PIPELINE CROSSING REQUIREMENTS

Some of the requirements for pipeline crossing roads and railroads are presented in the subsections
below. Requirements are based on the recommendations on API 1102.

Carrier pipe

As per section 2.3.1 of API 1102, a carrier pipe is a steel pipe for transporting gas or liquids.

Cased Pipeline

A cased pipeline is a pipeline (Carrier pipe) installed inside a casing that crosses beneath a road or
railroad.

Uncased Pipeline

An uncased pipeline is a pipeline installed beneath a road or railway line without a casing. Below are
some of the design requirements for an uncased pipeline crossing road.

4.1 UNCASED CROSSING

When pipelines crossing roads or railroads are uncased, the stresses resulting from the external
loads are transferred directly to the pipeline. These stresses must be carefully evaluated compared
to allowable values stipulated in codes and standards such as API 1102. Pipelines are uncased
because it is more challenging to protect cased pipelines against corrosion.

The requirements in the subsections below are as per the recommendation of API 1102

ROAD CROSSING

CROSSING ANGLE

The crossing angle, which is the intersection between the pipeline and the road, is defined in section
4.3.1 of API 1102. This angle should be near to 90 degrees, and in no case should it be less than 30
degrees

CROSSING LOCATION

Crossing in wet terrain and rocky terrain should be avoided as much as possible. It is difficult to bore
through rocky soil while it is difficult to excavate a pit for the boring machine in wet terrain.

BURIAL DEPTH (COVER REQUIREMENT)

The minimum burial depth recommended for uncased pipeline crossing roads is stated in section
4.4.2.

The pipeline cover is measured from the top of the pipeline to the surface of the road.

The data below and images are obtained from API 1102.
Highway Crossing

CASED CROSSING

When casing pipes are used, the stresses are not transferred to the carrier pipe; the casing pipe
takes the external load. There is a minimum recommended thickness for casing pipes. Casing pipes
with wall thickness lesser than these recommended values may fail when they are loaded beyond
certain limits.

When a casing pipe is used, the carrier pipe should be designed to meet the applicable code
requirement for transporting the fluid, such as ASME B31.4, ASME B31.8.

Cased pipeline crossing is not as popular as uncased crossing due to possible increased corrosion
emanating from the cased section. After the casing pipe has been successfully installed, the carrier
pipe is installed inside the casing pipe. The carrier pipe should be supported circumferentially around
the casing pipe by installing insulating spacers along the pipeline’s length.

The below requirements for cased crossing are drawn from API 1102

GENERAL REQUIREMENT

I have grouped some of the requirements, including installation requirements, under general
requirements. It should be noted that there are other requirements not stated in this article; refer to
API 1102 and other publications for further information’s:

When a casing pipe is installed using a trenchless technique, the overbore between the pipe and the
soil should be minimal to minimise the void between the pipe and the adjacent soil. A large overbore
may eventually lead to the collapse of the surrounding soil, which may transfer shock loads to the
casing pipe.

All the casing pipes should be wholly joined. The welding should be complete and be performed by
qualified welders.

Multiple carrier pipes can be installed in one casing pipe, but each carrier pipe should be
appropriately supported and insulated from the others.

There shall be no internal obstructions in the casing pipe to facilitate easy installation of the carrier
pipe.

The casing pipe should be straight. The bedding for casing pipe installed using open cut should be
uniform, backfill and padding material should be such that damage to the pipeline and casing pipe
coating is prevented.

The carrier pipe should be appropriately supported circumferentially by insulating materials

supported on the casing pipe. The insulators should be appropriately spaced.

The casing pipe should be tested to verify if it is electrically isolated from the carrier pipe.

Casing seals shall be installed at both ends of the casing pipe. The seals prevent water intrusion from
the surrounding soil into the casing pipe. The water intrusion speeds up the corrosion of the
pipeline.

CASING MATERIAL

Casing pipes are made from steel materials, including used or new pipes rejected mill pipes. The
casing may be longitudinally split pipes that are further welded together.

CASING PIPE SIZE

The casing pipe internal diameter should be large enough to facilitate easy installation of the carrier
pipe. Size should be such that the external loads are not transferred to the carrier pipe. As stated in
section 5.3 of API 1102, the casing pipe should be at least two (2) nominal pipe size larger than the
carrier pipe. This implies that if the carrier pipe is NPS 10, the casing pipe should be at least NPS 14.

PIPELINE LOCATION AND ALIGNMENT

Cased pipeline should be installed at an intersecting angle close to 90 degrees to the road or
railroad; in no instance should the angle be lesser than 30 degrees.

For road crossings, the pipeline casing should extend a minimum of 2 ft. (0.6 m) beyond the toe of
slope or base grade, or 3 ft. (0.9 m) beyond the bottom of the drainage ditch, whichever is greater.

For rail crossings, the casing pipe should extend at least 25 ft. (7.6 m) to each side from the
centreline of the outside track or 45 ft. (13.7 m) from the centreline of the outside track when the
casing pipe is open at both ends.

CASING VENT
A casing vent shall be installed on the casing pipe. One or two may be welded to the casing pipe. The
minimum projecting height of casing pipe shall be 4 ft. (1.2 m) above the ground surface as
stipulated in section 5.10.5 of API 1102

RECOMMENDED CASING PIPE THICKNESS

When a casing pipe is installed using a trenchless technique, the minimum recommended thickness
is stated in Annex C of API 1102. Casing pipe for railroad crossing may vary in thickness depending on
if the pipe is coated/cathodically protected or not

The table below is an extract from API 1102 Annex C

Table 5: Minimum Nominal Wall Thickness for Flexible Casing in Bored Crossing

Casing Pipes installed by an open cut or trenched crossing, the thickness stated in Table 5 above can
be used if the cover depths stated in Table 6 and 7 are met. If the cover depth requirement is not
satisfied, the casing pipe’s wall thickness should be increased, or stabilised backfilled should be used
at the pipeline crossing.

CASED PIPELINE COVER REQUIREMENT – ROAD CROSSING

The recommended cover depth stated in table 6 is extracted from API 1102. Note the cover depth
should be measured from the top of the pipe to the surface of the road (highway)

Table 6: Cover Requirement for Cased Pipeline Crossing Roads

CASED PIPELINE COVER REQUIREMENT – RAILROAD CROSSING

The minimum casing pipe cover depth measured from the top of the casing pipe to the rail base is
stated in section 5.7.1 of API 1102. See below values extracted from API 1102.

Table 7: Cover Requirement for Cased Pipeline Crossing Railroads

UNCASED PIPELINE CROSSING DESIGN

The focus of this section is to perform an uncased pipeline road crossing design. Kindly note that
some of the definitions and explanations are tailored to road crossings. However, they may also
apply to railroad crossings.

The procedure for checking the stresses in the pipeline at crossings is shown in Figure 2: section
4.6.12 of API 1102. Design

As previously stated, uncased pipelines are subjected to both internal and external loads.
The internal loads result from the internal pipeline pressure, while the external loads result from
dead loads (earth loads, i.e. weight of soil cover) and live loads (road or railroad traffic loads). An
impact factor should be applied to live loads.

STRESSES DUE TO INTERNAL LOADS

CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE.

This stress is evaluated using equation 7 in API 1102

Where

P = Internal Pressure or MAOP/MOP (Psi or kPa)

D = Pipeline Outside Diameter

t = Pipeline Wall thickness

STRESS DUE TO EXTERNAL LOADS

STRESSES DUE TO EARTH LOAD

The circumferential stress resulting from earth load is evaluated using the equation below.

Where

KHe = Stiffness factor for circumferential stress from earth load

Be = Burial factor for earth load

Ee = Excavation factor for earth load

Ps = Soil unit weight (lb/in3 or kN/m3) mostly taken as 120lb/ft3 for most soil

D = pipe outside diameter (in. or m)

KHe (stiffness factor) is used to account for the interaction between the soil and the pipe. This is a
function of the pipe wall thickness ratio to the pipe’s diameter (tw/D) and modulus of soil reaction.
The values of KHe can be obtained from the graph shown in Figure 3 of API 1102. The graph shows
values of E’ as a function of (tw/D). E’ values for auger boring installation are from 0.2 to
2.0kips/in2; however, a value of 0.5kips/in2 is mostly used.

Below graph for obtaining KHe is extracted from API 1102

Figure 8: Stiffness Factor for Earth Load Circumferential Stress (KHe)

Burial factor (Be)

The burial factor is obtained as a function of the pipe cover ratio (depth) to the bore
diameter (H/Bd). This value can be obtained from Figure 4 of API 1102
Figure 9: Burial Factor for Earth Load Circumferential Stress (Be)

Unknown bored diameter can be taken as Bd = D+2in

For open cut Bored Diameter Bd = D

Where D = pipeline outside diameter

Excavation Factor (Ee) is a function of the bore diameter ratio to the pipeline diameter.

This value can be obtained from Figure 5 of API 1102

Figure 10: Excavation Factor for Earth Load Circumferential Stress (Ee)

STRESSES DUE TO LIVE LOADS

SURFACE LIVE LOADS

The highway live loads (w) results from the road surface wheel loads. Only the load of one of the
wheel sets is considered in the crossing design. The design wheel load is taken as either the truck
single axle load (Ps) or the maximum wheel load from a truck tandem axle set (Pt). Refer to section
4.7.2.2.1 of API 1102 for details of how to convert truck’s axle loads into equivalent wheel load

The recommended maximum single axle wheel load (Ps) = 12kips (53.4kN)

The recommended maximum tandem axle wheel load (Pt) = 10kips (44.5kN)

Selecting single or tandem axle loading for crossing design depends on the pipeline diameter (D),
cover depth (H), and the road surface type (flexible pavement, rigid pavement or no pavement). The
critical axle configuration for various pavement types, cover depth and pipe diameter are given in
Table 1 of API 1102. See table below.

Based on the Ps and Pt, the applied design surface pressure can be evaluated.

Where P = Pt or Ps (lbs or kN)

Ap = the contact area over which the wheel load is applied. Ap is taken as 144in2 (0.093m2)

Substituting (P) and (Ap) into the equation to obtain (w)

This implies that for

Single Axle Loading w = 83.3psi (574kPa)

Tandem axle Loading w = 69.4psi (479kPa)

For other wheel loads, refer to Annex A. of API 1102

Table 12: Critical Axle Configurations for Design Wheel Loads of Ps = 12 Kips (53.4kN) and Pt = 10
Kips (44.5kN)

IMPACT FACTOR

It is recommended to increase the live loads by an impact factor (Fi). The impact factor is a function
of pipeline cover at the crossing location. Impact factors are shown in Figure 7 of API 1102. Below is
an extract from API 1102.
Figure 11: Recommended Impact Factor Vs Depth

5.2.2.3 HIGHWAY CYCLIC STRESSES

5.2.2.3.1 CYCLIC CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESSES DUE TO HIGHWAY VEHICULAR LOAD (PSI OR KPA)
This is calculated using the equation below

Where

KHh = Highway stiffness factor for cyclic circumferential stress

GHh = Highway geometry factor for cyclic circumferential stress

R = Highway Pavement type factor

L = Highway axle configuration factor

Fi = Impact factor.

W = applied design surface pressure (psi or kPa)

The highway stiffness factor (KHh) is a function of the pipeline wall thickness ratio to the diameter.
The values are presented in the graph in 14 of API 1102.
Figure 12: Highway Stiffness Factor for Cyclic Circumferential Stress, (KHh)

The Highway geometry factor is presented in Figure 15 of API 1102

Axle configuration factor (L) and highway pavement factor ® are dependent on the cover depth (H),
pipeline diameter (D) and the axle configurations. Values of R and L are extracted from Table 2 of API
1102, as shown below.
Figure 13: Highway Geometry Factor for Cyclic Circumferential Stress, GHh
Table 12: Highway Pavement Type Factors, R, and Axle Configuration Factors, L

  CYCLIC LONGITUDINAL STRESSES DUE TO HIGHWAY VEHICULAR LOAD

This is calculated using the equation below.

Where

KLh = Highway stiffness factor for cyclic longitudinal stress

GLh = Highway geometry factor for cyclic longitudinal stress

R = Highway Pavement type factor

L = Highway axle configuration factor

Fi = Impact factor.

W = applied design surface pressure (psi or kPa)

See figure 16 and 17 of API 1102 for graphs showing values of K Lh and GLh, respectively.

ALLOWABLE STRESSES

ALLOWABLE CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS

The circumferential stress is calculated using Barlow equation below.

The maximum allowable circumferential stress is

Where

P = internal pressure, taken as the MAOP or MOP (psi or kPa)

D = Pipeline outside Diameter (in. or mm)

t = Wall thickness of the pipeline

F = Pipeline design factor see ASME B31.4 and 31. 8 for values

E = Longitudinal joint factor

T = Temperature derating factor

SMYS = Pipeline specified minimum yield strength

TOTAL EFFECTIVE STRESS CHECK

The total effective stress (Seff) is calculated using the equation below.

Where

Esteel = Steel young’s modulus of elasticity

S1 = Maximum circumferential stress

S2 = Maximum Longitudinal stress

S3 = Maximum radial stress

CHECK FOR FATIGUE

The essence of this check is to compare the stress on components normal to a weld against the
allowable limits stated in API 1102, referred to as fatigue endurance limit.

5.2.3.3.1 GIRTH WELD –CYCLIC LONGITUDINAL STRESS CHECK

For highways, the fatigue check is performed using equation 17 of API 1102

5.2.3.3.2 LONGITUDINAL WELD –CYCLIC CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS CHECK

For highways, the fatigue check is performed using equation 17 of API 1102

Where

SFG = Fatigue endurance limit of girth weld = 12,000 psi (82,740 kPa). See Table 3 API 1102

SFL = Fatigue endurance limit of the longitudinal weld (psi or kPa) obtained from Table 3 API 1102

F = Pipeline design factor

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