1.

1 Characteristics of living organisms

5 kingdoms:
Animals, Plants, Fungi, Protoctists, Prokaryotes

7 characteristics of living organisms:

1. Nutrition
Definition: obtaining of food to provide energy and substances needed for growth
Plants:
● Photosynthesise, using the energy from sunlight to turn raw materials into
glucose
● Glucose is converted into cellulose and proteins
● Require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions (for making proteins)

Animals:
● Eat plants or animals to obtain nutrients
● Require organic compounds, ions and water

2. Respiration
Definition: chemical reactions that occur in cells to break down nutrients
molecules to release energy for metabolism
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy released

3. Movement
Definition: cause an organism to change its position or place

4. Growth
Definition: a permanent increase in size or dry mass by an increase in cell number
or cell size or both

5. Excretion
Definition: the removal of waste chemicals (toxic materials, substances in excess of
requirement) made in cells during metabolism
Metabolism is chemical reactions in cells

6. Reproduction
Definition: the formation of new individuals
 7. Sensitivity
Definition: the ability to detect or sense stimuli (change) in the internal or external
and to make appropriate responses

1.2 Classification

Classification: the sorting out of the vast array of living organisms into groups

Order of classification:
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
The organisms in a kingdom share some similar features, e.g. within the plant
kingdom all plants are green and carry out photosynthesis

The binomial system: naming species as an internationally agreed system in which

the scientific name of an organisms is made up of two parts showing the genus and
species

Species: a group of closely related organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile
(ability to reproduce) offspring

The importance of classification:

Similarities between organisms may occur because they have evolved along the
same lines, classification system aim to reflect evolutionary relationships

Traditional methods for classification:

● Anatomy: internal structure
● Morphology: outward appearance

More accurate methods for classification:

● Studying the sequences of amino acids in proteins
● Studying the sequences of bases in DNA
● The more similarities there are between the sequences of any two animals
the more closely related they are
1.3 Features of organisms

Cells of all living organisms:

A cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA (genetic material), ribosomes (for protein
synthesis) and enzymes (involved in respiration

Prokaryotic cells:
Cells without a nucleus (bacteria)

Eukaryotic cells:
Cells with a nucleus

Plant kingdom:
● Multicellular
● Have chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
● Plant cells have chloroplasts full of chlorophyll, cellulose cell walls and a
large sap-filled vacuole

Animal kingdom:
● Multicellular
● Do not photosynthesise and obtain their food by eating other animals and/or
plants
● Animal cells do not have cell walls, chloroplast or large vacuoles
● Nervous system which coordinate their responses to stimuli and their
movements

Prokaryote kingdom:
● Bacteria
● No nucleus
● A loop of DNA within the cytoplasm
 ● Usually have additional loops of DNA inside their cytoplasm called plasmids
● No mitochondria
● Have extensions called flagella

Protoctisits:
● Classified in this kingdom as they do not belong in any of the other four
kingdoms
● Cells with nucleus
● Many are unicellular and some are multicellular
● Algae, Plasmodium (cause malaria)

Fungi kingdom:
● Most are multicellular
● Yeast are single-celled
● Has a nucleus and a cell wall which is made out of chitin
● Do not have chlorophyll and cannot carry out photosynthesis
● Most are saprotrophs, which means they feed on dead or decaying matter
● Some are parasites, that enter the cells of another organisms in order to
multiply

Viruses:
● Not cells
● Particles made up of genetic material surrounded by a protein coat
● Parasites
● Are not classified in any of the five kingdoms
1.4 Vertebrates

Vertebrates: animals that have a vertebral column or backbone

Five main group of vertebrates: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

Fish:
● Live in water permanently
● Streamlined
● Fins for swimming and for balance
● Breath using their gills
● Skin covered with scales
● Eyes and a lateral line for detecting pressure change in water
● Lay eggs with jelly coating

Amphibians:
● Smooth, moist skin
● Most live on land
● Return to water to breed
● Lay eggs with jelly coating
● Breathing using their lungs and skin
Reptiles:
● Dry, scaly skin (cut down water loss)
● Can live in dry regions
● Lay leathery eggs
● Breathe using their lungs

Birds:
● Have feather and wings
● Most are able to fly (except penguins)
● Lay eggs with hard shells
● Homeothermic (they are able to regulate their body temperature)

Mammals:
● Have hair or fur
● Breathe using lungs
● Homeothermic
● Give birth to babies
● Feed babies with milk from mothers

1.5 Invertebrates

Invertebrates: animals that do not have a vertebral column or backbone

Arthropods: a group of invertebrates that have segmented body, an external

skeleton (exoskeleton) and jointed legs

Four different groups of invertebrates:

Crustaceans, myriapods, insects and arachnids

Crustaceans:
● Body divided into cephalothorax (head-thorax) and abdomen
● 2 pairs of antennae
● Compound eyes
● Between five and twenty pairs of legs
● Breathe using gills
● Crabs, shrimps, crayfish
Myriapods:
● Centipedes and millipedes
● Long body divided into many segments
● Centipedes have 1 pair of legs on each segment
● Centipedes are fast-moving carnivores
● Millipedes have 2 pairs of legs on each body segments
● Millipedes are slow-moving herbivores

Insects:
● Body divided in head, thorax and abdomen
● 3 pairs of legs on the thorax
● Many have 2 pairs of wings
● 1 pair of antennae
● Compound eyes
● Breathe through spiracles (holes 0n the sides of the thorax and abdomen)
● Can fly
● Bees, flies, beetles, butterflies

Arachnids:
● Body divided into cephalothorax (head-thorax) and abdomen
● 4 pairs of legs
● No wings, antennae, not compound eyes (but simple)
● Weave silken webs with their spinnerets
● Spiders, scorpions, ticks
1.6 Ferns and flowering plants

Ferns:
● Strong stems, roots and leaves
● Reproduce by spores, which are carried by the ind to form new plants

Features of flowering plants:

● True stem, roots and leaves
● Reproduce by means of flowers which make seeds
● The shoot is the part of the plant above ground
● The shoot is made up of a stem bearing leaves, buds (apical bud) and flowers

Flowering plants can be divided into 2 groups: dicotyledons and monocotyledons

Dicotyledons:
● Leaves are often broad with network of branching veins
● 2 cotyledons (seed leaves) in a seed
● Magnolia
● The parts of flowers are in multiple of 4 or 5

Monocotyledons:
● Leaves with parallel veins
● Long and narrow leaves
● 1 cotyledons in a seed
● The parts of the flowers are in multiple of 3
● Grass, cereals

Dichotomous key: used to identify living things

More to learn about invertebrates:

Cnidarians:
● Have hollow (empty) bodies
● Mouth is only body opening
● Have tentacles
● Live in water, aquatic
● Jellyfish, sea anemone
Flatworms:
● Flat, thin bodies
● Digestive system has one opening

Annelids:
● Also known as the segmented worms
● Rounded bodies
● Body made up of rings and segments
● Earthworm

Echinoderms:
● Spiny body in five distinct parts
● Central mouth
● Starfish, sea cucumber
Molluscs:
● Soft body in 3 continuous parts with head, foot and body mass
● May have one or two shells
● Snail, octopus, squid, oyster

2.1 Structure of cells

Cells: the smallest building blocks that make up all living organisms

Cell membrane:
● Partially permeable
● Allow simple substances to enter and leave the cells, e.g. carbon dioxide,
water and oxygen
● Form a barrier between the cell and its surroundings
● Keep contents inside
● Controls movement of other substances into and out of the cell, e.g. glucose

Nucleus:
● Controls all activities in the cell
● Controls how cells develop
● Contains DNA

Cytoplasm:
● Place where many chemical reactions take place, e.g. respiration and protein
synthesis
● Jelly-like

Chloroplast:
● Plant cells only
● Photosynthesis
● Store starch

Cell wall:
● Plant cells only
● Fully permeable
● Allows water and dissolved substances to pass through freely
● Gives shape to cells
● Stops cells from bursting when they fill with water

Sap vacuole:
● Full of water to maintain shape and ‘firmness’ of cell
● Stores salts and sugars, amino acid and wastes
● Only plant cells have large permanent vacuole in cytoplasm containing cell
sap
● Animal cells have small vacuole in cytoplasm which do not contain cell sap
2.2 Cell organelles

Cell organelles: small structures present in the cytoplasm of the cell include
mitochondria, vesicles and ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondria:
● Relatively large organelles
● Found in all eukaryotic cells
● Double membrane
● The outer membrane controls the entry and exit of materials
● The inner membrane forms many folds on which are the sites of aerobic
respiration
● Cells with high rates of respiration have many mitochondria to provide
sufficient energy, e.g. liver cells

Ribosomes:
● Small organelles
● Found in huge numbers in a cells
● Found in both eukaryotic (attached to rough ER) and prokaryotic cells
● Synthesise proteins, e.g. enzymes involved in respiration

Rough endoplasmic reticulum:

● Complex organelles
● Double membrane
● Contain fluid-filled spaces between the membranes which allow materials to
be transported throughout the cell
● Where ribosomes are present on their outer surface, the membranes are
called rough ER
 ● The main function of rough ER is to package and transport proteins made by
the ribosomes
● Cells that produce a lot of protein have a large amount of rough ER

Vesicles:
● Small pieces of rough ER may be pinched off at the ends to form small
vesicles
● In this way proteins can be made and stored in the rough ER and
transported around the cell
● Used to transport materials in the cell

Size of cells and specimens:

Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
Magnification = image size ÷ actual size
Actual size is bigger than the image size of a cell

Units:
There are 1000 micrometres (um) in a millimetre (mm)
2.3 Different types of cell

Specialised cells: cells that carry out certain functions

Ciliated cells:
● Found in the air passages in the lungs (trachea and bronchi) and in oviducts
in the female reproductive system
● These cells have cilia on their surfaces
● In the airways, cilia move the mucus (a slimy protection) that traps dust and
pathogen up to the nose and throat
● In the oviducts, cilia move the eggs from the ovary to the uterus

Root hair cells:

● Long extension
● Large surface area
● Adapted for taking up water and mineral ions

Xylem vessels:
● Cylindrical and empty
● Arrange into columns like pipes made from hollowed-out dead cells which
allows water to pass through
 ● Allow water and ions to move from the roots to the rest of the plants
● Thick wall to provide support to the stems and leaves

Nerve cells:
● Highly specialised cells
● Thin extensions of the cytoplasm like vires
● Able to transmit information in the form of nerve impulses around the body
● Contain lots of mitochondria to provide energy

Red blood cells:

● Contain haemoglobin which allows them
to carry oxygen around the body
● Shaped like flattened discs, this shapes
provides a large surface area compared with
their volume allowing for rapid diffusion
● Thin cell membranes to decrease the diffusion distance

Palisade mesophyll cells:

● Have numerous of chloroplasts in the cytoplasm which trap light energy for
photosynthesis
● Site of photosynthesis
● They are placed at the top of the leaf where most of the light hits enabling
them to absorb much light energy as possible
Sperm cells:
● Have a tail and are adapted for swimming
● Contains lots of mitochondria so the cells has enough energy to reach the
egg cells
● The head of the sperm carries genetic information from the male parent to
the female parent
● Genes from the father are present inside the nucleus of the egg

Egg cells:
● Genes of the mother are found in the sperm nucleus

2.4 Levels of organisation

Cells: the building blocks, e.g. palisade cells

Tissues: similar cells working together in the same way; all the cells in a tissue look
the same and they work together to carry out a shared function; e.g. muscle tissue
and mesophyll

Organ: groups of different tissues working together; e.g. the heat is an organ and it
is made up of different tissues, such as cardiac muscle and nervous tissue, leaf

Organ system: a group of organs working together, e.g. heart and blood vessels
make up circulatory system
3.1 Diffusion

Molecules in gases:
Move about in a random way, collide with one another and bounce of into new
directions to fill up the space available

Diffusion:
● The net movement of particles (molecules or ions) from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration down the concentration
gradient, as a result of their random movement
● Passive movement as cells do not need to use energy to move the molecules
● Molecules have kinetic energy which comes from the random movements

Result of diffusion: molecules spread out evenly, equilibrium

Cells and diffusion:

● Gain some of the substances they need by diffusion from their surroundings
 ● Lose some of their waste substances to their surroundings by diffusion
● Substances (CO2 and O2)have to cross cell membrane that are partially
permeable, this is important as these substances are crucial to metabolic
reactions (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration) which occur within the cell

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

1. The distance molecules have to travel
● Cell membrane are very thin
● A greater diffusion distance slows the rate of diffusion as molecules must
travel further

2. The concentration gradient

● As the concentration gradient increase (greater difference in concentration),
rate of diffusion increases
● Cells keep a low concentration inside the cytoplasm
● Molecules keep diffusing into the cell because the cell is maintaining a steep
concentration gradient

3. The temperature
● Molecules move faster and collide more often as they gained kinetic energy

4. The surface area

● As the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion increase as there is more
space available for the substances to diffuse through

3.2 Osmosis

Osmosis:
● The net movement of water molecules from an area of higher water
potential to an area of lower water potential through a partially permeable
membrane
● Water molecules are free to move through the membrane in both directions
by kinetic energy
● The cell membrane has tiny holes in it which allows small molecules to pass
through

Solutions:
● Dilute solution: high concentration of water/ high water potential
 ● Concentrated solution: low concentration of water/ low water potential

A model cell:
● Dialysis tubing is partially permeable
● Dialysis tubing can be used to represent the cell membrane

Isotonic solution: the water potentials outside and inside of the cell are the same

Hypertonic solution: the water potential outside the cell is greater than the water
potential inside the cell

Hypotonic solution: the water potential inside the cell is greater than the water
potential outside the cell

3.3 Osmosis in plant and animal cells

Turgidity:
● When a plant cell is placed in the water and water enters the cells as the cell
sap lowered the water potential inside the cell as it contains a solution of
salts and sugars
● Turgid: when cells are swollen due to high-water content (balloon)
● Cell walls prevent cells from bursting
 ● Turgor pressure: the pressure on the inelastic cell wall from the cell
membrane pushing upon it
● Turgid cells give the plant support, they keep the stems of many plants
upright

Flaccid:
● When plant cells are placed in a concentrated sugar or salt solution water
passes out of the cell by osmosis as there is a higher water potential inside
the cell
● Flaccid: when water moves out of the cell, cells are no longer firm and
become limp

Plasmolysis:
● As more water leaves the cells the cytoplasm starts to move away
● Plasmolysis: the shrinking of the cytoplasm away from the wall when there is
too little water in the cell

Osmosis in animal cells:

● Animal cells have no cell wall to them swelling so they burst
● Animal cells shrink as water passes out ot the cell by osmosis

3.4 Active transport

Active transport:
 ● The movement of particles through a cell membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration using energy from
respiration
● E.g. the concentration of magnesium ions is far greater inside the vacuole of
the root hair cell than it is in the water in the soil (the uptake of ions from
root hair cells)
● The movement of ions or molecules in or out of a cell through the cell
membrane against a concentration gradient using energy released during
respiration
● Cells take up molecules and ions and keep them in high concentrations
● Glucose is take up in the small intestine and kidney tubules, glucose moves
against the concentration gradient through carrier proteins

Carrier proteins:
● Carrier proteins facilitate active transport
● They are embedded in the cell membrane and allow passage through it
● Molecules from the side with lower concentration bind to the carrier protein
● The carrier protein then changes shape using energy from respiration, this
forces the molecule to move through the membrane to the side with high
concentration, where it is released
4.1 Biological molecules

Biological molecules: complex chemicals that are needed by living organisms for
metabolism, e.g. the release of energy in respiration, protein synthesis, growth and
repair of cells

Carbohydrates:
● Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
● Made up of many sugar molecules
● Include sugars and starches
● When many glucose molecules bind together in a chain cellulose (cell walls
of plants), starch (stored in plants) and glycogen (stored in animals) can be
made
● Starch and glucose are stored in cells and used in respiration to provide
energy for the organism

Fats:
● Fats and oils are made up of glycerol and fatty acids
● Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
● Used for energy storage and thermal insulation in the body
● A fat molecule: 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecule

Proteins:
● Made up of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur
● Long-chain molecules made up of smaller molecules called amino acids
(about 20 different types)
● Different arrangements of amino acids make up different proteins and form
different shapes
● Antibodies also have a specific shape, formed by a specific sequence of
amino acids, this allows them to bind to antigens on foreign pathogens to kill
them
● Enzymes are proteins which each active site has a specific shape, allowing it
to bind to a specific substrate molecule to catalyze metabolic reactions
4.2 Chemical tests for biological molecules

Testing for starch:

Name of the solution Iodine solution

Colour Yellow or light brown

Positive Turns blue-black

Negative Remains yellow or light brown

Testing for reducing sugars (e.g. glucose):

Name of the solution Benedict’s solution

Colour Bright blue

Positive Green (only little), yellow, orange (a lot)

Negative Remains blue

Testing for protein:

Name of the solution Biuret solution (copper sulfate and sodium hydroxide)

Colour Blue

Positive Turns purple, violet or lilac

Negative Remains blue

Testing for fats: (fat will dissolve in ethanol)

Name of the solution Ethanol

Colour Colourless

Positive Cloudy white emulsion

Negative Remains colourless

Testing for Vitamin C:

Name of the solution DCPIP

Colour Blue

Positive Decolourises

Negative Remains blue

4.3 DNA

DNA:
● Each chromosome is made of thousands of genes, genes is made up of a
short length of DNA

Structure of DNA:
● Each DNA molecule is made up of thousands of units called a nucleotide
● A single unit molecule is made up of: a phosphate, a sugar, a bas
● DNA is made up of 2 strands of nucleotides like a ladder
● The 2 strands of DNA coiled together to form a double helix
Base pairing:
● 4 different bases in DNA
● T with A
● C and G

Extended content: water as an important solvent

● Water is an important molecule that is a major component of cells

● A solvent in which chemical reactions occur
● Helps to maintain a constant temperature in the body
● A metabolite: a substance needed for metabolism
● Needed for digestion to provide a medium for enzymes to act in and to allow
free passage of digestive products so they can be absorbed into the blood
● It allows soluble molecules, such as the products of digestion, to be
transported around the body and through cell membranes
● Transports waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide to be excreted
5.1 Structure and action enzymes

Catalyst and enzymes:

● Enzymes are proteins that act as biological catalysts
● A catalyst is a substance which speeds up the rate of reaction in chemical
reactions, without being used up

Why are enzymes important:

● Enzymes are important to living organisms as they speed up metabolic
reactions which would take too long to keep organisms alive

Functions of enzymes:
1. Breaking large molecules into small ones
● When large food molecules are broken down into small ones so that they can
be absorbed and then used

2. Building up large molecules from small ones

● Small molecules, such as glucose, are joined together to make large
molecules e.g. starch and cellulose
 3. Converting one small molecule into another
● Many of the chemical reactions that occur inside cells involve small changes
to molecules, e.g. adding or removing atoms or groups of atoms
● There are enzymes that remove hydrogen from compounds during
respiration

Enzymes:
● All enzymes contain an active site, which is a sequence of amino acid with a
specific shape
● The shape of the active site is complementary to the substrate
● When the enzyme breaks the substrate down, the substrate enters the active
site to form an enzyme-substrate complex
● The substrate is broken down and the product is released, the enzyme
continues to work
● Each enzyme is complementary to only one type of substrate , each enzyme
catalyses one reaction

5.2 Factors affecting enzyme action: temperature

How to measure the rate:

● Measure how much product is formed
● How much substrate is used

Temperature:
● As the temperature increases up to the enzyme’s optimum (best temperature
for enzyme action), the rate of reaction increases as the molecules have
more kinetic energy and they move faster
● Consequently, more successful collision occur (more chance of collision) and
more enzyme-substrate complexes can form
● At very high temperatures above the optimum, the enzyme becomes
denatured and the active site changes shape, the substrate no longer fits
● Y-axis: rate of reaction
5.3 Enzymes and pH

pH:
● Enzymes have an optimum pH that they work best at
● As the pH moves away from the optimum pH of the enzyme, the shape of the
active site change, the enzyme becomes denatured
● The substrate can no longer fit in the active site and no enzyme-substrate
complexes can form
6.1 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis:
 ● A metabolic reaction occuring in plants which light energy converts raw
materials into carbohydrates such as glucose, which can be stored in cells as
starch and used as an energy source via respiration
● The raw materials: carbon dioxide and water
● The products: glucose and oxygen
● The concentration of gases in the atmosphere are kept constant by
photosynthesis

Chloroplast:
● Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells
● Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll that transfers light energy into chemical
energy for the synthesis of carbohydrates/glucose
6.2 What is needed for photosynthesis

The requirement for photosynthesis:

1. Chlorophyll
● A green pigment that absorbs the energy from light

2. Carbon dioxide
● Diffuses into the leaves from the air

3. Water
● Absorbed by the plant’s roots
● Difficult to show that water is needed as it is extremely difficult to take water
completely away

4. Light
● Provides energy for the process

Before those experiment before:

● To be certain that the investigation is valid, there must be no starch present
in the leaf at the starch
● De-starching: a plant is left in the dark for at least 48 hours

Showing that carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis:

● Take a de-starched plant and enclose it in a plastic bag with a chemical that
absorb carbon dioxide, e.g. soda lime
● Leave the plant in the light for a few hour and test a leaf for starch using the
iodine solution
● Set-up B is a control experiment to prove that absence of carbon dioxide
that caused the lack of starch and not other factors
Showing that light is needed for photosynthesis:

● Take a de-starched plant and cover part of the leaf with some aluminium foil
to prevent light getting through
● Leave the plant in the light for a few hours and test a leaf for starch using the
iodine solution

Showing that chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis:

● Take a de-starched, variegated plant (variegated means some parts of the

leaves are white because there is no chlorophyll there)
● Leave the plant in the light for a few hours and test a leaf for starch using the
iodine solution
6.3 Products of photosynthesis

Glucose:
1. Some of the glucose is used for respiration
2. Some glucose is converted to satch and stored in the leaves for future usage
3. Some glucose is converted to cellulose
4. Some glucose is converted to sucrose and transported to other parts of the
plant in phloem
5. Glucose and nitrate are used to form amino acids, which are built up to
proteins

Oxygen:
● By-product (a secondary product)
● Some is used by the plant’s respiration
● Most diffuses out of the leaves into the atmosphere
6.4 Rate of photosynthesis

How to measure the rate:

● How much starch is produced (change in dry mass, difficult)
● How much oxygen is produced

Limiting factor:
● Limiting factor as something present in the environment in such short
supply that it restricts life processes
● At night, the light intensity is very low hence the rate of photosynthesis is
also very low

Carbon dioxide concentration:

● A limiting factor
● As CO2 concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis also increases
● Above a certain concentration the rate remains constant , there is another
limiting factor
Temperature:
● A limiting factor
● Photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction
● As these enzymes have an optimum temperature, photosynthesis also has an
optimum temperature
● At low temperatures, for example in the winter, plants photosynthesize
slowly as the enzymes have little kinetic energy, thus few enzyme-substrate
complexes are made
● At very high temperatures, these enzymes denature, also slowing the rate of
photosynthesis

Light intensity:
● A limiting factor
● As light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis increases
● This is because increase the light intensity increases the energy available to
the plant for photosynthesis
● Above a certain light intensity the rate remains constant, there is another
limiting factor
6.5 Glasshouse production

Knowledge of limiting factors:

● Useful for farmers as they can reduce the limitation on the rate of
photosynthesis due to these factors
● The plants have more energy use for growth, thus the yield is higher and
growth time is shorter
● Farmers can reduce the effects of these limiting factors by placing plants in a
greenhouse

Greenhouse production control:

1. Temperature
● Sunlight heats up the inside of the glasshouse
● The glass stops a lot of this heat from escaping
● Electric heaters are used in cold weather
● Ventilator flaps are opened to cool the glasshouse on hot days

2. Light
 ● The glass lets in sunlight
● Artificial lighting can be used when light intensity gets too low
● Blinds keep out very strong light

3. Carbon dioxide
● Carbon dioxide can be pumped into the greenhouse
● Burn butane or natural gas which provides carbon dioxide (+ heat will rise
the temperature)

4. Water
● Automatic watering systems using sprinklers and humidifiers

6.6 Leaves

Leaves is adapted for photosynthesis:

1. A large surface area
● To absorb light rays

2. A thin shape
● Gas can diffuse in and out easily
● Reduce diffusing distance

3. Many chloroplast
● To absorb light for the reaction as much as possible

4. Veins
 ● To support the leaf surface and to carry water and ions to the leaf cells, and
to take sucrose and amino acids away from the leaf to all other parts of the
plant

Inside a leaf and how it is adapted:

Palisade mesophyll cells:

● Packed tightly together near the upper surface to the leaf to maximise
absorption of light where its intensity is highest
● Contain many chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis
● Gaps between cells to allow for efficient gas exchange

Chloroplast:
● Where photosynthesis occurs
● Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which allows light energy to be absorbed
and converted to chemical energy
Cuticle:
● Waxy layer that is waterproof and reduce water loss from the leaf without
reducing light absorption

Upper and lower epidermis:

● A protective barrier around the leaf to prevent pathogens entering and
causing harm to the organism
● Light goes straight through

Spongy mesophyll:
● The lower layer of the leaf
● Cells are loosely spaced and have a large empty to allow rapid diffusion of
CO2, water and oxygen when the stomata are open
● Diffusion through air is much faster than diffusion from cell to cell

Vascular bundles:
● Xylem (bring water and ions to the mesophyll cells) and phloem (transport
sugar and nutrients)

Guard cells:
● Open and closed the stomata

Stomata:
● Small holes on the epidermis
● Allows gases to diffuse into and out of the leaf
● Close in hot weather and night
● Carbon dioxide diffuses in for photosynthesis
● Oxygen made in photosynthesis diffuses out
● Water vapour diffuses out

6.7 Mineral requirement

Mineral Function Deficiency

Nitrate ions Used to built amino acid, and Poor growth

thus proteins and enzymes
 Magnesium ions Used to make chlorophyll Leaves look yellow

Gas exchange in plants:

● Plants carry out respiration and they need a supply of oxygen and they
produce carbon dioxide as a waste during the day simultaneously with
photosynthesis
● At night plants exchange these gases with their surroundings
● Some of the oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used by the
mitochondria for aerobic respiration
● The rest of the of the oxygen diffuses out into the environment
● The carbon dioxide produced in respiration is used by the chloroplasts for
photosynthesis, however there isn’t enough photosynthesis so more diffuses
in

Hydrogencarbonate indicator solution

● Used to detect changes in carbon dioxide concentrations as a result of gas
exchange
● If carbon dioxide is added to the water by the plant, the hydrogencarbonate
solution will turn from red to yellow
● If carbon dioxide is taken up from the water by the plant, the
hydrogencarbonate solution will turn from red to purple

7.1 A balanced diet

Balanced diet:
● An adequate intake of biological molecules and energy needed to sustain the
body and ensure good health and growth
● Carbohydrate, fibre, vitamin, mineral, protein, fat and water
● Depend on ages, gender and amount of physical activity
● Pregnant and breastfeeding women need more nutrients for the baby and
themselves

Fat:
● Saturated fat and unsaturated fat
● Saturated fat: animal
● Saturated fat is unhealthy as it increase the concentration of cholesterol in
the blood
● Coronary heart disease: caused by a build-up of cholesterol in the coronary
artery which limits blood flow to the heart and can cause heart attacks
● The increase in the concentration of cholesterol leads to a blockage of artery
● Unsaturated fat: fish and nuts

Deficiency:
● In shortage
7.2 Source of nutrients

Carbohydrates:
● Sugars and starches
● Used as a source of energy in the cells for respiration
● Potato, rice, bread, pasta

Protein:
● Broken down into amino acid
● Different amino acids are required for body to synthesis its own protein
● Meat, fish, egg

Fat:
● Thermal insulation
● Long-term energy storage
● Protection around delicate organs
● Meat, nuts, cheese, butter

Vitamin C:
● Deficiency symptoms: scurvy, bleeding gum
● Repair tissues
● Used in the synthesis of proteins which help make up the skin, ligaments and
blood vessels
● Citrus fruits

Vitamin D:
● Deficiency symptoms: rickets, weak bones
● Strengthen bones and teeth
● Help with uptake of calcium
● Oil, fish, egg, milk

Calcium:
● Deficiency: rickets, weak bones
● Strengthen bones and teeths
● Role in blood clotting
● Milk, fish, green vegetables
Iron:
● Used in the formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells for transport of
oxygen for cells to use in respiration
● Deficiency: anaemia, tiredness
● Liver, meat, egg

Fibre:
● Deficiency: constipation (unable to defecate)
● Not digested
● Add bulk to the food, helps food to move through the stomach and intestines
● Cabbage, sweetcorn, cereal

Water:
● From food and drinking
● Solvent
● Where most chemical reactions take place
● Major component of the cells
● Keep body temperature constant
● Metabolite: used in the metabolic reactions
7.3 Balancing energy

Obesity:
● Overeating
● Energy intake is greater than energy output
● High intake of fatty and refined food
● Too little exercise
● Lead to health issues e.g. high blood pressure, strokes and heart disease
7.4 Starvation and nutrients deficiency

Malnutrition: a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more
nutrients are either not enough or are too little

Starvation: caused by eating too little food, leads to weight loss, organ damage etc

Kwashiorkor:
● Severe protein deficiency
● A carbohydrate-based diet
● Oedema (swelling of the abdomen and legs), flaky skin, dry hair

Marasmus:
● Severe protein deficiency
● Very low body mass, thin arms and legs, little muscle or fat
● Chronic diarrhea
7.5 Digestion

Ingestion: the taking of substances into the body through the mouth

Digestion: the breaking down of large insoluble molecules into small soluble
molecules; mechanical and chemical

Absorption: the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the
intestine into the blood

Assimilation: the movement of digestive food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used, becoming part of the cells

Egestion: the passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed

Mechanical digestion:
● The breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces of food without
changing the food molecules
● Starts in the mouth
● Gives a larger surface area for the enzymes to work on
Chemical digestion:
● The breakdown of the large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble
molecules by the action of the enzymes
● Occurs in the mouth, stomach and small intestine
● Protease (Pepsin and trypsin) enzymes break down protein molecules into
amino acid
● Amylase enzymes break down starch to maltose (a sugar)
● Lipase enzymes break down fat molecules into fatty acids and glycerol

7.6 Teeth

Teeth:
● Carry out mechanical digestion when chewing food which breaks down food
into smaller pieces so making it easier to swallow
● 32 teeth (adult humans)
● Teeths are different in shales and perform different functions
● Incisors are for biting and cutting
● Canines are pointed for piercing and tearing
● Premolars and molars are for chewing and grinding
Tooth structure:
● Enamel: hard, covers the tooth and protects the tissue inside
● Detine: underneath the enamel, more like bone in structure
● Cement: fixes the root of the tooth into a bony socket in the jaw
● The pulp cavity: a space in tooth containing nerves and blood vessels

Dental decay:
 ● Occurs due to bacteria coating the teeth
● When the bacteria respire anaerobically using sugars from food, they
produce acidic substances
● The acidic dissolves the enamel and them the dentine, leading to tooth decay
● Could be avoided by regularly brushing the teeth and limit sugary foods

7.7 Mouth, oesophagus and stomach

Mouth and salivary gland:

● Food is mechanically digested in the mouth by the teeth
● The salivary glands release saliva which contains amylase, an enzyme that
breaks down starch to maltose

Oesophagus:
● Allows food to pass from the moth to the stomach by peristalsis (muscular
contraction)

Stomach:
● Make a digestive juice known as gastric juice which contains the protease
pepsin which starts the digestion of proteins
● The muscular walls of the stomach churn up the food making sure that it is
mixed well with the juices (mechanical digestion)
● Gastric juice also contains hydrochloric acid with low pH, it kills anyany
bacteria in the food (the low pH denatures the enzymes in any harmful
microorganisms in the food) and the aicd pH gives the optimum conditions
for the action of the protease enzyme pepsin
7.8 Small intestine and absorption

Pancreas:
● Connected to the duodenum (first part of the small intestine)
● Secretes pancreatic juices into the small intestine
● Pancreas juice contains an alkali which neutralise the acidic food which
enters the duodenum from the stomach
● Pancreas juice contains: lipase, amylase and trypsin (a protease)

Liver:
● Makes bile (a yellow-green fluid)
● Bile enters the duodenum along a tube called the bile duct
● Bile neutralises the acidic conditions from the stomach as bile is an alkaline,
to provide a suitable pH for enzymes to work at
● Bile emulsifies (breaking down large globules of fat into smaller globules) fat,
increasing their surface area so enzymes can digest them more quickly

Gall bladder:
 ● Bile made in the liver is stored here before being secreted into the small
intestine

Small intestine:
● Consists of the duodenum and ileum
● In the duodenum, the acidity from the stomach is neutralised and protease,
amylase and lipase are secreted from the pancreas to break down molecules
● The ileum is the final part of the small intestine
● The ileum, is where the products of the digestion are absorbed into the
blood

Absorption:
● The movement of digested food molecules through the wall of the small
intestine into the blood or the lymph
● Digested molecules: amino acid, simple sugar (glucose), glycerol and fatty
acid
● Diffusion or active transport

How is small intestine adapted for efficient absorption of food:

● A very large surface area
● The small intestine wall is one cell thick, short diffusing distance, can easily
enter the wall into the blood and lymph

How is food molecules absorbed:

● Cells lining the small intestine are adapted for absorption by having hair-
like projections called villi and microvilli
● The present of the villi and microvilli increase the surface area in the small
intestine
● Each villus contains blood capillaries and lacteals (lymph capillaries)
● Amino acids and sugar molecules are absorbed through the thin villus wall
into the blood capillaries
● Glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed into the lacteal (lymph capillaries)
7.9 Large intestine and intestinal disease

Large intestine:
● Indigestible food passes through the large intestine
● Consists of the colon, rectum and anus
 ● Remaining salts and water are absorbed here (most is absorbed in the small
intestine)
● The location of egestion

Cholera:
● A disease caused by bacteria present in contaminated (contain harmful
substances) food and water
● Although most bacteria are killed in the acidic conditions of the stomach,
some pass through to the small intestine where they stick to the intestinal
walls
● Bacteria release toxic proteins in the small intestine that caused a secretion
of chloride ions into the small intestine
● This lowers the water potential in the gut thus water moves into the gut by
osmosis
● Symptom: diarrhea (loss of watery faeces)
● Diarrhea is treated with oral rehydration therapy, where patients drink a
mixture of water, glucose and salts to rehydrate themselves

8.1 Transport system

Transport system:
● Flowering plants have two separate transport system
● Xylem and phloem
● Xylem and phloem are plant tissues composed of cells that are specialised
for transport

Xylem:
● Transports water and mineral ions
● From the root to the stem, leaves, flowers and fruits
● Roots absorb water and mineral ions from the soil
● One direction only

Phloem:
● Transports sucrose, amino acids and hormones throughout the plant
● Two directions
● From leaves to roots
● From leaves to flowers, fruit and buds

Location of xylem and phloem in root:

● Xylem: Q

Location of xylem and phloem in stem:

● Xylem: A
● Phloem: C
8.2 Water uptake

Water uptake:
● Water is taken up by root hair cells via osmosis
● The water then moved into the root cortex cells by osmosis as the root hair
cells now have a higher water potential than the cortex cells
● Water moves up the xylem through the stem and to the leaves where it
enters the spongy mesophyll cells
● The water is used for photosynthesis and to stop the plant from wilting
● Much of the water enters the cell walls, evaporates to form water vapour and
then diffuses through stomata to the atmosphere

Transpiration: the evaporation of water from the surfaces of mesophyll cells in the
leaves and the loss of water vapour to the atmosphere through the stomata

Transpiration pull: water is pulled up the xylem in the stem from the roots to the
leaves by transpiration pull

The mass flow of water up the xylem relies on:

● Two properties of water
● Cohesion: the water molecules tend to stick together
● Adhesion: the water molecules tend to stick to the inside of the xylem vessel
8.3 Transpiration

Wilting:
● Water helps maintain plant structure by keeping cells turgid
● If the plant loses too much water which is not replaced, it begins to wilt as
water moves out of cells and turgor pressure decreases
● To limit water loss, the plant closes the stomata to prevent water vapour
diffusing out

Factors affecting transpiration:

1. Light intensity
● As light intensity increases, the rate increases
● Light causes stomata to open
● As the light intensity increases, stomata open wider

2. Humidity (the quantity of water vapour in the air)

● As humidity increases, the rate decreases
● At high humidity, there may be nearly as much water vapour in the
atmosphere as inside the leaves, there is no concentration gradient for water
vapour to diffuse
● At low humidity, there is far less water vapour in the atmosphere than inside
the leaves, there is a steep concentration gradient for water vapour to diffuse

3. Wind velocity
● As wind velocity increases, the rate increases
● Moving air removes water vapour
8.4 Translocation

Translocation:
● The movement of sucrose and amino acids from the leaves to regions of
storage or to regions where they are used in respiration or growth in the
phloem
● Area where amino acids and sucrose are produced are called sources
● Regions where amino acids and sucrose are stored or used for respiration
and growth are called sinks
● Source to sink
● Source: leaves
● Some parts of the plant, such as the leaves, can act as both source and sink
within a plant’s life as they synthesis molecules and use them in metabolic
reaction such as respiration
9.1 Circulation

The circulatory system:

● Main transport system in animals
● Blood vessels, pump and blood
● Blood travels around the body, carrying nutrients and waste products

Blood vessels:
● Veins: to the heart
● Arteries: away from the heart
● Capillaries: connect veins and arteries together

One way flow of blood:

● The circulatory system allows a one-way flow of blood around the body
● The heart pumps blood giving it pressure so that it flows inside the arteries

Semi-lunar valves:
● In veins: make sure blood does not flow backwards away from the heart
● In heart where blood leaves the heart
chambers to enter arteries
● Between the chambers of the heart
A single circulation:
● Fish
● Their hearts only have 2 chambers
● Blood passes through the heart only once on its circuit around the body
● The blood from the organs flows into the heart from veins
● The blood is deoxygenated as the organs have used the oxygen
● The heart pumps deoxygenated blood into artery that takes it to the gills to
be oxygenated
● The oxygenated blood flows on from the gills in arteries to the body organs

Double circulation:
● Mammals
● Their hearts have 4 chambers
● Blood passes through the heart twice on its circuit around the body
● Mammals require double circulatory systems as they are larger and have a
greater need for oxygen to use in respiration for warmth
● Double circulation systems are more efficient at supplying oxygen and can
maintain a high blood pressure
● Steps:
1. Deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the vena cava into the right
atrium
2. Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the right ventricle from the right atrium
by contractions (tricuspid valve/atrioventricular valve)
3. Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right ventricle to the lungs by
pulmonary artery (semi-lunar valve)
4. Blood becomes oxygenated in the lungs and returns to the heart by
pulmonary vein, entering the left atrium
5. The left atrium contracts the oxygenated blood to the left ventricle
 6. The left ventricle contracts and oxygenated blood exits the heart by aorta
(semi-lunar valves)
7. The oxygenated blood is transported around the body and becomes
deoxygenated

9.2 The heart

Septum:
● Wall of tissue
● Prevents deoxygenated blood on the right side mixing with oxygenated blood
on the left side

Atrioventricular valve:
● Bicuspid and tricuspid
● Prevent backflow of blood between the ventricles and atria

Atria and ventricles:

● The atria have less muscular walls than the ventricles as they only force
blood into the ventricles
Right ventricle and left ventricle:
● Right ventricle forces blood into the lungs
● Left ventricle forces blood to the whole body
● Left ventricle is more muscular as it must be able to pump blood at high
pressure around the entire body

Heart action:
● The heart pumps blood when its muscles contract (squeeze, smaller)
● The two sides of the heart work together
● The atria contract and force blood into the ventricles, the valves between the
atria open due to the pressure of blood against them
● The ventricles contract to force blood out into the arteries, the valves close
to prevent blood flowing back into the atria
● During the relaxation phase, blood flows into the atria from veins

9.3 Heart and exercise

The electrocardiogram (ECG):

● Records the electrical signals in the heart that cause contractions of the atria
and ventricles
● A variety of heart disorders can produce irregularities in this activity
● P, QRS and T waves
● The P waves shows the atria contracting
● The QRS waves shows the ventricles contracting
● The T waves shows ventricles relaxing
The heart and exercise:
● During exercise, the rate of blood flow increases as muscles need more
energy from respiration in order to contract
● The change in blood flow increase the supply of oxygen and glucose,
increase in removal of carbon dioxide
● A pulse is the flow of blood through arteries
● The number of pulses per minute is pulse rate
● The resting pulse rate gives a good indication of a person’s fitness, the fitter
the person is, the lower his/her resting pulse rate

9.4 Blood vessels

Arteries:
● Carry oxygenated blood at high pressure to the tissues
● The elastic fibres in the walls of arteries stretch and then recoil like a piece
of elastic
 ● The recoil of elastic fibres helps to push blood along and maintaining its
pressure
● As a result the pressure at the end of and artery where it enters and organ is
only a little less than when it left the heart

Arterioles:
● Small subdivisions of arteries that carry blood to capillary networks

Capillaries:
● Thin blood vessels which are used to exchange substances with tissues
● Large surface area
● Blood flows through capillaries very slowly giving time for exchange
● Walls are made from one layer of thin cells, the diffusing distance is very
short

Venules:
● Small subdivisions of veins

Veins:
● Thin elastic and muscle layer as the blood travels at low pressure back to the
heart
● Adapted to prevent backflow of blood by containing valves

Shunt vessels:
● A blood vessel that links an artery directly to a vein, allowing the blood to
bypass the capillaries in certain areas
● Dilate and constrict
● Shunt vessels constrict in response to cold by cutting off the blood flow to
the extremities and reducing heat loss

Kidney:
● Renal vein takes blood away from kidney
● Renal artery brings blood to kidney

9.5 Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease:
● Caused by a buildup of cholesterol in the coronary artery which narrows the
artery and limiting blood flow to the heart
● Cholesterol is a result of too much saturated fat in the diet

Thrombosis:
● The formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel since the artery walls
become rough by fat deposits

Risk factors for CHD:

● Eating a diet with too much saturated fat
● Being overweight
● Taking little or no exercise
● Smoking
● Stress
● Age: the changes of getting CHD increase with age
● Sex: men are more likely to get CHD than women
● Genes: inherited from parents

Treatment of CHD:
● Antiplatelet medicines e.g. aspirin, they prevent blood clots forming in the
arteries
● A coronary artery bypass, a blood vessel is taken from another part of the
body and is attached to the coronary artery above and below the narrowed
or blocked area
● A coronary angioplasty, inflating a small balloon inside the artery to widen it,
a small metal tube is then inserted to help keep the artery open
9.6 Blood

Blood composition:
● Cells and cell fragments suspended in a yellow liquid called plasma

Red blood cells:

● No nucleus
● Contain haemoglobin which binds to oxygen in the alveoli, allowing it to be
transported around the body
● Haemoglobin + Oxygen ➝ Oxyhaemoglobin
● Made in the bone marrow

White blood cells:

● Major role in fighting off infection
● No haemoglobin
● Made in the bone marrow

Platelets:
● Tiny fragments of cells which cause blood to clot
● Made in the bone marrow

Plasma:
● Water with chemical dissolved in it
● Nutrients: glucose, amino acids, lipids, vitamins and mineral ions
● Wastes: urea and carbon dioxide
● Blood proteins: albumen and antibodies
● Hormones: insulin, glucagon and adrenaline
9.7 Blood in defence

White blood cells:

● Phagocytes and lymphocytes

Phagocytes:
● Phagocytosis: the ingestion of pathogens by phagocytes
● Steps:
1. They surround the pathogen
2. They ingest pathogen and take them into food vacuole
 3. They digest the pathogen by using enzymes and this kills the pathogen

Lymphocytes:
● Steps:
1. When a pathogen enters the body the lymphocytes recognize that it is
‘foreign’ and should not be there
2. Lymphocytes make proteins called antibodies
3. Antigens are proteins found on the cell membrane of pathogens
4. The active site of one antibody is complementary to one type of antigen (a
substrate), they form a enzyme-substrate complex
● Antibodies make pathogens stick together, make pathogen dissolve in their
cell membranes, they neutralise the toxin that some pathogen produces

Blood clotting:
● Without clotting, blood would be lost and pathogens would enter
● When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets release substances to change the
soluble protein fibrinogen in the plasma into the insoluble protein fibrin
which forms a meshwork of fibre
● Red blood cells get trapped in these threads to make the clod

9.8 Lymph and tissue fluid

Tissue fluid:
● When blood reaches body tissue, some of the constituents of the plasma
move out through small gaps in the capillary walls to form the tissue fluid
that surrounds the cells
● Helps substances to diffuse into and out of cells
 ● Useful substances like glucose and oxygen pass from tissue fluid into cells
● Carbon dioxide and waste chemicals like urea pass out of cells into the tissue
fluid
● Most of the tissue fluid them passes back into the blood capillaries

The lymphatic system:

● Some tissue fluid enters a separate system of capillaries called lymph
capillaries
● Once inside these, the tissue fluid is called lymph
● Lymph capillaries join up to form lymph vessels
● The contraction of surrounding muscles helps to make lymph flows
● At intervals along the length of the lymph vessels are lymph nodes
● There are many lymphocytes in the nodes and during an infection they
multiply by cell divisions and make antibodies

10.1 Disease

Pathogens:
 ● Organisms that cause disease
● Bacteria and viruses

Transmissible disease:
● A disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another

Methods of transmission:
1. Through the air
● Pathogens are in tiny droplets of liquid from the airways and lungs of
infected people
● E.g. influenza, common cold, tuberculosis

2. Contaminated food and drink

● Contaminated: having been made impure by exposure to or addition of a
poisonous or polluting substance
● People preparing food do not wash their hands, foods are not cooked
properly, flies transfer pathogen on their bodies
● E.g. cholera and typhoid

3. Direct contact
● Uninfected people touch infected people
● E.g. athlete’s foot

4. Insect vectors
● Insects feed on the blood of an infected person and then feed on an
uninfected person
● E.g. malaria

5. Body fluids
● Blood from an infected person enters the blood of an uninfected person
● E.g. HIV/AIDS

6. Sexual activity
● Pathogens pass from infected person to sexual partner in blood, semen or
viaginal fluid
● HIV/AIDS
Defences against infection:
● Three different lines of defences

First: mechanical barriers:

● The skin
● The hairs in the nose trap larger particles

Second: chemical barriers:

● The hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills pathogens in food
● Cells in the airways make mucus that traps small dust particles and
microorganisms

Third: blood defences:

● Phagocytes engulf bacteria and viruses into vacuoles where they are digested
and destroyed during the process of phagocytosis
● Lymphocytes produce antibodies which attack the pathogens in numerous
way
● Vaccination is a way to make lymphocytes produce antibodies and give long-
term protection against certain disease
10.2 Defences against disease

Antibodies and antigens:

● All pathogens have chemicals on their surface called antigens
● Lymphocytes make antibodies in response to diseases
● Antibodies and antigens are proteins
● Antibodies act as enzymes, each antibody has a shape that is complementary
to an antigen
● Antibodies can ‘lock on’ to the antigens

Ways of antibodies attack pathogens:

● They cause bacteria to stick together in a group , this makes it easier for
phagocytes to find them and engulf them
● They can attach to the flagella (use to move around, a tail) and stop
pathogens moving, this helps phagocytes to destroy these bacteria
● They (antitoxins: a special group of antibodies) can combine with the toxins
(some bacteria releases harmful substances), so neutralising them and
making them harmless
● They kill bacteria directly by punching holes on pathogens’ cells walls , this
weakens the cell walls so water enters by osmosis causing the cells to burst

After an infection:
● The response to the second infection by the same pathogen is much faster

Immune response:
● Once the pathogen has infected the body, phagocytosis and antibody
protection happens to kill the pathogen
● Immune: resistance to a particular infection

Active immunity:
● The process of defence against the pathogen by antibody protection
● Becoming immune after catching a transmissible disease and being ill is a
natural way to gain this type of immunity
Memory cells:
● After the pathogen has been killed, some of the lymphocytes remains as
memory cells; stay in the body giving long-term protection
● Memory cells circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic
system
● If the same pathogen ever enters the body again, the lymphocytes would
recognize the antigens and be able to produce new antibodies more quickly

Vaccination:
● It is possible to gain active immunity without having to be ill, e.g. vaccination
● Vaccination is an artificial way to gain immunity
● Injecting a vaccine that contains live pathogens, dead pathogens or antigens
taken from the surface of pathogens
● Each vaccine stimulates immunity to a specific disease
● Memory cells are produced, giving long-term protection
10.3 Aspects of immunity

Passive immunity:
● A short-term defence against a pathogen and can be gained through
acquiring antibodies from another individual
● E.g. antibodies being passed to a baby through the mother’s milk, thus it is
important for babies to be breastfed to reduce the risk of diseases
● Passive immunity is short-term as memory cells are not produced
● Passive immunity is instantaneous, as soon as enter the body they are
available to be used

Malfunction of the immune system:

● When lymphocytes detect body’s own antigen as something foreign and this
prompts an immune response
● As the result, the immune system attacks and destroys healthy tissues by
mistake

Autoimmune diseases:
● An disease caused by an immune response on healthy body cells, e.g. type 1
diabetes
● Type 1 diabetes is when the immune system attacks and destroys the cells of
pancreas that make insulin, insulin helps to control the concentration of
glucose in blood
10.4 Controlling the spread of disease

Personal hygiene:
● Hair should be washed with shampoos to prevent head lice
● People of all ages should wash their hands after going to the toilet
● Everyone should wash themselves frequently especially in hot weathers

Hygienic food preparation:

● Food should be cooked thoroughly to make sure any bacteria is killed
● Food should be covered to keep flies away
● Water used for cooking and/or boiling should be boiled or sterilised by
adding water purification tablets

Vaccination:
● A large amount of the population is vaccinated and are thus immune to the
pathogen, so the disease cannot spread

Proper waste disposal:

● Household waste should be put into covered bins and collect at regular
intervals
● Garbages should be recycled, incinerated or buried in properly regulated
landfill sites
Sewage treatment:
● Toilet waste should be disposed properly through drainage pipes to a sewage
treatment works

11.1 The gas exchange system

The lungs:
● Spongy organs found inside the chest (thorax) and are surrounded and
protected by the ribs and the sternum (breastbone)

Diaphragm:
● A sheet of fibrous tissue and muscle that separates the thorax from the
abdomen
● Its movement up and down changes the volume of the lungs to move air
when human breathe out and in

Intercostal muscles:
● Internal intercostal and external
intercostal muscles
● Between the ribs
● Move the ribs during breathing, especially
during deep breathing
Passage of air:
1. Air enters the mouth or nose and passes through the throat to the larynx
2. It then enters the trachea, which connects the throat to the lungs
3. Trachea branches to form two bronchi which enter each lung
4. Bronchi continue to divide to form many small bronchioles
5. Bronchioles end in tiny air sacs called alveoli
6. Gas exchange takes place in alveoli

C-shaped rings of cartilage:

● Provide structural strength
● Keeping the trachea open so that air can pass through it

Alveoli:
● There is a very large number of alveoli in the lungs to give a huge surface
area of diffusion
● The alveoli have thin walls made of single layer of cells, this means that there
is a short diffusion distance
● The alveoli are moist, which allows gases to dissolve before diffusing across
the membrane
● The alveoli are surrounded by a network of blood capillaries therefore if has
a good blood supply so that lots of oxygen is removed quickly and carbon
dioxide is supplied quickly, this maintains the concentration gradients
 ● Alveoli have a good ventilation with air, this means that waste gases can
diffuse out of the blood into the air in the lungs whilst oxygen diffuses into
the blood

11.2 Gas exchange

Gases:

Composition (%)
Gas
Inspired air Expired air
(breathing in) (breathing out)

Oxygen 21 16
 Carbon dioxide 0.04 4

Nitrogen 78 78

Water vapour Variable Saturated

Oxygen exchange at the alveolus:

● When inspired air reaches the alveoli it contains a lot of oxygen
● Oxygen dissolves in the water lining of each alveolus
● Oxygen then diffuses through the wall of the alveolus and through the
capillary wall into the blood
● Oxygen molecules diffuses into the red blood cells and combine with
haemoglobin
● Red blood cells then transport this oxygen the the body tissues

Carbon dioxide exchange at the alveolus:

● Carbon dioxide is produced during respiration
● Carbon dioxide diffuses through the capillary wall across the alveolar wall
into the space inside the alveolus
● Carbon dioxide is breathed out from the alveolus

11.3 Breathing

Breathing in (Inspiration):
● Internal intercostal muscles relax
● External intercostal muscles contract
● Ribs move upwards and outwards
 ● Diaphragm contracts and flattens (downward)
● Volume of the chest increases
● There is a lower concentration of air inside the lungs compared to outside
● Air diffuses in

Breathing out (Expiration):

● Internal intercostal muscles contract
● External intercostal muscles relc
● Ribs move downwards and inwards
● Diaphragm relaxes (upwards)
● Volume of the chest decreases
● There is a higher concentration of air inside the lungs compared to outside
● Air diffuses out

Goblet cells:
● Found in the trachea and bronchi, they secrete mucus
● Dust particles and pathogen become trapped in the slimy mucus
● The cilia beat to carry beat to carry a stream of mucus up to the throat
● Mucus is then swallowed, pathogens are destroyed in the acidic condition in
the stomach

11.4 Rate and depth of breathing

Rate of breathing and exercises:

● When exercise is carried out, muscles increase the rate of respiration to
produce energy for muscle contraction
● Anaerobic respiration requires oxygen therefore a greater amount of oxygen
is demanded
● In addition, a greater amount of carbon dioxide is produced as a waste
substance of respiration, which diffuses into the blood
● The increase in carbon dioxide in the blood is detected by the brain, which
caused the rate of breathing to speed up
● The increase in the rate of breathing allows gas exchange to happen more
rapidly, expelling the carbon dioxide whilst taking in more energy
● The heart rate is also increases to pump substances in the blood around the
body more quickly
12.1 Aerobic respiration

Respiration:
● A chemical reaction which produce energy from nutrient molecules
● Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells

Energy released by respiration is used for:

● Muscle contraction
● Protein synthesis
● Cell division
● Absorption of nutrients in the gut by active transport
● Keeping the body temperature constant
● Making new cell membranes and cell structures
● Sending impulses along nerves

Aerobic respiration:
● With oxygen
● Occurs in the mitochondria
● Cells which require lots of energy have high amounts of mitochondria
● Glucose + Oxygen ➞ Carbon dioxide + Water (+ energy released)
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➞ 6CO2 + 6H2O

Investigate the uptake of oxygen by respiring seeds:

● A respirometer can be used to measure the rate of respiration
● A video explaining the principle behind respirometer:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wIPsJI9MzT0
12.2 Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration:
● Without oxygen
● Less efficient than aerobic respiration and produces less energy per glucose
molecule
● Occurs in the cell cytoplasm and does not require mitochondria

Animal cells and anaerobic respiration:

● Glucose ➞ Lactic acid
● Animal cells undergo anaerobic respiration during vigorous exercise as not
enough oxygen is delivered to muscles
● Glucose is broken down to produce lactic acid as well as releasing energy

Oxygen debt:
● The lactic acid builds up in muscles and causes muscle cramps
● The lactic acid must be transported to the liver where it is broken down into
carbon dioxide and water using oxygen
● This is the reason why the breathing and heart rate remain high after
exercise

Microorganisms and anaerobic respiration:

● E.g. yeast
● Yeasts undergo anaerobic respiration
● Yeast breaks down anaerobically to form alcohol and carbon dioxide
● Glucose ➞ Alcohol + Carbon dioxide
● C6H12O6 ➞ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
13.1 Excretion

Excretion:
● The removal of waste chemicals made in the cells during metabolism
● The waste substances are removed from the body by the excretory organs:
lungs, liver and kidneys
● It is vital as substances like carbon dioxide and urea would reach a toxic level
and destroy the tissue

Egestion:
● The passing out of food that has not been digested or absorbed
● Do not confuse with egestion

Excretory products:
1. Carbon dioxide
● As waste product produced in cells during respiration
● The carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood plasma and is transported to the
lungs
● In the lungs carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the air in the alveoli
and is breathed out

2. Urea
● Formed in the liver as a result of an excess of amino acids
● The excess of amino acid is carried to the kidney is the plasma where it is
filtered out and leaves the body dissolved in the form of urine

Assimilation:
● The food molecules that have been absorbed now become part of the cells or
are used by the cells
Liver and assimilation:
● Stores glucose by removing it from the blood and storing it as glycogen, this
helps to regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood
● Uses amino acids to make proteins
● Breaks down excess amino acids
● Converts fatty acids and glycerol into fat which is stored around the body
● Produces cholesterol from fats

Roles of the liver:

● Making bile, which neutralises acid as it enters the small intestine
● Emulsifies fat in the small intestine
● Breaks down hormones that have circulated in the blood for a while
● Breaks down harmful substances, such as alcohol and drugs

Deamination:
● The amino acids produced in the alimentary canal by the digestion of protein
are absorbed into the blood in the small intestine
● The body cannot store the amino acids that it cannot use so each amino acid
molecule is broken down into two parts
● One part of the amino acids is built into protein
● One part of the amino acids which is in excess is sent to the liver
● The group of amino acids sent to the liver is ammonia (NH3), it forms urea
with carbon dioxide
● Urea is carried to the kidneys in the blood where it is filtered out and is
excreted in urine
● Deamination: the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids
known as the amino group to form urea
13.2 Kidney structure

Kidneys:
● Urinary system
● Responsible for the excretion of urea and excess salts from the body
● Locate underneath the diaphragm

Renal arteries:
● Blood with waste chemicals dissolved in it is transported to the kidneys in
renal arteries

Renal veins:
● Blood (with a lower concentration of waste chemicals) is taking away from
the kidneys in renal veins

Molecules in the kidney:

 ● Inside each kidney is a complex network of filtering units called kidney
tubules
● As the blood flows through these units small molecules, such as glucose,
salts, water and urea, are forced out of the blood plasma to form a fluid
known as filtrate
● As the filtrate passes along the tubule the useful substances (glucose and
salts) are reabsorbed into the blood

The concentration and volume of the urine:

● If a person is or the environment is:
1. Dehydrated (few water intake)
2. Hot weather (water is required to cool people down)
3. Has been sweating a lot during exercises
● Then the kidney is going to take back as much water as they can from the
filtrate and produce concentrated urine and conserve water
● If a person is or the environment is:
1. Hydrated (enough/a lot water intake)
2. Cold weather (water is not required to cool people down)
3. Has not been sweating by doing exercises
● Them the kidney is not going to take back as much water from the filtrate
and produce dilute urine

The urinary system:

● Ureters: carry urine down to the bladder
● Bladder: stores urine
● Rings of muscles around the bladder: keeps the bladder close until a person
urinates
● Urethra: carries urine out of
the body
Inside the kidney:
● Cortex: brown outer area
● Medulla: reddish inner area
● Pelvis: white are
● Kidney tubules: filter the blood (in the cortex), remove waste chemicals and
determine how much water is excreted

13.3 Kidney function

Process of blood in the kidney:

● Blood containing waste chemicals flows into the kidney in the renal artery
● Inside the kidney, the renal artery branches many time to give arterioles
● Each of these arterioles supply blood to a closely packed group of capillaries
called a glomerulus
 ● Glomerulus is found inside the Bowman’s capsule (AKA Glomerular capsule)
● Filtration takes place at glomerulus, small molecules like urea, glucose, salts
and water pass out of the glomerulus and into the Bowman’s capsule
● After filtration, blood flows out of the glomerulus into another arteriole
● Blood then flows into capillaries around the rest of the tubule, which joins to
form the renal vein
● Renal artery➞ Arterioles➞ Glomerulus (filtration)➞ Bowman’s capsule➞
Arteriole➞ Capillaries around the rest of the tubule➞ Renal vein (clean blood)

Reabsorption:
● All of the glucose, some salts and much of the water are needed by the body
● They are reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney tubule through the
process of active transport

Adaptation of cells in the wall of the tubule:

● Microvilli: provide a large surface area for absorption
● Numerous mitochondria: provide energy for active transport

Collecting duct:
● Urine inside to the ureter and the bladder

13.4 Kidney dialysis and kidney transplants

Kidney is damaged:
 ● If both kidneys are damaged, it can be fatal as it leads to a build-up of
poisonous wastes in the body
● A common indicator that the kidney is damaged is the presence of protein in
the urine, when the glomeruli are damaged so that large molecules of
protein pass out of blood plasma into the filtrate
● Possible treatments: kidney dialysis and kidney transplant

Kidney dialysis:
● Dialysis is used for salt balance, the maintenance of glucose concentration
and the removal of urea
● A tube is connected to one of the patient’s veins
● The blood flows past a solution called dialysis fluid (dialysate) containing:
1. A glucose concentration similar to a normal level in the blood
2. A concentration of ions similar to that found in normal blood plasma
3. No urea (there is a steep concentration gradient)
● The blood and fluid are separated by a partially permeable membrane,
allowing diffusion between the blood and dialysis fluid
● As the dialysis fluid contains no urea, there is a steep concentration gradient
for urea to diffuse
● Urea diffuses from the patient’s blood into the dialysis fluid
● The levels of glucose and ions in the dialysis fluid are similar to that of the
blood, thus there is usually no net diffusion of ions or glucose across the
membrane
● There is a diffusion of ions unless the blood is lacking in ions or having
excess ions
● The clean blood passes back to the patient’s vein
● https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/zxgmfcw/revision/7

Kidney transplant:
● Replacing the diseased kidney with a healthy one from a donor
● The blood type and tissue type of donor and recipient must be matched
● Tissue typing reduces the chances that the recipient’s immune system
(antibodies) will attack the new kidney (antigens on the kidney) and reject it
● To reduce the chances of rejection occuring, drugs are given to the patient
after the operation to suppress the immune system
● Patients might have to take these drugs for rest of their lives
Advantages and disadvantages of kidney transplant compared to kidney dialysis:
● Advantages of kidney transplants compared to kidney dialysis are
underlined

Dialysis Kidney transplant

No shortage of dialysis machine Shortage of kidney donors

Requires frequent treatments and a Allows patient to lead normal life, e.g. a
strict diet to without too much protein normal diet and does not need to have
and salt to restrict urea production dialysis treatment

Expensive in long term Only expensive initially

Only replaces some functions of a Replaces all the functions of a kidney

kidney

No danger Always the danger of tissue rejection

14.1 Nervous control in humans

Stimuli:
● Changes in environment

Receptor:
● Cells that detect the stimuli
● E.g. cells in taste buds detect chemicals in food

Effector:
● The organs that bring about responses
● E.g. glands and muscles
● Glands secrete useful substances and muscles contract to bring about

Human nervous system:

● Two parts:
1. Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and the spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): the nervous system outside the brain and
spinal cord, connect central nervous system to different parts of the body,
e.g. cranial nerves and spinal nerves
● Nervous system is involved in the coordination and regulation of body
functions

Nerves and nerve cells:

● Each nerve is made up of lots of neurones (nerve cells) surrounded by a
protective fibrous tube
● Neurones transmit information in the form of nerve impulses, this allows
coordinated movement and a constant internal environment to be
maintained

Voluntary actions:
 ● Actions a person chooses with consciousness to make and the decisions to
make them occurs in his/her brain, impulses pass to the brain

Involuntary actions:
● Actions that happen automatically and unconsciously without having to
think about them, impulses does not pass to the brain
● E.g. blinking, swallowing, movement of food in the ileum
● Simple reflex: an automatic and fast movement in response to a stimulus
● Stimulus➞ Receptor ➞Coordinator ➞Effector ➞Response
● Coordinator is that part of the body that connects information about the
stimulus to the effector
14.2 Neurons and reflex arcs

Neurons:
● Contain nucleus and cytoplasm
● Myelin: separate cells that grow around the neurones to form a layer rich in
fat, this insulation makes impulses travel quickly
● Sensory neurones: transmit impulses from sense organs to the brain and
spinal cord
● Motor neurones: transmit impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to
effector organs
● Relay (Connector) neurones: pass on impulses from sensory neurones to
motor neurones inside the brain and spinal cord; carries impulses between
different parts of the central nervous system
Synapse:
● Tiny gap between two neurones
● Steps:
1. When an impulse reaches a synapse a chemical transmitter substance is
released from the first neurone
2. The chemical transmitter substance diffuses across the synapse and triggers
an impulse in the second neurone
● Since the chemical transmitter substance is only produced on one side of the
synapse, it ensures that impulses travel in one direction through the nervous
system

Reflex arcs:
● The pathway of the impulse along the neurones
● Reflex actions are rapid, automatic and often protective, they interpret and
coordinate stimuli with responses by effectors
● An example of simple reflex: if a person touches a hot object, he/she removes
his/her hand very quickly and automatically without thinking
● Steps when a person touch a hot object:
1. The stimulus is the hot flame
2. The receptor is the heat sensor in the skin
3. The heat sensor generates an impulse
4. The impulse travels to the spinal cord along a sensory neuron
5. The impulse passes across a synapse to a relay neurone
6. The relay neuron passes the impulse across a second synapse to a motor
neurone
7. The motor neuron transmits the impulse to a muscle in the arm
8. The muscle is the effector and it contracts to remove the hand from the hot
object, making a response
9. In this case the response is removing the hand, the person experiences a
sense of pain
14.3 Synapses and drugs

Synapse:
● Junction between two neurones, where they meet without touching

Synaptic gap:
● The small gap between the two neurones

Presynaptic neurone:
● The neuron that carries the impulse to the synapse

Postsynaptic neurone:
● The neurone that carries the impulse away from the synapse

Neurotransmitters:
 ● Chemicals known as neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic
neurone and diffuse across the synaptic gap to trigger an impulse in the
postsynaptic neurone

Structure of the synapse:

● The axons of neurones end in swellings called synaptic bulbs
● The surface of the synaptic bulb is called the presynaptic membrane
● The presynaptic membrane is separated by the synaptic gap from the
postsynaptic membrane
● The synaptic bulb of presynaptic neuron (only, one direction) has many
vesicles (a small fluid-filled bladder) containing neurotransmitter molecules
● They synaptic bulb also contains many mitochondria which suggests that
energy is required in synaptic transmission
● The postsynaptic membrane has a number of large protein molecules on its
surface which act as receptor sites for the neurotransmitter substance

Synaptic transmission:
● Steps:
1. When an impulse arrives at the synaptic bulb it causes vesicles containing
the neurotransmitter to move towards the presynaptic membrane
2. The vesicles fuse (join or blend) with the presynaptic membrane, releasing
the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap
3. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic gap and attaches to
specific receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane
4. These receptor sites have shape complementary to the neurotransmitter, but
the binding is only temporary
 5. The binding of the neurotransmitter triggers and impulse in the
postsynaptic neurone
6. Once the has happened the neurotransmitter is broken down by an enzyme
in the synaptic gap
7. The mitochondria provide energy to reform the neurotransmitter in the
vesicles

The effect of drugs on synaptic transmission:

● Most drugs have effects on the nervous system
● Drugs influence the transmission of impulses by influencing the release of
neurotransmitters or by interacting with receptors either by stimulating
them or by inhibiting them
● Amphetamines are a type of excitatory drug that increases the activity of the
nervous system, amphetamines stimulate the release of neurotransmitters in
the brain, so increasing the brain activity making a person more alert
● Heroin and beta-blockers are examples of inhibitory drugs that reduce the
effects of neurotransmitters
● Heroin acts on presynaptic neurones to reduce the release of
neurotransmitters and this reduces the sensation of pain

14.4 Sense organs

Sense organs:
● Groups of receptor cells that respond to specific stimuli, e.g. the eyes
respond to light rays and give us our sense of sight
● Sense organs detect stimuli
 ● Receptor cells generate nerve impulses when stimulated and these impulses
travel along sensory neurones to the central nervous system

Eye structure:
● Eye sits inside a socket in the skull and is moved about by 3 pairs of eye
muscles
● Cornea: refracts light
● Iris: the coloured section of the eye, controls the intensity of light entering
the eye by contracting and dilating the pupil
● Pupil: allows light into the eye
● Lens: can change its shape to focus light onto the retina
● Retina: inner light-sensitive layer which contains light receptors, some
sensitive to light of different colours
● Yellow spot or fovea: most sensitive part of the retina
● Optic nerve: carries impulses to the brain
● Blind spot: point where the optic nerve attaches to the eye, no light-sensitive
cells here

The pupil reflex:

● Under strong light intensity pupils decrease in size:
1. Allows less light into the eyes
2. Protects the retina from damage
● Under weak light intensity pupils increase in size:
1. Let more light into the eyes so a person can sees clearly
● Example of simple reflex:
1. Receptor cells in the retina send impulses along sensory neurones in the
optic nerve to the central nervous system
2. Sensory neurones connect with motor neurones that pass impulses to the
muscles in the iris to stimulate them to contract
3. Iris can contracts or dilates the pupils
14.5 The eye