202 151 570 360 230 89 57 39 17 18
over 355 + + 62 + 62 0 0 0 0 0 − 7 − − −
to 400 210 18 40 29 73
over 400
to 450 + + + + + + + + + + 33 + +8 −
630 223 165 630 400 250 97 63 43 18 17
over 450 + + 68 + 68 0 0 0 0 0 − −7 − − −
to 500 230 20 45 32 80
Nominal dimensionsal variations for shafts (some preferred series)
Nominal dimensions in mm
over 1 − 20 − 20 − 14 7 −7 0 0 0 0 0 +6 − +
to 3 − 80 − 45 − 28 − 32 − 16 − 90 − 60 − −9 −7 −1 − 13
14 +6
over 3 − 30 − 30 − 20 − 10 − 10 0 0 0 0 0 +7 − +
to 6 − − 60 − 38 − 40 − 22 − − 75 − − −8 −1 − 16
105 120 18 12 +8
over 6 − 40 − 40 − 25 − 13 − 13 0 0 0 0 0 +7 + +
to 10 − − 76 − 47 − 49 − 28 − − 90 − − −9 −2 10 19
130 150 22 15 +1 +
10
over 10 − 50 − 50 − 32 − 16 − 16 0 0 0 0 0 +8 + +
to 14 − − 93 − 59 − 59 − 34 − − − − − −3 12 23
160 180 110 27 18 11 +1 +
150
12
over 14
to 18
over 18 − 65 − 65 − 40 − 20 − 20 0 0 0 0 0 +9 + +
to 24 − − − 73 − 72 − 41 − − − − − −4 15 28
195 117 210 130 33 21 13 +2 +
15
over 24
to 30
over 30 − 80 − 80 − 50 − 25 − 25 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 40 − − − 89 − 87 − 50 − − − − − 11 18 33
240 142 250 160 39 25 16 −5 +2 +
17
over 40
to 50
over 50 − − − 60 − 30 − 30 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 65 100 100 − − − 60 − − − − − 12 21 39
− − 106 104 300 190 46 30 19 −7 +2 +
290 174 20
over 65
to 80
over 80 − − − 72 − 36 − 36 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 100 120 120 − − − 71 − − − − − 13 25 45
− − 123 123 350 220 54 35 22 −9 +3 +
340 207 23
over 100
to 120
over 120 − − − 85 − 43 − 43 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 140 145 145 − − − 83 − − − − − 14 28 52
− − 148 143 400 250 63 40 25 − +3 +
395 245 11 27
over 140
to 160
over 160
to 180
over 180 − − − − 50 − 50 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 200 170 170 100 − − 96 − − − − − 16 33 60
− − − 165 460 290 72 46 29 − +4 +
460 285 172 13 31
over 200
to 225
over 225
to 250
over 250 − − − − 56 − 56 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 280 190 190 110 − − − − − − − 16 36 66
− − − 186 108 520 320 81 52 32 − +4 +
510 320 191 16 34
over 280
to 315
151
over 315 − − − − 62 − 62 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 355 210 210 125 − − − − − − − 18 40 73
− − − 202 119 570 360 89 57 36 − +4 +
570 350 214 18 37
over 355
to 400
over 400 − − − − 68 − 68 0 0 0 0 0 + + +
to 450 230 230 135 − − − − − − − 20 45 80
− − − 223 131 630 400 97 63 40 − +5 +
630 385 232 20 40
over 450
to 500
20. Scribing
The reference edge is a well−prepared edge of the workpiece to which all dimensions are referred.
152
The reference line is a scribed line on the workpiece to which all dimensions are referred.
The reference surface is a plane surface of the workpiece to which all dimensions are referred.
153
Scribing with scribing block
154
20.2. Notes on scribing
Scriber Workpiece
Brass finish−machined
155
Making punch marks
Set the centre punch exactly on the scribed line straight scribed line − large distance between the punch
marks curbed scribed line − short distance between the punch marks
156
Do not punch until the last markings of the spacings coincide.
0.8 − 1.0 nodular cast iron (GGG), in the cast state or pearlitic annealed
1.6 − 2.2 special brass (CuZn), aluminium bronze, multi−component aluminium bronze
157
21.2. Machining allowances for castings
− 160 4 4 6 3 4 6
160 250 5 5 7 4 4 7
250 400 6 6 8 5 5 8
400 630 7 7 9 6 6 9
630 1000 8 8 10 7 7 10
to
over to
80 160 7 9 − − − −
160 250 8 10 12 14 16 −
250 400 9 11 13 15 17 19
400 630 10 12 14 16 18 20
630 1000 11 13 15 17 19 21
158
over to bottom side top bottom side top
40 2 3 2 2
40 100 2 3 2 3
100 160 3 4 3 4
160 250 3 5 3 4
250 400 4 6 3 5
400 630 5 7 4 6
630 1000 6 9 5 7
22. Forming
1 1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16
1 4 − − − − − −
1.2 4 6 − − − − −
1.6 4 6 − − − − −
2 6 6 − − − − −
2.5 6 6 8 − − − −
3 6 8 10 − − − −
4 8 8 10 12 − − −
5 8 8 10 14 − − −
6 8 10 12 14 18 − −
159
8 10 12 14 16 22 − −
10 12 14 16 18 22 32 −
20 22 25 25 28 32 40 60
40 − − 45 50 55 60 80
50 − − − 60 60 80 90
22.2. Bending
Bend radius r in mm
180.0; 200.0;
In the roundness, the thickness is reduced by about 20 %.
Figure Calculation
1. r > 5s
neutral layer is in the centre of the
workpiece
160
r > 5s
L = l1 + l2 + l3
− Before bending carry out a bending test with the material used; one lot of material may exhibit different
behaviour to another.
− The bending edge should not be in the direction of rolling; if this is unavoidable, larger bend radii should be
used.
22.3. Forging
Aluminium 500 °C
Al−Cu−Mg−alloys 440 °C
Al−Mg−alloys 400 °C
Al−Mg−Si−alloys 450 °C
Copper 850 °C
Brass 750 °C
Mg alloys 380 °C
161
Bluish black 250 − 300 danger of rupture
Yellow 1200
23. Separating
23.1. Chiseling
162
23.1.1. Design and types of chisels
1 cutting edge
2 head
3 shank
? = 30 − 70°
Chisels are made of unalloyed tool steel with a carbon content of 0.9 %; cutting edge forged, hardened,
ground and tempered; Weight of hammer: weight of chisel = 2: 1
Types of chisels
163
Chiseling off a sheet strip
164
Cutting out straps
Chiseling a groove
Chiseling a surface
165
23.2. Shearing
1 shear blade
2 limit of lift
Hand plate shears
Punching shears
Through shears
Plate shears
166
for steel plate up to
about 6 mm thick;
cutting−wedge angle
? = 75 − 85°;
cutting gap angle:
b = 0.05 s for soft
materials
b = 0.1 s for hard
materials
1 hand lever,
2 lever locking device,
3 frame, 4 hold−down,
5 shear blade
Aluminium
soft 70 − 90
Lead 20 − 30
Bronze
Artificial 25 − 30
resin
Copper
Brass
167
Tin 30 − 40
23.3. Sawing
1 handle,
2 clamp dog.
3 saw frame,
4 wing nut for clamping
? clearance angle
? cutting−wedge angle
? rake angle
− Clamp the saw blade so that the teeth point in the direction of sawing.
168
− Assist the start of sawing by notching the rear edge of the workpiece with a triangular file.
− Select the correct number of strokes (50 − 60 double strokes per minute)
over 600 8 − 10
Bronze 80 − 120
Brass
Cutting speed when using a band saw
600 − 800 20 − 30
169
800 − 1200 15 − 20
over 1200 10 − 15
23.4. Filing
1 handle
2 tang
3 nominal length
4 workpiece
5 chip space
6 chips
Files are made of carbon steel (0.9 − 1.5 % C) or alloyed steel (Mn, Si, Cu); cutting wedges are cut or milled.
170
4 fine smooth−cut file 45 31.5 −
− Carefully lay the files next to each other, as otherwise the hardened teeth can break out.
− Clean greased files with a brass plate at right angles to the direction of cut
171
Manganese steel 13 % Mn + 1.3 % C
Titanium −
Titanium alloys −
Tungsten steel 10 − 17 % W
60 − 80 20 − 140 3−5 50 − 80
3 − 10 0.15 36 − 79 3.5 − 10 17 − 48
23.6. Drilling
172
23.6.1. Types of drills
Twist drills suitable for most holes; special drills for specific work include deep−hole twist
drills or pin hole drills
Multi−cut stepped drills mainly for countersinking; drilling and countersinking are carried out in one
operation
Single−lip drills (simple for deep boring (there must already be low depth bores)
D−bit)
Centre drills for centering workpieces (the tool is a drill and countersink at the same time)
Design
1 shank, 2 margin, 3 helical groove, 4 main cutting edge, 5 chisel edge, d = 0.3 − 100 mm
Designation of angles
173
? clearance angle,
? cutting−wedge angle,
? rake angle,
? complementary angle of the chisel edge angle,
? point angle
1 3 5 8 10 12,5 15 20 25 30 40 50
Speed in 1/min
Feed in mm/revolution
174
St34, St42 7100 2800 1800 1400 925 700 600 450 350 300 280 224
C15 manual 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,22 0,3 0,35 0,3 0,8 0,4 0,4 0,5
St60, C45 4500 1800 1400 900 710 400 380 355 280 224 180 180
manual 0,04 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,2 0,25 0,28 0,3 0,36 0,4 0,4
Mn and CrNi 3000 1800 1400 900 700 600 400 355 280 224 180 140
alloyed steels (?B = manual 0,04 0,08 0,18 0,2 0,22 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,33 0,4
700 − 850 MPa)
Grey cast 4500 1800 1400 900 710 500 400 355 224 180 140 120
iron Malleable cast manual 0,05 0,11 0,2 0,2 0,22 0,2 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,5 0,56
iron
Brass 11200 4500 3550 2240 1800 1000 900 800 560 400 400 350
manual 0,05 0,11 0,2 0,22 0,3 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,4 0,5 0,56
Copper 11200 4500 3550 2200 1800 1400 1200 900 700 560 450 355
manual 0,04 0,08 0,1 0,2 0,25 0,28 0,2 0,3 0,3 0,4 0,4
Aluminium 14000 7100 5600 3550 2800 2000 1800 1400 1000 900 710 560
alloys manual 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,22 0,25 0,28 0,3 0,32 0,4 0,45 0,5
Magnesium 14000 9000 7100 5600 4500 3500 2800 2240 1800 1400 1120 900
alloys manual 0,09 0,1 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,7 0,7 0,8 0,9
Compression 5600 2240 1400 1120 900 750 550 450 380 280 224 180
moulding materials manual 0,03 0,06 0,12 0,14 0,15 0,2 0,2 0,25 0,26 0,28 0,28
and fabric reinforced
laminates
The speeds indicated here are maximum values; the feed applies to the next greater hole diameter in each
case. The maximum possible speed should be adjusted for diameters from 1−3 mm. When using the
indicated values, maximum conditions must be provided; if this cannot be achieved, the corresponding
reductions should be made and the next lower speed selected. Casting, forging and rolling crusts are taken
into account by adjusting to the next lower speed.
− Ensure cooling when drilling holes (drilling fluid, compressed air, air); use short drills for short drill holes.
23.7. Countersinking
175
23.7.1. Types of countersinks
Countersink
Flat countersink
Spiral countersink
176
Head countersink
Form countersink
− Lubricate the pilot pin of the head countersinks and the countersinking tool with pilot.
177
− When countersinking thin workpieces, “particularly observe the hole: countersink ratio.
− When operating with pin−guided countersinks, make the pilot hole with a diameter which is only 0.2 mm
greater; so not bore until it is necessary.
WS SS
Red brass Z 12 − 15 25 −
30
Brass S 16 − 18 35 −
40
Aluminium Z 6−8 8−
12
Steel Z 6−8 8−
12
Cast steel S 8 − 10 10 −
20
10 − 15 16 − 25 26 − 40 41 − 60
WS SS WS SS WS SS WS SS
178
0.1 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.25 0.35 0.35 0.45
to to to to to to to to
0.15 0.25 0.25 0.35 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
23.8. Reaming
1 Cutting direction,
2 margin,
3 square,
4 shank,
5 chamfer
Steel
179
Malleable cast
iron
Cast steel
− The hole made by other processes must be about 0.1 − 0.2 mm smaller than the reamed final size.
− Chatter marks (marks on the surface of the hole) can be avoided if reamers with an unequal number of
cutting edges are used.
− Never turn reamers opposite to the cutting direction (cutting edges break out).
180
two−piece or three−piece with different
diameters and different lengths of bevel
lead; three−piece serial tap (entering tap,
plug tap and third tap)
Serial tap
Threading dies
181
M 2.6 2.1 2.2
M3 2.5 2.56
M4 3.3 3.3
M5 4.2 4.2
M6 5 5
M8 6.7 6.75
M 10 8.4 8.5
M 12 10 −
M 16 13.75 −
M 20 17.25 −
M 24 20.75 −
M 30 26 −
M 36 31.5 −
Unalloyed steel
− hard 3−5 8 − 12
− soft 6−8 12 − 16
Alloyed steel
Aluminium alloys 12 − 20 20 − 30
Bronze 6 − 12 13 − 25
Magnesium 15 − 20 25 − 30
− Ensure proper starting of the thread tap by previous countersinking (approx. 60°, at least by one height of
pitch) of the tapping−size hole.
182
− Use coolants and refrigerants in accordance with the material.
− To remove the chips and feed the lubricant, turn the thread tap back in the direction of cutting for a short
time, then forward again.
− When cutting threads in blind holes avoid contact between the thread tap and the bottom of the drilled hole.
− When starting the cut, place the threading die or the thread die−stock horizontally onto the bolt end.
− Start cutting the thread with a slight pressure in the direction of the bolt, then continue cutting without
pressure.
− To remove the chips and feed the lubricant, turn the thread cutting tool from time to time in the opposite
direction to cutting for a short period.
23.10. Turning
Longitudinal turning
Facing
183
Turning cutting motion (1); cutting width a corresponds to
the width of the turning tool; feed in radial direction; plane
and cylindrical faces are formed (Use: recessing annular
grooves, cutting−off workpieces)
Recess turning
Example Explanation
184
for working internal faces for working internal plane
(holes) surfaces
offset side−cutting
Cut−off turning tool
turning tool
185
tool
Single−point threading
tool
? ? ? ?
laminate 12 14 St 34−70 8 14
Hard rubber 12 10 St 85 8 10
? ? ? grade ? ? ?
186
0− −
6 4
187
Aluminium 200 300 1000 1500
23.11. Milling
Up−cut milling
Down−cut milling
188
Cylindrical cutter
End−milling cutters
Angular mill
189
End mill cutter for T−grooves
Equal−angle cutter
190
23.11.3. Cutting speed and feed for milling
St 50, 1 24 − 30 22 − 26 20 − 24 18 − 24 18 − 22
C 35 5 22 − 28 18 − 24 18 − 22 16 − 20 16 − 20
8 18 − 22 14 − 18 14 − 18 12 − 16 12 − 16
St 70 1 20 − 22 18 − 20 18 − 20 18 − 20 −
C 60 5 16 − 20 14 − 18 16 − 18 14 − 18 14 − 18
8 14 − 16 12 − 14 14 − 16 12 − 14 13 − 14
20 Mn Cr 5 1 24 − 28 24 − 26 20 − 24 18 − 20 18 − 20
5 20 − 24 20 − 24 16 − 20 14 − 18 14 − 18
8 16 − 20 18 − 20 12 − 16 10 − 14 10 − 14
Cast steel 1 18 − 22 20 − 24 20 − 22 18 − 22 18 − 22
GS 45 5 14 − 18 14 − 22 16 − 20 14 − 18 14 − 16
8 10 − 14 12 − 14 14 − 16 10 − 14 10 − 14
Grey cast 1 18 − 22 20 − 22 20 − 22 18 − 22 16 − 20
iron 5 14 − 18 16 − 20 16 − 20 14 − 20 14 − 18
GG 18 8 10 − 14 14 − 16 14 − 16 10 − 14 10 − 14
Copper 1 45 − 60 45 − 55 45 − 55 45 − 60 45 − 60
5 30 − 50 40 − 50 30 − 50 30 − 50 25 − 40
8 25 − 35 30 − 40 24 − 30 25 − 30 20 − 25
Brass 1 45 − 60 50 − 60 50 − 60 45 − 60 45 − 60
MS 72 5 30 − 50 35 − 55 35 − 55 30 − 50 30 − 60
8 25 − 35 30 − 35 30 − 35 25 − 35 25 − 30
Bronze 1 45 − 55 45 − 55 50 − 60 45 − 55 40 − 45
G Cu Sn 14 5 30 − 45 35 − 50 35 − 55 30 − 45 40 − 45
8 20 − 30 30 − 35 30 − 35 20 − 30 20 − 25
Pure aluminium 1 300 − 350 350 − 400 300 − 350 250 − 300
191
350 −
400
Magnesium alloys 1 400 − 450 400 − 400 − 450 400 − 450 400 − 450
450
Special aluminium 1 350 − 400 400 − 275 − 325 350 − 400 350 − 400
alloys 450
5 30 − 50 35 − 55 30 − 50 30 − 50 30 − 50
8 25 − 35 30 − 35 25 − 30 25 − 30 25 − 30
Horizontal planing
192
Cutting motion (1) by tool, feed motion
(2) by workpiece; machining of individual
parts, smaller workpieces
Horizontal slotting
Vertical slotting
193
Side plane
Machining vertical surfaces and
sharp−edged shoulders
Cutting plane
Production of U−shaped grooves with
low requirements made on the surface
quality
Grooving plane
Production of T−shaped grooves with low
requirements made on the surface
quality
194
Angle plane
Making acute−angled corners, sharp
shoulders and dovetail grooves
23.12.3. Cutting speed and feed for planing and slotting (high−speed tool steel)
Material Characteristics Cutting speed per in m/min when planing with feed
double stroke in mm
0.16 0.20 0.25 0.32 0.40 0.50 0.63 0.80 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0
C 15, C 22 ?120 33 31 29 27 25 23 22 20 19 18 17 16
?120 26 23 22 20 19 18 16 14 13 12 12 11
?120 20 19 18 16 15 14 13 13 12 11 10 9
?120 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 10 9 9 8 7
GS−38 ?120 27 25 23 21 20 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
GS−45 ?120 21 20 18 17 15 14 13 12 12 11 10 9
GS−52 ?120 17 15 14 13 12 11 11 10 9 8 8 7
GG−14
GG−18 ?60 30 27 24 22 20 18 16 14 13 11 10 9
GG−22 ?120 25 23 20 18 16 15 13 12 11 10 9 8
?60 and ?120 are service lives of 60 minutes and 120 minutes, resp. Planing at ?60
corresponds to slotting at ?30; planing at ?120 corresponds to slotting at ?60.
195
23.13. Broaching
Internal broach
The tool (internal or external broach) is drawn or pressed through or over the workpiece horizontally or
vertically.
Al alloys 10 − 14 10 − 16
23.14. Grinding
196
Longitudinal grinding
Plunge−cut grinding
Flat grinding Flat grinding is used to grind plane surfaces, e.g.: internal and
external guides, sliding and running surfaces, sealing surfaces,
cutting edges of tools, toothed gears
1 cutting speed, 2 feed motion, 3 in−feed movement
Peripheral grinding
197
Abrasive−belt grinding
Face grinding
Abrasive cutting−off Abrasive cutting−off is used for the rapid separation of hard
materials (bar steels, ceramics, glass, rock).
below ?m up to ?m below ?m up to ?m
Screened grains
63 630 500 8 80 63
50 500 400 6 63 50
F40 40 28 F10 10 7
F28 28 20 F7 7 5
F20 20 14 F5 5 3.5
F14 14 10
198
Grey cast iron 25 25 20 − 45 − 80
12 (mechanical) −
Non−ferrous 35 20 25 − 45 − 80
metals
Steel 30 25 25 25 45 − 80
Light metal 35 20 25 − −
Rough−machining Finish−machining
Twist drill
Regrinding SK 32 − 10 soft
199
mechanical NK 63, 80 soft
EK 32 soft
Finish−grinding SK 20 soft
− Use soft abrasives for hard materials and hard abrasives for soft materials.
− Check the parameters of the abrasives (maximum circumferential velocity, binding agent, grade) before
installing them in the machine.
− When mounting the grinding wheels, take care that compensating shims (of cardboard or leather) are
placed on both sides.
− Allow rotating grinding wheels to come to rest; do not brake them manually.
200
Rake angle ?. Depends on the
work−piece and the process;
influences chip formation
Exceptions:
? = 0° form cutters
? < 0° cut file tooth
Cutting angle ?. Indicates the
position of the true rake in
relation to the shoulder of the cut
formed.
High−speed steels alloyed (Cr, W, Mo, V, Co) as SS or HSS; sometimes only soldered on or welded on
as a tip; high−temperature resistant up to 600 °C
Hard metals cast or sintered metallic carbides with additions of Co, Ni, Nb, Ta; soldered on or
clamped on as a tip; high−temperature resistant up to 1000 °C
Cutting ceramics Clamped on as reversible tips, suitable for high cutting speeds, sensitive to impact; do
not cool!
201
23.15.3. Cutting velocity, speed, diameter
at speed in 1/min
2 640 1600 2200 3200 4800 6400 8000 9600 12700 15900 23900 31800
4 480 800 1100 1600 2400 3200 4000 4800 6400 8000 12000 15900
6 320 530 750 1060 1600 2100 2650 3180 4240 5300 8000 10600
8 240 400 560 800 1200 1600 2000 2390 3180 3980 6000 8000
10 190 320 450 640 950 1300 1600 1910 2550 3180 4800 6400
12 160 265 370 530 800 1100 1320 1590 2130 2660 4000 5300
14 135 230 320 450 680 900 1140 1370 1820 2280 3410 4600
16 120 200 280 400 600 800 1000 1190 1590 1990 2980 4000
18 106 180 250 350 530 710 880 1060 1420 1770 2660 3440
20 96 160 225 320 480 640 800 960 1270 1590 2390 3180
24 79 130 190 265 400 530 660 800 1060 1330 1990 2660
28 68 115 160 228 350 450 570 680 910 1140 1710 2280
32 60 100 140 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1490 2000
36 53 88 125 175 280 355 440 530 710 890 1330 1770
40 48 79 112 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 1200 1590
45 42 71 100 140 210 285 350 420 570 710 1060 1410
202
24. Joining
Whitworth pipe thread R thread diameter = nominal width of pipe in inches R 3/4”
1 nut, 2 bolt
Dimensions in mm
203
0.4 0.1 0.335 0.277 0.292 0.061 0.054 0.06
Dimensions in mm
204
6 0.75 5.513 5.080 5.188 0.460 0.406 20.3
205
Whitworth pipe thread
206
Acme thread, single−start thread
Bolt (2):
Nut (1):
external diameter
b = d + 2a
minor diameter
D1 = d2 + 2b
t11 = 02.5 P + a
Dimensions in mm
207
250 − 400 85 − 110 40 − 52 12 6.25 5.5 0.25 0.75 5.75
520 − 640 270 − 290 135 − 155 24 12.5 11 0.5 1.5 11.5
Knuckle thread
1 nut, 2 bolt
r = 0.23851 P
R1 = 0.22105 P
= diameter
Dimensions in mm
208
40 − 100 6 4.2 2.117 0.353 1.084
209
24.1.3. Characteristics of screw joints
P mm dB mm Aq mm2 k mm sw mm m mm D mm k mm d mm
M6 1 5 17.9 4 10 5 10 4 6.4
M 16 2 14 144 10 24 13 − − 17
M 24 3 21 324 15 36 18 − − 25
M 36 4 32 759 23 55 28 − − 37
G E SG (CO2)
Plain butt weld, welded on one side > 0.5 <3 < 10
V−weld 3−8 3 − 20 4 − 20
Double−V weld − 12 − 40 20 − 40
Y−weld − − 10 − 20
Double−Y−weld − − 20 − 60
210
U−weld with capping pass − > 12 > 30
But
weld
General S
Plain butt ||
weld
V−weld V
211
Double X
V−weld
Y−weld Y
Fillet
weld
Fillet weld
Double fillet
weld
Corner weld
Edge groove
weld
212
24.2.3. Fusion welding processes
Dimensions in mm
Individual Electrode Electrode Spot Electrode Weld Overlapping Min. spot Spot
plate diameter tip diameter force in current spacing with shear
thickness (min.) diameter (min.) kN in kA regard to strength
(max.) in kN/
spot
shunt strength
0.4 8 4 3.2 1 5 8 9 6 1
0.8 10 6 4.4 2 8 11 15 9 3
213
3.2 20 10 8.9 8.0 20 22 42 18 23
single−row
double−row
staggered
continuous
interrupted
214
projection in the top plate
mash weld
burr weld
reinforced weld
Designation Figure
215
Single−row overlapping
Triple−row overlapping
216
Single−row butt riveted joint
217
double−row double butt riveted joint
218
Shape A
Shape B
219
Shape of Dimensions in mm
rivet d1 10 12 16 20 24 30
A d2 18 22 28 36 43 53
d3± 0.2 11 13 17 21 25 31
k 7 9.5 11.5 14 17 21
d2 16 19 25 32 40 48
d3 ± 0.2 11 13 17 21 25 31
k 6.5 7.5 10 13 16 19
R2 27 41 85 124.5 91 114
w 1 2
Shape A B
d1 10 12 16 20 24 30 10 12 16 20 24 30
1 max. grip in mm
16 10
20 6 14
24 9 8 17 16 15
32 17 15 13 22 22 20
40 22 22 18 16 28 28 28 26
50 32 30 26 22 36 36 34
60 40 38 34 30 26 44 42 42
80 58 52 48 44 38 60 60 60 60
100 72 68 66 62 58 78 78
125 88 86 82 78 98
200 132
Shape A B
d1 10 12 16 20 24 30 10 12 16 20 24 30
1 max. grip in mm
16 10
20 14 13
220
24 6 17 16
32 13 10 22 22 20
40 19 17 13 28 28 28 26
50 26 24 20 16 36 36 34 32
60 34 32 28 24 18 44 42 42
80 50 48 46 42 36 30 60 60 60 60
100 60 56 52 48 78 78
125 76 74 72 98
200 126
Grips of rivets in steel structures
Shape A B
d1 10 12 16 20 24 30 10 12 16 20 24 30
1 max. grip in mm
20 7 15
24 12 10 18 17
32 18 17 15 24 22 22
40 24 24. 20 18 32 30 30 28
50 34 32 28 24 20 40 38 38 36 34
60 40 36 32 28 46 46 44 44
80 56 54 50 46 42 62 62 64 64 64
100 74 72 70 66 62 78 78 80 82 82
soldering − + + −
221
production)
Dip brazing + + + −
Ultrasonic soldering − + + −
Controlled − + − + +
atmosphere furnace
brazing
Arc brazing + − + −
Hot−gas brazing − + + o
Reaction brazing − + + −
+ soldering or brazing possible without difficulty; 0 brazing possible in principle; − soldering or
brazing impossible
LSn 30 30 249
LSn 33 33 242
LSn 40 40 223
LSn 50 50 200
LSn 60 60 185
LSn 90 90 219
solidus liquidus
LMs 60 890 900 900 steel, malleable cast iron, copper and
copper alloys, nickel and nickel alloys
222
24.4.4. Brazing solders for aluminium and aluminium alloys
solidus liquidus
Tinning temperature in
°C
LSnZn40 260
LZnCd40 300
LAg12Cd7 800 copper and copper alloys small−scale brazing of thick parts;
medium−thick and thin parts without flux
LAg20Cd15 750 iron, steel, copper small−scale brazing of thin, cladded plates
LAg25Cd14 730 copper and copper alloys small−scale brazing of thick and thin parts
LAg30Cd12 700 copper and copper alloys small−scale brazing of medium−thick and
thin plates, wires, pipes (mass production)
LAg50Cd10 670
223
copper and copper brazing of thin parts (e.g. contact
alloys, silver and silver networks), knife handles
alloys
SHG 2 + − + − + 750 °C
SHG 3 + − + − + 1000 °C
LG2 − + − − + Al alloys up to 2 % Mg
224
Long annealing times and high annealing temperatures result in macrostructures and should be avoided.
Compensating of stresses after cold forming or after non−uniform cooling in heat treatment, hot forming or
joining.
Soft annealing. Several hours at 710° C, several times for a short period at 723 °C.
Removal of hard spots in the structure after forging or casting; formation of a homogeneous soft structure for
subsequent metal cutting.
Removal of the macrostructure after hot forming, casting or welding; increase in strength and toughness
225
Temperature in °C Colour
1400
1300 white
1100 orange
900 cherry−red
1 Normalizing,
2 recrystallization annealing,
3 soft annealing,
4 stress−free annealing
226
Heating of the steel (carbon content 0.4 − 1.5 %); rearrangement of the carbon particles; quenching (in water
or oil) results in a new, stressed structure; the workpieces become hard and brittle
Normal hardening
Surface hardening
Hardening effect on the surface only; surface−hardened workpieces with a tough core
25.2.2. Quenchants
0.5 − 0.9 %
0.9 − 1.5 %
227
Short parts
Long parts
(cutting punches,
centering pins,
(draw punches)
Hollow dies 1
gas space
228
Unequal parts
Flat parts
Deep dies 1
Spray
229
Chisels,
centre−punches,
piercers (quench
only the cutting
edge)
too soft + + +
non−uniformly + +
hard
too hard +
brittle +
Workpiece + +
distorted
or ruptured + +
Tempering
Heating to Ta and quick cooling. Reduction in the hardness by quenching (glass hardness, brittleness).
Adjustment of different hardness degrees, e.g. for tools
230
Ta drawing temperature (depends on the hardness required)
1 hardening, 2 tempering
Heating to Tv and cooling in still air, almost complete removal of hardness, increase in strength and toughness
owing to uniform, close−grained structure, for highly stressed workpieces
TV hardening temperature
1 hardening, 2 hardening with subsequent drawing
400 grey
380
360 greyish−blue
340
200 yellowy−white
180
231
232